Sankanan National High School

Sankanan, Manolo Fortich, Bukidnon

In partial fulfillment for the requirement for Reading and

Writing Skills

Submitted to:

Ma'am Jenalyn M. Carbellido

Subject Teacher

Submitted by:

Jasmine J. Cagay

Student

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March 13, 2013
Rural Development Department
Japan International Cooperation Agency

JICA’s Position Paper on Agriculture and Rural Development

1. Introduction

Aid for agriculture and rural development in developing countries increased

from the late 1960s to the early 1980s in order to support the so-called

―Green Revolution‖ against a backdrop of the food crisis of the early 1970s.

The support was provided for policies aimed at increasing agricultural

productivity and for comprehensive rural development, centered on the

introduction of high-yield varieties and investment in production

infrastructure. Subsequently, certain improvements were observed in the

overall supply and demand of food. After that, against the backdrop of a

downturn in the international market for primary products, there were

structural adjustment and competition with the support for social sector,

and so assistance for agriculture and rural development decreased.

Following the turn of the century though, the issues such as an increase in

consumption in emerging countries and problems surrounding biofuels saw

international prices for food gradually start to rise again, and steep rises in

prices since 2008 has resulted in momentum gathering for the development

community to re-evaluate their support in the area of agriculture and rural

development.

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This position paper describes the general direction adopted by the Japan

International Cooperation Agency (JICA) for initiatives in the area of

agriculture and rural development.

2. Objectives of agriculture and rural development

(1) Stable supply of food

In 2011, the world’s population surpassed seven billion people.

According to estimates of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

of the United Nations (UN), this is expected to reach 9.1 billion people in

2050, and it is predicted that food production to provide for such a

population will have to increase by approximately 60%. Furthermore,

the number of undernourished people in developing countries remains

at a high level, estimated to be 852 million in 2010-2012. Regionally,

the most serious areas affected by famine, where undernourished

persons account for at least 35% of the total population, are

concentrated in Sub-Saharan Africa (WFP (2011)). Coupled with this, in

recent years, there have been frequent disasters such as droughts in

areas including the Horn of Africa and the Sahel. In addition, steady

progress has not always been made in reducing the proportion of

undernourished persons in other regions, such as in the Middle East

and in South Asia. Given the situation outlined above, the first objective

of agriculture and rural development is to achieve a stable supply of

food to residents of both rural and urban areas.

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 Furthermore, contributing to the stable supply of food in developing

countries will also lead to stability in the global supply and demand of

food, and by extension, to food security in Japan, which relies on

imports for much of its food.

(2) Contribution to economic growth and poverty reduction

Even though the proportion of people in developing countries living in

extreme poverty on an income of no more than $1.25 per day has been

decreasing of late, in 2008, this population still numbered about 1.3

billion (22.4% of the population of developing countries), and it is

forecast to reach about 1 billion (16.3%) in 2015. Regionally, the

impoverished population is concentrated in the Sub-Saharan Africa and

in South Asia (about 75% in 2008, and 80% in 2010) (World Bank

(2012), UNDP (2012a)). Three out of four people in the impoverished

classes live in rural areas, and most of them depend on agriculture to

make a living.1 There have also been reports that the effects of poverty

reduction that is brought about by growth driven by agriculture are no

less than double that for growth driven by the non-agricultural

industrial sector (World Bank (2008), Barrett, Carter and Timmer

(2010)). Furthermore, in countries with low income levels, such as those

in Sub-Saharan Africa, the proportion of GDP accounted for by

agriculture is high (about 25% in low-income countries), and so, in

many cases, agriculture is expected to act as a major source of

economic growth. In addition, instead of merely agricultural production,

by having the entire value chain at work—namely, agricultural inputs,

1 Findings of analysis based on 2002 data by Ravallion, Chen and Sangraula (2007).

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 agricultural production, processing, transportation and storage, and

marketing and distribution—a greater economic benefit can be derived.

One report asserts that, particularly in middle-income countries, the

proportion of the economy accounted for by the extended agricultural

sector, which includes agriculture-related industrial sectors, is greater

than 50% larger than the agriculture alone (World Bank (2008), De

Ferranti et al. (2005)). Moreover, even greater economic benefit can be

expected if new businesses can be expanded, such as the utilization of

unused biomass which until now had not always been fully utilized, the

provision of plants to pharmaceuticals, etc., tourism utilizing the

natural environment and landscapes discussed below, the utilization of

mobile phones, and management incorporating up to the processing

and distribution by producers. What is more, these activities will also

contribute to increased employment in rural areas. Furthermore, from

the perspective of vitalizing rural areas or increasing employment, in

addition to these activities, the promotion of non-agricultural industries

is also important. To this end, improving the investment environment,

including infrastructure development, and providing people with

education and training for finding employment are particularly

important elements.2

Through activities like those described here, agriculture and rural

development will contribute to the economic growth of developing

countries and to reducing rural poverty.

2 The issue of urban migration also needs to be considered for increasing employment.

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(3) Various functions of agriculture, climate change measures, etc.

Agriculture is the act of manipulating nature and leveraging that force

to produce a harvest. Intrinsically, therefore, not only is it affected by

nature, but it can also have a significant influence on nature. There are

many examples of inappropriate agricultural practices that cause loss

to natural resources and have a major impact on the lives of local

communities. For instance, improper irrigation can accelerate the

scarcity of water; the uncontrolled expansion of farmland and ill-

managed farming can lead to deforestation, a decrease in biodiversity or

soil erosion; and the excessive use of fertilizers and agrochemicals can

lead to the contamination of water or soil.

