Quarter 2 - Week 1

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 Introductory Message

For the facilitator:

This module was collaboratively designed, developed and evaluated by the
Development and Quality Assurance Teams of SDO TAPAT to assist you in helping the
learners meet the standards set by the K to 12 Curriculum while overcoming their personal,
social, and economic constraints in schooling.
As a facilitator, you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this module.
You also need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to manage their
own learning. Furthermore, you are expected to encourage and assist the learners as they
do the tasks included in the module.

For the learner:

This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful opportunities for
guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. You will be enabled to process
the contents of the learning resource while being an active learner.
The following are some reminders in using this module:
1. Use the module with care. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises.
2. Don’t forget to answer Let’s Try before moving on to the other activities included in
the module.
3. Read the instruction carefully before doing each task.
4. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your answers.
5. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next.
6. Return this module to your teacher/facilitator once you are through with it.
If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not hesitate
to consult your teacher or facilitator. Always bear in mind that you are not alone.
We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning and gain
deep understanding of the relevant competencies. You can do it!

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 Let’s Learn

This module was designed and written to help you understand the basic
concepts of hypothesis testing. Each step for hypothesis testing was given
emphasis by providing a separate lesson for each. Only one set of examples was
used all throughout the lessons to clearly show the process of hypothesis testing.

The module is divided into two lessons, namely:

 Lesson 1 – Statistical Hypotheses
 Lesson 2 – Types of Errors

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. illustrate: (a) null hypothesis, (b) alternative hypothesis, (c) level of significance,
(d) rejection region; and (e) types of errors in hypothesis testing

2. identify the parameter to be tested given a real-life problem.

Let’s Try

Directions: Read each question carefully. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. It is a conjecture or supposition about population parameter.

A. Left-tailed Test C. Right-tailed Test

B. One-tailed Test D. Statistical hypothesis

2. The statement states “there is statistically significant relationship between

two variables” is an example of _________.

A. Alternative Hypothesis C. Null Hypothesis

B. Either Null or Alternative D. Testing Hypothesis

3. It is a type of error in which the null hypothesis is rejected when it is true?

A. Percentage of error C. Type I error

B. Margin of error D. Type II error

4. It is a type of error in which the null hypothesis is accepted when it is false?

A. Percentage of error C. Type I error

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 B. Margin of error D. Type II error

5. It is a ________ test if the alternative hypothesis is bidirectional.

A. one-tailed C. three-tailed
B. two-tailed D. no-tailed

6. It is the area in the normal curve that leads to rejection of null hypothesis.

A. Acceptance Region C. Rejection region

B. Left Region D. Right Region

7. It is the maximum probability with which we would be willing to risk a Type I

error.

A. Level of Association C. Level of Relation

B. Level of Confidence D. Level of Significance

8. Increasing the sample size will reduce the probability of Type I and Type II
error.

A. Always true C. Never true

B. Sometimes true D. Cannot be determined

9. The statement “the average number of working hours is not equal to 10

hours per week” is an example of _________.

A. Type I error C. Type II error

B. Null Hypothesis D. Alternative Hypothesis

10. A manufacturer of detergent powder concludes that 25% of the customers

prefer brand Y when in fact it is less than 25%. This situation is an example of
____________.

A. Type I error C. Type II error

B. Null Hypothesis D. Alternative Hypothesis

Statistical Hypotheses and

Lesson Types of Errors

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 1

Let’s Recall

Word Hunt

A K L S D L B S Q G G J E J H T C F
Highlight the
B H P E R H P A G L H V L S F C R U following words:
L T D R G H V R E G I O N G L K E R 1. Region
F G H T D N N V T T D H X T D L J M 2. Significance
S I G N I F I C A N C E K L T E E I 3. Directional
R E Z Y R T K N H B N R T R T G C T 4. Alternative
F A L S E D R X T N M R T G S H T H 5. Hypothesis
N T L Z C E N R H Y P O T H E S I S 6. Rejection
R B F L T L O I U T E R Z R T U O C 7. Bidirectional
N U L L I T T R E U K E S F C Z N X 8. Null
M A A H O Y U X R V L T T P R R I T 9. Parameter
L P L A N O I T C E R I D I B D Y F 10. Test
X Q T L A O R E Q P P M E R S E R O 11. Error
U T L A L Y T P A R A M E T E R C P

Find the meaning of each word.

