Hypersonic Speed Through Scramjet Technology

Kevin Dirscherl, Michael Riechers, Jonathan Sanders

University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80302
December 17, 2015

Scramjet technology is evaluated on a basis of ramjet comparison and design

characteristics to demonstrate a detailed understanding of the engine’s operation
and application. Included in this characterization are the major design challenges
and constraints that have limited scramjet technology to a more recent history. The
scramjet engine is further evaluated in the use of past, current, and future missions,
with an emphasis placed on the potential for scramjet technology in the aerospace
industry. The details are given for a reader with no prior familiarity of scramjet
engines, thus is completed from a higher level perspective.

I. Introduction response times, and less time to respond to

Developments in the aerospace industry attacks. A tremendous amount of time and
over the last century have propelled humans effort was put into researching high-
to flight speeds faster than the speed of speed jet and rocket-powered aircraft,
sound several times over. However, the predominantly by the Germans [1]. After the
limitations of supersonic flight using war, the US and UK took in several German
conventional engine technology have nearly scientists and military technologies
been reached, creating the interest in a through Operation Paperclip to begin putting
scramjet engine. A scramjet is a type of more emphasis on their own weapon
ramjet that travels at hypersonic speeds development, including jet engines. The Bell
without the use of any moving parts. The X-1 attained supersonic flight in 1947 and,
scramjet has been in development for over by the early 1960s, rapid progress toward
fifty years, but is only just now beginning to faster aircraft suggested that operational
have impact in the aerospace industry. This aircraft would be flying at hypersonic speeds
engine has potential to help propel rockets within a few years. During this time the top
into space or even reduce travel time. The speeds of vehicles stayed around Mach 1 to
history, basic operational principles, and 3 and were predominately rocket propelled.
design challenges are all examined to better The first scramjets were built and tested in
understand the potential and limitations of the 1950’s and 60’s, culminating in the
scramjet technology. filing of a patent for a scramjet aircraft in
1966 by Holmen Gustav and Sanator
II. History Joseph. This file was published in 1970
The idea of the scramjet can be traced furthering the possibilities of improvements
back to World War II. Faster aircrafts or and testing. The Central Institute of Aviation
missiles meant less travel time, faster Motors (CIAM), in Russia, performed the

1
first successful flight of a scramjet engine in and the nozzle [4]. The inlet must be
1991. It was an axisymmetric hydrogen- designed so that the supersonic flow is
fueled dual-mode scramjet developed in the slowed to subsonic flow suitable for the
late 1970s. It was assisted in takeoff by a combustor. This decrease in speed is
SA-5 surface to air missile. Over six tests, obtained using conical shockwaves
the scramjet reached speeds over Mach 6.4 terminated by a normal shock. The inlet is
and flew under scramjet propulsion for 77 also designed to be divergent allowing for a
seconds. These tests opened the door for constant subsonic Mach number (typically
other countries to build, test, and improve around 0.5) [4]. After the air has been
their own scramjet engines [1, 2]. slowed down to the desired speed, it reaches
the combustor. One of the most important
III. Ramjets pieces of the combustor is the flame holder.
Scramjet technology first started with As with typical combustors, the ramjet’s
the development of the ramjet. The ramjet combustor is designed to burn fuel with the
utilizes the same process as a scramjet, but air, increasing the temperature, and thus the
does not necessarily reach supersonic pressure. The problem with ramjet engines
speeds. The most astounding thing about is that the air is moving at such high speeds
ramjets is their ability to reach supersonic that a common problem is flame blowout.
speeds while utilizing no moving parts. The flames will actually “blowout” the
When an object moves through air at a high nozzle, not creating the desired thrust [5].
speed, it generates a high-pressure area The flame holder helps to fix this problem.
upstream. A ramjet takes advantage of this A flame holder essentially creates a low
high pressure to force air through an inlet. speed eddy, temporarily trapping the
The air is then heated through combustion incoming air allowing it to react fully in the
with some type of fuel and forced out a combustor before being expelled [4]. The
nozzle to reach supersonic speeds. This is final piece of the ramjet is the nozzle. While
how the ramjet engine achieves thrust, not all ramjets achieve supersonic speeds,
moving forward faster than the speed of the focus is on supersonic travel. The
sound [3]. A diagram of this process can be largest difference between a subsonic and
seen in Figure 1. supersonic ramjet is in the nozzle. A
supersonic ramjet makes use of a
convergent-divergent nozzle (also called a
de Laval nozzle). As subsonic air travels
through the converging portion of the nozzle
the speed increases, keeping the mass flow
rate constant. At the throat of the nozzle
(the transition between converging and
Figure 1: Schematic of a ramjet engine. diverging, and where the cross sectional area
is at a minimum) the flow reaches a Mach
The ramjet design process is divided into number of 1.0 [6]. Then as the nozzle begins
three distinct parts: the inlet, the combustor,

2
to diverge again, the gas expands and
increases speed. An example of this nozzle
can be seen below in Figure 2.