In contrast, the diverse benefits that can be provided by agriculture

which is conducted in a sustainable manner in harmony with nature are
also widely recognized. Functions of agriculture include: conservation of
national land, the development of water resources, the preservation of
biodiversity and ecosystems, the conservation of air, soil and water
quality, and the preservation of landscapes. 3 Discussion is currently
underway at the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD) and other organizations on policy approaches for
demonstrating these benefits in a highly transparent manner that does
not impede the market. Ensuring and exerting these functions through
agriculture and rural development in this way will help to preserve the
natural environment, etc. Agriculture and rural development will also
help with climate change measures from both mitigation and adaptation
aspects.
3. Characteristics of agriculture and rural development

(1) Greatly affected by the geographical conditions

Production technologies that can be applied in agriculture vary greatly

depending on geographical conditions such as climate, topography, soil

3 For example, the OECD (2001) gives the following as examples of some of the non-agricultural effects related
to agricultural production: scenery, diversity of species and ecosystems, soil quality, water quality, air quality,
water use, land conservation, greenhouse gases, rural revitalization, and cultural heritage.

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 fertility and water resources. More often than not, the success of a

technology in one region cannot be reproduced in another. Moreover,

differences in climatic conditions mean that there is no guarantee that a

certain technology will produce the same results even in the same

region. For this reason, for each project, it is necessary to try and

substantiate introduced varieties and production technologies that are

suited to the target area before establishing appropriate technology

systems.

(2) Distinctive quality of farm households

Farm households tend to take actions based on the characteristics of

agriculture and on their own economic environment. While these

actions may sometimes be perceived as being inefficient, in many cases

it is a necessary choice. For example, because new technology involves

uncertainty in specific environments, the dissemination of a new

technology frequently proceeds at a slow pace as farmers watch and

wait, thinking about whether to adopt the technology themselves while

they learn from the results of others. Furthermore, in low-income

countries such as in Sub-Saharan Africa, where access to credit and

insurance markets is restricted, farmers choose technologies that have

low rates of return but which also involve low risk (World Bank (2008),

de Janvry and Sadoulet (2006)). Therefore, in order to encourage action

needed for farmers to increase their income, such as the introduction of

a new technology or the appropriate technology, it is important to first

analyze the constraints on the side of farm households through

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 adequate economic and social surveys as well as farming surveys. At

the same time, in order to broaden the choices of technology for farmers

to consider for adoption from financial and risk management

perspectives, it is important to also consider providing support for the

development of systems such as agricultural credit and agricultural

insurance.

(3) Need for long-term commitment

Given that agricultural production activities are greatly influenced by

geographical conditions (see 3.(1) above), and given that they have a

production cycle of, at most, one, two or three times a year, it will take a

long time before development efforts exhibit a beneficial effect.

(4). International efforts for supporting agriculture and rural development

The problem of soaring food prices has been discussed as a priority issue at

international meetings such as G8 and G20 since prices surged in 2008. At

the G8 Summit in L’Aquila, Italy, in July 2009, the L’Aquila Food Security

Initiative (AFSI) was announced. In addition to the importance of safety nets,

trade policies, and global partnerships, etc., the initiative emphasized

increasing investment in agriculture. Donors declared that they would

mobilize US$ 22 billion over three years for sustainable agriculture

development. Then, at the FAO World Summit on Food Security in November

2009, the ―Five Rome Principles for Sustainable Global Food Security‖ were

adopted. The five principles are: investment in each developing country’s

own plan; strategic coordination at the national, regional and global level; a

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comprehensive twin-track approach (consisting of direct action to

immediately tackle hunger and medium- and long-term agriculture

development); ensuring a strong role for the multilateral system; and

sustained and substantial commitment by all partners to investment.

Even after that, interest among the international community remained

strong, buoyed by the continuing high food prices. At the G20 Summit in

Cannes, France, in 2011, the Action Plan on Food Price Volatility and

Agriculture was announced. While the action plan recognizes the importance

of improving agricultural production and productivity, it focuses more on

measures for countering the shock of fluctuating food prices. It includes

reducing the effects of price volatility for the most vulnerable, centering on:

better market information and transparency as typified by the Agricultural

Market Information System (AMIS) and the Global Agricultural Geo-

Monitoring Initiative; international policy coordination, including

establishment of a Rapid Response Forum for discussions by relevant

countries at times of soaring food prices; an agriculture and food security

risk management toolbox; and emergency humanitarian food reserves. At the

G8 Summit held at Camp David in the United States in May 2012, the New

Alliance for Food Security and Nutrition was announced for food security in

Africa. The aim of this initiative is to lift 50 million people out of poverty over

the next ten years through improvements in food security and nutrition. The

program has a particular focus on promoting the participation of private

enterprises, and it proposes: the mobilization of private capital, such as

through expansion of the Global Agriculture and Food Security Program

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(GAFSP); technological innovation, such as through the establishment of the

Scaling Seeds and Other Technologies Partnership; the reduction and

management of risk, such as through the establishment of the Platform for

Agricultural Risk Management (PARM); and the reinforcement of linkages

with nutrition. Agreements for a cooperation framework have also been

concluded and implemented for the six pioneering countries of Ethiopia,

Ghana, Tanzania, Cote d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso and Mozambique. Japan is the

joint lead with the US for Mozambique. The written agreements include

specific declarations of intent by individual private enterprises, as well as by

each government and donors.

