ELECTRONIC MATERIALS L T P J C

AND DEVICES 3 0 0 0 3

Dr. M. Saranya Nair

School of Electronics Engineering
VIT-Chennai Campus
E-mail : [email protected]

MODULE 5

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR

 ELECTRONIC MATERIALS
AND DEVICES

MODULE 5
Bipolar Junction Transistor

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR

 The Bipolar Transistor
• The transistor is a multi-junction semiconductor device that, in conjunction with other circuit elements, is
capable of current gain, voltage gain, and signal power gain. The transistor is therefore referred to as an active
device, whereas the diode is passive.
• The basic transistor action is the control of current at one terminal by the voltage applied across the other two
terminals of the device.

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR

• The npn and pnp transistors are complementary devices.
• We are going to study the bipolar transistor theory using the npn transistor, but the
same basic principles and equations also apply to the pnp device.
• Typical impurity doping concentrations in the emitter, base, and collector may be on
the order of 1019, 1017, and 1015 /cm3, respectively.

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR
The base–emitter (B–E) pn junction is forward biased and the base–collector (B–C) pn junction is
reverse biased in the normal bias configuration.

This configuration is called the forward-active operating mode: The B–E junction is forward biased so
electrons from the emitter are injected across the B–E junction into the base. These injected electrons
create an excess concentration of minority carriers in the base.

The B–C junction is reverse biased, so the minority carrier electron concentration at the edge of the
B–C junction is ideally zero.

The large gradient in the electron concentration means

that electrons injected from the emitter will diffuse across
the base region into the B–C space charge region, where
the electric field will sweep the electrons into the collector.
We want as many electrons as possible to reach the
collector without recombining with any majority carrier
holes in the base. For this reason, the width of the base
needs to be small.
ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR
• Ideally, the minority carrier
electron concentration in the
base is a linear function of
distance, which implies no
recombination.
• The electrons diffuse across the
base and are swept into the
collector by the electric field in
the B–C space charge region.

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR

 Transistor Current Relation
Assuming the ideal linear electron distribution in the base, the collector
current can be written as a diffusion current.

Collector Current

• The diffusion of electrons is in the +x direction so that the conventional current is in the -x direction.
• The collector current is controlled by the base–emitter voltage; that is, the current at one terminal of the device is
controlled by the voltage applied to the other two terminals of the device.

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR

 Emitter Current
• One component of emitter current, iE1, is due to the flow of
electrons injected from the emitter into the base.
• This current, then, is equal to the collector current.
• Since the base–emitter junction is forward biased, majority carrier
holes in the base are injected across the B–E junction into the
emitter. These injected holes produce a pn junction current iE2
• This current is only a B–E junction current so this component of
emitter current is not part of the collector current. Since iE2 is a
forward-biased pn junction current, we can write ------------- We see that iC < iE or  < 1.
• The total emitter current is the sum of the two components -------- BUT..
• Since all current components are functions of exp (vBE /Vt), the
ratio of collector current to emitter current is a constant ----------

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR

Since iE2 is not part of the basic transistor action, we would like this component of current to be as small as
possible. We would then like the common-base current gain to be as close to unity as possible.

So,
The collector current is iC =  iE.

To a first approximation, the collector current is independent of the base– collector voltage as long as the B–C
junction is reverse biased.

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR

 Base Current

• The component of emitter current iE2 is a B–E junction current so that this current is also a
component of base current shown as iBa. This component of base current is proportional to
exp (vBE /Vt)
• There is also a second component of base current. We have considered the ideal case in
which there is no recombination of minority carrier electrons with majority carrier holes in
the base. However, in reality, there will be some recombination.
• Since majority carrier holes in the base are disappearing, they must be resupplied by a flow of
positive charge into the base terminal. This flow of charge is indicated as a current iBb.
• The number of holes per unit time recombining in the base is directly related to the number
of minority carrier electrons in the base. Therefore, the current iBb is also proportional to exp
(vBE /Vt)
• The total base current is the sum of iBa and iBb and is proportional to exp (vBE /Vt)
• The ratio of collector current to base current is a constant - called the common-emitter current
gain.
• Normally, the base current will be relatively small so that, in general, the common-emitter
current gain is much larger than unity (on the order of 100 or larger).
ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR
 Modes of Operation
• If the B–E voltage is zero or reverse biased (VBE = 0),
then majority carrier electrons from the emitter will not
be injected into the base.
• The B–C junction is also reverse biased; thus, the
emitter and collector currents will be close to zero for
this case.
• This condition is referred to as cutoff—all currents in
the transistor are zero.
When the B–E junction becomes forward biased, an emitter
current will be generated, and the injection of electrons into the
base results in a collector current. We may write the KVL
equations around the collector–emitter loop

This condition is the forward-active region of operation.

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR
• As the forward-biased B–E voltage increases, the collector current and hence VR will also increase.
The increase in VR means that the reverse-biased C–B voltage decreases, or VCB decreases.