Figure 3: Schematic of a scramjet engine.

While Figure 3 provides a basic example

of the components that make up a typical
scramjet, a full scramjet is generally broken
down into six stages. Figure 4 shows how
the inlet is truly a combination of the inlet
and isolator. Also shown in Figure 4 is the
standard shock train that develops in the
inlet. It is through this shock train that the
pressure in the flow increases [8].
Figure 2: De Laval Nozzle with graph depicting
relative temperature (T), velocity (V), and
pressure (P) [6].

IV. Scramjets
As stated in the previous section,
scramjets are a specific variant of ramjets. In
scramjets, the air remains supersonic
throughout the flow, rather than decelerating
to subsonic speeds through the divergent Figure 4: Scramjet full component diagram [8].
inlet. With different inlet geometry,
A. Purpose
scramjets still decelerate the flow to a lower Reasoning for transitioning from ramjets
Mach number in the compression portion of to scramjets is focused around temperature
the engine, however the flow never become constraints at higher speeds. Due to the
subsonic. As with ramjets, there are no requirement of transitioning the flow to
mechanical compressors in a scramjet, and subsonic speeds in ramjet design, a large
thus rely on the energy in the incoming flow temperature jump is seen across the shock.
to compress the air. After the compression, As the desired speeds increase further, the
the flow is accelerated to a higher speed than flow must be decelerated even further, thus
the initial flow through a diverging nozzle. creating very high temperatures within the
Figure 3 shows the basic scramjet engine engine. An increase in efficiency of the
configuration, detailing the main stages [7]. scramjet compared to the ramjet is seen near
Mach 5.0. This efficiency is characterized
by isolator pressure ratio as compared to the
inlet flow speed. As the scramjet is reaching
this Mach 5.0 speed, the engine goes

3
through a transitional state from operating as ingestion of the surrounding air. In order to
a ramjet to operating as a scramjet as shown mix the fuel and air, fuel injectors operate
in Figure 5. In this combination state, there within the engine, similar to that in a
are regions of subsonic and supersonic flow turbojet engine. This fuel mixing takes place
in the combustor. When the flow continues in the combustor section of the engine, and
to reach higher speeds near Mach 7.0, the achieving quick mixing and burning is a
engine transitions to a full scramjet mode strong desire to increase performance. The
where the flow is supersonic throughout the compressible characteristics of the flow in
entire engine [8, 9]. scramjets greatly reduce eddy growth,
reducing mixing, causing large challenges.
With quick mixing, the overall length of the
combustor can be smaller, reducing weight
and complexity. The pressure losses that can
be created through the injection process
have the potential to be substantial;
therefore, the main goal of the injection is to
inhibit the air flow to the least degree
possible, while still achieving quick mixing,
and a uniformly mixed flow [10, 11].

Figure 5: Ramjet to scramjet transitioning [8]. Fuel-to-air mixing is accomplished

through an injector that can be designed to
Figure 5 shows the Inlet Unstart
inject fuel either normal (perpendicular to
condition shaded in red, bounding the
the flow path), parallel (along the flow
speeds. This condition appears when the
path), or at an angle in-between. The choice
shock train reaches the inlet, and has
between the methods involves a tradeoff
potential to result in a loss of air capture,
between mixing efficiency and flow
increased pressure and thermal loads on the
disturbance. In the first case of normal fuel
structure of the aircraft, and a decrease in
injection as shown in Figure 6, the injectors
the thrust to drag ratio [9].
are in the combustor walls, and expel the
B. Design fuel up into the flow at a 90 degree angle.
In scramjet engines, certain factors play As expected, this configuration provides
major roles in design decisions. These excellent fuel penetration and near-field
factors are predominately focused with the mixing. The stream of fuel blocking the flow
interaction of the flow within the engine, has the same basic effect as a stationary
and thrust optimization. cylinder sitting in the flow path. The
detached flow immediately behind the
a. Fuel Injection
stream acts as a wake, which provides very
As with conventional turbomachinery-
efficient mixing. This, in combination with
based jet engines, scramjets utilize onboard
the large penetration into the flow field and
fuel and obtain the oxidizer through
the increased boundary layer, result in

