The Hydrologic Cycle

• Precipitation
(PPT)
• Interception
• Infiltration
• Groundwater
recharge
• Runoff
• Evaporation (E)
• Transpiration (T)

Distribution of water is not static (processes)

COMPONENTS OF RUNOFF
 Hydrologic Abstractions
• Interception
• Evaporation
• Transpiration
• Depression
• Detention
• Infiltration
 Topics
• Interception- Definition, factor affecting
interception, Measurement of interception
• Transpiration – Definition, factors affecting
Transpiration, Measurement of Transpiration
Potometer/ phytometer
• Evapotranspiration - Potential
Evapotranspiration, Actual Evapotranspiration,
Factors affecting ET, Measurement of ET by
Lysimeter
INTERCEPTION
 Interception: when it rains over a
catchment, not all the precipitation
Interception falls directly on to the ground. Before
it reaches the ground, a part of it
may be caught by the vegetation and
subsequently evaporated. The
volume of water so caught is called
interception.
1. It maybe retained the vegetation as surface storage
and returned to the atmosphere by evaporation
a process termed interception loss.
2. It can be drip off the plant leaves to join the
ground surface or the surface flow , this is known
as through fall .
3. The rain water may run along the leaves and
branches and down the stem to reach the ground
surface .This is called stem flow.
Transpiration • Transpiration: is the process by
which water leaves the body of a
living plant and reaches the
atmosphere as water vapour.
• The water is taken up by the plant-
root system and escapes through
the leaves.
• The important factors effecting
transpiration are :
• 1.pressure,
• 2. temperature,
• 3. wind,
• 4. light intensity,
• 5. characteristics of the plant such as root
and leaf system of the plant.
 INTERCEPTION
• Definition
• Water losses per annum due to evaporation of
rainfall caught and held in suspension by
vegetation, which is evaporated before reaching
the ground is termed as interception.
• i.e. water is intercepted by leaves, branches and
stem of plant foliage.
• Interception is that part of precipitation which,
while falling is intercepted by aerial portion of
vegetation, buildings and other objects above the
surface of earth and evaporates back to the
atmosphere.
 INTERCEPTION CONTI…
• The adhesive force between the water drops and the
vegetation holds back the drops of water against gravity until
they grow in size to over weight and slip down.
• Water is hold over leaves in form of (a sheet or droplet )
depth of water is % of precipitation.
• It is measured in volume of water . It is difficult to exactly
measure the interception.
• For the major storm and floods the interception loss is
generally neglected.
 INTERCEPTION CONTI…
• Interception loss is solely
due to evaporation and
does not include
transpiration, throughfall
or stemflow.
• The amount of water
intercepted in a given
area is extremely difficult
to measure.
• It depends on the
various factors like
species composition of
vegetation, its density
and also on the storm
characteristics.
 INTERCEPTION CONTI…

• Interception depends upon following factors

1) Storm or Intensity and duration of storm
2) Vegetation
3) Wind
4) Season of the year
• 1) Storm or Intensity and duration of storm
• The percentage of total precipitation loss is highest, nearly to
100% in light showers when the total rainfall is less than
interception- storage capacity.
• i.e. For light rain having low intensity interception loss is more
• For storm having small duration, interception is more.
 INTERCEPTION CONTI…
➢ Figure shows the variation of interception loss expressed as percent of
rainfall depth with storm rainfalls.
➢ It can be seen from this figure that loss is large for storms with small
intensity and it approaches a small constant value for large storm.(due to
maximum water holding capacity of vegetation)
➢For light rain having low intensity interception loss is more.
➢The interception loss is highest, nearly 100% in light showers when the total
rainfall is less than interception storage capacity.
 INTERCEPTION CONTI…

