1

GLEIM FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR REFRESHER COURSE

LESSON 1
TEACHING AERODYNAMICS
1.1 CONTROLLING LIFT AND DRAG
I. Lift, Angle of Attack, and Airspeed
A. The amount of lift that a given wing generates at a given altitude is directly related to its angle of
attack and airspeed.
1. Angle of attack is defined as the angle between the chord line of the wing and the relative
wind.
a. The chord line of a wing is an imaginary line drawn from the leading edge to the
trailing edge.
b. The relative wind is the direction of airflow seen by the wing in flight; it is defined as
parallel to and opposite to the direction of the airplane’s flight path.
2. One way to get students to visualize a wing’s angle of attack is to describe it as
approximately the angle formed by the airflow striking the bottom surface of the wing.
B. As angle of attack or airspeed is increased, lift is increased.
1. Explain to your students that if they wish to change airspeed while maintaining a constant
altitude, they must vary the angle of attack in order to maintain constant lift.
a. If the airspeed is decreased, the angle of attack must be increased in order to keep the
total lift constant.
i. If the angle of attack is not increased, the total lift will decrease momentarily and
the airplane will begin a descent.
b. If airspeed is increased, the angle of attack must be decreased in order to keep the
total lift constant.
i. If the angle of attack is not decreased, the total lift will increase momentarily and
the airplane will begin a climb.

C. When the airplane is in steady-state, unaccelerated flight, lift is equal to weight.

1. Since this makes lift a constant in steady-state flight, it can be seen that there is one and
only one angle of attack for any given airspeed that will maintain the airplane in
steady-state flight.
2. Because lift must equal weight, a heavily loaded airplane must fly at a higher angle of attack
for any given airspeed than the same airplane does when lightly loaded.
3. Explain to your students that the term “steady-state, unaccelerated flight” means that the
airplane’s attitude, airspeed, and flight path remain constant.
a. This term therefore includes constant airspeed/rate climbs and descents in addition to
straight-and-level flight.
i. This is a concept that is sometimes difficult for students to grasp, because their
intuition tells them that lift must be greater than weight if the airplane is
climbing, for example.
ii. Explain that lift does not exceed weight in a climb, but rather that the airplane’s
flight path is simply inclined upward.
o In order to maintain a steady-state climb, thrust in excess of that
necessary for level flight is required.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 2 Lesson 1: Teaching Aerodynamics

iii. An analogy can be drawn between a car going up a hill and an airplane in a
climb:
o When a car is going up a steady incline at a constant speed, the load
supported by the car’s tires is equal to the car’s weight.
■ Excess power beyond that required on a level surface is required to
maintain a constant speed while going up an incline.
■ If no excess power is available over that required for a given speed
on a level surface, the car will be unable to maintain the desired
speed (i.e., the car will slow down).
■ Some inclines are too steep for the car to climb with the available
power, and the car will come to a stop.
o When an airplane is in a steady-state climb, the load supported by the
wings (i.e., lift) is equal to the airplane’s weight.
■ Excess power beyond that required in level flight is required to
maintain a constant airspeed in the climb.
■ If no excess power is available over that required for a given
airspeed in level flight, the airplane will be unable to maintain the
desired speed in the climb (i.e., the airspeed would decrease).
■ If no excess power is available over the minimum required to
maintain level flight, the airplane will be unable to climb.

II. Drag, Angle of Attack, and Airspeed

A. As airspeed increases, parasite drag increases.
1. Parasite drag is drag due to air’s resistance to flowing around an object. It is greatest at low
angles of attack and high airspeeds.
2. Explain to your students that they have felt the effects of parasite drag if they have ever
stuck their hand out the window of a moving car and felt the backward “push” caused by
the air.

B. As airspeed decreases in level flight, the angle of attack must increase, which causes induced
drag to increase.
1. Induced drag is drag due to the generation of lift. It is greatest at high angles of attack and
low airspeeds.
2. Explain to your students that one way an airfoil generates lift is by producing a low-pressure
area on top of the wing. At all angles of attack, and at high angles of attack in particular,
the top surface of the wing is not roughly parallel to the relative wind; it is at an angle.
Therefore, lift created by this low pressure area acts not perpendicular to the relative wind
(i.e., straight up), but rather upward and slightly rearward.
a. This rearward component of the lift vector is induced drag.
b. Explain to your students that they can visualize induced drag by picturing the low
pressure area on top of the wing as an area of suction which impedes the airplane’s
movement through the air.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 1: Teaching Aerodynamics 3

C. The graph below illustrates the variations in parasite, induced, and total drag with airspeed for a
typical airplane in steady, level flight.
VALID FOR A GIVEN ALTITUDE,
WEIGHT, AND CONFIGURATION

TOTAL DRAG

DRAG OR THRUST REQUIRED (LB)

MINIMUM
DRAG
OR
STALL L/D MAX

PARASITE
INDUCED DRAG
DRAG

AIRSPEED (KT) Figure1_1

L/D (max) Diagram

D. The amount of drag present at a given airspeed is equal to the amount of thrust required to
maintain level flight at that airspeed and angle of attack.
1. If thrust is increased beyond that required for level flight, the airplane will climb unless it is
retrimmed to maintain a lower angle of attack and a higher airspeed.
2. If thrust is reduced, the airplane will descend unless it is retrimmed to maintain a higher
angle of attack and a lower airspeed.

E. Note on the drag vs. speed chart that the airspeed at which minimum drag occurs is the same
airspeed at which the maximum lift/drag ratio (L/DMAX) takes place.
1. At this point, the least amount of thrust is required for level flight.
a. Flight at airspeeds above and below L/DMAX produces more total drag and requires
more thrust to maintain level flight.
b. Tell your students that, at airspeeds above L/DMAX, the familiar relationship between
power and speed that they observe in their car applies; i.e., while maintaining a
constant altitude, less power is required to fly at a slower airspeed.
c. At airspeeds below L/DMAX, however, this familiar relationship does NOT apply; i.e., at
airspeeds below L/DMAX, more power, not less, will be required to maintain a constant
altitude.
2. Many important items of airplane performance are obtained in flight at L/DMAX. These
include
a. Maximum range
b. Maximum power-off glide range
i. L/DMAX is also the airplane’s best glide speed, or the speed which will allow the
airplane to cover the maximum distance over the ground for each foot of
altitude lost in a power-off glide.
ii. The best glide speed corresponds to L/DMAX because in a glide, thrust comes
from the conversion of altitude into sufficient airspeed to maintain lift; at
L/DMAX, the least amount of altitude will be required to be converted into
airspeed to maintain lift, thus maximizing the amount of time that can be spent
aloft and the distance that can be traveled.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 4 Lesson 1: Teaching Aerodynamics

III. Pitch, Power, and Performance

A. Adjusting the angle of attack varies the amounts of lift and drag being produced by the wing.
B. Adjusting the airplane’s power varies the relationship of thrust to drag, allowing the airplane to
change airspeed, altitude, or both.
C. Explain to your students that the pilot can achieve a desired performance from the airplane (in
terms of airspeed and altitude) through a variety of pitch and power combinations.
1. A climb may be initiated by raising the nose to increase the angle of attack (up to the critical
angle of attack), or by increasing power, or by using both.
2. A descent may be initiated by lowering the nose to reduce the angle of attack, or by
decreasing power, or by using both.
3. To increase airspeed in level flight, power must be increased and angle of attack reduced to
maintain altitude.
4. To decrease airspeed in level flight, power must be reduced and angle of attack increased to
maintain altitude.
5. It is evident, then, that level flight can be performed with any angle of attack between the
angle for maximum lift (or critical angle of attack) and the relatively small angles found at
high speeds, as shown below.

ANGLE OF ATTACK

RELATIVE WIND
SLOW SPEED

ANGLE OF ATTACK

RELATIVE WIND
CRUISE SPEED

ANGLE OF ATTACK

HIGH SPEED
RELATIVE WIND

Figure1_2
Angle of Attack and Relative Wind

1.2 FLIGHT AT SLOW AIRSPEEDS

I. Slow flight is any airspeed below normal cruise airspeed to the stall airspeed.
II. Explain to your students that when straight-and-level flight is being maintained at a constant
airspeed in slow flight, thrust is still equal in magnitude to drag, and lift is still equal in magnitude to
weight, but some of these forces are separated into components.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 1: Teaching Aerodynamics 5

A. In slow flight, thrust no longer acts parallel and opposite to the flight path and drag, as shown
below. Note that thrust has two components:
1. One acting perpendicular to the flight path in the direction of lift
2. One acting along the flight path
COMPONENT OF THRUST
ACTING PERPENDICULAR TO FLIGHT PATH

15

COMPONENT OF THRUST
ACTING ALONG FLIGHT PATH
Figure1_3
Lift/Drag Effect on Thrust

3. Explain that because the thrust vector is inclined upward from the flight path, its total
magnitude must be greater than total drag in order for the component of thrust that acts
along the flight path to be equal to drag.

B. Note that the forces acting upward (wing lift and the component of thrust) equal the forces acting
downward (weight and tail-down force).
C. Point out that wing loading (wing lift) is actually less during slow flight because the vertical
component of thrust helps support the airplane.

