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Education Issues
In this age of education innovation and reform, schools must evolve and
react to current policy trends. This accessible book offers research-based
insights into six key educational trends and issues that are impacting K-12
learning today: year-round schooling, assessments, educating minorities,
anti-intellectualism, issues of social promotion and retention, and school
design. Each chapter unpacks research and policy issues relating to these
topics and provides administrators with practical advice on how they should
approach these issues to improve learning in their schools. The ideas and
strategies in Understanding Key Education Issues will help educators across
the country achieve greater efficiency, better results, and a higher purpose.
Matthew Lynch
First published 2017
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Taylor & Francis
The right of Matthew Lynch to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Lynch, Matthew, 1978–
Title: Understanding key education issues : how we got here and where we
go from here / by Matthew Lynch.
Description: New York : Routledge, 2017. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016048422 | ISBN 9781138285675 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781138285682 (pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH: Education—United States.
Classification: LCC LA210 .L96 2017 | DDC 370.973—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016048422
ISBN: 978-1-138-28567-5 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-28568-2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-26881-1 (ebk)
Typeset in Optima
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
This book is dedicated to the teachers, administrators, parents, citizens,
and politicians who have been fighting for genuine school reform in the
United States for decades. Thank you for caring about our children.
This book is also dedicated to the children who were not properly
educated by the US educational system. These children are the
collateral damage that should spur us to create lasting change.
Contents
Preface viii
Acknowledgments xi
Meet the Author xii
vii
Preface
The formal education system was designed to meet the economic demands
of the industrial revolution. However, in the current global economic cli-
mate, the established education system is struggling to meet the needs of a
hyper-connected society that is in a constant state of evolution.
In this age of education innovation and reform, the pre-K through 12
classroom must evolve in order to adapt to the times. As a result, practices
and policies are continually being reexamined and adjusted. The problem
with many of these policy trends, however, is that they are strong on pas-
sionate discourse but weak on practical implementation and ideas. Fur-
thermore, many are not based on evidence.
That is where this book comes in. It offers objective, research-based
insights into six key educational trends and issues that are impacting
the K-12 learning process: year-round schooling, assessments, educat-
ing minorities, anti-intellectualism, multiage classrooms, and the twin
issues of social promotion and retention. At the same time, the book
addresses controversial but important questions that relate to the future
of public K-12 education in America. In addition, the book provides
educators and administrators with practical strategies on how they
should adjust to these new trends and issues, and how they can take
advantage of them.
The first chapter looks at the history of the US education system. As
America has grown in its nearly 250 years of existence, its public-school
system has adjusted with the times. Various theories on properly educating
our future generations have been introduced, tested, established, and then
thrown out. Each new evolution of the public-school systems in the United
States has built upon the lessons of the previous iteration, for better or for
worse.
viii
Preface
ix
Preface
x
Acknowledgments
First, I would like to thank God for being my strength and my refuge. I would
also like to acknowledge the collective unconscious of my ancestors. You
paved the way for my ascendancy into the upper echelons of academia and
served as a catalyst for my intellectual development.
Of course, I have to acknowledge my parents, Jessie and Patsy Lynch,
for giving me their love and support. Also, I want to thank my sisters,
Tammy Kemp and Angelina Lynch, for having my back. To their children,
Adicuz, Kayla, Kerri, and Kelton: I hope my accomplishments will motivate
each of you to live up to your limitless potential. No matter what, remem-
ber that your uncle loves you. You are the reason I am so passionate about
reforming America’s schools.
I would like to acknowledge my mentor, Dr. Rodney Washington, for
his invaluable support, guidance, knowledge, and inspiration. Thanks for
being the big brother that I never had! I also would like to acknowledge
the invaluable support and guidance of my editor at Routledge, Heather
Jarrow.