5. Past achievements and lessons learned

(1) Achievements

(a) Halving the percentage of people living in poverty Of the Millennium

Development Goals (MDGs) closely related to agriculture and rural

development, it has been reported that the MDG 1 goal of ―halving

the global percentage of people living in poverty by 2015‖ was

achieved for the world as a whole in 2010 (World Bank (2012)). The

contribution of agriculture and rural development to this point is not

insignificant. Nevertheless, looking at the results region by region as

mentioned previously, there are still some regions, such as Sub-

Saharan Africa and South Asia, where the goal has not yet been

reached. Further efforts are still needed by the international

community.

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(b) Halving the percentage of undernourished people

It goes without saying that agriculture and rural development

contributes greatly to increasing the volume of food supply to address

the many years of increasing demand, and to decreasing the

proportion of undernourished people. With respect to another of the

MDG 1 goals of ―halving the global percentage of people who suffer

from hunger by 2015,‖ it has been estimated that the 23.2% of 1990-

1992 had decreased to 14.9% in 2010-2012 (FAO (2012)), and so

further concentrated efforts are needed to achieve this goal. There is

also a growing awareness of the importance of the linkage between

food supply and nutrition.

(c) Growth rate of the agricultural sector

With respect to the question of what growth rate should be achieved

for the agricultural sector, different countries have different aspects

to consider, such as the status of the agricultural sector and the

potential of agriculture. Nevertheless, the following examples should

help. Under the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development

Programme (CAADP), which covers Sub-Saharan Africa, the target

agricultural growth rate is 6%. Under the World Bank’s Agriculture

Action Plan 2010-2012 (World Bank (2009)), the target has been set

at 5%. Using a target of 5%, if we look at the 40 year period between

1961 and 2011 and consider the percentage of years in which

individual countries achieved the target, we see that 11.3% of all

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 developing countries achieved the 5% target in at least half of the

years. Furthermore, for low-income countries, where, more often than

not, the coverage of the agricultural sector in total GDP is relatively

large, the figure was 14.7%. If we narrow our observation to the

period since 1990, the figure was 16.5% for all developing countries,

and 32.4% for low-income countries. Moreover, if we change the

parameter to countries that achieved the target in at least 40% of the

years, the figure is 31.5% for all developing countries, and 47.1% for

low-income countries, meaning attainment for nearly half of all low-

income countries. While achieving an agricultural growth rate of 5%

will not always be easy, continuous efforts are needed.

(2) Lessons learned

(a) Support focusing on increasing productivity

In order to achieve a goal of realizing economic growth and reducing

rural poverty through a stable supply of food and agricultural

promotion, entire value chains, from inputs through to production

and distribution (from upstream to downstream), need to be

improved. Looking back at JICA’s projects for the past 20 years in the

area of agriculture and rural development (namely, technical

cooperation, loan aid and grant aid provided on a project basis,

excluding the dispatch of individual advisors, etc.), the majority of

projects are accounted for by support in areas that relate directly to

production and productivity increase, such as farmland development

and irrigation/drainage, agricultural machinery and agricultural

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materials, development and dissemination of technology, and

livestock, as well as by support in the area of rural development,

including rural infrastructure and community development. On the

other hand, relatively there has not been much in the way of support

for policies and systems, such as legal systems and institutions,

development plans and land management, support in the areas of

distribution and agricultural processing, and support in the area of

finance. In many respects, it appears that this is founded on the past

experience in Asia during the 1970s and 1980s when JICA used to

mainly assist that region, where a positive effect was produced

because the government shouldered the burden for a substantial

portion of the package of research and development, dissemination,

improved seeds, fertilizer, finance, storage and distribution, which

was necessary to increase the volume of grain production, as typified

by the Green Revolution, and the private sector also took on

distribution, etc. (Hazell (2012), or Rai (2007) in the case of

Indonesia), and therefore even if JICA was to concentrate on the parts

directly related to production, the other parts were also separately

covered.

Now, though, in Sub-Saharan Africa where the stable supply of food

is a key issue, it would appear that, to begin with, it is appropriate to

focus on support which contributes to increased production and

increased productivity. However, since the markets in this region

have often not necessarily been developed properly, it is also

necessary to simultaneously look at distribution aspects including

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 agricultural processing and finance aspects. Furthermore, in more

advanced countries as described later, it would appear that, more

than support in areas that relate directly to production and

productivity increase, support needs to be focused more on high-

value-added agriculture, the quality and the safety of farm produce

and distribution and other needs. Moreover, the current progress of

economic globalization has also resulted in an increase in situations

where these needs are satisfied by way of trade. For this reason, the

export of agricultural produce presents an enormous opportunity for

developing countries, and so support for this is also needed.

(b) Strengthening macro perspectives

As discussed above in the analysis of JICA’s projects in the area of

agriculture and rural development, policies and systems related

support was also relatively limited. By further expanding analysis of

the overall agricultural sector in the target country, as well as

consideration of medium- and long-term development strategies

based on this analysis and the formation of projects based on this

consideration, and by providing packages of support for both policy

and system aspects as well as implementation aspects, it should be

possible to enhance the effectiveness of development. Possible specific

examples of policies and systems related support include improving

administrative capabilities, policy advice such as for policies on food

supply and demand and for the stabilization of food prices, budget

support for agricultural programs, and land policy (for instance,

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 realization of the Principles for Responsible Agricultural Investment

(PRAI) at the national level).