4
extremely fast mixing. However, the In comparing normal and parallel
detached flow causes a significant pressure mixing, the axial distance required for all
loss, greatly affecting the engine’s efficiency fuel or air to fully mix, Lm, can be found
[10, 11]. using Equations 1 and 2, where x is the axial
distance in the combustor, α is a fit
parameter based on the spacing of the
injectors (0.17-0.25), ϕ is the mixing ratio,
and η is the mixing efficiency. 90°
corresponds to the normal injection, and 0°
to parallel injection. Examining these
equations shows that as discussed, the
normal injector mixes much more quickly
Figure 6: Normal injection diagram [12]. [10].

Parallel, or in-stream injectors have ⎡ x 1 ⎤α

become more popular to achieve efficient η M 90° =⎢ + ⎥ (1)
⎣ L m 50 + 1000α ⎦
injection. To mix the flow in this fashion, a
strut must be placed in the flow. This strut ⎧x φ ≤ 1⎫⎪
⎪ L
can be manufactured with an aerodynamic η M 0° ≅ ⎨ m,F ⎬ (2)
shape to create less flow disturbance.
€ ⎪⎩ x L φ > 1⎪
⎭
m,A
Injection in this form does not disturb the
flow nearly as much, but does not encourage
the same amount of mixing. In order to Further adaptations of these two
€ injection methods have led to multiple other
combat this, other additions such as tabs and
ramps have been introduced in the flow to designs to increase mixing efficiency. One
create vorticity. These mixing techniques, of the most common practices is the addition
also known as flame holders, create of a fuel injection ramp, as shown in Figure
turbulent eddys in the flow and further 8. The ramp provides near streamwise
encourage mixing. As a secondary benefit, injection, and the vortices that form off the
parallel injectors also contribute to the total ramp edges create strong mixing.
thrust of the engine. Figure 7 shows how the Combinations of ramp and parallel injectors
mixing layer propagates in a parallel injector have been tested and have produced strong
[10-12]. results. Figure 8 also shows an example of
an alternating wedge strut that was tested
and created a more uniform mixing region
[10, 12].

Figure 7: Parallel injection diagram [10].

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 efficiency due to the boundary layer, as well
as showing that as the speed increases, the
boundary layer becomes less significant,
eventually becoming nearly equivalent to
the inviscid case [13].
Figure 8: Swept ramp injector (left), and
alternating wedge strut injector (right) [10, 12].

Another system uses a cavity in the

combustor to create an area of recirculation
where mixing will occur. This configuration
is shown in Figure 9. Due to the increased
complexity of the combustor geometry
required in this case, it has not been used as
frequently as the other devices.

Figure 11: Inlet efficiency changes vs. Mach

number due to boundary layer separation [13].

The separation of flow is most often

seen in the isolator section of the scramjet,
Figure 9: Step cavity mixing system [12]. and carries over to the combustor. In Figure
b. Boundary Layer 12, the area ratio is shown to decrease where
Shown in Figure 10, the boundary layer the separation begins, and continues to
created within the engine due to high flow decrease until the combustion process
velocity results in a decreased flow area. reattaches the flow. Figure 12 provides an
Reducing and characterizing this boundary understanding of the scale in which the
layer thus becomes a concern in scramjet separation occurs compared to the overall
design. area of the isolator.

Figure 10: Boundary layer formation [10].

As demonstrated in Figure 5, the

boundary layer is the largest at slower
speeds. As the air velocity increases, the
flow stays attached to the walls and the
amount of separation becomes significantly Figure 12: Scramjet characteristics, with labels
less. Figure 11 shows the loss in inlet showing where separation and reattachment occur
within the system [14].