• The percentage of rainfall loss by interception

tends to reduce with the increase in intensity of
storm and storm duration.
• Under heavy rains of long duration precipitation
loss is at an average constant rate of about 20 %
for most trees.
 INTERCEPTION CONTI…
The variation of interception loss with the rainfall
magnitude per storm for small storms is as shown in figure.
 INTERCEPTION CONTI…
• Figure show the theoretical relation between interception,
precipitation and duration.
• For storm having small duration, interception is more.
• It is seen that the interception loss is large for a small rainfall
and levels off to a constant value for large storms.
 INTERCEPTION CONTI…
• 2) Vegetation OR Density of trees and type of
trees
• Most of the rain falling at the beginning of storm is stored in
the form of a thin film or droplets on the leaves of vegetation
as interception and till such time the leaves have retained the
maximum amount of the water they can hold, and very little
portion of rainfalls on the ground.
• As rain increases and after the vegetation is saturated and
interception storage is filled , that is net interception is zero,
the rain water reaching the soil surface is then equal to
rainfall minus evaporation from vegetation.
• When the rainfall ceases, the interception storage still
remains on the trees and is there after lost by evaporation.
 Vegetation Conti..
• Under the same, vegetation conditions, the interception is a fairly
constant percentage of annual precipitation.
• Generally taken as 5 to 15 % of the annual rainfall.
• For well developed forest the annual interception may be considered as
10 to 20 % of the annual rainfall.
• If the area experiences a large number of small storms it can be even
grater than 25% of the annual rainfall.
• The amount of rain water reaching the ground, and running down along
the trees trunks is usually 1 to 1.5 % of total precipitation.
• Its value increases from zero in light showers to a maximum constant
percentage in long showers.
• Interception by farm crops may amount to 0.77 to 1.25 cm during a single
storm.
• Total interception during growing season of farm crops may amount to 20
% or more of total rainfall.
• Interception varies with the kind and size of vegetation
• For more density of vegetation – more interception
• Large tree– interception is more ---- Short tree --- interception is less
• Area of canopy is more – space is more
• Evaporation is more --- interception is more
 INTERCEPTION CONTI…

• 3) Wind
• Wind reduces the maximum interception storage and as wind
velocity increases, the rate of evaporation from storage in
increased.
• Since these two effects are in opposite directions, the net
effect for a storm on the whole is to increase or decrease the
total interception depending on the wind velocity throughout
the storm, duration of rain and humidity of air.
• For light storm of long duration if wind velocity is high – the
total interception is higher than the storm of short duration
• High wind velocity tends to increase total interception during
a long storm and decreases for a short storm.
 Wind Conti…

• At the time of rainfall if wind velocity is less the chances of

dripping of water stored over the foliage is less hence water is
available for evaporation for more time but due to low wind
velocity the rate of evaporation is less.
• These two effects are in opposite direction.
• The net effect for a storm on the whole is to increase or
decrease the total interception depends on the effect of other
parameter influencing the evaporation loss.
• For light storm of long duration if wind velocity is high
• The total interception is higher than the storm of short
duration
 INTERCEPTION CONTI…
• 4) Season of the year
• During summer evaporation is more so interception loss is more.
• Stemflow : The amount of rain water reaching the ground and
running down along the tree trunks is usually 1 to 1.5 % of total
rainfall.
• Its value increases from zero in light showers to a maximum
constant percentage in low showers.
• The portion of precipitation which drops down to the ground is
known as through fall.
INTERCEPTION CONTI…
Interception varies with the kind and size of vegetation
Under heavy rains of long duration precipitation loss is at an average constant rate of
about 25% for most trees.
INTERCEPTION CONTI…
 Season of the year Conti..
• The part of rainfall retained by the aerial portion of vegetation
and other objects and is either absorbed by them or
evaporates back is called interception loss.
• Rainfall in excess of the capacity of bushes or trees to hold ,is
available to ground surface either as through fall or may
reach the ground by running down the stem of trees as
stemflow.
• Therefore, the net rainfall available at ground surface is the
gross rainfall minus the part of intercepted water which finally
evaporates.
• Interception is mostly satisfied from initial precipitation.
• The tree foliage can held 0.05 mm to .25 mm of rainfall before
dripping takes place.
 INTERCEPTION CONTI…
• During light rainfall the maximum part of falling water (90 –
100% ) water is held by vegetation.
• It will evaporate immediately due to small size. This create
space for catching the subsequent rainfall.
• Where in case of heavy rain size of rain drop is small , in short
time it fills the space available in leaves – due to bigger size it
will take more time for evaporation.
• Hence, total evaporation for vegetation is more for light rain-
hence interception is more.
• For storm heavy short duration the % of water store on
vegetation is more than the % water stored for storm having
large duration .
• Hence evaporation is more in short storm and interception is
more.
 INTERCEPTION CONTI…

• Determination of Interception loss

• Empirical formula for determining value off
interception is as under
• I = a+ bt

• Where,
• I = total interception ( cm)
• a= Interception storage capacity (cm)
• b= rate of evaporation from intercepting surfaces
(cm/ hr)
• t= Duration of rainfall or showers (hr)
INTERCEPTION : it is a part of water caught by
the vegetation and subsequently evaporated as

a) Surface flow
b) Stem flow
c) Evapotranspiration
 For a given storm, the interception loss is estimated
as
Ii = Si + Ki Et
Where

• I i = Interception loss in mm.