(c) Response to changes in the status of agriculture and rural

development in each country’s overall development policy

As mentioned in (2)(a) above, the majority of JICA’s agriculture and

rural development projects over the past 20 years can be accounted

for by support in areas that relate directly to production and

productivity increase and by support in the area of rural

development. Even if we divide this trend up into five-year blocks,

despite some variation in the breakdown of support, there has been

no significant change to the overall trend. Meanwhile, many

countries, especially emerging countries, have achieved remarkable

growth particularly in recent years, and as a consequence, they have

experienced changes in how they position agriculture and rural

development within their development policies and changes in their

policy priorities as described below. Rather than merely adopting its

usual approach, JICA will need to develop systems so that it can

respond to the current needs of these developing countries.

6. Future direction

(1) Cooperation in view of entire value chains, combined with improving

agricultural productivity Bearing in mind JICA’s track record in the

development and dissemination of agricultural production technologies,

backed by many years of experience in Asia and other regions, and in

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 view of Japan’s comparative advantage in human resources, knowledge

and know-how in rice cultivation, JICA will work on support for

increasing agricultural productivity. When providing this support, JICA

will examine entire value chains, including agricultural inputs,

processing, distribution and sales as well as the promotion of related

agricultural industries, before selecting areas for improvement and

supporting them.

(2) Response to global issues

(a) Response to soaring food prices

Food prices rose rapidly in 2008, then plunged temporarily in 2009 as a

consequence of the Lehman shock, before beginning to rise again at around
the end of 2010, eventually surpassing the levels of 2008 in early 2011.
Moreover they spiked again in 2012. At present, they are still stuck at high
levels. At the national level, these high prices have consequently led to fiscal
deterioration, commodity price rises and destabilization of administrations in
some cases, and at the household level, they have led to a decline in the
quantity and quality of diet, undernourishment particularly among the
socially disadvantaged, a reduction in spending on education and health,
and a decrease in household purchasing power. The cause for soaring food
prices is considered to be the combination of two kinds of factors. One is the
structural factors which include the ―thin‖ and volatile structure of
international markets, the increase in demand shown by emerging countries,
medium- and long-term constraints on the supply side, and the pressures of
increasing demand stemming from expanded biofuel production. The other is
the short-term (shock) factors, for instance, damage attributable to
unseasonable weather or natural disasters, feverish speculation and steep
rises in energy prices. In order to address these problems, in addition to
improving agricultural productivity and self-sufficiency through the
establishment of agricultural production bases in developing countries,
support needs to be provided to strengthen their capacity to deal with shocks
such as surging food prices and unseasonable weather.

One specific example of JICA’s activities is the Coalition for African Rice

Development (CARD). The goal of CARD is to double the annual rice

production of Sub-Saharan Africa in the ten years from 2008 to 2018, from

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14 million tons to 28 million tons. Jointly proposed by JICA and the Alliance

for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA), CARD has attracted the

participation of no less than ten donors, including the Africa Rice Center and

the World Bank, and is promoting support for 23 African target countries.

(b) Climate change measures

Agriculture is greatly affected by global warming. It has an important

function to play in climate change adaptation measures. For instance, the

provisions prescribing the objective of the United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) clearly state, ―a level that would

prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system…

should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to ensure that food

production is not threatened.‖ At the same time, agriculture accounts for

approximately 14% of sources of greenhouse gases, making it one of the

major contributors, and meaning that it also has many areas that could

contribute to mitigating climate change. JICA will promote cooperation that

contributes to adaptation measures, such as through irrigation and water

management, variety improvement and pest and pathogen control, as well as

to mitigation measures, such as the use of bioenergy and better conservation

and management of farming land.

(3) Appropriate approach suited to the actual state of agriculture and rural

development of the country (development situation)

The changing roles of agriculture and rural development during the process

of a country’s economic development by and large follow the course outlined

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below, although vary in certain respects depending on the international

economic environment and on the conditions of the respective country’s

natural and economic environment. In countries with a low income level,

usually the role of the agricultural sector is very large and agricultural

development has a high priority. The reasons for this include food security

for the people, the contribution of the agricultural sector to economic growth,

and maintenance of the livelihoods of people living in rural areas, which

usually make up a large proportion of the country. During the subsequent

process of economic growth, as the manufacturing industry, service industry

and other non-agricultural industries expand, the growth rate of these

industries will surpass that of agriculture, and the labor force will migrate to

those industries from the agricultural sector. As a result, the portion of the

national economy contributed by agriculture will decrease. In addition, the

proportion of labor force in the rural sector will also decrease. Meanwhile, as

a consequence of the increase in national income, the food preferences of the

people change. Demand for livestock products and high-value-added farm

produce such as vegetables and fruit will increase from a diet centered on

grains, and there will also be a growing interest in food quality and safety.

Then, as this economic growth leads to a change in the status of agriculture

in development policies, the focus on agriculture and rural development will

also change. Consequently, the cooperation suited to these changes is

needed. The specific direction for the cooperation is outlined below. However,

since there are no strict standards for classifying individual countries, and

since conditions vary even within a single country such as according to

suburban areas, plains, highlands, mountainous areas and disadvantaged

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areas, rather than a single direction that applies uniformly to the country as

a whole, approaches suited to the relevant conditions will also be needed.

(a) Countries where subsistence agriculture dominates

There is a strong need to raise food self-sufficiency, especially for

grains, and establish a stable supply of food, and the contribution of

the agricultural sector in economic growth is high (generally mostly

low-income countries).

