Technical Note No 47

Overall building envelope U-values

This Technical Note is one of four on the effect of building envelope performance on energy
use in buildings. The series comprises:

TN 46 Introduction to building envelope energy transfer

TN 47 Overall building envelope U-values
TN 48 Energy loss through windows
TN 49 U-values of curtain walls

Introduction Calculation of the amount of energy lost by

conduction through the building envelope is
This Technical Note introduces the reader an important part of any method of
to the assessment of overall U-values for assessment or compliance checking
complete building envelopes or assemblies procedure.
of components forming part of the building
envelope. Heat transfer by conduction is calculated
using U-values (TN46).
Building envelope is here considered in the
application of commercial and public
buildings and large buildings divided into Effect of air leakage
many separate dwellings. Buildings of this
type are covered by Approved Document L2 Air leakage through the building envelope is
of the Building Regulations (England and a major contributory factor to the rate of
Wales). An appendix gives equivalent energy loss through the building envelope
values for Scotland and Northern Ireland. (TN46).
Similar considerations apply to other types
of building and to buildings that have to Currently non-domestic buildings in the UK
comply with a different regulatory regime. are required to achieve an air leakage rate
of 10 m3/m2hr. For buildings that achieve
Energy use within a building will also lower air leakage rates it is possible to
depend on any solar gain and radiant balance energy savings from improved
losses through transparent areas of the sealing against greater conduction
envelope. These are covered in TN48 and losses/gains associated with higher U-
TN49. values.

Effect of building envelope conduction Assessing energy efficiency of buildings

Energy use in buildings is heavily governed The Building Regulations (England and
by energy transfer through the building Wales) give three methods for showing
envelope. Reducing the energy lost by compliance. All of these methods require
conduction through the building envelope is knowledge of the overall U-value of the
an important aspect in the design of energy building envelope or of separate zones of
efficient buildings. the building envelope.

© CWCT 2004 October 2004

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Overall building envelope U-values TN 47

The ‘Elemental method’ allows This method also gives greater design
assessment of compliance of the building flexibility and has the same advantages as
envelope alone. This method is based on: the ‘whole-building’ method. The carbon
emissions calculation method is described
a) U-values of the building envelope in CIBSE TM32.
elements

b) Limits on the type, position and extent of U-values of assemblies of components

glazing
Whatever the individual U-values of the
It is possible to trade-off the effect of high components, an overall U-value of an
U-values for some elements of the building assembly can be established for the
envelope against lower U-values for other purposes of calculating energy use, and/or
elements. showing compliance with the Building
Regulations.
Note that the elemental method also
accounts for the method of air conditioning The primary concern of the Building
and ventilation and for solar gains. Regulations (England and Wales) is to limit
the total amount of energy used in any
The greatest limitation of this method is the building. They set limits on the U-values of
limit on the areas of glazing. different elements of the building envelope
and limit the use of particular elements such
as windows.
The ‘whole-building method’ relies on a
carbon performance rating (CPR) for the
whole building. Based on either the primary The Regulations give an upper limit for the
fuel consumption or the carbon emissions, U-value for different elements and also
the CPR must be below certain limits standard U-values that are used to establish
depending on the class of building and a notional building.
method of conditioning the internal
environment. Table 1 shows the upper limits for U-values,
and also the U-values and allowable areas
This method gives greater flexibility to the used to define the notional building (see
building designer and takes account of solar below).
gains. These may be beneficial during the
heating cycle but solar gains may require The area of glazing in an actual building is
the provision of larger cooling plants and also controlled in order to limit solar gain.
lead to greater energy use for cooling. Those allowable areas are different from
and additional to the allowable areas shown
It will often be necessary to use this method in Table 1.
or the ‘carbon emissions calculation
method’ to show the full benefits of more No U-values or allowable areas are given
highly glazed walls such as some curtain for curtain walling. The U-value of an actual
walls. curtain wall depends on the proportion of
vision area in the wall and achievable U-
values vary widely, TN49. For a fully glazed
The ‘carbon emissions calculation curtain wall the U-values could reasonably
method’ requires a building to produce no be taken as those for metal framed
greater carbon emissions than would be the windows. The allowable area of curtain
case for a building complying with the walling is not relevant as no curtain walling
elemental method. is included in the notional building, see
below.