• S i = Interception storage varies from 0.25 to 1.25
mm depending on the nature of vegetation
• K i =Ratio of vegetal surface area to its projected
area.
• E t = Evaporation rate in mm/h during the
precipitation.
• t = Duration of rainfall in hours.
 INTERCEPTION CONTI…
• Measurement of Interception
• Interception is measured by placing on the ground one or more rain
gauges ( interceptometers) under the vegetation or trees and comparing
the amount of rain thus collected with that of similar gauges in the
open area either above or at one site of the vegetations.
• Water loss by interception can be reduce by thinning or changing the
vegetations
Interception = Amount of water collected by − Average amount of water collected by
Rain gauge in open area Rain gauge in crop area

Interceptometers
Rain gauge below tree
Open area
Crop area
Vegetated area
 INTERCEPTION
• A portion of the rainfall is intercepted by plant
foliage, buildings, and other objects. This
water is not available for runoff.
• Interception typically removes about 0.5 mm
during a single storm event. Values as high as
1.5 mm have been reported.
 EVAPORATION
• Evaporation is the change of the state of water
from liquid to vapor as a result of heat
addition.
• Evaporation from a body of water occurs only
if the surrounding air is not completely
saturated with water vapor, that is, if the
relative humidity is less than 100 percent.
 TRANSPIRATION
• Definition : Water vapour ( escape from) leaves , the living plant
surfaces (body) and enters the atmosphere (directly into the
atmosphere) .
• The plants absorbs (draw) water from the soil through the roots and
rainfall after using about 10 % of absorbed water for the building of
plant tissues by plants and remaining 9o % evaporate into the
atmosphere as vapours (or 90 % is lost as a transpiration)
• Growing plants continuously lose enormous quantity of water, the
transpiration loss being maximum at mid day and lowest at night.
• About 90 % of the transpiration occurs during the day time
and about 10% of transpiration occurs during night time
• Transpiration rate is minimum in the morning it increases with
the increase in temperature during day time and reaches the
maximum at around 2 P.M local time .
 Transpiration
involves
Leaves
continues move
of water from the
soil into the roots,
through the stem
and out through
the leaves to the
atmosphere. Stem
OR Transpiration
is the process by
which water is
lost to
atmosphere as
Root
water vapour
from the body of
plants .
 Photosynthesis
The chloroplasts within the
leaf use carbon dioxide
from the air and a small
portion of the available
water to produce
carbohydrates required for
plant growth
( photosynthesis).
As air enters the leaf, water
escapes through the open
stomata; this is the process
of transpiration.
Vapour exchange within
the atmosphere is
controlled by the stomata
openings.
 Stomata: These are small
openings on the plant leaf through
4. Guard cells: which gases and water vapour
• cells that open and pass.
close the stoma
The water extracted by the plant
5. Stomata: openings in roots is transferred to the plant
leaf’s surface; when open: leaves through intercellular space.
• GAS EXCHANGE: Allows Air enters the leaf through the
CO2 in & O2 out of leaf stomata openings in the leaf
surface
Guard Cells Stomata
Transpiration ratio
 TRANSPIRATION CONTI…

• The ratio of water transpired to that used in forming plant

matter is very large up to 800 or more.
• Actually major quantity of water absorbed by plant roots is
lost by transpiration and only a tiny fraction is used within the
plant.
• Transpiration is a complex phenomenon by which
precipitation falling on the land is returned to the atmosphere
depending on the amount and distribution of rainfall besides
the factors which control evaporation such as temperature,
humidity and wind velocity.
• The rate of transpiration varies through 24 hours of the day
as also from day to day.
 TRANSPIRATION CONTI…