I also have to thank the scholars and academics who agreed to review
this manuscript and provided invaluable feedback. Your assistance has
ensured that my book is of the highest quality and will make a solid contri-
bution to the K-12 educational arena.
xi
Meet the Author
xii
Meet the Author
Dr. Lynch’s articles and op-eds appear regularly in the Huffington Post,
Diverse: Issues in Higher Education, and Education Week. He has written
numerous peer-reviewed articles, which have appeared in academic jour-
nals such as the AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice, International
Journal of Progressive Education, and Academic Leadership Journal. In
addition, he has authored and edited a number of books on school reform
and school leadership. These include It’s Time for a Change (Rowman &
Littlefield, 2011), A Guide to Effective School Leadership Theories (Rout-
ledge, 2012), Before Obama: A Reappraisal of Black Reconstruction Era
Politicians (Praeger, 2012), and The Call to Teach (Pearson, 2014).
Please visit his website at www.drmattlynch.com for more information.
xiii
How Did We Get
1 Here, and What’s
Next?
● The state of the American school system: What do our schools look like
to an outside observer?
● The birth of the American public school: The European origins of our
school system and the one-room schoolhouse.
● The Mann reforms to public education: Horace Mann’s nineteenth-century
advancements, which continue to influence educational policy.
● Public education as national requirement: The first public schools and
how they operated.
● Unified, then divided, public schools: Unity following the World Wars
soon dissolved.
● A nation of public-school students at risk: The realization that America
was no longer on top of the world, and the attempts to rectify that.
● Minority education in America: A look at the horrific legacy of disen-
franchised students, which continues to the present day.
● A melting pot of educational ideology: A look at the present cacophony
of ideas and programs, and a glance toward the future.
1
How Did We Get Here, and What’s Next?
That creative spirit is born in our public schools. The students who will
dream up tomorrow’s major inventions and come up with plans to improve
the American way of life and fill every job in between are in our K-12 class-
rooms today. In spite of all their problems, public schools remain a stead-
fast reminder of all that is great and inspirational about the American way.
As America has grown in its nearly 250 years of existence, its public-
school system has adjusted with the times (Urban and Wagoner 2009).
Various theories on properly educating our future generations have been
introduced, tested, established, and then thrown out. Each new evolution
of the public-school systems in the United States—from the one-room
schoolhouse to compulsory education to opening the doors of education
for all citizens—has built upon the lessons of the ones before (both good
and bad).
2
How Did We Get Here, and What’s Next?
3
How Did We Get Here, and What’s Next?
of the past, we first need to take a look at the history of education in Amer-
ica, focusing on the anti-intellectual trends.
4
How Did We Get Here, and What’s Next?
young country. It was practical, easy to navigate, and widely used. As late
as 1866, after many other spelling books had been written and updated,
Webster’s original version was still selling nine million copies annually
(Svobdny 1985; Webster 1783).
From the outset, public education in the United States was about mov-
ing students collectively in the direction the nation wanted to go. Individu-
alism and customized learning were certainly not common terms, and the
choices for education were slim. The accepted curriculum for one Ameri-
can was deemed good enough for another. This base learning was rooted
in the need to not only obtain knowledge, but to use education as a way to
build up a nation that was still teetering dangerously on the edge of failure.
Parents did not encourage their children to learn spelling or arithmetic so
they could have a better life, but so they could continue to have a free one.
Education was a means of survival, and banding together with the same
education goals, at least when it came to common people, was a way to
build the entire nation up. Certainly there was some educational elitism
through private schooling and university systems, but when it came to the
public institutions of learning, every student encountered the same knowl-
edge set (Unger 2007).
As the country continued to expand, both in population and land
mass, public education became more segmented. Until the 1840s, pub-
lic schools were under local control, with little input from the state and
virtually no federal oversight. Attendance was rising, however. The US
Census from 1840 shows that 3.68 million children from ages five to fif-
teen attended school, representing about 55 percent of the population
in that age bracket. Around this time the idea of one-room schoolhouses
took shape, with the older students acting as helpers for the younger ones.
There was no formal credentialing for teachers. This was why young single
women often filled the roles: Unlike young men, who were toiling on the
farms, young women were available, so they served as teachers until they
got married (Unger 2007).