(i) Description of support

Focus on increasing the volume of production by expanding the

area of cultivated land and improving crop yields, especially for

grains. Aim to establish sustainable systems, such as the

development and dissemination of low-input technologies with a

mind to the technology level and income level on the part of the

developing country. Also contribute to the development of related

value chains.

(ii) Stance of support

Depending on the circumstances, think flexibly about such basic

principles as ownership and self-help efforts taking into account

the weak systems on the part of the developing country, and

predominantly provide support with a focus on grant aid (technical

cooperation and capital grant assistance) until outcomes such as

improvement of food supply become apparent from a humanitarian

point of view.

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(b) Countries that are in transition to commercial farming

As grain production increases and farmers have an increasing

surplus to sell, the demand by consumers for farm produce

(including for the diversification from grains to vegetables and other

crops) will also increase as a consequence of increased number of

non-farming families and better income levels. (generally mostly

between low-income countries and lower middle-income countries).

(i) Description of support

Support to further improve the productivity of grain from the

perspective of securing a stable supply of inexpensive food at a

national level and of securing room to diversify produce. (It is

possible to introduce more costly technologies at this stage.)

Meanwhile, in suburban areas and other suitable locations,

support the introduction and production increase of high-value-

added crops. An important issue for farmers will be to acquire

management knowledge and to constantly supply farm produce to

consuming regions in the required volume when needed

responding to the change at consumer needs.

(ii) Stance of support

With respect to financial assistance, depending on the country,

suggest projects financed through loan aid while continuing to also

provide grant aid, while also fostering the ownership on the part of

the developing country.

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(c) Countries where agriculture is centered on commercial farming

Grain self-sufficiency has been virtually achieved, the number of full-

time grain, vegetable and livestock farm households has increased,

and the ratio of subsistence farm households has decreased.

Meanwhile, the demand structure has transformed further. For

instance, diet has become more diversified due to the growth of the

middle class in urban areas, there has been an increase in

consumers’ preference for quality and safe farm produce, and there

has been a further increase of non-home meals consumption (large

supermarkets, food service industry, etc.) (generally mostly upper

middle income countries or higher).

(i) Description of support

One issue amid globalization of the supply and demand for food is

to secure the agricultural competitiveness of the country while also

contributing to the food security of other importing countries.

Greater importance will also be placed on responding to the above

mentioned diversification of diet, increased preference for quality

and safe farm produce and the increase of non-home meals

consumption. Support for tackling these issues also contributes to

coordination for win-win outcomes based on relationships of trust

with relevant organizations in the country which have been

established through the course of many years of cooperation.

Furthermore, the country can serve as a cooperative partner

21
 supporting the agricultural development of low-income countries,

etc.

(ii) Stance of support

Focus on support for private-sector activities as well as loan aid

and technical cooperation while emphasizing ownership on the

part of the developing country. Maintain networks with relevant

organizations through support, also bearing Japan’s food security

in mind.

(4) Promoting participation of the private sector

The main processes and elements related to agricultural production

include input of agricultural production goods (seeds, fertilizer, tractors

and other agricultural machinery), research and development of

agricultural technology, extension, production, post-harvest processing,

distribution, finance, and the development of related infrastructure. In

addition to public organizations, private enterprises are usually involved

in each of the processes and elements. Among developing countries,

there are cases where agricultural production does not increase partly

because the private sector has not developed sufficiently. Therefore,

when providing support for agriculture and rural development, projects

have to be carried out while also giving consideration to encouraging the

participation of private enterprises.

Furthermore, in order to successfully promote agriculture and rural

development in developing countries, as it is very important to have

22
 support for small-scale farmers, which form a large majority of the

agricultural sector, private investment in production should also be

planned for benefits to small-scale farmers. Everything possible needs

to be done though to prevent any development that does not benefit

small-scale farmers as well as any ―land grabs‖ whereby private capital

is used to finance the haphazard acquisition of large plots of land.

Internationally, there is support for promoting the Voluntary Guidelines

on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests

and the trial use of the Principles for Responsible Agricultural Investment

(PRAI). For example, JICA is assisting agricultural development in the

Nacala Corridor of northern Mozambique by drawing on the knowledge

from agricultural development in Cerrado, Brazil through trilateral

cooperation between Japan, Brazil and Mozambique. In this program

JICA will promote poverty reduction and food security for local small-

scale farmers and also contribute to the economic growth of the area

inviting private sector. As part of this, JICA is also considering

recommending systems whereby the above guidelines and principles

can be realized. Furthermore, private enterprises in Japan are also

moving forward with investments in developing countries in such areas

as seed, fertilizer, agricultural machinery, production, post-harvest

processing, distribution, and food processing. JICA will also implement

programs while bearing cooperation with these private enterprises and

further promotion of investment in mind.