6
C. Temperature Challenges regime on the leading edges of the vehicle.
When flying at hypersonic speeds, The temperatures on the leading edges of
typically Mach 5.0 and greater, there is a hypersonic vehicles are high enough that
large increase in flow temperature due to traditional aircraft materials cannot be used
large pressure changes across shock waves, without imminently melting during flight.
viscous dissipation, and a large increase in For these flight surfaces, there are typically
heat transfer to the vehicle. At these speeds three options available: ablatives, ceramics,
a calorically perfect gas assumption is no and high-temperature, high-density metals
longer viable for flow characterization as the [8, 9].
vibrational and electronic excitation energy
modes are now in flux, in addition to the Ablative materials introduce a cool film
translational and rotational energy modes of of air into the boundary layer, thereby
the total internal energy of the fluid. At reducing the heat transfer to the vehicle by
hypersonic speeds, the temperature increase vaporizing above a given temperature.
can be so great, that dissociation and Ablative materials are effective cooling
ionization of particles can occur as noted in mechanisms but are eroded over time,
Table 1, however this typically only occurs making them poor candidates for extended
for reentry vehicles [8, 9]. flight times or reusable vehicles. In addition,
ablatives are structurally weak without a
Table 1: Fluid particle effects with respect to stronger material behind them. An example
temperature [8].
of this material is the PICA tiles and SPAM
Temperature (K) Particle Effects coating on the SpaceX Dragon Space
T ≤ 800 Calorically Perfect Gas Capsule [8, 9].
Thermally Perfect Gas.
Vibrational and electronic Ceramic materials have incredibly high
800 < T < 2000
excitation energy modes
active. melting temperatures and typically have
2000 ≤ T < 4000 Dissociation of O2 lower heat transfer rates to the vehicle than
4000 ≤ T < 9000 Dissociation of N2 metals, but are expensive to produce, are
Ionization of O and N. very fragile, and are difficult to adhere to the
T > 9000
Plasma begins to form
vehicle. Ceramic materials are also
considerably heavier than ablative materials.
Scramjet engine technology operates in Ceramic materials are generally used on
the flight regime that results in flow flight surfaces with high thermal loads and
temperatures between 800 and 3000 degrees low aerodynamic loads. An example of
Kelvin [8]. ceramic materials is seen on the space
shuttle tiles [8, 9].
D. Structural Challenges
Hypersonic vehicles have the additional High temperature, high density metals
challenge of utilizing materials that can not such as tungsten and Inconel have high
only support the high flight loads exerted on melting temperatures compared to
the surfaces of the vehicle, but the high traditional metals, are easy to manufacture
thermal loads present in a hypersonic flow and integrate with the vehicle compared to

7
ablatives and ceramics, but are very heavy. characteristics for a hypersonic fluid flow,
These metals are often used on the leading hypersonic flight vehicles are not perfect
edges of the vehicles that operate on the low cone/wedge bodies and a large portion of the
end of the hypersonic flight regime (5 < M < flow of a hypersonic flight vehicle is
10). An example of these materials in use actually compressible subsonic and
are the noses of the X-43 and X-51 scramjet supersonic flow. Thus extensive use of high
test vehicles. fidelity computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
software is required to solve for the mixed
These materials are often used in flow-field around the flight vehicle.
combination with each other and traditional
aircraft materials such as aluminum, steel, Performance testing on the ground for
and composites, to create an optimized hypersonic vehicles utilizing scramjets is
vehicle. A distribution of materials used in even more difficult. There are very few
the X-51 hypersonic test vehicle can be seen facilities in the world capable of testing
in Figure 13 [8, 9]. these vehicles and all of them are limited in
their capacity (test duration, fixed Mach
number, downscaled test model, etc.). The
X-51 scramjet engine was tested at NASA
Langley Research Center’s High
Temperature Tunnel, shown in Figure 14,
which is capable of Mach numbers of 4, 5,
and 7 [8].

Figure 13: Material distribution of the X-51 [8].

E. Other Challenges
While the fluid flow for a hypersonic
vehicle can be approximated as a thermally
perfect gas and can be solved for directly
when calculating vehicle flight Figure 14: X-51 Engine Test [9].
characteristics, it is generally much more F. Advantages, Disadvantages
accurate to use an iterative approach for a Scramjet vehicles are easy to
chemically reacting flow. Approaches such manufacture, have a considerably reduced
as the Newtonian Method, Modified number of moving parts compared to
Newtonian Method, Tangent-Wedge conventional aircraft, are capable of very
Method, Tangent-Cone Method, and high flight speeds, and are relatively
numerous others are used to obtain more inexpensive to manufacture.
accurate results for the higher temperature
portion of the flight regime. In addition to However, for all of their benefits,
the difficulties of calculating the flow scramjet engines have high development and