Let’s Explore

Activity 1

Direction: Read the situation below and answer the questions that follow.

A mobile phone company claims that the lifespan of its products is normally
distributed with a mean of 60 months. What can you say to this claim if a random
sample of 50 phones produced by this company has a mean lifespan of 63 months
and a standard deviation of 2 months?

1. Do you think the company’s claim is true?

2. What is your basis to say so?

Let’s Elaborate
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Formulating Hypothesis

Considering the situation in Activity 1, we cannot be certain that the said

claim is true based on 50 phones only. However, there is a way to verify whether
such claim has statistical basis, and that is through hypothesis testing.
Hypothesis Testing is a statistical decision using experimental data to assume
about the population parameter.

Parameter

As discussed in the previous lesson, Parameter is any numerical value

describing a characteristic of a population while Statistic is any numerical value
describing a characteristic of a sample.

In conducting hypothesis testing, it is important that we know how to

identify the parameter to be tested.
Study the examples below.

Situation Parameter to be tested

1. A researcher wants to estimate the average weight of The average weight of
men aged 40 or older. From a simple random sample of men aged 40 or older
56 men, the researcher obtains a sample mean weight
of 130 lbs.
2. A nutritionist wants to estimate the mean amount of The mean amount of
sodium consumed by children under the age of 8. From sodium consumed by
random sample of 65 children, the nutritionist obtains children under the age
a sample mean of 2 990 milligrams of sodium of 8
consumed.
3. The Department of Agriculture wants to estimate the The average farm size
average farm size in Central Luzon. From a simple in Central Luzon
random sample of 50 farms, they obtain a sample farm
size of 875 acres.
4. A school principal wants to estimate the proportion The proportion of high
of high school students who had read at least one book school students who
during the previous school year. A random sample of had read at least one
189 students is obtained and 94 of those students had book during the
read at least one book during the previous year. previous school year

Based on the examples, those parameters are the subject of the statistical
decision that we will be making through hypothesis testing.
Statistical Hypotheses
There are two types of statistical hypotheses, the null hypothesis and
alternative hypothesis. Null hypothesis, denoted by H0, is defined as a hypothesis
of no difference. It assumes that the observations are only due to a chance factor.
Alternative hypothesis, denoted by H1, is the opposite of the null hypothesis. It

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states that there is a significant difference and that observations are the result of a
real effect.
Example
A mobile phone Company claims that the lifespan of its products is normally
distributed with a mean of 60 months. What can you say to this claim if a random
sample of 50 phones produced by this company has a mean lifespan of 63 months
and a standard deviation of 2 months?
H0: The average lifespan of phones produced by the company is equal to 60
months. In symbol, μ=60.

H1: The average lifespan of phones produced by the company is not equal to
60 months. In symbol, μ ≠ 60.

One-tailed and Two-tailed test

Determining whether a particular test of hypothesis is a one-tailed test or
two-tailed test will be based on the alternative hypothesis. If H 1 is bidirectional,
then it is a two-tailed test. On the other hand, if H1 is directional, then it is a one-
tailed test.
Let us go back to the example situation.
A mobile phone Company claims that the lifespan of its products is normally
distributed with a mean of 60 months. What can you say to this claim if a random
sample of 50 phones produced by this company has a mean lifespan of 63 months
and a standard deviation of 2 months?
H1: The average lifespan of phones produced by the company is not equal to
60 months.

In symbol, μ ≠ 60

This alternative hypothesis is considered bidirectional because if the null

hypothesis is rejected, this would mean that the lifespan of the company’s products
is less than 60 or greater than 60.
Let us make some revision to the situation.
The lifespan of the products of a mobile company is normally distributed
with a mean of 60 months. If a random sample of 50 phones produced after system
upgrade by this company, has a mean lifespan of 63 months and a standard
deviation of 2 months, can the company claim that its products at present has a
greater lifespan?
H1: The average lifespan of phones produced by the company is greater than
60 months.

In symbol, μ>60

This alternative hypothesis is considered directional (to the right) because if

the null hypothesis is rejected, it will only mean that the lifespan of the company’s
products is greater than 60 and not less than 60.