• Transpiration in the plants and trees depends

upon the moisture content.
• The soil acts as a moisture reservoir for the
plants, the capacity of which in root zone of a
crop is limited by the field capacity as the
upper limit and permanent wilting percentage
of the soil as the lower limit.
Factors affecting Transpriation
Since transpiration is essentially the evaporation
of water from leaf cells, various factors which
control evaporation from water surface such as
high temperature, low humidity, strong wind ,
sunlight etc, also influences transpiration.
Under unusual conditions such as high wind
velocity , high temperature, dry atmosphere, the
rate of transpiration may be greatly increased.
 Factors affecting Transpiration
1. Climate factor / atmosphere factors
1. (Air)Temperature
2. Relative humidity
3. Wind velocity
4. Sunlight or solar radiation
2. Soil moisture
1. Field capacity
2. Wilting point
3. Availability of water
3. Crop/ Plant factors
1. Plant growth
2. Character of vegetation
3. Extent and efficiency of root system
4. Leaf area
5. Leaf arrangement & structure
6. Stomatal behaviour
 Factors affecting Transpiration Conti…
• TEMPERATURE
• The light energy (solar energy) absorbed by the leaves is
converted into heat to the extent of 95%.
• This increase the body temperature.
• Most of this heat is used in the vaporisation of the water from
the dilute solutions of mineral salts drawn by the plants
through root system and used in building up plant tissues.
• The moisture retained in the plant tissues is also a factor in
the disposal of precipitation.
• The rate of transpiration according to Meyer, varies with
temperature in exponential relation, approximately doubles
for every 10 ° C increase in temperature
• During day time we observe high temperature hence 90 % of
daily transpiration occurs during day light hours
• Plant growth stops when temperature drops to 4° C.
 Factors affecting Transpiration Conti…

• HUMIDITY:
• The rate of transpiration is more in dry air than in moist air or
humid air as is indicated by the experiments conducted for the
water requirements of plants for a given amount of growth, that
more water is used per kg of dry material produced by plants
growing in dry air than by those growing in moist air.
• Thus, other factors being equal, the lower the relative humidity,
the more rapid is transpiration.
• Relative humidity is the % of water vapour available in air.
• The vapour pressure at the leaf surface is considered as equal to
the vapour pressure of the free water surface.
• Usually there exists a vapour pressure gradient from leaf surface to
the atmospheric air. This gradient causes the transpiration.
• The greater is the steepness of gradient, greater is the rate of
transpiration by plant.
 Factors affecting Transpiration Conti…

• During rainy days the relative humidity of air mass is very

high (nearer to 100%) hence the both air mass near and away
the leaf surface are saturated with water vapour which do not
create a gradient hence transpiration rate is very less.
 Factors affecting Transpiration Conti…

• WIND VELOCITY
• Transpiration increase water vapour concentration in the air
around the plant leaves which in term (tending to) decrease
further water loss from the plant
• Wind velocity results in increased transpiration by fastening
the removal of accumulated water vapour from the leaf
surface from which it is being transpired.
• The wind blowing with high velocity or turbulent wind remove
the moist air from leaf surface and causes dry air to
accumulated near the leaf.
• This create a water vapour gradient between space inside &
outside of leaf which cause increase in transpiration
 Factors affecting Transpiration Conti…
• SUN LIGHT
• Solar radiation received by plant body store the solar energy
which increase the body temperature
• Plant release this excess heat by transpiration.
• Due to this fact the transpiration rate is higher during summer
days as compared to winter days.
• The solar energy absorbed by plant is utilised for
transformation of water from liquid to vapour form.
• Solar radiation, besides providing a source of energy for
evaporation tends to make the leaf more permeable to water
movement and warmer than the air resulting in increase in
concentration of water vapour in the leaf and hence more
rapid loss of water through transpiration.
• Transpiration is practically (95%) limited to the day light hours.
 Factors affecting Transpiration Conti…

• In this respect it differs from soil evaporation which continues

through the night also at a rate (75 to 90% between sunrise
and sunset) determined primarily by the temperature
difference
• The loss during the night is about one –tenth of the loss
during the day, the maximum being at noon.
• The loss during night is considered as uniform
• As transpiration is dependent on sunlight, shade naturally
reduces transpiration approximately to one – half or one –
third of that in full sunlight.
 Factors affecting Transpiration Conti…

