Trinity University of Asia - St.

Luke’s College of Nursing Batch 2026 - Luminaris

MC_103: MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY

LECTURE 01: VIRUSES & PRIONS
AY 2022-2023 | MID-YEAR SEMESTER |Prof.Daisy R.Sucaldito| Adapted from: Book/Lecture PPT

LEARNING OUTCOMES
● Differentiate viruses from to other forms of
microorganisms
● To discuss viruses according to the ff. Aspects:
○ Structure
○ Classification
○ Isolation, Cultivation, and Identification
○ Mechanism of multiplication
● Identify and define prions and other noncellular
infectious agents

OVERVIEW OF VIRUSES
2. 1897
EARLY VIRUS DISCOVERIES ● Friedrich Loeffler and Paul Frosch
discovered an animal virus that causes
foot-and mouth disease in cattle.
○ These researchers found that
when infectious fluids from
hosts were passed through
porcelain filters designed to
trap bacteria, the fluid
passing through remained
infectious.
● This result proved that an infection
● French scientist Louis Pasteur could be caused by a fluid containing
○ he hypothesized that rabies was agents smaller than bacteria.
● They called the agent a filterable
caused by a “living thing” smaller than
virus.
bacteria ● They are the scientists who also
○ In 1884 he developed the first vaccine discovered that viruses can also cause
for rabies. an infection to animals, specifically in
○ He proposed the term virus (Latin for cattle.
“poison”) to denote this special group of ● Viruses can have a lot of infections not
infectious agents. just to human beings but also animals
and plants.
NOTE
Rabies is being caused by the rabies virus. In particular
case,sympre inaral and eventually nagkaroon siya ng
knowledged and at the same time alam niya kung kailan
magkakaroon ng vaccine for it.

IMPORTANT FINDINGS ABOUT THE UNIQUE

CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUSES

1. 1890s
● Dimitri Ivanovski and Martinus
Beijerinck showed that a disease in
tobacco plants was caused by a virus:
tobacco mosaic virus
○ Prinove nila na pwede rin FILTERABLE VIRUS
maging host ang plants, ● Infectious fluids were passed
naapektuhan din sila ng through porcelain filters
viruses designed to trap bacteria.
● The cell-free filtered fluid
remained infectious.
● This proved that an agent
smaller than bacteria was the
cause of disease.

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 NOTE ● Do not independently fulfill the characteristics
● In addition to viruses, they are called filterable of life
virus. ● Are inactive macromolecules outside the
● The particular image beside that can see in the host cell and active only inside host cells
book in the same of parasitology is called ● Have basic structure of protein shell
chamber of filter or pasteur filter. Bakit? Kasi ito (capsid) surrounding nucleic acid core
yung ginamit nila before in order for them to ● Are everywhere in nature and have had major
know ano yung nagcacause ng disease na ito? impact on development of biological life
Bakit hanggang nagyon may infectious pa rin ● Are often ultramicroscopic in size, ranging
yung particles? Bakit hanggang ngayon from 20 nm to 1,000 nm (diameter)
nagkakasakit pa rin yung tao or hayop na ● Can have either DNA or RNA but not both
binigyan nila intentionally ng virus na yun? ● Can have double-stranded DNA,
● In that particular chamber filter or pasteur single-stranded DNA, single-stranded RNA,
filter,infectious fluids can pass through this or double-stranded RNA
particular filter beside to the bacteria. ● Carry molecules on their surface that
● So with that particular sense or information, you determine specificity for attachment to host
would know if it visible already by your naked cell
eyes.However, there are still infectious agents ● Multiply by taking control of host cell’s genetic
that can pass through or penetrate dun sa material and regulating the synthesis and
porcelain filters kasi besides for bacteria you do assembly of new viruses
not know where it can be form. ● Usually lack enzymes for most metabolic
● Kahit sinabi natin sinala pero meron pa rin processes
nagpenetrate and they remain infectious and ● Usually lack machinery for making
they are called filterable virus. proteins