(5) Strengthening resilience

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As mentioned in the section on responding to soaring food prices, it is

extremely important to strengthen the capacity of developing countries

to deal with surging food prices and shocks such as unseasonable

weather. The importance of strengthening resilience has been further

heightened particularly by the damage sustained in the recent Great

East Japan Earthquake and Thai floods, and also by the damage

caused by the recurring droughts in the Horn of Africa. Specific actions

include policy advice that covers stabilization of food prices,

improvement of irrigation and other facilities including disaster

prevention aspects, variety improvement and dissemination, the

development of agricultural statistics and storage facilities,

strengthening the community’s capacity to respond to these kinds of

events, and the examination of weather insurance. In terms of

agriculture and rural development measures to cope with the Thai

floods, JICA provided support to meet short-term needs, including

support for the recovery of productivity in pasturelands in order to

secure animal feed which has been in short supply because of flood

damage as well as support for the restoration and repair of damaged

irrigation and drainage facilities. In longer term perspective JICA also

supports the improvement of the crisis management capacity of

residents aimed at fostering agriculture and rural development that is

resilient to disasters. Furthermore, in terms of medium-term measures

dealing with drought in the Horn of Africa, JICA is currently supporting

activities of stable agricultural production such as through the

development of a livestock marketing environment, the development of

24
 water infrastructure for agro-pastoralists engaged in farming and

consideration of weather insurance in areas of Kenya and Ethiopia

where pastoralists have been the main victims of drought.

(6) Peace building

In most cases, agriculture and rural development is important for post-

conflict countries, such as countries where the agricultural sector is

one of key industries, and countries where conflict has meant that no

other industries of note have developed. JICA will give priority to this

type of assistance for such countries as Afghanistan, Iraq and South

Sudan.

(7) Strengthening the program approach, and promoting domestic and

international cooperation and coordination

JICA plans and implements individual projects under medium- and

long-term scenarios, based on the characteristics of agriculture and

rural development, and in line with an approach suited to the

development situation mentioned in (3) above. Where necessary, these

scenarios are not limited to just the agricultural sector. They also need

to take into account water resources development, education and

health, transport infrastructure, information and communications,

energy supply and other such factors in rural communities. Relevant

issues and schemes should be clearly defined and prioritized, and

projects have to be managed to address those specific issues. In recent

years, because JICA has not necessarily implemented a large number of

loan aid and grant aid projects in the area of agriculture and rural

25
 development, it will work to form programs that include financial

assistance in order to enhance the development effect. JICA will also

consider enhancing the development effect by packaging support for

policy together with support for implementation. JICA will contribute to

the development of international frameworks such as by actively

communicating knowledge gained through projects in the international

arena. It will also promote cooperation with other donors in order to

improve the development effect. Domestically, JICA will strengthen its

alliances with the private sector, universities, local governments and

non-governmental organizations.

7. Region-specific issues

The issues for each region are described as follows. However, a response

suited to the conditions is needed due to the variance in conditions

depending on the country and district.

(a) Southeast and East Asia

For higher income countries, it is important to improve distribution

that includes securing the quality and safety of farm produce and to

improve regions that are lagging from a social equity point of view.

For lower income countries, the main issue is rural development for

increasing the productivity of food crops and for rectifying internal

disparities. Furthermore, the development through public-private

cooperation should be taken into account. Especially for ASEAN, it is

critical to consider policies on food supply and demand in view of

26
 regional policy coordination within the region while also bearing in

mind future policies for the liberalization of regional tariffs.

(b) Central Asia and Caucasia

In general, there are many countries where agricultural production is

showing signs of recovery, but which have not yet achieved self-

sufficiency. Continuous support is also needed for the development of

value chains adapted to the market economy. In most of the

countries, amid the restrictions on water resources, there is also a

need to respond to soil degradation.

(c) South Asia

In regions experiencing population pressure and facing the broad

impoverished classes and the disparities, apart from the most

vulnerable Afghanistan, the domestic supply and demand for staple

foods is at last becoming evenly matched. Despite this though,

production is unstable, agricultural productivity is low (compared to

countries in Southeast Asia, etc.), and regional disparities are wide.

Support is needed for food security and agricultural rural

development, such as for improving productivity through the

development of rural infrastructure and introduction of high-yield

varieties, for the diversification of farm produce and shift to high-

value-added produce, and for the development and dissemination of

appropriate agricultural technologies in the lagged area for narrowing

regional disparities. Furthermore, there is also a need for reform of

27
 public distribution systems and agricultural cooperative

organizations, for increasing distribution efficiencies through the

participation of the private sector, and for the introduction of cold

chains, depending upon the country.

(d) Central and South America

For countries with surplus production capacity (grain exporters),

JICA provides support with a view for public-private cooperation from

the perspective of Japan’s food security. For other countries facing

food security problems, such as relying on imports for its staple

foods, JICA provides support for increasing productivity which also

emphasizes support for the poor.

(e) Sub-Saharan Africa

Self-sufficiency is very low, and food expenses account for a large

proportion of household budgets (the most vulnerable). This is also

the region with the most severe nutrition problems. Although

productivity is low, the potential for development is relatively high,

and so the main issues are the development of entire value chains

centered on increasing agricultural productivity especially for small-

scale farmers, as well as promoting a market-oriented approach to

agricultural production and cooperation with the private sector.

Moreover, the region tends to experience frequent droughts, floods

and other natural disasters due to the effects of climate change, and

so another important issue is strengthening the resilience of rural

communities.

28
 (f) North Africa and the Near and Middle East

Most countries in this region have a low rate of self-sufficiency, and

their production potential is also low. JICA provides support from a

food security perspective, focusing on the self-sufficiency of major

grains. Water resources are scarce, and so it is also important to

improve water utilization efficiency.

