Lecture III

Lecture Road Map

Measurement instruments

 Active and passive instruments,

 Null-Type and Deflection-Type Instruments,

 Contacting and Non- contacting instruments

 Analogue and Digital Instruments

2
 Classification of instruments
 Instruments may be classified according to their
application, mode of operation, manner of energy
conversion, nature of output signal and so on.

 The instruments commonly used in practice may be

broadly categorized as follows:

3
 Passive & Active Instruments
 Instruments are divided into active or passive ones:
 whether the instrument output is entirely produced by the quantity
being measured,
 whether the quantity being measured simply modulates the
magnitude of some external power source.
Passive Instruments (self generating)
 These are instruments which do not contain any electrical power
source.
 An example of a passive instrument is the pressure-measuring
device shown in Figure 1
 The pressure of the fluid is translated into a movement of a
pointer against a scale.
 The energy expended in moving the pointer is derived entirely
from the change in pressure measured: there are no other energy
inputs to the system.
4
Passive Instruments

5
 Active Instruments (power operated)
 The active instrument contains a power source.
 The external power source is usually in electrical form, but in
some cases, it can be pneumatic or hydraulic
 An example of an active instrument is a float-type petrol tank level
indicator as sketched in Figure 2
 The change in petrol level moves a potentiometer arm, and the
output signal consists of a proportion of the external voltage source
applied across the two ends of the potentiometer.
 The energy in the output signal comes from the external power
source: the primary transducer float system is merely modulating
the value of the voltage from this external power source

6
 Active Instruments

 In terms of cost, passive instruments are normally of a more simple

construction than active ones and are therefore cheaper to manufacture.
Therefore, choice between active and passive instruments for a particular
application involves carefully balancing the measurement resolution
requirements against cost.
7
 Null-Type and Deflection-Type Instruments
Deflection Type Instrument
 Deflection or Indicating instruments provide information about the
measuring quantity in terms of the deflection of a pointer over a pre-
calibrated scale. For e.g., analogue ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter, etc. The
pressure gauge of Fig. 1 is a good example of a deflection type of instrument.

Null Type Instrument

 An alternative type of pressure gauge is the deadweight gauge shown in
Figure 3, which is a null-type instrument. Here, weights are put on top of
the piston until the downward force balances the fluid pressure.
 Weights are added until the piston reaches a datum level, known as the null
point.
 Pressure measurement is made in terms of the value of the weights needed
to reach this null position.
8
Null Type Instrument

9
 Null Type vs Deflection Type Instruments
1. The general rule that null-type instruments are more accurate
than deflection types as calibration of weights is much easier
than careful choice and calibration of a linear-characteristic
spring.
2. The deflection type instrument is clearly more convenient. It is
far simpler to read the position of a pointer against a scale than
to add and subtract weights until a null point is reached.
 A deflection-type instrument is therefore the one that would
normally be used in the workplace.
3. For calibration duties, the null-type instrument is preferable
because of its superior accuracy.
 The extra effort required to use such an instrument is perfectly
acceptable in this case because of the infrequent nature of
calibration operations.
10
 Analog and Digital Instruments
Analog Instruments
 An analog instrument gives an output that varies continuously as the quantity
being measured changes.
 The output can have an infinite number of values within the range that the
instrument is designed to measure.
 The deflection type of pressure gauge described earlier is a good example of an
analog instrument.
 As the input value changes, the pointer moves with a smooth continuous
motion.
Digital Instruments
 A digital instrument has an output that varies in discrete steps and so can only
have a finite number of values.
 A digital instrument provides output readings in discrete steps only.
 For example a digital instrument used for measurement of speed will read speed
in discrete numbers and not as fraction of a revolution.
 The digital multimeter meter is a good example of an digital instrument.
 Digital instruments have come into wide use due to the rapid growth of
computers in control operations of systems and production processes.
 Instruments whose output is in digital form is suitable in computer-based
control operations as the instrument can be directly interfaced with the
computer.
11
 Digital vs Analog

• The advantages of digital instruments over analogue instruments are: easy readability,
better resolution, greater accuracy, automatic polarity and zeroing

• Analog instruments must be interfaced to the microcomputer by an analog-to digital (A/D)

converter, which converts the analog output signal from the instrument into an equivalent
digital quantity that can be read into the computer.

12
Manually Operated and Automatic Types
 Any instrument which requires the services of human operator is a manual
type of instrument.
 The instrument becomes automatic if the manual operation is replaced by an
auxiliary device incorporated in the instrument.
 An automatic instrument is usually preferred because the dynamic response
of such an instrument is fast and also its operational cost is considerably
lower than that of the corresponding manually operated instrument.