VIRUSES ON THE BIOLOGICAL SPECTRUM

● Viruses can infect every type of cell: NOTE
○ Bacteria ● Viruses are not cells but rather acellular.
○ Algae ● Cellular microorganism means they have cells.
○ Fungi ● Components of cells: nucleus,cytoplasmic
○ Protozoa reticulum,lysosome,ribosome, cell membrane,
○ Plants etc.
○ Animals ● Viruses can be active if and only if they have
○ Humans as well (based on discussion) invaded a certain cell. For example, yung spike
protein nag match dun sa cell membrane ng
isang cell and eventually nag attach. Kapag nag
NOTE attach yun it could penetrate and it can be
● Viruses can have a lot of biological spectrum. activated. However, as long as nasa labas lang
siya, wala siyang attachment in any cells dun sa
katawan ng halaman, hayop o tao is considered
UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF VIRUSES inactive.
● Infectious particles ● So whether they are dead or alive,active or
○ Rather than organisms inactive,one thing is for sure about them is they
● Active or inactive obligate intracellular parasites so kapag sinabi
○ Rather than alive or dead natin obligate meaning required that they have to
■ Active if they invaded a certain be one inside in cell kaya tinawag na obligate
cell intracellular parasites.
● For example, nagmatch ● Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship in biology
yung spike sa receptor wherein one organism is benefiting while the
ng host cell others are being harmed.
■ Inactive if nasa labas lang pero
hindi naka-attach sa receptors
● Obligate intracellular parasites THE GENERAL STRUCTURE OF VIRUSES
○ Meaning required na nasa loob dapat sila ● VIRAL SIZE RANGE
ng cell ○ Smaller than the average bacterium.
■ Parasitic relationship ○ Electron microscopes are required to
● Cannot multiply unless they invade a specific host detect them.
cell. ○ Parvoviruses: 0.02 µm in diameter
○ Key word is specific, they have specificity ○ Mimiviruses: 450 µm in length - larger
● Must instruct the genetic and metabolic than some small bacteria
machinery of the host cell to make and release
new viruses.
○ Once na nasa loob na sila,they can control
everything inside the cell

PROPERTIES OF VIRUSES

● Are not cells

● Are obligate intracellular parasites of bacteria,
protozoa, fungi, algae,plants, and animals

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 NOTE
Viruses are too small to be seen by the naked eyes but
then again as time goes by researchers are there. We can
discover things like from the given pictures above.

NOTE VIRUSES BEAR NO RESEMBLANCE TO CELLS

Viruses can somehow be detected using a light ● Lack protein-synthesizing machinery
microscope. ● Need only those parts required to invade and
control a host cell

NOTE
● Dalawang part na kailangan ng viruses: protein
coating and nucleic acid and we called it capsid.
That contain genetic material a DNA or RNA.
● *Focus only to the pink color on the picture given
above*
● Capsid is the one who is covering the central
core or the genetic material which is either a
DNA or RNA.

VIRAL COMPONENTS
● CAPSID
○ Shell surrounding the nucleic acid
○ NUCLEOCAPSID: capsid and nucleic acid
together
● ENVELOPE

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 ○ Not found in all viruses
○ Usually, a modified piece of the host cell
membrane
● SPIKES
○ Found on both naked and enveloped
viruses
○ Project from either the nucleocapsid or
envelope
○ Allow viruses to dock with their host
cells

OTHER VIRUS TERMS

● NAKED VIRUSES
○ Consists only of a Nucleocapsid.
● VIRION
○ A FULLY FORMED virus that is able to
establish infection in a host.
THE VIRAL CAPSID: THE PROTECTIVE OUTER
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF VIRUSES SHELL
● CAPSOMERES
○ Identical protein subunits that
spontaneously self-assemble to form the
capsid.
● HELICAL CAPSID
○ Rod-shaped Capsomeres that form a
continuous helix around the nucleic acid.
● ICOSAHEDRAL CAPSID
○ Three-dimensional, 20-sided figure with
12 evenly spaced corners.

HELICAL NUCLEOCAPSIDS
● The simple helical capsids have rod-shaped
capsomeres that bond together to form a series of
hollow discs resembling a bracelet. During the
formation of the nucleocapsid, these discs link with
other discs to form a continuous helix into which the
nucleic acid strand is coiled.

NOTE
● Spike proteins yun yung nagmumutate or it is
something that is continuously to changing. This
is also one reason why viruses can survive.
● Viruses are highly sensative to higher
temperature and chemicals such as alcohols,and
detergents.
● It is advisable to use isopropyl alchol than ethyl
alcohol kasi mas pang human skin siya. It can TABLE 6.2 HELICAL CAPSIDS
make your skin drier. ● Naked - The nucleocapsids of naked helical virus
are very rigid and tightly wound into a
cylinder-shaped package. An example is the
tobacco mosaic virus, which attacks tobacco leaves
(right).

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 ● Enveloped - Enveloped helical nucleocapsids are
more flexible and tend to be arranged as a looser
helix within the envelope. This type of morphology ● Enveloped - Two very common viruses, hepatitis B
is found in several enveloped human viruses, virus (left) and the herpes simplex virus (right),
including influenza, measles, and rabies. possess enveloped icosahedrons.

ICOSAHEDRAL CAPSIDS
● These capsids form an icosahedron—a NONENVELOPED AND ENVELOPED VIRUSES
three-dimensional, 20-sided figure with 12 evenly
spaced corners.
● The arrangements of the capsomeres vary from
one virus to another. Some viruses construct the
capsid from a single type of capsomere, while
others may contain several types of capsomeres.
There are major variations in the number of
capsomeres; for example, a poliovirus has 32, and
an adenovirus has 252 capsomeres.