The aid of agriculture and rural development in developing countries

increased from the late 1960's to the early 1970's in order to support the so-
called "Green Revolution". This was provided for policies aimed at increasing
agricultural production and for comprehensive rural development, centered
on the introduction of high-yield varieties and investment in production
infrastructure. The Department is the government agency responsible for the
promotion of agricultural development by providing the policy framework,
public investments, and support services needed for domestic and export-
oriented business enterprises. Rural can affect not just our community but
whole country for it involves efforts that are economic and social in nature
intended to encourage concepts of retention, growth and expansion in areas
outside the cities. Now, how could we addressed the critical issue of
agriculture development? What is the real problem that regards on
agriculture which could also give an impact in our economy? Are we ready to
face one of the first Job we use to enjoy way back before?. This position paper
describes the general direction adopted by the Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA) for initiative in the area of agriculture and rural
development. Following the turn of the century though, the issues such as an
increase in consumption in emerging countries and problems surrounding
biofuels saw international prices for food gradually start to rise again, and
steep rises in prices since 2008 has resulted in momentum gathering for the
development community to re-evaluate their support in the area of
agriculture and rural development. I have witness how the farmers make the
best out of them despite the rainy, hot, warm and cold. Let's be practical here
no matter how educated us Filipino’s could be pinay or pinoy that doesn't
conclude that they also know how to do farm things like farmers do to keep
their crops alive to avoid the starvation that we would encounter without
them on our side. In addition, instead of merely agricultural production, by
having the entire value chain at work—namely, agricultural inputs,
agricultural production, processing, transportation and storage, and
marketing and distribution—a greater economic benefit can be derived. One
report asserts that, particularly in middle-income countries, the proportion of
the economy accounted for by the extended agricultural sector, which

29
includes agriculture-related industrial sectors, is greater than 50% larger
than the agriculture alone (World Bank (2008), De Ferranti et al. (2005)).
Moreover, even greater economic benefit can be expected if new businesses
can be expanded, such as the utilization of unused biomass which until now
had not always been fully utilized, the provision of plants to pharmaceuticals,
etc., tourism utilizing the natural environment and landscapes discussed
below, the utilization of mobile phones, and management incorporating up to
the processing and distribution by producers. What is more, these activities
will also contribute to increased employment in rural areas. Furthermore,
from the perspective of vitalizing rural areas or increasing employment, in
addition to these activities, the promotion of non-agricultural industries is
also important. To this end, improving the investment environment,
including infrastructure development, and providing people with education
and training for finding employment are particularly important elements.

Through activities like those described here, agriculture and rural

development will contribute to the economic growth of developing countries
and to reducing rural poverty. Agriculture is the act of manipulating nature
and leveraging that force to produce a harvest. Intrinsically, therefore, not
only is it affected by nature, but it can also have a significant influence on
nature. There are many examples of inappropriate agricultural practices that
cause loss to natural resources and have a major impact on the lives of local
communities. For instance, improper irrigation can accelerate the scarcity of
water; the uncontrolled expansion of farmland and ill-managed farming can
lead to deforestation, a decrease in biodiversity or soil erosion; and the
excessive use of fertilizers and agrochemicals can lead to the contamination
of water or soil. In contrast, the diverse benefits that can be provided by
agriculture which is conducted in a sustainable manner in harmony with
nature are also widely recognized. Functions of agriculture include:
conservation of national land, the development of water resources, the
preservation of biodiversity and ecosystems, the conservation of air, soil and
water quality, and the preservation of landscapes. Discussion is currently
underway at the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) and other organizations on policy approaches for demonstrating
these benefits in a highly transparent manner that does not impede the
market.

Ensuring and exerting these functions through agriculture and rural

development in this way will help to preserve the natural environment, etc.
Agriculture and rural development will also help with climate change
measures from both mitigation and adaptation aspects. There are three
challenges- feeding a growing population, providing a livelihood for farmers
and protecting the environment- must be tackled together if we are to make a
sustainable progress in any of them remember "At a very heart of agriculture
is the drive to feed the world".

30
 Agriculture plays a significant role in the Philippines economy.
Involving about 40 percent of Filipino worker. It contribute an average of 20
percent to the Gross Domestic Product. Agriculture is the primary source of
income for poor rural people, and the only source for many of the poorest
households.

(1) Stable supply food

According to estimates of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
of the United Nations (UN), this is expected to reach 9.1 billion people in
2050, and it is predicted that food production to provide for such a
population will have to increase by approximately 60%.

(2) Contribution to economic growth and poverty reduction

Even though the proportion of people in developing countries living in
extreme poverty on an income of no more than $1.25 per day has been
decreasing of late, in 2008, this population still numbered about 1.3 billion
(22.4% of the population of developing countries), and it is forecast to reach
about 1 billion (16.3%) in 2015.

(3) Various functions of agriculture, climate change measures, etc.

Agriculture is the act of manipulating nature and leveraging that force
to produce a harvest. Intrinsically, therefore, not only is it affected by nature,
but it can also have a significant influence on nature. There are many
examples of inappropriate agricultural practices that cause loss to natural
resources and have a major impact on the lives of local communities.

(4) International efforts for supporting agriculture and rural development

At the G8 Summit in L’Aquila, Italy, in July 2009, the L’Aquila Food
Security Initiative (AFSI) was announced. In addition to the importance of
safety nets, trade policies, and global partnerships, etc., the initiative
emphasized increasing investment in agriculture.

(5) Past achievements and lessons learned

(1) Achievements

(a) Halving the percentage of people living in poverty: Of the

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) closely related to agriculture and
rural development, it has been reported that the MDG 1 goal of ―halving the
global percentage of people living in poverty by 2015 was achieved for the
world as a whole in 2010 (World Bank (2012).