• At some point, the collector current may become large enough that the combination of VR and VCC
produces 0 V across the B–C junction.

• A slight increase in IC beyond this point will cause a slight increase in VR and the B–C junction will
become forward biased (VCB < 0). This condition is called saturation.

• In the saturation mode of operation, both B–E and B–C junctions are forward biased.

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR

 DC Load Line & Q – Point
When the output characteristics of a transistor are considered, the curve looks as below for different
input values.

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR

• When a value for the maximum possible collector current is considered, that point
will be present on the Y-axis, which is nothing but the saturation point.
• As well, when a value for the maximum possible collector emitter voltage is
considered, that point will be present on the X-axis, which is the cutoff point.
• When a line is drawn joining these two points, such a line can be called as Load
line.
• This line, when drawn over the output characteristic curve, makes contact at a
point called as Operating point.
• This operating point is also called as quiescent point or simply Q-point. There
can be many such intersecting points, but the Q-point is selected in such a way
that irrespective of AC signal swing, the transistor remains in active region.

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR

• The load line has to be drawn in order to obtain the Q-point. A transistor acts as a
good amplifier when it is in active region and when it is made to operate at Q-point,
faithful amplification is achieved.
• Faithful amplification is the process of obtaining complete portions of input
signal by increasing the signal strength. This is done when AC signal is applied at its
input.
• When the transistor is given the bias and no signal is applied at its input, the load line
drawn at such condition, can be understood as DC condition. Here there will be no
amplification as the signal is absent.

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR

 Q - Point

For faithful amplification, VCE should not be less than 1V

for silicon transistor.

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR

 Draw the load line and find the Q- Point

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR

 Transistor Characteristics
Input Characteristics: The curve describes the changes in the values of input current with respect to the
values of input voltage, keeping the output voltage constant.
Output Characteristics: The curve is obtained by plotting the output current against output voltage,
keeping the input current constant.

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR
 NON-IDEAL EFFECT - BWM
In all previous discussions, a transistor is considered with uniformly doped regions, low injection,
constant emitter and base widths, an ideal constant energy bandgap, uniform current densities, and
junctions that are not in breakdown. If any of these ideal conditions is not present, then the transistor
properties will deviate from the ideal characteristics.

Base Width Modulation

• We have implicitly assumed that the neutral base width xB is constant. This base width, however, is
a function of the B–C voltage, since the width of the space charge region extending into the base
region varies with B–C voltage.
• As the B–C reverse-biased voltage increases, the B–C space charge region width increases, which
reduces xB.
• A change in the neutral base width will change the collector current
• A reduction in base width will cause an increase in the diffusion current.
• This effect is known as base width modulation; it is also called the Early effect.

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR

 Hard Saturation
For Amplification (in practical cases), VCE should not be
less than 1V for silicon transistor.

For Saturation in all conditions, circuit <<< device

Based on long experience in circuit design, a circuit will surely operates in hard saturation when the
ratio of collector to base current () is 10. The smaller the better.

Analyze the above circuit for hard saturation . Find the suitable RB value for hard saturation.

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR

1. An npn silicon transistor has VCC = 6 V and the collector load RC = 2.5 kΩ. Find the maximum
collector current that can be allowed during the application of signal for faithful amplification.

Collector supply voltage, VCC = 6 V

Collector load, RC = 2.5 kΩ
We know that for faithful amplification, VCE should not be less than 1V for silicon transistor.
∴ Max. voltage allowed across RC = 6 − 1 = 5 V
∴ Max. allowed collector current = 5 V/RC = 5 V/2.5 kΩ = 2 mA

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR

2. A transistor employs a 4 kΩ load and VCC = 13V. What is the maximum input signal if β = 100 ? Given
Vknee = 1V and a change of 1V in VBE causes a change of 5mA in collector current.

Collector supply voltage, VCC = 13 V

Knee voltage, Vknee = 1 V
Collector load, RC = 4 kΩ
∴ Max. allowed voltage across RC = 13 − 1 = 12 V
∴ Max. allowed collector current, iC =12 V /RC = 12 V/ 4 KΩ = 3 mA
Maximum base current, iB = iC / β = 3 mA / 100 = 30 μA
Now Collector current / Base voltage (signal voltage) = 5 mA/V
∴ Base voltage (signal voltage) = Collector current / (5 mA/V )= 3 mA /( 5 mA/V) = 600 mV

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR

3. A germanium transistor is to be operated at zero signal IC = 1mA. If the
supply VBB = 12V, what is the value of RB in the base resistor method ? Take β = 100.

Given, VBB = 12 V, β = 100

As it is a Ge transistor, therefore, VBE = 0.3 V
IC = 1 mA

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR

4. Calculate the values of three currents in the circuit

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR

5. Analyze the characteristics and modes of operation. Current Gain of device = 50.

Solution :
1. Draw the characteristics, load line & find Q – Point - Explain
2. Explain the modes with conditions.
3. Explain hard saturation with conditions.

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES DR.M.SARANYA NAIR