Contacting and Non-Contacting Types

 A contacting type of instrument is one that is kept in the measuring medium
itself. A clinical thermometer is an example of such instruments.
 On the other hand, there are instruments that are of non-contacting or
proximity type.
 These instruments measure the desired input even though they are not in
close contact with the measuring medium.
 For example, an optical pyrometer monitors the temperature of, say, a blast
furnace, but is kept out of contact with the blast furnace.
 Similarly, a variable reluctance tachometer, which measures the rpm of a
rotating body, is also a proximity type of instrument.

13
Dumb and Intelligent Types
 A dumb or conventional instrument is that in which the input variable is
measured and displayed, but the data is processed by the observer.
 For example, a Bourdon pressure gauge is termed as a dumb instrument
because though it can measure and display a car tyre pressure but the
observer has to judge whether the car tyre air inflation pressure is
sufficient or not.
 Currently, the advent of microprocessors has provided the means of
incorporating Artificial Intelligence (AI) to a very large number of
instruments.
 Intelligent or smart instruments process the data in conjunction with
microprocessor or an on-line digital computer to provide assistance in
noise reduction, automatic calibration, drift correction, gain
adjustments, etc.
 In addition, they are quite often equipped with diagnostic subroutines
with suitable alarm generation in case of any type of malfunctioning.

14
 Analog Instruments
 Analog instruments can also be classified as

1. Indicating instruments
2. Recording instruments
3. Integrating instruments
 In case of measuring instruments, the effect of unknown
quantity is converted into a mechanical force which is
transmitted to the pointer which moves over a calibrated scale.
 The moving system of such instrument is mounted on a pivoted
spindle.

15
 Indicating instruments are instruments which indicate the magnitude of a
quantity being measured. They generally make use of a dial and a pointer
for this purpose.
 Recording instruments give a continuous record of the quantity being
measured over a specified period. The variation of the quantity being
measured are recorded by a pen (attached to the moving system of the
instrument; the moving system is operated by the quantity being
measured) on a sheet of paper that moves perpendicular to the movement
of the pen.
 Integrating instruments record totalised events over a specified period of
time. The summation, which they give, is the product of time and an
electrical quantity. Ampere hour and watt hour (energy) meters are
examples of this category.
16
 For satisfactory operation of any indicating instrument,
the following systems must be present in an instrument.

1. Deflecting system producing deflecting torque Td

2. Controlling system producing a controlling torque Tc

3. Damping system producing damping torque Td

17
 Deflecting System
 In most of the indicating instruments, the mechanical force proportional to the quantity
to be measured is generated. This force deflects the pointer.

 The deflecting system uses one of the following effects produced by current or voltage
to produce deflecting torque.

a) Magnetic effect: when a current carrying conductor is placed in uniform magnetic

field, it experiences a force which causes it to move. This effect is mostly used in
many instruments like moving iron attraction and repulsion type, permanent magnet
moving coil instruments etc.

b) Thermal effect: the current to be measured is passed through a small element which
heats it to cause rise in temperature which is converted to an e.m.f. by a thermocouple
attached to it.

c) Electrostatic effect: when two plates are charged, there is a force exerted between
them, which moves one of the plates. Used in voltmeters.
18
 Induction effect: when a non-magnetic conducting disc is
placed in a magnetic field produced by electromagnets which
are excited by alternating currents, an e.m.f. is induced in it.
 Hall Effect: If a bar of semiconducting material is placed in uniform
magnetic field and if the bar carries current, then an e.m.f. is
produced between two edges of the conductor.

 The magnitude of this e.m.f. depends on flux density of the magnetic

field, current passing through the conducting bar and hall effect co-
efficient which is constant for a given semiconductor. This effect is
normally used in flux meters.
19
 Controlling Torque
 If deflecting torque were acting alone, the pointer would continue to move
indefinitely and would swing over to the maximum deflected position
irrespective of the magnitude of current (or voltage or power) to be
measured.
 This necessitates to provide some form of controlling or opposing torque
(TC).
 This controlling torque should oppose the deflecting torque and should
increase with the deflection of the moving system.
 The pointer will be brought to rest at a position where the two opposing
torques are equal i.e. Td = TC.
 The controlling torque performs two functions :
 (i) It increases with the deflection of the moving system so that the final
position of the pointer on the scale will be according to the magnitude of
current (or voltage or power) to be measured.
 (ii) It brings the pointer back to zero position when the deflecting torque is
removed. If it were not provided, the pointer once deflected would not
return to zero position on removing the deflecting torque. 20
 Controlling System
 This system should provide a force so that current or any other
electrical quantity will produce deflection of the pointer
proportional to its magnitude.

 The controlling torque in indicating instruments may be provided

by one of the following two methods :
i. By one or more springs ... Spring control

ii. By weight of moving parts ... Gravity control.

21
 Gravity Control
 This type of control consists of a small weight attached to the moving system
whose position is adjustable. This weight produces a controlling torque due
to gravity.