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Overall building envelope U-values TN 47

Poorest allowable Standard U- Allowable area at

Element U-value value standard U-value

Pitched roof with insulation between

rafters 0.35 0.20 N/A
Pitched roof with insulation between
joists 0.35 0.16 N/A
Flat roof or roof with integral insulation 0.35 0.25 N/A
Walls, including basement walls 0.70 0.35 N/A
Floors, including ground floors and
basement floors 0.25 0.25 N/A
Windows, roof windows and personnel 3.3
doors, glazing in metal frames (Part L1 only) 2.2 15-40
Windows, roof windows and personnel
doors, glazing in wood or PVC frames 3.3 2.0 15-40
Rooflights 2.2 20
Vehicle access and similar large doors 0.7 N/A
Unheated space 0.35 N/A
Display windows, shop entrance doors
and similar glazing N/A N/A N/A

Table 1 U-values of building elements from Part L2 of the Building Regulations (England and
Wales) (See Appendix A for values to be used in Scotland and Northern Ireland)

Acceptable U-values and areas of curtain U zone =

Q
=
∑U × A
element element

walling will depend on: ∆t × Azone ∑A element

• Other aspects of the building envelope This method of calculation is called the
when using the ‘elemental method’ area-weighted method for calculating U-
• All aspects of energy transfer and values.
energy use when using the ‘whole
building method’ or ‘carbon emissions Consider a façade zone comprising 30
calculation method percent glazing with U-value 2.8 W/m2K
and 70 percent wall with U-value 0.28
W/m2K. The overall U-value of the zone is
U-value of an entire façade given by:

Energy loss through a facade or any zone 2.8 × 0.3 + 0.28 × 0.7
U zone =
of a façade can be calculated by summing 0.3 + 0.7
the energy loss through the individual
elements. The heat flow is: U zone = 1.04 W/m2K
Q = ∆t × ∑ U element × A element

The U-value of a zone is calculated as:

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Overall building envelope U-values TN 47

Selection of components to achieve the those in contact with both the internal and
required overall U-value external environments.

Acceptable U-values of components such When applying the weighted-area method

as windows will depend on the area of to calculate heat loss (gain) it is
windows as a fraction of the total area established practice to take the area of an
under consideration. element as it is measured on the inside of
the building. All warm (cold) surfaces are
For windows in a wall with a U-value of included in the area, including the surface
0.35 W/m2K the following combinations all of wall behind a floor or ceiling void.
achieve the same overall U-value of
1.09 W/m2K as sometimes required by Energy transfer is the product of area, U-
Part L2 of the Building Regulations value and the temperature difference
(England and Wales): between the internal and external
environments. Elements that are not in
Window U-value Window area direct contact with the external
(W/m2K) (%) environment, for instance walls of an
1.83 50 atrium and the inner skins of double
2.20 40 facades require particular consideration
2.46 35 (see below).
2.82 30
3.31 25 Floor slabs in contact with the external
environment must be included in the
Table 2 Window U-values and areas overall U-value calculation but not floor
slabs in direct contact with the ground.
Note that: Whilst energy may be transferred through
floors in contact with the ground, and in
1 There is no upper limit to window U- this sense they are part of the building
values given in Part L2. However, Part envelope, the U-value of a floor slab in
L1 limits window U-values to 3.3 w/ contact with the ground should not be
m2K. combined with the U-values of other parts
of the building envelope. The external
2 Reducing the window area of a façade environment of the ground is not
will give rise to greater use of energy comparable with that outside an exposed
for lighting. This may not be beneficial floor slab, wall or roof.
when calculating energy use using the
‘whole building method’ or the ’carbon
emissions calculation method’. Example 1

3 The window area may have to be Consider the building shown in Figure 1,
limited to reduce the adverse effect of comprising wall and roof zones as shown
solar gain. in Table 3.

For this building envelope the overall U-

Calculation of overall building envelope value is given by:
U-value

To calculate an overall U-value for a U overall =

∑U × A = 780 = 0.78 W/m K2

building envelope the area-weighted ∑ A 1000

method may be applied. All relevant
elements of the building envelope must be Note that the U-value shown for the
included. The relevant elements are all window area is an area-weighted average
calculated as:

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Overall building envelope U-values TN 47

The overall U-value may be used to

U average =
∑U × A
window window
calculate annual energy use due to
conduction losses for use in the ‘whole
∑A window building method’ or ‘carbon emissions
calculation method’. The annual energy
Some windows may have higher U-values loss will depend on the internal and
if others have lower U-values. external temperatures. Calculation
requires knowledge of the number of
degree-heating days (TN46).