(b) Halving the percentage of undernourished people: It goes without

saying that agriculture and rural development contributes greatly to
increasing the volume of food supply to address the many years of increasing
demand, and to decreasing the proportion of undernourished people.

31
 (c) Growth rate of the agricultural sector: With respect to the question
of what growth rate should be achieved for the agricultural sector, different
countries have different aspects to consider, such as the status of the
agricultural sector and the potential of agriculture.

(2) Lesson Learned

(a) Support focusing on increasing productivity: In order to achieve a

goal of realizing economic growth and reducing rural poverty through a stable
supply of food and agricultural promotion, entire value chains, from inputs
through to production and distribution (from upstream to downstream), need
to be improved.

(b) Strengthening macro perspectives: As discussed above in the

analysis of JICA’s projects in the area of agriculture and rural development,
policies and systems related support was also relatively limited.

(c) Response to changes in the status of agriculture and rural

development in each country’s overall development policy: As mentioned in
(2)(a) above, the majority of JICA’s agriculture and rural development projects
over the past 20 years can be accounted for by support in areas that relate
directly to production and productivity increase and by support in the area of
rural development.

(6) Future direction

(1) Cooperation in view of entire value chains, combined with improving
agricultural productivity: Bearing in mind JICA’s track record in the
development and dissemination of agricultural production technologies,
backed by many years of experience in Asia and other regions, and in view of
Japan’s comparative advantage in human resources, knowledge and know-
how in rice cultivation.
(2) Response to global issues

(a) Response to soaring food prices: Food prices rose rapidly in 2008,
then plunged temporarily in 2009 as a consequence of the Lehman shock,
before beginning to rise again at around the end of 2010, eventually
surpassing the levels of 2008 in early 2011.

(b) Climate change measures: Agriculture is greatly affected by global

warming. It has an important function to play in climate change adaptation
measures.

32
 (3) Appropriate approach suited to the actual state of agriculture and
rural development of
the country (development situation): The changing roles of agriculture and
rural development during the process of a country’s economic development
by and large follow the course outlined below, although vary in certain
respects depending on the international economic environment.

(a) Countries where subsistence agriculture dominates: There is a

strong need to raise food self-sufficiency, especially for grains, and establish
a stable supply of food, and the contribution of the agricultural sector in
economic growth is high (generally mostly low-income countries).

(¡) Description of support: Focus on increasing the volume of

production by expanding the area of cultivated land and improving crop
yields, especially for grains.

(¡¡) Stance of support: Defending on the circumstances, think flexibly

about such basic principles as ownership and self-help efforts taking into
account the weak systems on the part of the developing country, and
predominantly provide support with a focus on grant aid (technical
cooperation and capital grant assistance) until outcomes such as
improvement of food supply become apparent from a humanitarian point of
view.

(b) Countries that are in transition to commercial farming: As grain

production increases and farmers have an increasing surplus to sell, the
demand by consumers for farm produce (including for the diversification
from grains to vegetables and other crops) will also increase as a
consequence of increased number of non-farming families and better income
levels. (generally mostly between low-income countries and lower middle-
income countries).

(¡) Description of support: One issue amid globalization of the supply

and demand for food is to secure the agricultural competitiveness of the
country while also contributing to the food security of other importing
countries.

(¡¡) Stance of support: Focus on support for private-sector activities as

well as loan aid and technical cooperation while emphasizing ownership on
the part of the developing country.

(4) Promoting participation of the private sector: The main processes

and elements related to agricultural production include input of agricultural
production goods (seeds, fertilizer, tractors and other agricultural machinery)

33
 (5) Strengthening resilience: As mentioned in the section on responding
to soaring food prices, it is extremely important to strengthen the capacity of
developing countries to deal with surging food prices and shocks such as
unseasonable weather.

(6) Peace building

In most cases, agriculture and rural development is important for post-
conflict countries, such as countries where the agricultural sector is one of
key industries, and countries where conflict has meant that no other
industries of note have developed. JICA will give priority to this type of
assistance for such countries as Afghanistan, Iraq and South
Sudan.

(7) Strengthening the program approach, and promoting domestic and

international cooperation and coordination

(8) Region-specific issues: The issues for each region are described as follows.

a. Southeast and East Asia: For higher income countries, it is

important to improve distribution that includes securing the
quality and safety of farm produce and to improve regions that
are lagging from a social equity point of view.
b. Central Asia and Caucasia: In general, there are many countries
where agricultural production is showing signs of recovery, but
which have not yet achieved self-sufficiency.

c. South Asia: In regions experiencing population pressure and

facing the broad impoverished classes and the disparities, apart
from the most vulnerable Afghanistan, the domestic supply and
demand for staple foods is at last becoming evenly matched.

d. Central and South America: For countries with surplus

production capacity (grain exporters), JICA provides support with
a view for public-private cooperation from the perspective of
Japan’s food security.

e. Sub-Saharan Africa: Self-sufficiency is very low, and food

expenses account for a large proportion of household budgets
(the most vulnerable).

f. North Africa and the Near and Middle East: Most countries in
this region have a low rate of self-sufficiency, and their
production potential is also low.

34
References

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Agriculture at Ministerial Level‖

35
 2. OECD (2010) ―Communiqué from the Ministers - Meeting of the Committee

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3. Akiyama, Takamasa, Suzanne Akiyama, Naonobu Minato (2002) ―Kaihatsu

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37
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38
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39
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40