8
testing costs, have short flight times, cannot 30, 2002. The team took a unique approach
operate in vacuum such as space, require to the problem of accelerating the engine to
robust designs, and require a secondary form the necessary speed by using a Terrier-
of propulsion to achieve ignition flight Orion sounding rocket to take the aircraft up
speeds. This limits the feasibility of using on a parabolic trajectory to an altitude of
current scramjet technology to unmanned 314 km. As the craft re-entered the
flight vehicles [8]. atmosphere, it dropped to a speed of Mach
7.6. The scramjet engine then started, and it
G. Typical Mission Profile
The standard mission profile for a flew at about Mach 7.6 for 6 seconds. On
scramjet has been fairly standard across March 25, 2006, researchers at the
most tests. All of the American launches are University of Queensland conducted another
accomplished using the same technique. The successful test flight of a HyShot Scramjet
engine and craft are attached under the wing at the Woomera Test Range in South
of a large aircraft and flown to a height of Australia. The Hyshot III reached speeds of
around 50,000 feet. The engine needs to be roughly Mach 7.6. While these seem to
moving at supersonic speeds before being outperform the American vehicle, the
able to function under its own power. These American vehicle has an engine fully
speeds are accomplished in one of two ways. incorporated into an airframe with a full
The first is simply letting the craft fall from complement of flight control
the large aircraft until it reaches the correct surfaces available, while the HyShot engine
speed. Other, newer crafts have needed a does not [4, 6]. Recent HyShor launches can
larger increase in speed and require the use be seen in Table 2.
of a solid rocket booster to reach operating
speeds. An example of the mission profile Table 2: Recent HyShot launches.
for the X-43A can be seen below in Figure
15 [4].

While many countries were testing

Figure 15: Typical scramjet mission profile [4]. Scramjet technology at this time, American
testing was the most funded, resulting in the
H. Recent Missions
Significant progress has been made since X-43A, the first scramjet powered vehicle
the 2000’s. The HyShot project successfully with full aerodynamic maneuvering
demonstrated scramjet combustion on July surfaces, in 2004. The X-43a still holds the

9
scramjet speed record at Mach 9.68, and is On March 22 and 23, 2010, Australian
shown in Figure 16 [4]. and American defense scientists successfully
tested a HIFiRE rocket. It reached an
atmospheric velocity of more than 5,000
kilometers per hour (Roughly Mach 4) after
taking off from the Woomera Test Range in
South Australia. This was followed by a
successful flight of the X-51A Waverider on
May 27, 2010. NASA and the United States
Air Force set a new world record hypersonic
airspeed, flying at Mach 5 for approximately
Figure 16: NASA X-43 scramjet [4]. 200 seconds. The Waverider destroyed itself
Then in 2007, the U.S. Defense autonomously after losing acceleration.
Advanced Research Project Agency While the reason for the deceleration is
(DARPA) and the Australian Defence unknown, the mission was still deemed a
Science and Technology Organisation success as the self-destruction was planned
(DSTO) announced successful scramjet [4, 6].
propulsion up to Mach 10.

On May 22, 2009, Woomera hosted the

first successful test flight of a hypersonic
aircraft in HIFiRE. The launch was one of
up to 10 planned test flights as a joint
research project between the Defense
Science and Technology and the Hypersonic
Flight Research Experimentation (HiFiRE), Figure 17: Boeing X-51A scramjet mounted
underneath a B-52 wing.
a group of the United States Air Force. A
series of scramjet ground tests was
completed at NASA Langley Arc-Heated The X-51A was carried aboard a B-52,
Scramjet Test Facility at simulated Mach 8 accelerated to Mach 4.5 via a solid rocket
flight conditions. These experiments were booster, and then the Pratt & Whitney
used to support HIFiRE flight 2. HIFiRE is Rocketdyne scramjet engine ignited to reach
continuing to look into hypersonic Mach 5 at 70,000 feet. A second test flight
technology and the objective is to support on June 13, 2001 failed to transition to its
the new Boeing X-51 scramjet demonstrator primary JP-7 fuel, causing the engine to
(Figure 17) while also building a strong base never reach its full power. A further X-51A
of flight test data for quick-reaction space Waverider test failed on August 15, 2012.
launch development and hypersonic quick- The aircraft was again carried by a B-52 and
strike weapons [4, 6]. the goal was to fly at Mach 6 for an
extended period of time. Unfortunately, the

10
craft lost control and broke apart 15 seconds missiles and hold the potential for access to
into the unmanned flight portion of the test low orbit space at reduced cost.
due to a faulty control fin. In May 2013 an
unmanned X-51A WaveRider reached Mach
5.1 during a three-minute flight under References
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