THE VIRAL CAPSID

● Complex capsids
● Found in bacteriophage, the viruses that infect
bacteria.
● Have multiple types of proteins.
● Take shapes that are not symmetrical.

TABLE 6.3 ICOSAHEDRAL CAPSIDS

● Naked - Adenovirus is an example of a naked
icosahedral virus. In the photo you can clearly see THE VIRAL ENVELOPE
the spikes, some of which have broken off. ● Composed of the membrane system of the host.
○ Cell membrane or nuclear membrane

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 ○ Regular membrane proteins are replaced
● POLYMERASES: synthesize DNA and RNA
with viral proteins
● REPLICASES: copy RNA
● REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE: synthesizes DNA
● Spikes - protruding glycoproteins essential for
from RNA
attachment to the host cell

NOTE
NOTE
● In polymerase, synthesizing DNA from RNA, kasi
● RNA viruses most of them they are doing their
usually its DNA-RNA-Protein in central
synthesis just into cytoplasm pero kapag DNA
dogma.Pero kapag reverse transcriptase from
viruses most of them the are doing their
RNA they will synthesis DNA.
synthesis inside the nucleus on the same cell.

CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE OF

NUCLEIC ACIDS: AT THE CORE OF A VIRUS VIRUSES
● GENOME
○ The full complement of DNA and RNA Informal Classification System
carried by a cell
● Animal, plant, or bacterial viruses
- Viruses contain either DNA or RNA but not
● Enveloped or naked
both.
● DNA or RNA viruses
○ The number of viral genes is small
● Helical or icosahedral
compared to that of a cell
○ Possess only the genes necessary to
invade host cells and redirect their activity NOTE
● POSITIVE-SENSE RNA ● Dear- Domain
○ Single-stranded RNA genomes ready for ● King-Kingdom
immediate translation into proteins. ● Philip- Phyton
● NEGATIVE-SENSE RNA ● Cried- Clan
○ RNA genomes that need to be converted ● Out- Order
into the proper form to be made into ● For -Family
proteins ● Good- Genes
● Soup- Species
VIRAL NUCLEIC ACID
● DNA VIRUSES - Examples
Criteria of a Formal Classification System
● Structure
● Chemical composition
● Similarities in genetic makeup
Virus orders:
• Suffix -virales
Virus families:
• Suffix-viridae
Virus genera:
• Suffix -virus

EXAMPLES FROM THE NINE ORDERS OF VIRUSES

● RNA VIRUSES - Examples

IMPORTANT HUMAN VIRUSES FAMILIES, GENERA,

COMMON NAMES, AND TYPES OF DISEASES - DNA
VIRUSES

OTHER SUBSTANCES IN THE VIRUS PARTICLE

- Enzymes for specific operations within the host cell:

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 General phases in the life cycle of animal viruses:
● Adsorption
● Penetration
● Uncoating
● Synthesis
● Assembly
● Release from the host cell

GENERAL FEATURES IN THE MULTIPLICATION CYCLE

OF RNA ANIMAL VIRUSES

IMPORTANT HUMAN VIRUS FAMILIES,GENERA,

COMMON NAMES, AND TYPES OF DISEASES - RNA
VIRUSES

GENERAL FEATURES IN THE MULTIPLICATION CYCLE

OF DNA ANIMAL VIRUSES

ADSORPTION
● Invasion begins when the virus encounters a
susceptible host and adsorbs specifically to
receptor sites on the cell membrane
● Adsorb: to attach (like a virus)
● Absorb: to soak in (like a paper towel)

HOST RANGE
● A virus can invade its host cell only through making
an exact fit with a specific host molecule
● Restricted host range: hepatitis B only infects liver
cells of humans
● Moderately restrictive host range: poliovirus
TAXONOMY infects intestinal and nerve cells of primates
● Broad host range: rabies virus infects various cells
● Virus Taxonomy: 2021 Release of all mammals
● EC 53, Online, July 2021
● Email ratification March 2022 (MSL#37) PENETRATION AND UNCOATING OF ANIMAL
● 6 realms, 10 kingdoms, 17 phyla, 2 subphyla, 39 VIRUSES
classes, 65 orders, 8 suborders, 233 families, 168 ● Endocytosis - entire virus is engulfed by the cell
subfamilies,2606 genera, 84 sub genera,10434 and enclosed in a vacuole or vesicle
species ● Uncoating - enzymes in the vacuole dissolve the
envelope and capsid, releasing the virus into he
MODES OF VIRAL MULTIPLICATION cytoplasm

Multiplication Cycles in Animal Viruses

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 TECHNIQUES IN CULTIVATING AND IDENTIFYING
ANIMAL VIRUS

IN VIVO METHODS
● viral cultivation in lab animals or embryonic bird
tissues.