III. Explain that as the airspeed decreases from cruise to L/DMAX, total drag and the amount of thrust
required to maintain a constant altitude decrease, as shown in the figure below.
VALID FOR A GIVEN ALTITUDE,
WEIGHT, AND CONFIGURATION

TOTAL DRAG
DRAG OR THRUST REQUIRED (LB)

MINIMUM
DRAG
OR
STALL L/D MAX

PARASITE
INDUCED DRAG
DRAG

AIRSPEED (KT) Figure1_4

L/D (max) Diagram [note: same as fig 1_1]

IV. As the airspeed decreases below L/DMAX, additional power (thrust) is required to maintain a constant
altitude.
A. At these airspeeds, total drag increases because induced drag increases faster (due to the higher
angle of attack) than parasite drag decreases, as shown in the figure above.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 6 Lesson 1: Teaching Aerodynamics

B. This flight regime is known as the back side of the power curve or the region of reverse
command.
1. Explain to your students that the term “region of reverse command” means that more power
(not less) is required to fly at slower airspeeds while maintaining a constant altitude.

C. You should instruct your students to avoid the natural tendency to pull back on the control yoke in
order to climb when flying slower than L/DMAX because increasing the angle of attack will
increase drag and may cause the airplane to descend (if thrust remains constant) or stall (if the
critical angle of attack is exceeded).
1. Tell your students that they will gain altitude (climb) by increasing power and adjusting pitch
to maintain the desired airspeed.

V. For the purposes of the Private and Commercial Pilot Practical Test Standards, the FAA now defines
slow flight as the airspeed at which any further increase in angle of attack or load factor, or any
further reduction in power (while maintaining a constant altitude), will result in a stall.
A. This definition is essentially the same as the old term minimum controllable airspeed (MCA),
though this term is no longer used by the FAA (in either the FARs or PTSs).
1. The old definition of slow flight was flight at 1.2 VS1.

B. Explain to your students that since the airplane is flying near the critical angle of attack, they
cannot increase pitch (angle of attack) to gain altitude.
1. To gain altitude, they must increase power and lower the nose.

1.3 STALL AND SPIN CONSIDERATIONS

I. Stalls
A. A stall is the loss of lift and the increase in drag that occur when an airplane is flown at an angle
of attack greater than the angle for maximum lift. The angle of attack for maximum lift is also
called the critical angle of attack.
1. Thus, a stall occurs whenever the critical angle of attack is exceeded.

B. To help your students understand the stall phenomenon, some basic factors affecting
aerodynamics and flight should be reviewed with particular emphasis on their relation to stall
speeds. Explain that the stall speed is the speed at which the critical angle of attack is
exceeded in a given airplane configuration and at a given load factor.
1. When the angle of attack is increased to approximately 18° to 20° on most airfoils, the
airstream can no longer follow the upper curvature of the wing because of the excessive
change in direction. Explain that this angle is the critical angle of attack.
a. As the critical angle of attack is approached, the airstream begins separating from the
rear of the upper wing surface. As the angle of attack is further increased, the
airstream is forced to flow straight back, away from the top surface of the wing and
from the area of highest camber. See the figure on the next page.
b. This causes a swirling or burbling of the air as it attempts to follow the upper surface of
the wing. When the critical angle of attack is reached, the turbulent airflow, which
appeared near the trailing edge of the wing at lower angles of attack, quickly spreads
forward over the entire upper wing surface.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 1: Teaching Aerodynamics 7

c. This results in a sudden increase in pressure on the upper wing surface and a
considerable loss of lift. Due to both this loss of lift and the increase in form drag (a
larger area of the wing and fuselage is exposed to the airstream), the remaining lift is
insufficient to support the airplane, and the wing stalls.
d. Emphasize to your students that to recover from a stall, the angle of attack must be
decreased so that the airstream can once again flow smoothly over the wing surface.
i. Remember to stress that the angle of attack is the angle between the chord line
and the relative wind, not between the chord line and the horizon.
ii. Your students should understand that an airplane can be stalled in any attitude
of flight with respect to the horizon, at any airspeed, and at any power setting
because exceeding the critical angle of attack is the only requirement for
a stall to occur.

8 10
4

1 2 3

16 20
14

4 5 6

Figure1_5
Airflows Over a Wing

2. Explain that most light airplanes are designed so that the wings will stall progressively
outward from the wing roots to the wingtips.
a. Some wings are designed with washout; i.e., the wingtips have less angle of incidence
than the wing roots.
i. Explain that the angle of incidence is the angle between the chord line of the
wing and the longitudinal axis of the airplane.
b. Thus, during flight, the tips of such wings have a smaller angle of attack than the wing
roots.

Angle of attack Angle of attack

Tip NORMAL Tip NORMAL
ANGLE OF ATTACK ANGLE OF ATTACK

Angle of attack
Angle of attack Root
Root STALL
NORMAL
ANGLE OF ATTACK ANGLE OF ATTACK
WIND WIND

Figure1_6
Angle of Attack: Wing Tip vs. Wing Root

i. Remind your students that a stall is caused by exceeding the critical angle of
attack. Since the wing roots will exceed the critical angle of attack before the
wingtips, the roots will stall first.
c. You may have a particularly observant student who notices that the ailerons on your
training airplane appear to be bent upward near the wingtips.
i. Explain that the bending is not the result of damage, but that it is evidence of
washout.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
8 Lesson 1: Teaching Aerodynamics

d. Another means of forcing the wing to stall progressively outward from the wing roots to
the wingtips is to include stall strips (sometimes called flow strips) at the wing root.
i. These wedge-shaped metal strips are mounted on the leading edge of the wing
near the root.
ii. Explain that they are designed to cause early airflow separation (with the
associated buffeting) near the wing root.
e. Tell your students that the wings are designed to stall outward from the wing root to
the wingtip so that control of the ailerons (which are located toward the tips of the
wings) will be available at high angles of attack and give the airplane more stable
stalling characteristics.

C. Your students need to know how the following variables affect an airplane’s stall characteristics
and stall speed:
1. Configuration: Flaps, landing gear (if retractable), and other configuring devices can affect
an airplane’s stall speed. Flap extension will generally increase the lifting ability of the
wings, thus reducing the stall speed.
a. Point out that this effect is illustrated by the colored arcs on the airspeed indicator,
where the lower airspeed limit of the white arc (VS0, power-off stall speed with gear
and flaps in the landing configuration) is less than the lower airspeed limit of the
green arc (VS1, power-off stall speed, normally, with the flaps and gear up).
2. Load factor: Load factor is the ratio of the lifting force produced by the wings to the actual
weight of the airplane and its contents, usually expressed in Gs.
a. When the airplane is subjected to a load factor that is greater than 1 G (in a level turn,
for example), the wings are required to support a load that is greater than the
airplane’s weight.
i. The increased load is the result of inertia, sometimes referred to as “centrifugal
force.”
ii. Explain that when your students feel pressed downward in their seat during a
level turn, they are feeling the effect of increased load factor.
o This sensation of increased weight is also called “pulling Gs.”
b. An airplane’s stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor.
i. EXAMPLE: An airplane with a normal unaccelerated stall speed of 45 kt. can be
stalled at 90 kt. when subjected to a load factor of 4 Gs. This load might be
experienced in a 75° bank level turn.
c. A stall entered from straight-and-level flight or from an unaccelerated straight climb will
not produce additional load factors.
i. Emphasize, however, that other normal maneuvers will produce additional load
factors and the associated higher stalling speeds.
d. Why does stall speed increase as load factor increases? Explain that the stall
speed increases above the unaccelerated stall speed at increased load factors
because the wing is required to produce lift equal to a load that is greater than the
airplane’s weight.
i. Remind your students that the amount of lift generated by a given wing at a
given altitude is directly related to its angle of attack and airspeed.
o Therefore, the stall speed increases when load factor increases because,
for any given airspeed, the wing is required to be at a higher angle of
attack in order to generate sufficient lift to support the increased load.
o Accordingly, the critical angle of attack will be reached at a higher
airspeed because the margin between the required angle of attack for
sufficient lift at any given airspeed and the critical angle of attack (which
remains constant) is reduced.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 1: Teaching Aerodynamics 9

e. On a related note, in a constant altitude turn, increased load factors will cause an
airplane’s stall speed to increase as the angle of bank increases.
i. Stall speed increases as bank angle increases because load factor increases
as bank angle increases.
9

LOAD FACTOR - G UNITS

7

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

BANK ANGLE - IN DEGREES

Figure1_9 - Bank Angle vs. Load Factor Graph

ii. For this reason, you must emphasize the importance of using moderate bank
angles (no more than 30°) when flying at reduced airspeeds (e.g., in the traffic
pattern).
3. Center of gravity (CG): Because the CG location affects both the required angle of attack
and airplane stability, it has a significant effect on stall speed and ease of recovery.
a. As the CG is moved aft, the airplane flies at a lower angle of attack for a given
airspeed because of reduced tail-down force required from the horizontal stabilizer.
i. Explain that tail-down force is necessary to counteract the intentional
nose-heaviness of the airplane.
o When nose-heaviness is reduced by moving the CG aft, the tail-down
force must also be reduced to achieve equilibrium.
ii. The reduction of tail-down force reduces the total load that must be supported
by the wings.
o Thus, the critical angle of attack will be exceeded (causing the airplane to
stall) at a lower airspeed because the margin between the required angle
of attack for any given airspeed and the critical angle of attack is
increased.
o However, the airplane is less stable because the CG is closer to the
center of lift.
b. Instruct your students that, with an extremely aft CG (i.e., aft of the center of lift), the
airplane loses its natural tendency to pitch nose down, making stall recovery more
difficult.
i. Stall recovery is also more difficult because the leverage of the elevators is
reduced by the shortened distance from the CG.
ii. If a spin is entered, the balance of forces on the airplane may result in a flat
spin, from which recovery may be impossible.
c. A forward CG location will cause the critical angle of attack to be reached (and the
airplane to stall) at a higher airspeed.
i. However, stall recovery is easier because the airplane has a greater tendency to
pitch nose down and the elevator is a greater distance from the CG.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 10 Lesson 1: Teaching Aerodynamics