5
How Did We Get Here, and What’s Next?
6
How Did We Get Here, and What’s Next?
7
How Did We Get Here, and What’s Next?
established for learning what was written in a textbook, not for stimulating
students to think about social issues.
Though slow to gain adoption in his own time, Dewey’s notion of pub-
lic schools as agents for socialization and change for the better is certainly
evident in school systems today. Consider public awareness campaigns,
like First Lady Nancy Reagan’s “Just Say No” initiative, which infiltrated
schools in the 1980s, or the emphasis on Earth Day every April in pub-
lic schools throughout the nation, or First Lady Michelle Obama’s “Let’s
Move” campaign, which offers health-awareness programs to schools.
Along with the basic knowledge that accompanies the facts in text-
books, K-12 students in America are expected to acquire a set of life truths
before they graduate, such as that smoking and drugs will kill you, and
stealing is bad. Though not religious institutions, public schools have trans-
formed in the past century from agents of factual information to ethics
delivery centers. It is not enough for students to pass a test at the end of
each grade and at the end of a K-12 career; to be true contributors to soci-
ety, they must have moral compasses and understand the responsibilities
of citizenship.
Though his theories were not particularly political, Dewey’s ethically
minded approach fed into the nation’s thirst for patriotism. Part of contrib-
uting to society was having an appreciation for society and its symbolism.
Consider the morning ritual of every public school in the nation since the
early 1920s: reciting the Pledge of Allegiance (Biography n.d.).
8
How Did We Get Here, and What’s Next?
However, the sense of unity in public education was all but destroyed
in the 1950s and 1960s as issues of desegregation plagued the nation. Most
Americans celebrated the changes, of course, but enough citizens opposed
desegregation that it was a bleak time in US public-school history. If public
education was, after all, meant to provide common knowledge and life
skills in equal ways to all children in America, then the theory of “separate
but equal” certainly needed to be deposed. Change is difficult, though,
even in one of the most progressive nations in the world. The solidarity in
public-school classrooms faded and was replaced with controversy. These
two decades mark an important shift in the role and perception of pub-
lic schools in America. Before schools started taking on bigger issues like
desegregation, abuse, and childhood hunger, they were places that served
the needs of the nation. That tide turned in the mid-1900s, as public schools
began to lead instead of follow. Public schools stopped adhering to what
was dictated for its next generation in terms of learning and citizenship and
began to blaze a trail for the rest of society where collective belief systems
were concerned. It may have been too late to change the minds of disen-
franchised adults who had grown up accepting their worlds in a particular
way, but it was still possible to change the minds of students (Spring 2009).
Schools became the vehicles for future change, starting with the youth
of the nation. The focus was no longer just on economics or raising ideal
citizens; core ideologies were being shaped in public-school classrooms
across the nation.
This characteristic of public schools is still evident today. Take anti-
bullying campaigns, for example—particularly as they relate to lesbian,
gay, bisexual, and transgender students. While many parents (and even
some school boards) are fighting against anti-bullying policies that are
designed to protect LGBT students, schools across the country are adopt-
ing them at a rapid pace. The same is true of healthy eating programs and
the push to get kids away from television and computers and involved in
active pursuits. Schools cannot change what is being taught at home, or
even what students themselves believe. However, by implementing change
through example and policy, the hope is that future generations will have a
different take on important issues than their parents did. Like the efforts of
Dewey, public schools try to establish principles that will then influence a
particular group of K-12 students as adults (Spring 2009).
The 1970s brought even more equality to public schools with the pas-
sage of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act. This was the first
9
How Did We Get Here, and What’s Next?
10
How Did We Get Here, and What’s Next?
of efficiency, these easily scanned answer sheets make the most sense. As
a way to truly assess what students do and do not know, however, they are
lacking (Spring 2009).