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Let us make another revision.
The lifespan of the products of a mobile company is normally distributed
with a mean of 60 months. After using substitute materials, the mean lifespan of
50 sampled phones is 59 months with a standard deviation of 2 months. Do you
think it is right for the customers to believe that the mean lifespan of the
company’s products at present is less than 60 months?
H1: The average lifespan of phones produced by the company is less than 60
months.

In symbol, μ<60

This alternative hypothesis is considered directional (to the left) because if

the null hypothesis is rejected, it will only mean that the lifespan of the company’s
products is less than 60 and not greater than 60.

Consider the situation below.

In a court trial, the fate of the defendant lies on the decision of a judge. The
judge makes a correct decision if (i) the defendant is acquitted and does not commit
the crime or (ii) the defendant is convicted and commit the crime. However, the
judge makes a wrong decision if (i) the defendant is acquitted but commit the
crime, or (ii) the defendant is convicted but does not commit the crime. In your
opinion, between the two possible wrong decisions, which do you think is a more
serious one? Why

Types of Errors

Like in a court trial, four possibilities exist in hypothesis testing.

These are:
1. Acceptance of the null hypothesis when it is true.
2. Acceptance of the null hypothesis when it is false.
3. Rejection of the null hypothesis when it is true.
4. Rejection of the null hypothesis when it is false.

It is a right decision if we accept a true null hypothesis or reject a false null

hypothesis. However, we commit an error if we accept a false null hypothesis (Type
II error) or reject a true null hypothesis (Type I error).

A type I error is generally considered as a more serious error than a type II

error. This is the reason why in research, researchers will often state a null
hypothesis than an alternative hypothesis.

Important properties of Type I and Type II errors

1. A decrease in the probability of type I error (denoted by α ) would result in an

increase in the probability of the Type II error (denoted by β ) and vice-versa.

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2. The probability of committing a type I error (which also corresponds to the area
of the critical region), can be reduced by adjusting the critical value(s).

3. Increasing the sample size will reduce the probability of Type I and Type II error.

4. The probability of Type II error will be a maximum if the true value of a

parameter is close to the hypothesized value.

Level of Significance

In testing a given hypothesis, the maximum probability with which we would

be willing to risk a Type I error is called the level of significance (α ) of the test.

In practice, a level of significance of 0.05 or 0.01 is customary, although

other values may also be used. If for example a 5% level of significance is chosen,
then there are about 5 chances in 100 that we would reject the hypothesis when it
should be accepted. In other words, whenever the null hypothesis is true, we are
about 95% confident that we would make the right decision.

Rejection Region

Rejection region is the area in the normal curve (shaded region) that leads to
rejection of the null hypothesis. We will further discuss this in the following
lessons.

Let’s Dig In

Activity 2
Directions: Identify whether each of the following is a null hypothesis or an
alternative hypothesis.
1. The proportion of individuals aged 8-16 who like to eat meat is equal to 20%.
2. The average score of the students who avail tutorial service is greater than 40.
3. The mean amount of protein is less than 188 grams.
4. The mean cost of Senior High School books is equal to Php 450.00.

Activity 3

Directions: Identify whether each of the following situations illustrate a Type I or a

Type II error.

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1. A researcher concludes that the average salary of private school teachers is Php
10,000.00 when it is not.

2. A clothing line company concludes that the proportion of housewives throughout

Metro Manila who prefer Department Stores exceeds 40% when it is equal to
40%.

3. Mrs. Patata concludes that the average salt content of its potato chips is equal to
150 mg when it is not.

4. A certain brand of coffee advertised as having a net weight of 250 grams. A

researcher concluded that it is not equal to 250 grams when it is.

Let’s Remember

1. Hypothesis Testing is a statistical decision using experimental data to assume

about the population parameter.
2. Null hypothesis, denoted by H0, is defined as a hypothesis of no difference. It
assumes that the observations are only due to a chance factor
3. Alternative hypothesis, denoted by H1, is the opposite of the null hypothesis. It
states that there is a significant difference and that observations are the result of a
real effect.
4. If H1 is bidirectional, then it is a two-tailed test. On the other hand, if H1 is
directional, then it is a one-tailed test.
5. Type I error is a type of error in which the null hypothesis is rejected when it is
true.