4. Weight: Explain that although the distribution of weight has the most direct effect on
stability and stall speed, increased gross weight also affects an airplane’s flight
characteristics, regardless of the CG location.
a. A higher angle of attack is required at any given airspeed to produce the additional lift
required to support the greater weight.
b. Thus, the critical angle of attack will be exceeded (causing the airplane to stall) at a
higher airspeed because of the reduced margin between the required angle of attack
and the critical angle of attack.
5. Snow, ice, or frost on the wings: Emphasize that even a small accumulation of snow, ice,
or frost on an airplane can cause an increase in the stall speed.
a. Such accumulation changes the shape and/or texture of the wing, disrupting the
smooth airflow over the surface and thus increasing drag and decreasing lift.
6. Turbulence: Tell your students that turbulence can cause an airplane to stall at a
significantly higher airspeed than in smooth conditions.
a. Explain that a vertical gust or wind shear can cause a sudden change in the relative
wind and result in an abrupt increase in the angle of attack.
i. Such sudden increases in the angle of attack are most hazardous at low
airspeeds and low altitudes, such as during takeoff and landing, because an
unintentional stall could result.
b. When flying in moderate to severe turbulence or strong crosswinds, a
higher-than-normal approach speed should be maintained.
i. In turbulent cruise flight, maintain an airspeed well above the indicated stall
speed and below VA (maneuvering speed).

D. Note that while both the private and commercial pilot PTSs no longer require the pilot to
recognize and announce the first aerodynamic indications of an approaching stall (i.e., buffeting
or decay of control effectiveness), you should still teach your students to identify these
indications to increase their stall awareness.

II. Spins
A. For the purpose of discussing stall/spin awareness with your students (i.e., not necessarily for
aerobatic training), a spin, as defined in the FAA's Airplane Flying Handbook is an aggravated
stall that results in “autorotation,” where the airplane follows a downward corkscrew path.
1. When discussing spins with your students, emphasize that there are two prerequisites for a
spin to develop, and that if either of these elements are not present, a spin cannot occur.
The prerequisites are:
a. A stall
b. A yawing motion
2. Explain that if the nose of the airplane is allowed to yaw at the beginning of a stall, the wing
will drop in the direction of the yaw.
a. Unless rudder is applied to keep the nose from yawing, the airplane will begin to slip
toward the lowered wing.
b. The slip will cause the airplane to weathervane into the relative wind, i.e., toward the
lowered wing, thus continuing the yaw.
3. At the same time, the airplane will continue rolling toward the lowered wing.
a. Explain that the lowered wing therefore has an increasingly greater angle of attack,
due to the upward motion of the relative wind against its surfaces.
i. The lowered wing will then be well beyond the critical angle of attack and will
suffer an extreme loss of lift and an increase in drag.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 1: Teaching Aerodynamics 11

b. However, the rising wing, since the relative wind is striking it at a smaller angle, will
have a smaller angle of attack than the opposite wing.
i. Explain that the rising wing, in effect, becomes less stalled and thus develops
some lift so that the airplane continues to roll.
ii. If one of your students asks how it is possible for a wing to be only partially
stalled, remind him/her of design elements such as washout and stall strips,
which are designed to cause the wing roots to stall before the wingtips.
c. As the autorotation continues, the aerodynamic and inertial forces will balance and the
airplane will settle in a stabilized spin.
4. Summarize that, in order for a spin to develop, both of the airplane’s wings must first be
stalled; then one wing becomes less stalled than the other.

B. Explain that a spin may be broken down into three phases.

1. The incipient phase is the transient period between a full stall and a fully developed spin,
when aerodynamic and inertial forces have not yet achieved equilibrium.
a. The incipient spin usually occurs in approximately 4 to 6 sec. and consists of
approximately the first two turns.
2. The steady-state phase is that portion of the spin in which it is fully developed and the
aerodynamic forces are in balance.
a. Warn your students that a flat spin can develop during the steady-state phase when
the spin axis is located near the airplane’s CG. This can happen when the airplane’s
CG is located aft of the CG’s aft limit.
3. The recovery phase begins when controls are applied to stop the spin and ends when level
flight is attained.
a. In many airplanes under typical power, trim, configuration, and loading conditions, the
recovery phase will begin as soon as pro-spin control inputs are removed (i.e., as
soon as elevator back pressure is released to break the stall).
b. Observation of this phenomenon is sometimes incorrectly interpreted to mean that a
proper spin recovery procedure involves simply “letting go of the controls.”
c. Emphasize to your students that, while such a procedure may result in spin recovery if
sufficient altitude is available, significantly more altitude will be lost than if proper
techniques are used.
i. In addition, there are certain power, trim, configuration, and loading conditions
under which positive forward elevator pressure will be required to break the
stall and effect recovery.
d. Accordingly, proper spin recovery procedures, as outlined in the airplane's Pilot’s
Operating Handbook, should always be used.

C. You must stress to your students that the intentional spinning of an airplane for which spins are
not specifically approved is prohibited and extremely dangerous.
1. Single-engine normal category airplanes are placarded against intentional spins.
a. However, to provide a margin of safety when recovery from a stall is delayed, these
airplanes are tested during certification and must be able to recover from a one-turn
spin or a 3-sec. spin, whichever takes longer, in not more than one additional turn
during recovery.
2. Acrobatic category airplanes must recover from any point in a spin, in not more than one and
one-half additional turns during recovery.
a. Prior to normal recovery, the spin test must proceed for six turns or 3 sec., whichever
takes longer, with flaps retracted, and one turn or 3 sec., whichever takes longer, with
flaps extended.
© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 12 Lesson 1: Teaching Aerodynamics

3. A utility category airplane must meet the requirements for either the normal or acrobatic
category.
4. Emphasize to your students that, as the pilot of an airplane placarded against spins, they
should assume that the airplane may become uncontrollable in a spin.

Figure1_7
Aircraft Spin

1.4 AERODYNAMIC LIMITATIONS OF FLIGHT

I. Explain to your students that any force applied to deflect an airplane from a straight line produces a
stress on its structure due to inertia. The amount of this force is called load factor.
A. Load factor is the ratio of the total load supported by the airplane's wings (i.e., lift) to the actual
weight of the airplane and its contents:

Total load supported by the wings

Load factor =
Total weight of the airplane

1. EXAMPLE: An airplane has a gross weight of 2,000 lb. During flight it is subjected to
aerodynamic forces which increase the total load that the wing must support
to 4,000 lb. The load factor is thus 2.0 (4,000 ÷ 2,000). The airplane wing is producing lift
equal to twice the gross weight of the airplane.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 1: Teaching Aerodynamics 13

B. Explain that load factor can also be expressed as the ratio of a given load to the pull of gravity,
expressed in “Gs.” If the weight of the airplane is equal to 1 G, and if a load of three times the
actual weight of the airplane were imposed upon the wing due to a curved flight path, the load
factor of 3 is expressed as 3 Gs.
C. Tell your students that in unaccelerated flight, the airplane is said to have a load factor of 1; i.e.,
the total lift that the wings are producing is equal to the gross weight of the airplane.
1. If the angle of attack of the wings is increased while airspeed remains constant, e.g., in a
pull-up from a dive, the wings produce more lift and thus a higher load factor.

D. Explain that a positive load occurs when back pressure is applied to the elevator, causing
“centrifugal force” (i.e., inertia) to act in the same direction as weight.
1. A negative load occurs when forward pressure is applied to the elevator control, causing
“centrifugal force” (i.e., inertia) to act in a direction opposite to that of weight.

II. Load Factors and Airplane Design. Tell your students that, in order to be certified by the FAA,
airplanes must conform with prescribed structural strength (i.e., maximum allowable load factor)
standards set forth by Federal Aviation Regulations. Airplanes are classified as to strength and
operational use by means of the category system. Most general aviation trainer-type airplanes are
classified in one or more of the following categories:
A. The normal category has a maximum limit load factor of 3.8 positive Gs and 1.52 negative Gs.
1. A limit load factor is the highest positive or negative load factor that can be sustained without
causing permanent deformation or structural damage to the airplane.
a. The limit load factors listed for each airplane category represent the maximum load
factors (both positive and negative) that can be expected in typical operations for that
category of airplane.
2. Permissible maneuvers include
a. Any maneuver incidental to normal flying
b. Stalls
c. Lazy eights, chandelles, and steep turns in which the angle of bank does not exceed
60°

B. The utility category has a maximum limit load factor of 4.4 positive Gs and 1.76 negative Gs.
1. Permissible maneuvers include
a. All operations in the normal category
b. Spins (if approved for that airplane)
c. Lazy eights, chandelles, and steep turns in which the angle of bank is more than 60°

C. The acrobatic category has a maximum limit load factor of 6.0 positive Gs and 3.0 negative Gs.
1. There are no restrictions except those shown to be necessary as a result of required flight
tests.