 The deflection is proportional to current i.e. quantity to be measured but is a

fraction of the angle of deflection hence the scale for the instrument using
gravity control is not uniform.
22
 Note that another weight (called balance weight) is attached to
counterbalance the weight of the pointer and other parts.

 In the zero position of the pointer, the control weight hangs vertically
downward and therefore provides no controlling torque.

 However, under the action of deflecting torque, the pointer moves from zero
position (from left to right) and control weight moves in the opposite
direction.

 Due to gravity, the control weight would tend to come to original position
(i.e. vertical) and thus provides an opposing or controlling torque.

 The pointer comes to rest at a position where controlling torque is equal to

the deflecting torque.

23
 Merits & Demerits
Advantages
 It is slightly cheaper in manufacturing costs than spring control
 The controlling torque can be varied easily by adjusting the
position of the control weight
 Its performance is not temperature dependent
 Rate deterioration with time is very minimum
Disadvantages
 The scale is non-uniform causing problems to record accurate
readings
 The system must be used in vertical position only and must be
properly levelled
 As delicate and proper levelling required, in general it is not used
for indicating instruments and portable instruments
24
 Spring Control
 To employ spring control to an instrument, the following
requirements are essential
 The spring should be non-magnetic

 The spring should be free from mechanical stress .The stress in the

spring must be limited to such a value that there is no permanent

set.

 The spring should have a small resistance, sufficient cross-

sectional area

 It should have low resistance temperature co-efficient

25
 Spring Control.
 This is the most common method of providing controlling torque in
electrical instruments.
 A spiral *hairspring made of some non-magnetic material like phosphor
bronze is attached to the moving system of the instrument.
 In some instruments, two spiral hairsprings wound in the opposite
directions are used.
 With the deflection of the pointer, the spring is twisted in the opposite
direction.
 This twist in the spring provides the controlling torque. Since the torsion
torque of a spiral spring is proportional to the angle of twist, the
controlling torque is directly proportional to the deflection of the pointer
i.e. TC ∝ θ.
26
 The pointer will come to rest at a position where controlling torque
TC is equal to the deflecting torque Td i.e. Td = TC.
 In an instrument where the deflecting torque is uniform, spring
control provides a linear or evenly-spaced scale over the whole
range.
 For example, in a permanent-magnet moving coil instrument, the
deflecting torque is directly proportional to the current flowing
through the operating coil i.e. Td ∝ I
 With spring control, TC ∝ θ

 In the final deflected position, Td = TC

∴θ∝I
27
 The arrangement of the springs is as shown below. The inner end of the spring is
attached to the spindle while the outer end is attached to a lever or arm which is
actuated by asset of screw mounted at the front of the instrument. So zero setting can
be easily done. The controlling torque is directly proportional to the angular
deflection of the pointer.
 Hence the scale of the instrument using spring control is uniform. Spring control is
very popular and is used in almost all indicating instruments

28
NOTE
 To employ spring control to an instrument, the following
requirements are essential.

1. The spring should be non-magnetic

2. The spring should be free from mechanical stress

3. The spring should have a small resistance, sufficient cross-sectional

area.

4. It should have low resistance temperature co-efficient.

29
Advantages
 (i) The levelling of the instrument is not required if the moving parts are
balanced.
 (ii) In some instruments (e.g. permanent-magnet moving coil and dynamometer
type), springs also serve as the current leads to the moving coil.
 (iii) There is practically no increase in the weight of the moving system.

 (iv) In instruments where deflecting torque is uniform, spring control provides

uniform scale.

Disadvantages
 (i) Change of temperature affects the spring length and hence the controlling
torque.
 (ii) Controlling torque cannot be adjusted easily.

 (iii) Accidental stresses in the springs may damage them. 30

 Practice Question
 A moving-coil ammeter has springs giving a control constant of 0·3×10–6 Nm
per degree. If the deflecting torque on the instrument is 28·8×10–6 Nm, find
the angular deflection of the pointer.

31
Comparison of controlling systems

32
 Damping System
 The deflecting torque and controlling torque act in opposite
directions.
 Before coming to rest, the pointer always oscillates due to
inertia, about the equilibrium position.
 Unless the pointer rests, final reading cannot be obtained.
 To bring the pointer to rest within short time, damping
system is required.
 The following methods are used to provide damping torque
a) Air friction damping
b) Fluid friction damping
c) Eddy current damping

33
 Self Assessment
1. Determine factors that enables the user to choose a particular instrument
for a specific task.

2. Using examples, differentiate active instruments from passive instruments.

3. What are the difference between recording and integrating instruments?

Give suitable examples in each case.

4. How many operating forces are necessary for successful operation of an

indicating instrument? Explain the methods of providing these forces.

5. The deflecting torque of an ammeter is directly proportional to the current

passing through it, and the instrument has full scale deflection of 70° for a
current of 10 A. What deflection will occur for a current of 5 A when the
instrument is (i) spring-controlled (ii) gravity controlled ? [35o, 28o]
34