• SOIL MOISTURE
• Transpiration has direct relation with soil moisture, supply by root
up to certain limit, below wilting point decrease in moisture
content reduce rate of transpiration.
• Continuous supply of available moisture to the plant is necessary
for the continued transpiration.
• As soil moisture is the source of water for transpiration , the
transpiration rate is limited to the rate at which the soil moisture is
supplied to root system .
• At certain soil water content, transpiration is maximum and further
increase in moisture content does not increase transpiration.
• However, any increase in moisture content below this amount
reduces the rate of transpiration until water content is depleted to
wilting point.
 Factors affecting Transpiration Conti…
• Soil acts as a moisture reservoir for the plants
• The capacity of moisture reservoir depends on field capacity and
wilting point
• Field capacity is the amount of water held in the soil after excess
gravitational water has drained.
• Wilting point is the moisture content at which the roots can not
absorb ( extract) the water from soil and wilting of plants take place
is called the wilting point.
• Available water : The amount of water found between field capacity
and wilting point is known as available water to the plant.
• Transpiration is minimum when soil moisture is very near to
wilting point.
• Transpiration rate does not increase if moisture content is more
than field capacity
• Water logging of area cause the decay of roots which reduce the
upward movement of water in plant.
 Water Use at the Farm

ET

evaporation
transpiration
precipitation

soil surface & plant

leaf water storage

irrigation

evaporation
runoff runoff

root zone soil

infiltration water storage

deep
percolation
water table
capillarity
 These are the terms most commonly used when working with soil water. Terms we will
use when making soil moisture calculations.
Soil Moisture Content
Saturation - all soil pores are filled
with water. This condition occurs
right after a rain. - this represents
0 bars.
Field capacity - moisture content
of the soil after gravity has
removed all the water it can.
Usually occurs 1-3 days after a
rain. - this would be -1/3 bar.

Wilting point - soil moisture

percentage at which plants cannot
obtain enough moisture to
continue growing. - this is -15 bars.
It is the moisture content in percentage by weight at
which plants droop or wilt.

The plants usually wilt when the rate of transpiration

( water lost by plants through leaves ) exceeds the
rate at which the roots can absorb moisture from the
soil and transmit it to the leaves.

Plant permanently wilt for lack of water, when the

pull of roots is not great enough to get sufficient
water in time to prevent wilting.

The amount of moisture in the soil at this instant is

called permanent wilting percentage and held with a
force of 15 atmosphere.
 Factors affecting Transpiration Conti…
Crop/ Plant factors
PLANT GROWTH
• Transpiration related is closely related to vegetative
activity or rate of plant growth and is restricted to the
growing season
• The transpiration loss varies according to type of plant
and stage of development.
• The quantity of water used by plants during the growing
season depends mainly on the quantity available within
reach of the root system.
• Plant Biological characteristics greatly influence the rate
& volume of transpiration.
 PLANT GROWTH CONTI…
• Large leaf surface Plant with these
• Greater number of stomata characteristics
• Lighter shoot root ratio have more
• Root system reaching GW Table transpiration rate

• Plant is a living body Adverse situation sharp sunlight React

in such a way that effect of adverse situation is less
• Plant physiological responses of plant during period of soil water
deficit Like , leaf rolling, carling, changing orientation against solar
radiation, reduce transpiration.
• Plant has life if also protect itself from abnormal condition of
climate
• Transpiration depends on stage of growth
• During maturity stage the transpiration is maximum and less
during harvesting stage
 PLANT GROWTH CONTI…
• CHARACTER OF VEGETATION
• The characteristics of soil varies with depth and the roots of
different forms of vegetation penetrates to varying depths.
• Usually adapting themselves to the available moisture content of
the various soil layers.
• According to Penman root range is of minor importance in the
determination of transpiration rates immediately following wetting
• On the whole, the transpiration of deep rooted vegetation is less
fluctuating with changes in the monthly rainfall than that of shallow
rooted vegetation
• In dry season deep rooted vegetation draws heavily on ground
storage .
• The transpiration of shallow rooted plants growing in sandy soils
varies more with the rainfall than of similar plants growing in clayey
soils.
 PLANT GROWTH CONTI…

• OTHER FACTORS
• Parameter like
• soil salinity,
• poor land fertility,
• limited application of fertilizer,
• limited application of pesticides,
• reduce the growth of the crop which
ultimately reduce transpiration
Factors that affect Transpiration

1. Wind speed
◦ Increases → Increases transpiration rate
2. Humidity
◦ Increases → Decreases transpiration rate
3. Light intensity
◦ Increases → Increases transpiration rate
4. Temperature
◦ Increases → Increases transpiration rate
5. Water supply
◦ Decreases → Decreases transpiration rate
 Determination of Transpiration
OR Measurement of Transpiration