D. Explain to your students that the category system indicates what operations can be performed in
a given airplane without exceeding load factor limits. You must caution your students to operate
the airplane within the load factor limits for which it was designed so as to enhance safety while
still benefitting from the intended use of the airplane.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 14 Lesson 1: Teaching Aerodynamics

E. You should also emphasize that an airplane’s structure is designed to support a certain total
load.
1. It is therefore vital for your students to observe maximum gross weight limits as well as load
factor limits.

III. Effect of Turns on Load Factor. Explain that a turn is made by banking the airplane so that lift
from the wings no longer acts straight up, but acts upward at an angle. In this orientation, the
horizontal component of lift pulls the airplane from its straight flight path.
A. In a constant altitude coordinated turn, the resultant load is the result of two forces -- weight and
the apparent “centrifugal force” caused by inertia, as shown below.
B. Explain that the airplane's wings must produce lift equal to the resultant load in a level,
coordinated turn. Remind your students that, as the required lift increases, load factor also
increases.
1. Thus, a level, coordinated turn produces a load factor that is greater than 1 G.
VERTICAL VERTICAL
COMPONENT COMPONENT

INERTIAL INERTIAL
HORIZONTAL LOAD LOAD
COMPONENT
HORIZONTAL
COMPONENT

RESULTANT RESULTANT
LOAD LOAD

LEVEL FLIGHT MEDIUM BANKED TURN STEEP BANKED TURN

Figure1_8
Airframe Loads During Level Turns

C. Explain to your students that in any airplane, if a constant altitude is maintained during the turn,
the load factor for a given degree of bank is the same.
1. This is because the vertical component of lift (which must always equal the airplane’s weight
in level flight), and therefore the total lift required, remain the same regardless of the
airspeed and rate of turn.
a. Explain that the horizontal component of lift thus also remains constant for any given
bank angle because of the fixed relationship between the vertical component of lift
and the total lift required.
2. Because the total lift required in a level turn does not vary for any given bank angle, the load
factor remains constant.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 1: Teaching Aerodynamics 15

D. Using the figure below, show your students that the load factor increases at a rapid rate after the
angle of bank reaches 60°. The wing must produce lift equal to this load factor if the airplane is
to maintain altitude.
1. The figure below can be used to explain why the maximum bank angle for normal-category
airplanes is 60°, which produces a load factor of 2.0.
a. Point out that the positive limit load factor of 3.8 Gs for normal-category airplanes is
exceeded at approximately 75° of bank, an increase of only 15° beyond the
maximum-allowable bank angle of 60°.
b. Tell your students that caution dictates a margin of safety between the
maximum-allowable bank angle and the bank angle at which structural damage will
occur.
2. Show your students that, at an angle of bank of slightly more than 80° in level flight, the load
factor exceeds 6.0, which is the limit load factor of an acrobatic airplane.
9

8
LOAD FACTOR - G UNITS

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

BANK ANGLE - IN DEGREES

Figure1_9 - Bank Angle vs. Load Factor Graph

IV. Effect of Load Factor on Stalling Speed. As a result of your discussion of stalls, your students
should understand that any airplane, within the limits of its structure and the strength of the pilot,
can be stalled at any airspeed.
A. Remind your students that at any given airspeed, the load factor increases as angle of attack
increases, and the wing stalls when the angle of attack has been increased beyond the critical
angle.
B. Therefore, there is a direct relationship between the load factor imposed upon the wing and its
stalling characteristics.
C. Emphasize that the airplane’s stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load
factor.
1. EXAMPLE: Using the load factor chart above, the load factor produced in a 75° banked,
level turn is 4.0. The square root of 4 is 2.
a. An airplane that has a normal unaccelerated stall speed of 45 kt. will stall at 90 kt.
when subjected to a load of 4 Gs.
2. You can also use the load factor chart to demonstrate why 30° is typically considered the
maximum safe bank angle in the traffic pattern.
3. Point out how, at bank angles greater than 30°, the load factor (and thus, the stall speed)
begins to increase rapidly.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 16 Lesson 1: Teaching Aerodynamics

V. Maneuvering Speed. Explain that the maximum speed at which an airplane can be stalled without
exceeding its structural (or load) limits is the maneuvering speed (VA).
A. VA can also be defined as the minimum airspeed at which the wing can produce lift equal to the
positive limit load factor.
B. Tell your students that, when operating below VA, a damaging positive flight load cannot
(theoretically) be produced. The airplane should stall before the load becomes excessive. Any
combination of flight control usage, including full deflection of the controls or gust loads created
by turbulence, should not create an excessive air load if the airplane is operated below VA.
1. CAUTION: Certain adverse wind shear or gusts may cause excessive loads even at speeds
below VA.

C. Emphasize that VA is a vital reference point for pilots, but it is not marked on the airspeed
indicator since it varies with gross weight.
1. Instead, VA can be found in the Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH) for each airplane and/or
on a placard within the cockpit.
a. If the POH specifies more than one VA, show your students that VA varies with weight.
b. Explain that VA decreases with gross weight because it is effectively an accelerated
stall speed.
i. Thus, just as VS0 and VS1 decrease as gross weight decreases, VA decreases as
gross weight decreases.

D. Older general aviation airplanes may not have a published VA in their POHs. In this case, a
general rule for determining the maneuvering speed is approximately 1.7 times the normal
stalling speed.
1. Thus, an airplane that normally stalls at 35 kt. should never be stalled when the airspeed is
above 60 k (35 kt. x 1.7 = 59.5 kt.).

VI. Effect of Turbulence on Load Factor. Tell your students that turbulence in the form of vertical air
currents can, under certain conditions, cause severe load stress on the airplane.
A. For example, when an airplane flying at a high airspeed with a low angle of attack suddenly
encounters an updraft, the relative wind changes to strike the bottom of the airfoil at a greater
angle. This increases the wing’s angle of attack.
B. Explain that all certificated airplanes are designed to withstand loads imposed by turbulence of
considerable intensity. Nevertheless, gust load factors increase with increasing airspeed.
1. Therefore, it is wise in extremely rough air, as in thunderstorm or frontal conditions, to
reduce the speed to below VA.
2. Tell your students that, as a general rule when severe turbulence is encountered, the
airplane should be flown at or below VA as shown in the POH and/or on the placard in the
airplane.
a. This speed is the one least likely to result in structural damage to the airplane (even if
the control surfaces are fully deflected), yet it allows a sufficient margin of safety
above stalling speed in turbulent air.
b. Teach your students to avoid over-stressing the airplane in severe turbulence by
maintaining a level attitude and accepting variations in altitude and airspeed.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 1: Teaching Aerodynamics 17

VII. V-G Diagram (Velocity versus G Loads)

A. Explain that a V-G diagram is a graphic representation of the operating limitations of a specific
make and model of airplane under specified conditions (e.g., weight and configuration).
1. Airplane manufacturers use numerous V-G diagrams when designing an airplane in order to
define its airspeed and load factor limits.
a. These limits specify that airplane’s flight, or operating, envelope.

B. Use the V-G diagram shown below to illustrate several important operating limitations to your
students.
1. Explain that airspeed (V) is shown on the horizontal axis with load factor (G) on the vertical
axis.

6
ULTIMATE
LOAD FACTOR
(5.7G)
5

VA VNO
4
LIMIT LOAD
FACTOR
VNE
(3.8G)
3
ust
fps g
VS1 +30
2

0
-30 f
ps g
ust

-1
LIMIT LOAD
FACTOR
(-1.52G)
-2
ULTIMATE
LOAD FACTOR
(-2.28G)
-3
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220

Figure1_10
V-G Diagram

C. Tell your students that the curved lines starting at 0 on the vertical axis represent the positive and
negative lines of maximum lift capability.
1. These lines indicate the maximum amount of lift the airplane can generate at a specified
speed.
a. Note that at an indicated airspeed of zero, the wing generates zero lift.
2. The intersection of the maximum lift line and a given airspeed line indicates the maximum
load factor that can be placed on the airplane for that speed.
a. If any load factor greater than the maximum lift line is placed on the airplane at a given
airspeed line, a stall will result.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
18 Lesson 1: Teaching Aerodynamics

D. Explain that the solid horizontal lines at +3.8 G and –1.52 G represent the positive and negative
limit load factors for this airplane, i.e., the limits for a normal category airplane.
1. The dashed lines at +5.7 G and –2.28 G are the ultimate load factors, which are determined
by multiplying the limit load factors by the required safety factor of 1.5.
2. Explain that any load placed on the airplane between the limit load factor and ultimate load
factor may cause permanent deformation of the airplane’s primary structure (e.g., wings).
A high rate of fatigue damage may be incurred, but the structure should not fail.
a. However, the fatigue damage incurred may be of sufficient magnitude to cause
structural failure later during completely normal operations.
3. A load placed on the airplane greater than the ultimate load factors will cause the wings to
separate from the airplane.