The drive for higher quality education carried over into the 1990s,
but instead of a renewed dedication to the goals of public education, the
American public and reformers looked outside for answers. The phrase
“school choice” began to resonate throughout the country, with people
wondering what could be done to funnel public dollars to alternatives to
public schools. Funding for religiously aligned schools had been discussed
over a hundred years earlier, when it was first suggested that parochial
schools receive a government stipend to help with expenses. Fearing the
rising Irish Catholic population, state lawmakers put the kibosh on any
such plans, citing separation of church and state. As parents began to ques-
tion the value of the public-school education provided to their kids, they
began to feel entitled to different choices when the tax-funded school in
their area performed under par (Spring 2009).
A new ideology began to take shape in the form of charter schools—
publicly funded non-religious schools that were given the freedom to
innovate outside the constraints of public-school regulations. To some, it
seemed like a smart way to provide more educational options while light-
ing a fire under public schools, which until then had faced no real compe-
tition. To critics, the plan to use taxpayer dollars to fund new schools only
directed the money away from the place where it was really needed: actual
public schools. The school-choice debate still rages today, with a renewed
call for vouchers for religious schools thrown into the mix (Spring 2009).
The 1990s also ushered in a new age of accountability in public
schools, triggered by the quality concerns raised in the 1980s. The roots
of the 2002 No Child Left Behind Act were planted in 1990s educational
reform movements. NCLB was a reenactment of the outdated Elementary
and Secondary Education Act of 1965. Both acts focused on ways to bring
higher levels of equality to public education, but NCLB also had a strong
focus on bolstering student test scores and ensuring teachers were liable.
NCLB put new pressures to heighten achievement on every educator, from
top education policymakers to teachers in the classroom (Klein 2015).
While NCLB has been under fire almost from its genesis, the truth is
that it remained a large part of the educational system in America’s public-
school classrooms until 2015. The release and adoption of Common Core
Standards in 2013 took the ideology of NCLB to a new level. Though their
11
How Did We Get Here, and What’s Next?
12
How Did We Get Here, and What’s Next?
13
How Did We Get Here, and What’s Next?
refuse any public-school student based on race. The case was to influence
the Supreme Court when, three-quarters of a century later, it would look
at segregation in schools in the famous Brown v. Board of Education case
(Kull 1992).
Even when public schools opened their doors to black students, they
were separated from their white peers, thus establishing the practice of seg-
regation in America’s public schools. Following the Civil War, states were
required to provide public education to black students, thus ushering in the
establishment of Jim Crow laws pertaining to education. These practices
followed the law when it came to providing a public education to black
Americans, but kept black students separate from white ones. The phrase
“separate but equal” was offered as justification for the segregation, but
public schools were far from equitable (Spring 2009).
Schools for black children throughout the country lacked resources
and overcrowding flourished despite there being many less black children
in school than white ones. As far back as 1900, black schools in Virginia
had 37 percent more students per school building than white ones and, in
the late 1930s, black school properties were valued at only one-third of
white ones (Virginia Historical Society n.d.).
Despite all the strides public education has made in equality in the
past 150 years, schools with majority black populations still tend to be
the most overcrowded and underfunded. In the summer of 2013, the Chi-
cago Board of Education voted to close fifty public schools in the city. Of
the students impacted by the school closures, 88 percent were black and
94 percent came from low-income households (Kilkenny 2013). Those stu-
dents were then sent to other schools, further crowding them. During the
school year ending in 2011, there were 670 New York City schools with
student-to-teacher ratios above accepted contract levels—the majority of
which served minority students (Kuczynski-Brown 2012). Despite the guise
of public, equitable schools, overcrowding remains a very significant prob-
lem when it comes to the nation’s black and disadvantaged students.
The results of limited black public and private primary education in
the nineteenth century were the first African-American college graduates.
Following the end of the Civil War, the first “black” colleges were estab-
lished and, by 1900, more than two thousand African-American students
had earned college degrees. However, despite a dramatic rise in that num-
ber over the next century, it was not until 1985 that Harvard University
appointed its first black tenured professor (Fitzgerald 2011).
14
How Did We Get Here, and What’s Next?
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