Figure 1 Building dimensions for example 1

(All dimensions are internal)

Opaque Window
Area area U-value U×A area U-value U×A ∑U × A
Zone (m2) (%) (W/m2K) (W/K) (%) (W/m2K) (W/K) (W/K)
Wall 1 15 x 10 = 150 100 0.30 45 0 - 0 45
Wall 2 20 x 10 = 200 50 0.35 35 50 2.8 280 315
Wall 3 15 x 10 = 150 100 0.30 45 0 - 0 45
Wall 4 20 x 10 = 200 50 0.35 35 50 2.8 280 315
Roof 20 x 15 = 300 100 0.20 60 - - 0 60

Total 1000 Total 780

Table 3 Fabric properties for example 1.

Notional building Building Regulations (England and Wales)

defines a notional building for use with the
When applying the ‘elemental method’ or ‘elemental method’. CIBSE TM32 defines
‘carbon emissions calculation method’ it is targets for the ‘carbon emissions
necessary to set a benchmark against calculation method’. Any proposed
which to assess the energy efficiency of a building must be designed to be as energy
proposed building. The Part L2 of the efficient or better.

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Overall building envelope U-values TN 47

The notional building is defined by the the allowable areas of elements are
standard U-values given in Table 1 and shown in Table 4.

Windows and doors as

percentage of the area of Rooflights as percentage
Building type exposed wall of area of roof
Residential buildings (where people 30 20
temporarily or permanently reside)
Places of assembly, offices and shops 40 20
Industrial and storage buildings 15 20
Vehicle access doors and display As required
windows and similar glazing

Table 4 Allowable areas of elements in the building envelope

(Other allowable areas apply to the limitation of solar gain)

When calculating the overall energy use of The overall U-value of the building
the notional building it is only allowable to envelope (excluding the floor) is then
take into account roof lights up to 10 per given by:
cent of the roof area in excess of any
rooflights in the proposed building, up to a
maximum of 20 per cent rooflights in the U overall =
∑U × A = 896.5 = 0.90 W/m2K
notional building. If a roof will actually ∑ A 1000
contain 5 per cent rooflights then the
notional building will contain 15 per cent It can be seen that the U-value of the
rooflights. notional building is greater than that of the
building proposed in example 1 which
For the building shown in Figure 1 the therefore complies with Part L of the
notional building will be defined as four Building Regulations (England and
walls each with 40 per cent glazing Wales).
(assuming it is an office building) and a
roof with 10 per cent rooflights (assuming The overall U-value of 0.90 W/m2K is used
they will not be included in the actual when calculating the annual energy use
building). as an input to the ‘Carbon emission
calculation method’ or the ‘Whole building
The appropriate fabric properties are method’.
shown in Table 5.

Opaque Window
Area area U-value U×A area U-value U×A ∑U × A
Zone (m2) (%) (W/m2K) (W/K) (%) (W/m2K) (W/K) (W/K)
Wall 1 15 x 10 = 150 60 0.35 31.5 40 2.2 132 163.5
Wall 2 20 x 10 = 200 60 0.35 42 40 2.2 176 218
Wall 3 15 x 10 = 150 60 0.35 31.5 40 2.2 132 163.5
Wall 4 20 x 10 = 200 60 0.35 42 40 2.2 176 218
Roof 20 x 15 = 300 90 0.25 67.5 10 2.2 66 133.5

Total 1000 Total 896.5

Table 5 Fabric properties for the notional building in Example 1.

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Overall building envelope U-values TN 47

Note that the overall U-value of the U-values than allowed by the ‘elemental
proposed building may be greater than method’.
that for the notional building if other
aspects of the proposed buildings lead to Using the ‘carbon emissions calculation
greater efficiency than required by the method’ the energy saved through
notional building. This may arise from: reduced air leakage can be used to
balance energy lost through the building
• The use of more efficient heating envelope by conduction.
and/or cooling systems
• Reduced air leakage Taking the notional building of Table 5, the
• Improved shading or the use of higher total surface area of the building envelope
performance glazing to reduce solar is 1000 m2. If the building can be
gain constructed to have a whole building air
leakage rate of 8 m3/m2hr this will be 2
Single wall m3/m2hr less than the allowable air
When considering only a single wall, leakage of 10 m3/m2hr. The rates of
without any knowledge of the other walls energy use are shown in Table 6.
and roof, it is necessary to assume the
worst conditions for those other elements Rate of energy
of the building and consider only a Notional building use (W/K)
notional wall. This will often lead to a Conduction losses 896.5
more onerous U-value requirement for the Air leakage losses 177.0
wall. Total 1073.5

Assuming, for an office, a wall with 40 per Rate of energy

cent glazed area the required overall U- Proposed building use (W/K)
value for the wall will be: Conduction losses 896.5
Air leakage losses 137.6
U = 0.4 × 2.2 + 0.6 × 0.35 = 1.09 W/m2K. Total 1034.1