E. Remind your students that in smooth air and with the wings level, the airplane is flying at 1 G.
The speed at which the airplane stalls at 1 G is VS1.
1. VS1 is marked on the airspeed indicator at the lower limit of the green arc.
a. VS1 is shown on the V-G diagram by a solid vertical line.
2. Explain that any stall that occurs above 1 G is an accelerated stall.

F. Show your students that VA is the airspeed that is at the intersection of the positive limit load
factor and maximum lift lines.
1. Point out that at speeds greater than VA, the limit load factor will be exceeded (leading to
structural damage or failure) before the airplane will stall.

G. Tell your students that certain airspeeds, called design airspeeds, are established when an
airplane is designed (e.g., design maneuvering speed). Some important airspeed limitations are
established from various design airspeeds and other factors.
1. Explain that VNO is the maximum structural cruising speed, or maximum normal operating
speed, and is shown on the airspeed indicator at the upper limit of the green arc. VNO is
shown on the V-G diagram by a solid vertical line.
a. Show your students that VNO is determined by the intersection of the negative limit
load factor and the load produced by an instantaneous 30 ft.-per-second downdraft.
b. Explain that the airspeed range from VS1 to VNO is the normal operating range, which
is considered safe for moderately bumpy air. Flight above VNO should be conducted
only in smooth air and with caution.
2. Remind your students that VNE is the airplane’s never-exceed speed and is marked by the
red line on the airspeed indicator. VNE is shown on the V-G diagram by a solid vertical line.
a. If flight is attempted beyond VNE, structural damage or failure may result from a variety
of phenomena, even if excessive load factors are not imposed.
b. The airspeed range from VNO to VNE is the caution range, i.e., the yellow arc on the
airspeed indicator.

H. Emphasize to your students that the airplane must be operated within the flight envelope to
prevent the airplane’s primary structure from being deformed or damaged. Thus, the airplane in
flight is limited to a regime of airspeeds and load factors that do not exceed either of the
following:
1. The positive or negative limit load factors
2. VNE

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 1

GLEIM FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR REFRESHER COURSE

LESSON 2
TEST PRACTICAL TEST STANDARDS
2.1 GENERAL
I. The Flight Standards Service of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has developed a practical
test standard (PTS) for each practical test that is required for the issuance of a pilot certificate or
rating.
A. Each PTS sets forth the practical test requirements for that pilot certificate or rating.
B. FAA inspectors and designated pilot examiners use the practical test standards as a means of
objectively evaluating each applicant seeking a given certificate or rating.
C. Instructors are therefore expected to refer to these standards when preparing applicants for their
practical tests.

II. Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) specifies the areas in which knowledge and skill
must be demonstrated by the applicant before a particular certificate or rating will be issued.
A. However, the regulations do not list the specific tasks (knowledge areas, procedures, and/or
maneuvers) in which pilot competence must be demonstrated.
1. Specific tasks are found in the appropriate PTS.
B. Because the specific tasks are not contained in the CFR, they can be modified without the need to
undergo a time-consuming rule-making process.
1. The FAA can add, delete, or revise tasks whenever it is determined that changes are
needed in the interest of safety.

III. Adherence to provisions of the regulations and the practical test standards is mandatory for the
evaluation of pilot applicants.
A. The examiner who conducts the practical test is responsible for determining that the applicant
meets the standards of knowledge and skill outlined in the objective of each task within the
appropriate practical test standard.
B. Because there is no formal division between the “knowledge” and “skill” portions of the practical
test, oral questioning is an ongoing process throughout the test.
1. The examiner will use oral questioning judiciously at all times, especially during the flight
portion of the practical test, to determine the applicant’s knowledge of the tasks and related
safety factors.
C. The examiner will determine that the applicant's knowledge and skill meet the objectives in all
required tasks.

IV. The introduction of each PTS contains the prerequisites that the applicant must meet prior to taking
the appropriate practical test.
A. The applicant must have obtained the required instruction and aeronautical experience prescribed
for the pilot certificate or rating sought.
B. The applicant must possess at least a current third-class medical certificate (with some
exceptions).

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 2 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards

C. The applicant must meet the age requirement for the issuance of the certificate or rating sought.
D. The applicant must have a written statement from an appropriately certificated flight instructor
certifying that (s)he has been given flight instruction in preparation for the practical test within the
preceding 60 days, that (s)he is competent to pass the practical test, and that (s)he has
satisfactory knowledge of the subject area(s) in which a deficiency was indicated by his/her pilot
knowledge test report (14 CFR Sec. 61.39).
E. Most tests require the applicant to have passed an appropriate pilot knowledge test within the
previous 2 years.
F. Many tests, e.g., instrument rating and flight instructor certificate, require that the applicant
possess a minimum grade of pilot certificate and/or certain ratings.

2.2 PTS FORMAT

I. Areas of operation are general subject areas that are arranged in a logical sequence within each
standard.
A. Examples include “performance maneuvers” and “takeoffs, landings, and go-arounds.”
B. The examiner is not required to follow the order of areas of operation as shown in the PTS; (s)he
may conduct the practical test in any sequence that results in a complete and efficient test.
1. However, the oral portion of the practical test must be completed before the flight portion.

II. Tasks are knowledge areas, flight procedures, and/or maneuvers appropriate to an area of
operation.
III. The reference identifies the publications that describe each task.
A. The practical test standards are intended to provide criteria by which an applicant's performance of
each task can be evaluated; descriptions of the tasks themselves are not included in the
standards because this information can be found in the listed references for each specific task.
B. Publications other than those listed may be used for references if their content is essentially the
same as the referenced publications.

IV. The objective lists the important elements that must be satisfactorily performed to demonstrate
competency in a task. The objective includes
A. Specifically what the applicant should be able to do,
B. The conditions under which the task is to be performed, and
C. The acceptable performance standards.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards 3

V. The following examples illustrate the format of the practical test standards.
A. Below is an example of a “knowledge only” task from the Commercial Pilot PTS.

I.A. TASK: CERTIFICATES AND DOCUMENTS

REFERENCES:14 CFR Parts 43, 61, 91; FAA-H-8083-3; AC 61-23/FAA-H-8083-25; Pilot’s
Operating Handbook, FAA-Approved Airplane Flight Manual
Objective. To determine that the applicant exhibits knowledge of the elements related to certificates and
documents by:
1. Explaining -- 2. Locating and explaining --
a. Commercial pilot certificate privileges, limitations, a. Airworthiness and registration certificates.
and recent flight experience requirements. b. Operating limitations, placards, instrument
b. Medical certificate class and duration. markings, and Pilot’s Operating
c. Pilot logbook or flight records. Handbook/Airplane Flight Manual
c. Weight and balance data and equipment list

B. Below is an example of a “knowledge and skill” task from the Private Pilot PTS.

IV.E. TASK: SHORT-FIELD TAKEOFF AND MAXIMUM PERFORMANCE CLIMB

REFERENCES: FAA-H-8083-3; Pilot’s Operating Handbook, FAA-Approved Airplane Flight Manual
Objective. To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related 7. After clearing the obstacle, establishes the pitch
to a short-field takeoff and maximum performance attitude for VY, accelerates to VY, and maintains VY,
climb. + 10/-5 kt., during the climb.
2. Positions the flight controls for the existing wind 8. Retracts the landing gear, if appropriate, and flaps
conditions; sets the flaps as recommended. after clear of any obstacles or as recommended by
manufacturer.
3. Clears the area; taxies into takeoff positions
utilizing maximum available takeoff area and aligns 9. Maintains takeoff power and VY +10/-5 kt. to a safe
the airplane on the runway centerline. maneuvering altitude.
4. Applies brakes (if appropriate), while advancing 10. Maintains directional control and proper wind-drift
the throttle smoothly to takeoff power. throughout the takeoff and climb.
5. Lifts off at the recommended airspeed, and 11. Completes the appropriate checklist.
accelerates to the recommended obstacle
clearance airspeed or VX.
6. Establishes a pitch attitude that will maintain the
recommended obstacle clearance airspeed, or VX
+10/-5 Kt., until the obstacle is cleared, or until the
airplace is 50 ft. (20 meters) above the surface.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 4 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards

2.3 HOW TO USE THE PRACTICAL TEST STANDARDS EFFECTIVELY

I. As an appropriately rated flight instructor, you are responsible for training your students to
acceptable standards in all knowledge areas, procedures, and maneuvers as outlined in the
objective of each task within the appropriate practical test standard.
A. You must certify that your student is able to perform safely as a pilot and is competent to pass the
required practical test for the certificate or rating sought.
B. Therefore, you must become thoroughly familiar with the practical test standard that is appropriate
to the certificate or rating sought before training begins, and you must refer to it regularly
throughout training.
1. As each maneuver or procedure is introduced, you should inform your students of the
standards they will ultimately be expected to meet.
2. If your students have been thinking in terms of the PTS from the beginning of their training,
what is expected of them during the flight portion of the practical test will be no different
from their flights with you.

II. The introduction of each practical test standard defines the overall level of competence required of
the applicant and identifies the general skills emphasized by the FAA during the practical test for
that certificate or rating.
A. During any practical test, the examiner will place special emphasis upon areas of aircraft operation
considered critical to flight safety.
1. Among these areas are positive aircraft control and sound judgment in aeronautical decision
making.
2. Although these areas may or may not be listed under each task, they are essential to flight
safety and will receive careful evaluation throughout the practical test.
a. If these areas are listed in the objective, additional emphasis will be placed on them.