• Measurement of transpiration from an appreciable

area (cropped area) under natural conditions is not
possible.
• Water loss by transpiration for growing crops is
ascertained experimentally by determining the water
requirement.
• Therefore measurement is done in laboratory for
plant or ratio of the rate of water absorbed by a plant
during its growth to the dry matter produced.
• The plant is cut and rate at which it loses weight prior
to wilting is determined.
Leaves, twigs and plant are cut from Determination of Transpiration
their living condition. OR Measurement of Transpiration Conti…

They are weighted immediately after

cutting w1 and after short time
interval prior to wilting commences w2

Transpiration Rate = w1 –w2

-----------
time
Transpiration rate is the rate at which it
loses weight prior to wilting is
determined
This method is base on the assumption
that transpiration continues at the
same rate before and after cutting.
 Measurement of Transpiration Conti…

• Transpiration α final vapour content – initial

vapour content
• Number of plants are placed in closed container
• The increase in vapour content of space is
measured after certain time interval, which gives
transpiration rate.
• Various methods are developed by Botanists for
the measurement of transpiration
• Commonly determination of transpiration is
made with the instrument called Potometer and
Phytometer
 Measurement of Transpiration
• A potometer sometimes
known transpirometer is a
device used for measuring
the rate transpiration.
• Types:
1. Ganong's Potometer
2. Darwin's Potometer
3. Gaurrea's Potometer
4. Farmer potometer
POTOMETER
 Potometer
➢Container filled with water
sealed at top
➢A Potometer is a small
The rate at which plants take up water depends
container holding water and on the rate of transpiration- the faster a plant
sealed so that moisture can transpires, the faster it takes up water.
escape only by transpiration
from a leaf.
➢ Twig or small plant with its
cut end inserted in the water.
➢Now initial weight W1 is
taken during growth of plants.
➢Some water also is taken
added which is represented by
w and W2 is final weight of
instrument.
 Potometer Conti…
T = (w1+w) -w2

T= Transpiration loss for any period

W1 = Initial weight of instrument
w= Total weight of water added
during full plant growth
W2= Final weight of instrument
A potometer is a device that measures the rate at which a plant
draws up water. Since the plant draws up water as it loses it by
transpiration, you are able to measure the rate of transpiration.
The basic elements of a potometer are:
• A plant cutting • A calibrated pipette to measure water loss •
A length of clear plastic tubing • An air-tight seal between the
plant and the water-filled tubing
 PHYTOMETER
• A phytometer consists of a watertight tank
containing (filled with) sufficient soil for plant
growth. i.e. The tank containing sufficient
earth (soil) to nourish the plant in which one
or more plants are rooted.
• It is a large tank filled with soil in which one
or more plants are rooted.
• It is sealed with a plastic cover to prevent any
rain from entering or moisture to escape other
than by transpiration from plant.
 PHYTOMETER CONTI..
Large tank
filled with soil
in which one
or more
plants are
rooted.

• An arrangement is made to provide aeration and to

add water artificially till the plant growth is complete.
• It is provided with weighing mechanism at bottom
• The equipment is weighed in the beginning and at the
end of the experiments.
• Water applied during the growth is measured and the
water consumed by transpiration is obtained.
 PHYTOMETER CONTI..

• Transpiration loss T for any period is given by

the following relation
• T = ( W1+w) –W2
• Where,
• T= Transpiration loss
• W1= Initial weight of instrument set up
• w= Total weight of water added during full
plant growth or during that time interval
• W2= Final weight of instrument set up
 TRANSPIRATION
• Transpiration is the transfer of soil moisture from the
soil to the atmosphere by the action of vegetation.
Plants transpire water vapor through their foliage.
• Transpiration has minimal effect on individual storms
and is usually only taken into account in long-term
hydrologic budgets.
• Evaporation and transpiration are commonly lumped
in one variable called evapotranspiration.
 Transpiration
• Transpiration is also the conversion of liquid
water to water vapor, but it’s done by plants.
• Plants have developed a very efficient system for
pulling water up from the ground based on
capillary action. This moves nutrients to tissues.
They must lose water at leaves for the process to
continue.
• Water vapor is lost from leaf surfaces through
small openings called stomatae during carbon
dioxide diffusion for photosynthesis.
ANY QUESTIONS ??????