6. Type II error is a type of error in which the null hypothesis is accepted when it
is false.

7. The maximum probability with which we would be willing to risk a Type I error is
called the level of significance (α ) of the test.

8. Rejection region is the area in the normal curve (shaded region) that leads to
rejection of the null hypothesis
9. Parameter is any numerical value describing a characteristic of a population
while Statistic is any numerical value describing a characteristic of a sample.

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 Let’s Apply

Directions: Consider the problems below. Describe the possible type I and type II
errors in each.

1. Santos Farm takes pride in its poultry produce and say that each dressed
chicken they sell provides 180 grams of protein. Test this claim at 0.01 level of
significance based on a random sample of 70 dressed chickens that yielded an
average of 176 grams of protein with sample standard deviation of 15 grams.
2. MLC center claims that students who avail of their services get an average score
of 385 on scholastic aptitude test. The scores of random samples of 10 students
were recorded as follows: 350, 440, 350, 375, 400, 450, 475, 320, 300, 375. Use
the level of significance 0.01 to test whether the average of 385 is too high to
claim.
3. A telephone company claims that 80% of young adults in Manila are using their
cellphones to connect to the internet. In a random sample of 130 young adults,
110 say that they use their phones to access the internet. Is there enough
evidence to support the said claim? Use a = 0.01.

Let’s Evaluate

Read each question. Write the letter of the correct answer.

1. The value set for α is known as ________________.

A. Type I error C. Type II error

B. Level of Significance D. Level of Confidence

2. It is a conjecture or supposition about population parameter.

A. Statistical hypothesis C. No-tailed Test

B. Left tailed Test D. Right tailed Test

3. A type I error occurs when we _____.

A. reject the H0 when it is true
B. accept the H0 when it is true
C. accept the H0 when it is false
D. reject the H0 when it is false
4. A type II error occurs when we _____.

A. reject the H0 when it is true

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 B. accept the H0 when it is true
C. accept the H0 when it is false
D. reject the H0 when it is false

5. Which of the following is the level of significance?

A. probability of type I error C. probability of type II error

B. β error D. validity error

6. It is the area in the normal curve that leads to the rejection of the null
hypothesis.

A. acceptance region C. rejection region

B. degrees of freedom D. type II error

7. Increasing the sample size will reduce the probability of Type I and Type II error.

A. Always true C. Never true

B. Sometimes true D. Cannot be determined

8. The statement “the average number of working hours is not equal to 10 hours
per week” is an example of _________.

A. Type I error C. Type II error

B. Null Hypothesis D. Alternative Hypothesis

9. A manufacturer of detergent powder concludes that 25% of the customers prefer

brand Y when in fact it is greater than 25%. This situation is an example of
____________.

A. Type I error C. Type II error

B. Null Hypothesis D. Alternative Hypothesis

10. It is a ________ test if the alternative hypothesis is directional.

A. one-tailed C. three-tailed
B. two-tailed D. no-tailed

References

Mathematics for Engaged Learning Statistics and Probability by Yvette F. Lim, Rizaldi C.
Nocon, Ederlina G. Nocon, and Leonor A. Ruivivar
Introduction to Statistics by Ronald E. Walpole (Third Edition)
Basic Probability and Statistics by Winston S. Sirug
Statistics and Probability by Rene R. Belecina, Elisa S. Baccay, and Efren B. Mateo
Statistics and Probability by Lino C. Reynoso, Recto Y. Ponciano, and Belinda T. Conde

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 Development Team of the Module

Writer: JOEY N. ABERGOS

Editors:
Content: LAMBERT QUESADA
Language: AILEEN GENOSO

Reviewers: MRS. MIRASOL I. RONGAVILLA

MR. ARMANDO V. EROLIN

Illustrators:
Layout Artist:
Management Team: DR. MARGARITO B. MATERUM, SDS
DR. GEORGE P. TIZON, SGOD-Chief
DR. ELLERY G. QUINTIA, CID Chief
MRS. MIRASOL I. RONGAVILLA, EPS - MATH
DR. DAISY L. MATAAC, EPS – LRMS/ ALS

For inquiries, please write or call:

Schools Division of Taguig city and Pateros Upper Bicutan Taguig City

Telefax: 8384251

Email Address: [email protected]

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