B. During the practical test for the private or commercial pilot certificate, the examiner will also
emphasize positive exchange of the flight controls, stall/spin awareness, collision avoidance,
wake turbulence avoidance, Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO), runway incursion
avoidance, controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) avoidance, and checklist usage.
1. Because of their professional status, commercial pilots are expected to exhibit a significantly
higher level of knowledge and skill than private pilots.
2. The wording used in the commercial pilot standards is intended to reflect this higher level of
competency.
C. During the practical test for the instrument rating, the examiner will also emphasize division of
attention, control touch, and two-way radio communications.
1. Instrument pilot applicants must demonstrate partial-panel, nonprecision instrument
approach procedures and an understanding of the primary and supporting or the control
and performance concept method of instrument flying.
D. During the practical test for the flight instructor certificate, the examiner will also emphasize the
ability to teach precise aircraft control, sound judgment in aeronautical decision making, spatial
disorientation, wake turbulence avoidance, low level windshear avoidance, checklist usage,
positive exchange of the flight controls, Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO), and runway
incursion avoidance.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards 5

III. Unless otherwise noted, all tasks in a practical test standard are required to be incorporated into the
practical test for the issuance of the particular certificate or rating.
A. Thus, it is essential that you incorporate each task, its objectives, and its completion standards into
the course syllabus for the certificate or rating sought by your student.

IV. Satisfactory performance on the practical test is based on the applicant's ability to safely
A. Perform the tasks specified in the areas of operation for the certificate or rating sought within the
approved standards
B. Demonstrate mastery of the aircraft with the successful outcome of each task performed never
seriously in doubt
C. Demonstrate satisfactory proficiency and competency within the approved standards
D. Demonstrate sound judgment
E. Demonstrate single-pilot competence if the aircraft is type certificated for single-pilot operations

V. The tolerances shown in each practical test standard represent the performance expected in good
flying conditions.
A. Tell your students that this means that the examiner may allow them additional leeway in the
performance of maneuvers in turbulent conditions.
1. Accordingly, occasionally exceeding tolerances on a turbulent day should not result in failure
of the practical test.
B. If, however, in the judgment of the examiner, the applicant does not meet the standards of
performance for any task performed, the associated area of operation is failed, and therefore the
practical test is failed.
C. The examiner or applicant may discontinue the test at any time after the failure of an area of
operation makes the applicant ineligible for the certificate or rating sought.
1. The test may be continued only with the consent of the applicant.
D. If the test is discontinued, the applicant is entitled to credit for those tasks satisfactorily performed,
but the applicant receives credit for those tasks only if (s)he passes the remainder of the practical
test within 60 days from the date the test was discontinued.
1. Inform your students, however, that during the retest and at the discretion of the examiner,
any task may be reevaluated, including those previously passed.
2. Accordingly, it may be appropriate to review more of the appropriate practical test standard
prior to the re-test than just the task(s) that were performed unsatisfactorily.
E. The introduction of each PTS indicates that typical areas of unsatisfactory performance and
grounds for disqualification are
1. Any action or lack of action by the applicant that requires corrective intervention by the
examiner to maintain safe flight,
2. Failure to use proper and effective visual scanning techniques to clear the area before and
while performing maneuvers,
3. Consistently exceeding tolerances stated in the objectives, or
4. Failure to take prompt corrective action when tolerances are exceeded.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 6 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards

F. Tell your students that the FAA’s use of the phrases “consistently exceeding tolerances” and
“failure to take prompt corrective action when tolerances are exceeded” implies that an isolated
instance of exceeded tolerances should NOT in itself be grounds for disqualification.
1. Knowing that a single mistake should not lead to failure may help your students to relax
during the practical test.

VI. A Word of Caution

A. It is tempting for CFIs to use the appropriate PTS to simply “teach the test” when training a student
for a particular certificate or rating.
1. CFIs who approach flight training this way are doing their students a disservice.
2. The tasks in the practical test standards are intended to provide a reasonable sampling of
the applicant's abilities; they cannot realistically cover every subject that should be included
in a comprehensive flight training program for a given certificate or rating
a. For example, while the “emergency descent” task was recently deleted from the
private and commercial pilot practical test standards, all pilots should know how to
perform this maneuver.
3. It is therefore up to you as a CFI to incorporate the items that you think are necessary for
complete coverage of the subjects you are teaching.
B. It is important to always teach your students first and foremost to be competent and safe pilots;
passing the practical test should be regarded as simply a byproduct of thorough instruction.

2.4 RECENT PTS CHANGES

I. The FAA recently revised the Practical Test Standards for the private pilot, commercial pilot, and
flight instructor certificates. These revised PTSs became effective in August 2002. We have
compiled an overview of the major changes below.
A. For a detailed page-by-page description of the changes, visit Gleim’s CFI-Only web site at
http://www.gleim.com/Aviation/cfionly/ and click the link titled “Changes to FAA Practical Test
Standards.”
1. You will be asked to provide your e-mail address and CFI certificate number to access this
free site.
B. We also recommend that you view the actual Practical Test Standards documents, available from
the FAA web site at http://afs600.faa.gov./AFS630.htm. Under “Related Links,” click “Practical
Test Standards” to obtain a listing of all current Practical Test Standards documents.

II. General Changes: The FAA made the following significant changes that are common to all three of
the recently-revised PTSs (private, commercial, and CFI):
A. The introduction specifies that the ground portion of the practical test must take place before the
flight portion.
1. Previously, either portion of the test could be conducted first.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards 7

B. The introduction clarifies the FAA’s position regarding incomplete or marginal performance of a
task with the following paragraph:
If the examiner determines that a TASK is incomplete, or the outcome uncertain, the
examiner may require the applicant to repeat that TASK, or portions of that TASK. This
provision has been made in the interest of fairness and does not mean that instruction,
practice, or the repeating of an unsatisfactory task is permitted during the certification
process. When practical, the remaining TASKs of the practical test phase should be
completed before repeating the questionable TASK.
C. The introduction also clarifies that the tolerances listed for each task contained in the PTSs
represent the performance expected in good flying conditions.
1. While examiners have generally interpreted the PTSs this way in the past, the wording of the
current documents should result in less individual variation between examiners/inspectors
with regard to satisfactory performance of PTS tasks on turbulent days.
D. All airplane categories (single- and multi-engine, land and sea) are now contained in a single PTS
document. The organization of each new PTS is as follows:
1. Each PTS is divided into 2 sections: Section 1, Airplane Single-Engine Land and Sea, and
Section 2, Airplane Multi-Engine Land and Sea
a. Each section is essentially a complete PTS document for single- and multi-engine
airplanes, respectively.
b. Land and sea tasks for single- and multi-engine airplanes are therefore presented in
the same PTS document, so it is necessary to determine which airplane class(es) are
applicable to each task when using the PTS by looking for identifying letters in
parentheses to the right of each task title (e.g., ASEL, ASES).
2. The summaries of changes to each recently-revised PTS presented below are for airplane
single-engine land (ASEL) tasks only.
III. Private Pilot: The FAA made the following changes to the Private Pilot Practical Test Standards
(FAA-S-8081-14A):
A. Deleted Tasks:
1. In Area of Operation I, “Preflight Preparation,” Task G., “Minimum Equipment List.”
a. Note that knowledge of minimum equipment lists is still required for the new
“Airworthiness Requirements” task (see item III.B.1. below).
2. In Area of Operation X, “Emergency Operations,” Task A., “Emergency Descent.”
3. In Area of Operation XI, “Night Operations,” Task B., “Night Flight.”
B. New Tasks:
1. In Area of Operation I, “Preflight Preparation,” new Task B., “Airworthiness Requirements.”
a. This task covers the following elements:
i. Required instruments and equipment for day/night VFR.
ii. Procedures and limitations for determining airworthiness of an airplane with
inoperative instruments and equipment, with and without a minimum equipment
list.
iii. Requirements and procedures for obtaining a special flight permit.
iv. Locating and explaining ADs, compliance records, maintenance/inspection
requirements, and appropriate record keeping.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
8 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards

C. Revised Tasks:
1. In Area of Operation IV, “Takeoffs, Landings, and Go-Arounds," the following tasks were
revised:
a. Task C, “Soft-Field Takeoff and Climb”: The airplane may now be allowed to
accelerate to VX or VY in ground effect, as appropriate, and maintain this speed to a
safe maneuvering altitude (the old PTS specified VY only).
b. Task L, “Go-Around/Rejected Landing”: The applicant is now required to maneuver to
the side of the runway to clear and avoid conflicting traffic (this action, while
commonly taught by most CFIs, was not specifically required in the old PTS)
2. In Area of Operation V, “Performance Maneuver,” the only task revised was:
a. Task A, “Steep Turns”: The applicant is no longer required to complete the maneuver
at a minimum of 1,500 ft. AGL.
3. In Area of Operation VI, “Ground Reference Maneuvers,” the examiner is now required to
select only one of the three tasks. In addition, the following task was revised:
a. Task C, “Turns Around a Point”: The applicant is no longer required to complete two
turns during the maneuver, and 45° is no longer specified as the approximate bank
angle at the steepest point in the turn.
4. In Area of Operation VIII, “Slow Flight and Stalls,” the following tasks were revised:
a. Task A, “Maneuvering During Slow Flight”:
i. Slow flight is now defined as an airspeed at which any further increase in angle
of attack, increase in load factor, or reduction in power would result in an
immediate stall (the old PTS defined slow flight as 1.2 V)
o This definition of slow flight is similar to the old FAA term “minimum
controllable airspeed,” and requires flight at airspeeds considerably lower
than 1.2 VS1 in some airplanes.
ii. The airspeed tolerance is now +10/-0 kt., and the bank angle tolerance is now
+/-10° (the tolerances in the old PTS were airspeed, +10/-5 kt., and bank
angle, +0/-10°).
iii. The new PTS no longer specifies a maximum bank angle for turns (the old PTS
specified 30° in level flight and 20° in climbing or descending flight).
b. Task B, “Power-Off Stalls”: The applicant is no longer required to announce the
indications of an approaching stall. Additionally, the maximum bank angle and
tolerance for inducing a turning stall is now 20°, +/-10° (the old PTS specified a
maximum bank angle of 30°, +0/-10°), and the applicant may now accelerate to VX or
VY before the final flap retraction (the old PTS specified VY only).
c. Task C, “Power-On Stalls”: The applicant is no longer required to announce the
indications of an approaching stall. Additionally, the bank angle tolerance is now 20°,
+/- 10° (the old PTS specified 20°, +0/-10°), and the applicant may now accelerate to
VX or VY before the final flap retraction (the old PTS specified VY only).
5. In Area of Operation IX, “Basic Instrument Maneuvers,” the examiner is now required to
select Task E, “Recovery From Unusual Flight Attitudes,” and one other task. In addition,
the following tasks were revised:
a. Task B, “Constant Airspeed Climbs”: The applicant may now be required to perform
turning climbs (the old PTS specified straight climbs only).
b. Task C, “Constant Airspeed Descents”: The applicant may now be required to perform
turning descents (the old PTS specified straight descents only).
c. Task D, “Turns to Headings”: The applicant is now required to roll out on the assigned
heading, +/- 10° (the old PTS tolerance was +/- 20°).

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards 9

6. In Area of Operation XII, “Postflight Procedures," the following tasks were revised:
a. Task A, “After Landing,” and Task B, “Parking and Securing,” have been combined
into a single new Task A, “After Landing, Parking, and Securing.” This new task
covers essentially the same areas as the two tasks it replaces, while placing
additional emphasis on runway incursion avoidance and reaching an appropriate
speed during the landing roll-out before attempting to turn off the runway.

IV. Commercial Pilot: The FAA made the following changes to the Commercial Pilot Practical Test
Standards (FAA-S-8081-12B):
A. Deleted Tasks:
1. In Area of Operation I, “Preflight Preparation,” Task H., “Physiological Aspects of Night
Flying.”
2. In Area of Operation I, “Preflight Preparation,” Task I., “Lighting and Equipment for Night
Flying.”
3. In Area of Operation IX, “Emergency Operations,” Task A., “Emergency Descent.”
B. New Tasks:
1. In Area of Operation I, “Preflight Preparation,” new Task B., “Airworthiness Requirements.”
a. See item III.B.1. in the discussion of new private pilot PTS tasks for a description of
the elements of this task.
2. In Area of Operation IV, “Takeoffs, Landings, and Go-Arounds,” new Task K., “Power-Off
180° Accuracy Approach and Landing.”
a. A power-off 180° accuracy approach and landing is an approach and landing that is
made by gliding with the engine idling through a 180° turn to a touchdown that is
beyond and within 200 ft. of a specified point on the runway.
i. The maneuver is begun in the traffic pattern at the pattern altitude by closing the
throttle abeam the intended touchdown point, establishing the recommended
glide airspeed (presumably the airplane’s best glide speed), and beginning a
power-off glide, which is continued all the way to touchdown.
b. The objective of this maneuver is to develop the ability to accurately judge the
airplane’s glide path in a power-off glide and to develop the ability to control the glide
path in order to make an accurate touchdown at an appropriate airspeed.
i. Explain to your students that an example of a practical application of this
maneuver is performing a forced landing following an engine failure.
c. See the Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3) and the Commercial Pilot Practical
Test Standards (FAA-S-8081-12B) for more information on how to perform power-off
180° accuracy approaches and landings.
3. In Area of Operation V, “Performance Maneuvers,” new Task B., “Steep Spiral.”
a. A steep spiral is a series of three 360° gliding turns of constant radius around a
reference point on the ground.
i. A steep spiral is essentially a descending turn around a point.
b. The maneuver is begun at an altitude sufficient to allow three 360° turns to be
completed, with the maneuver ending no lower than 1,000 ft. AGL. The throttle
should be closed shortly before the airplane arrives abeam the intended ground
reference point, and the recommended glide speed should be established. A gliding
spiral of constant radius should be begun once the airplane is abeam the ground
reference point.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
10 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards

i. Explain to your students that an example of a practical application of this

maneuver is the dissipation of altitude above an emergency landing site
following an engine failure at altitude.
c. See the Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3) and the Commercial Pilot Practical
Test Standards (FAA-S-8081-12B) for more information on how to perform steep
spirals.

C. Revised Tasks:
1. In Area of Operation IV, “Takeoffs, Landings, and Go-Arounds," the following tasks were
revised:
a. Task A, “Normal and Crosswind Takeoff and Climb”: The applicant may now be tested
on rejected takeoff procedures.
b. Task B, “Normal and Crosswind Approach and Landing”: In the absence of a
recommended approach airspeed, the applicant is required to maintain no more than
1.3 VSO, +/- 5 kt. (the old PTS did not specify an airspeed to be used in the absence
of a recommended approach speed).
c. Task C, “Soft-Field Takeoff and Climb”: The airplane may now be allowed to
accelerate to VX or VYin ground effect, as appropriate, and maintain this speed, +/- 5
kt., to a safe maneuvering altitude (the old PTS specified VY only).
2. In Area of Operation V, “Performance Maneuvers,” the following changes were made:
a. In the beginning of the area of operation, it is now specified that the examiner must
select at least one task from each of the following groups, for a total of at least 2
tasks:
i. Task A, “Steep Turns,” or Task B., “Steep Spiral.”
ii. Task C, “Chandelles,” or Task D., “Lazy Eights.”
b. Task A, “Steep Turns”: The applicant is no longer required to complete the maneuver
at a minimum of 1,500 ft. AGL.
c. Task C, “Chandelles”:
i. The maximum entry speed and maximum bank angle are no longer specified
(the old PTS specified that the entry airspeed was not to exceed VAand that the
maximum allowable bank was 30°).
ii. At the completion of the maneuver the applicant must return to straight and level
flight with a minimum loss of altitude (the old PTS specified that straight and
level flight should be resumed at the final altitude attained, +/-50 ft.).
d. Task D, “Lazy Eights”:
i. The applicant is no longer required to select a prominent 90° reference point in
the distance, and it is no longer specified that the applicant must complete at
least two 180° circuits. Additionally, the PTS now specifies a maximum of
approximately 30° of bank at the steepest point (the old PTS did not specify a
maximum bank angle).
3. In Area of Operation VI, “Ground Reference Maneuver,” the only task revised was:
a. “Eights on Pylons”: The applicant is no longer required to maintain straight and level
flight for 3-5 seconds between the pylons. Additionally, the maneuver is now required
to be completed with a maximum of approximately 30° to 40° of bank at the steepest
point (the old PTS did not specify a maximum bank angle).

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards 11

4. In Area of Operation VIII, “Slow Flight and Stalls,” the following tasks were revised:
a. Task A, “Maneuvering During Slow Flight”:
i. Slow flight is now defined as an airspeed at which any further increase in angle
of attack, increase in load factor, or reduction in power would result in an
immediate stall (the old PTS defined slow flight as 1.2 VS1).
ii. The airspeed tolerance is now +5/-0 kt., and the bank angle tolerance is now +/-
5° (the tolerances in the old PTS were airspeed, +/-5 kt., and bank angle,
+/-10°).
b. Task B, “Power-Off Stalls”: The applicant is no longer required to announce the
indications of an approaching stall. Additionally, the maximum bank angle and
tolerance for inducing a turning stall is now 20°, +/- 5° (the old PTS specified a
maximum bank angle of 30°,+0/-10°), and the applicant may now accelerate to VX or
VY before the final flap retraction (the old PTS specified VY only).
c. Task C, “Power-On Stalls”: The applicant is no longer required to announce the
indications of an approaching stall. Additionally, the applicant may now accelerate to
VX or VY before the final flap retraction (the old PTS specified VY only).
5. In Area of Operation XI, “Postflight Procedures,” the following tasks were revised:
a. Task A, “After Landing,” and Task B, “Parking and Securing,” have been combined
into a single new Task A, “After Landing, Parking, and Securing.” This new task
covers essentially the same areas as the two tasks it replaces, while placing
additional emphasis on runway incursion avoidance and reaching an appropriate
speed during the landing roll-out before attempting to turn off the runway.