IN VITRO METHODS
● viral cultivation in cell or tissue culture.

Primary Purposes of Viral Cultivation:

Slide 57-61 (DONAIRE, Gianna) DONE
● Isolate & identify viruses in clinical specimens.
SYNTHESIS : REPLICATION AND PROTEIN
● Prepare viruses for vaccines.
PRODUCTION
● Do detailed research on viral structure,
Viral nucleic acid takes control over the host’s synthetic and multiplication cycles, genetics, & effects on host
metabolic machinery. cells.
● Mechanism varies depending on whether the virus
is a DNA or RNA virus Using Live Animal Inoculation
● RNA viruses replicate in the cytoplasm.
Specially bred strains of animals used for animal cultivation
● DNA viruses replicate in the nucleus.
of viruses:
● White mice
● Rats
● Hamsters
● Guinea pigs
● rabbits
Injections sites for viral exposure;
● Brain
● Blood
● Muscle
● Body cavity
● Skin
● Footpads

Using Bird Embryos

Benefits of using bird embryos:
● Embryonic development occurs in a protective shell
RELEASE OF MATURE VIRUSES
● Intact & self-supporting unit with its own sterile
-Enveloped viruses are liberated by budding or exocytosis.
environment & nourishment
● Nucleocapsid binds to the membrane.
● Furnishes several embryonic tissues that support
● A small pouch is formed.
viral multiplication
● Pinching off of the pouch releases the virus with its
envelope.
Using Cell (Tissue) Culture Techniques
● Viruses are shed gradually without destruction of
the cell. Cell culture or tissue culture : in vitro virus cultivation
systems
● A simple & effective way to grow populations of
isolated animal cells in sterile dishes or bottles
● Most viruses are propagated through cell culture
● Much of a virologist’s work involves developing &
maintaining cultures

PRIMARY CELL CULTURES

● Freshly isolated animal tissue is placed in a growth
medium
● Cells undergo mitotic division, producing a
monolayer on the surface
● Retain the characteristics of the original tissue
from which they were derived

CONTINUOUS CELL CULTURES

● Have altered chromosome numbers
● Grow rapidly
● Show changes in morphology
● Can be continuously subcultured if they are given
fresh nutrient media

DETECTING VIRAL GROWTH IN CULTURE

Degeneration & lysis of infected cells

Plaques
- Clear, well-defined patches in the cell sheet
- Macroscopic manifestations of cytopathic effects

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 - Develops when viruses released from an infected
cell radiate out to surrounding cells & infect them
- Infection spreads gradually & symmetrically from
the original point of infection

INDEPENDENT STUDY

● Impossible to measure the number of viral

infections worldwide

● Most common cause of acute infections that do not

result in hospitalization:
-Colds, chickenpox, influenza, herpes, warts CREUTZFELDT-JAKOB DISEASE (CJD)
● Some have high mortality rates: ● Afflicts the central nervous system (CNS) of
-Rabies, ebola humans
● Other viral infections lead to long-term debility: ● Causes gradual degeneration & death
-Polio, neonatal rubella ● Transmissible by an unknown mechanism
● Several animals are victims of similar diseases:
DESIGNING THERAPIES AGAINST VIRUSES - Scrapie : sheep, mink, elk
● Viruses mutate at a rapid rate - Bovine spongiform encephalopathy : cow
● Difficult to design therapies against viruses (“mad cow disease”)
● Scientists focus on developing vaccines against
viruses due to few available antiviral drugs and PRION INFECTION
ineffective antibiotics. ● Exact mode of infection is unknown
● INTERFERON (IFN) ● Protein composition of prions has revolutionized
○ Naturally occurring human cell product. ideas of what can constitute an infectious agent
○ Used with some success in preventing and ● Questions about how prions replicate given that
treating viral infections. they have no nucleic acid

SATELLITE VIRUSES
● Dependent on other viruses for replication
● Adeno-associated virus (AAV)
- Originally thought that it could only
replicate in cells infected with the
adenovirus
- Now found to infect cells infected with
other viruses or that have had their DNA
disrupted through other means

VIROIDS
● Virus-like agent that parasitizes plants
● About one-tenth the size of an average virus
PRIONS AND OTHER NON CELLULAR INFECTIOUS ● Composed only of naked strands of RNA - lack a
AGENTS capsid or other type of coating
● Significant pathogens in economically important
OTHER NON CELLULAR INFECTIOUS AGENTS plants : tomatoes, potatoes, cucumbers, citrus
trees, & chrysanthemum
SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHIES
● Implicated in chronic,persistent disease in humans
and animals.
● Brain tissue removed from affected animals
resembles a sponge.

PRIONS
● Common feature of spongiform encephalopathies.
● Distinct protein fibrils deposited in brain tissue of
affected animals.

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