Table 6 Effect of air leakage losses

Energy gains from reducing air leakage
This is equivalent to a reduction in the rate
Air leakage through the building envelope of energy use of 39.4 W/K
gives rise to a loss of conditioned air and
gives rise to an energy loss (TN44). The proposed building with tighter
construction could now have conduction
Air leakage through one square metre of losses of 930.9 W/K and still comply with
the building envelope at a rate of 10 Part L2 of the Building Regulations
m3/m2hr at 50 Pa gives rise to an average (England and Wales).
rate of energy loss of 0.172 W/m2K.
Example 2
Part L2 of the Building Regulations
(England and Wales) requires buildings to Taking the building shown in Figure 1 and
have a whole building air leakage rate of constructing the longer walls with curtain
10 m3/m2hr or less. This may be assumed walling of U-value 3.0 W/m2K. The fabric
as the acceptable air leakage rate for the properties are as shown in Table 7.
notional building. If a lower air leakage
rate can be achieved (and demonstrated The overall U-value is now:
by a whole building air leakage test on
completion) then it may be possible to use 1350
building envelope components with poorer U= = 1.35 W/m2K
1000

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Overall building envelope U-values TN 47

leakage test and achieves an air leakage

and this is acceptable provided the rate of 8 m3/m2hr or less.
building is subject to a whole building air

Curtain
Opaque wall
Area area U-value U×A area U-value U×A ∑U × A
Zone (m2) (%) (W/m2K) (W/K) (%) (W/m2K) (W/K) (W/K)
Wall 1 15 x 10 = 150 100 0.30 45 0 - 0 45
Wall 2 20 x 10 = 200 0 - 0 100 3.0 600 600
Wall 3 15 x 10 = 150 100 0.30 45 0 - 0 45
Wall 4 20 x 10 = 200 0 - 0 100 3.0 600 600
Roof 20 x 15 = 300 100 0.20 60 - - 0 60

Total 1000 Total 1350

Table 7 Revised fabric properties for example 1

Double skin walls and atria check should be carried out. This also
applies to small components such as
If the components of the building envelope aluminium mullions and transoms.
do not have surfaces in contact with the
internal and external environments the
temperature difference across them will be References
lower than the full temperature between
the internal and external environments. Building Regulations (England and Wales):
Part L2, Conservation of fuel and power in
This may occur where: buildings other than dwellings (2002
edition), http://www.odpm/gov.uk/
• An atrium is at a lower temperature
Building Regulations (Scotland): Part J,
than the shops or offices opening on to
Conservation of fuel and power,
it http://www.scotland.gov.uk/build_regs/sect-
• The internal skin of a double skin j.pdf.
façade is not in contact with the
external environment Building Regulations (Northern Ireland): Part
F, Conservation of fuel and power,
Energy transfer through these areas of the http://www.buildingcontrol.org/bcni/legislation/r
envelope will depend on the actual egulations.asp.
temperature drop across the zone and it is
necessary to calculate the temperature TN46 Introduction to building envelope energy
transfer, CWCT, 2004.
within the atrium or the plenum between
the inner and outer skins of a double skin TN48 Energy loss through curtain walls,
façade. CWCT 2004.

Avoidance of condensation TN50 Solar gain and solar shading, CWCT

2004.
Where U-values of components are
significantly greater than the standard U- TN51 Environmental control glasses, CWCT
values shown in Table 1 a condensation 2004.

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Overall building envelope U-values TN 47

BS EN ISO 13789: 1999, Thermal

CIBSE TM32: Guidance for the use of the performance of buildings – Transmission heat
carbon emissions calculation method, CIBSE loss coefficient – Calculation method.
2003, ISBN: 1903287413.

Appendix A - Building Regulations

Scotland and Northern Ireland

Allowable U-values used in this Technical In Northern Ireland the appropriate values
Note are those included in the Part L2 of are given in Schedule F. Table A shows
the Building Regulations (England and the values used in each case.
Wales). In Scotland the appropriate
values are given in Schedule J.

England and
Component Wales Scotland Ireland
Pitched roof with insulation between rafters 0.20 0.20
Pitched roof with insulation between joists 0.16 0.16 ?
Flat roof or roof with integral insulation 0.25 0.25 ?
Walls 0.35 0.30 ?
Windows (metal) 2.20 2.20 ?
Windows (timber and plastic) 2.00 2.00 ?

Table A Standard U-values in different Building Regulations

© CWCT 2004

University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath,

BA2 7AY
Tel: 01225 386541; Fax: 01225 386556
Email: [email protected];
Website: www.cwct.co.uk

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