V. Flight Instructor: The FAA made the following changes to the Flight Instructor Practical Test
Standards (FAA-S-8081-6B):
A. General Information: The introduction to the Flight Instructor Practical Test Standards specifies
that CFI candidates are expected to perform all maneuvers to the commercial pilot skill level.
1. Accordingly, the tolerances for acceptable completion of the maneuvers are not reproduced
within the flight instructor PTS because they are found in the appropriate private pilot,
commercial pilot, or instrument rating PTS.
2. Because of this organization, you must remember that the recent private and commercial
pilot PTS changes also affect the flight instructor PTS without being specifically mentioned
in that document. Therefore, you must prepare new CFI candidates accordingly.
B. Deleted Tasks:
1. In Area of Operation II, “Technical Subject Areas,” Task C., “Use of Distractions During
Flight Training.”
2. In Area of Operation II, “Technical Subject Areas,” Task M., “Use of Minimum Equipment
List.”

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
12 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards

C. New Tasks:
1. In Area of Operation II, “Technical Subject Areas,” new task K., “Navigation Aids and Radar
Services.”
a. The applicant must be able to explain one ground-based navigational system
(VOR/VORTAC, NDB, DME, or LORAN), satellite-based navigation systems, and
radar service and procedures.
2. In Area of Operation III, “Preflight Preparation,” new Task E., “Airworthiness Requirements.”
a. See item III.B.1. in the discussion of new private pilot PTS tasks for a description of
the elements of this task.
3. In Area of Operation VII, now titled “Takeoffs, Landings, and Go-arounds,” new Task K.,
“Power-Off 180° Accuracy Approach and Landing.”
a. See item IV.B.2. in the discussion of new commercial pilot PTS tasks for a description
of power-off 180° accuracy approaches and landings.
4. In Area of Operation IX, “Performance Maneuvers,” new Task B., “Steep Spirals.”
a. See item IV.B.3. in the discussion of new commercial pilot PTS tasks for a description
of steep spirals.

D. Revised Tasks:
1. In Area of Operation I, “Fundamentals of Instructing,” all tasks have been revised to reflect
the new Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9), dated 1999.
2. In Area of Operation II, “Technical Subject Areas,” the following task was revised:
a. Task L, “Federal Aviation Regulations,” and Task N, “Publications,” have been
combined into a single new Task, “Federal Aviation Regulations and Publications.”
i. The content of this new task is identical to the old tasks.
3. In Area of Operation VII, tasks from old Area of Operation VII, “Takeoffs and Climbs,” and
old Area of Operation XIV, “Approaches and Landings,” have been combined into a single
new Area of Operation VII, “Takeoffs, Landings, and Go-Arounds.” The PTS specifies that
the examiner is required to select at least two takeoff tasks and two landing tasks from this
new area of operation, for a total of at least four tasks. In addition, the following task was
revised:
a. Task G, “Slip to a Landing”: The task now refers to both forward and side slips (the old
PTS referred to forward slips only).
4. In Area of Operation IX, “Performance Maneuvers,” it is now specified that the examiner
must select at least one task from each of the following groups, for a total of at least two
tasks:
i. Task A, “Steep Turns,” or Task B, "Steep Spiral.”
ii. Task C, “Chandelles,” or Task D, "Lazy Eights.”

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards 13

5. In Area of Operation X, “Ground Reference Maneuvers,” it is now specified that the

examiner must select Task D, “Eights on Pylons,” and at least one other task, for a total of
at least two tasks.
6. In Area of Operation XII, “Basic Instrument Maneuvers,” the following tasks were revised:
a. Task B, “Constant Airspeed Climbs”: The applicant may now be evaluated on straight
and turning climbs (the old PTS specified only straight climbs).
b. Task C, “Constant Airspeed Descents”: The applicant may now be evaluated on
straight and turning descents (the old PTS specified only straight descents).

2.5 FREQUENTLY UNDER-EMPHASIZED AREAS

I. Use of Checklists
A. You must use, and you must instruct your students to use, the appropriate checklist for each phase
of flight while on the ground or in the air (e.g., before starting engine, climb, before landing, etc.)
1. When teaching checklist usage, you must emphasize proper scanning vigilance and division
of attention at all times.
B. Explain to your students that there are two different kinds of checklists used for single-pilot
operations:
1. “Read and do” -- e.g., before-takeoff checklist.
2. “Do and read” -- e.g., in reacting to emergencies, doing everything that comes to mind and
then confirming or researching in the Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH).
3. Ensure that your students understand when it is appropriate to perform both kinds of
checklists.
C. ALL CHECKLISTS should be read aloud at all times.
1. Requiring your students to call out the items on the checklist as they undertake the action or
make the necessary observation will focus their attention on the individual items.
2. However, be sure to emphasize to your students that checklists are not an end in and of
themselves. Checklists are a means of flying safely. Generally, they are to be used as
specified in the POH and to accomplish safe flight.
a. Simply “going through the motions” of reading the checklist aloud without actually
confirming each item serves no purpose except to create a false sense of security.

D. Many pilots do not refer to a checklist after completing the run-up.

1. This bad habit can lead to forgetting critical steps, such as setting the power, leaning the
mixture, and checking the heading indicator after level-off from a climb, or opening the cowl
flaps after landing.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 14 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards

2. Emphasize to your students that checklists must be used for each phase of the flight in order
to ensure proper operation of the aircraft.
a. For example, tell your students that during a cross-country flight in a typical training
airplane, if they fail to properly set cruise power and lean the mixture when they level
off at cruise altitude (i.e., if they continue flying level with the mixture rich at full
throttle), they will burn 30-40% more fuel than the performance information indicated
in the Pilot’s Operating Handbook.
b. This means that if they are even slightly pushing the manufacturer’s endurance figures
as listed in the Pilot’s Operating Handbook, they may suffer fuel exhaustion and a
forced landing simply as a result of not completing a cruise checklist.

II. Night flight

A. While none of the FAA’s practical test standards include tasks that are required to be performed at
night, applicants for private and commercial pilot certificates are required to obtain certain
aeronautical experience at night:
1. Private pilot candidates are required to obtain 3 hours of night flight instruction, including at
least one cross-country flight of over 100 NM total distance and at least 10 takeoffs and
landings to a full stop.
2. Commercial pilot candidates are required to have at least one dual night cross-country flight
of at least 2 hours duration and consisting of a total straight-line distance of more than 100
NM from the original point of departure. In addition, commercial pilot candidates must also
log at least 5 hours of solo flight at night, including at least 10 takeoffs and 10 landings
(with each landing involving a flight in the traffic pattern) at an airport with an operating
control tower.
B. As a flight instructor, you must remember that you will probably be the only person to evaluate your
student’s night flying abilities before (s)he is certificated.
1. Most practical tests are conducted entirely in daylight (though there is no restriction against
conducting them at night), so the examiner probably will not have an opportunity to test
your student’s night flying abilities.
2. Accordingly, you have a responsibility NOT to endorse a pilot candidate for his/her practical
test unless (s)he is competent to act as pilot in command at night.
a. No conscientious flight instructor would knowingly put his/her student and future
passengers at risk.
i. However, that is exactly what you would be doing by endorsing a private or
commercial pilot candidate who is not proficient in night operations for his/her
practical test, because the candidate will obtain night-flying privileges if (s)he
successfully completes the test.
ii. You cannot rely on your students’ assessment of their own night flying abilities
to keep them out of trouble until they gain further instruction. YOU are the
expert, and it is not unreasonable for your students to take your practical test
endorsement as an endorsement of their night flying abilities as well.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards 15

C. The following are a few points you should make to your students regarding night flight:
1. At night, visual references are limited (and sometimes nonexistent), and the flight
instruments will need to be used to a greater degree in controlling the airplane.
a. This does not mean that only the flight instruments will be used to control the airplane,
but that the flight instruments are used more to cross-check the visual references.
b. Remind your students that they must also continue to scan for traffic by looking
outside the airplane.
2. Emphasize that crossing large bodies of water on night flights can be potentially hazardous,
not only from the standpoint of landing (ditching) in the water, should it become necessary,
but also because the horizon may blend in with the water, so that control of the airplane
may become difficult.
a. During hazy conditions over open water, the horizon will become obscure, and spatial
disorientation becomes a possibility.
b. Even on clear nights, the stars may be reflected on the water surface, appearing as a
continuous array of lights, which makes the horizon difficult to identify.
3. Warn your students that at night, it is difficult to see clouds and restrictions to visibility,
particularly on dark nights (i.e., no moonlight) or under an overcast.
a. Caution must be exercised to avoid flying into weather conditions below VFR (i.e.,
clouds, fog).
b. Normally, the first indication of flying into restricted visibility conditions is the gradual
disappearance of lights on the ground.
i. Advise your students that if the lights begin to take on an appearance of being
surrounded by a “cotton ball” or glow, they should use extreme caution in
attempting to fly farther in that same direction.
c. Also remind your students that, if a descent must be made through any fog, smoke, or
haze in order to land, visibility is considerably less when looking horizontally through
the restriction than it is when looking straight down through it from above.
d. Advise your students never to attempt a VFR flight at night during poor or marginal
weather conditions.
4. Traffic patterns
a. When teaching traffic pattern entries at night, emphasize to your students that it is
important to identify the runway lights and other airport lighting as early as possible.
i. If your student is unfamiliar with the airport layout, sighting of the runway may be
difficult until (s)he is very close-in due to other lighting in the area.
ii. Instruct your students to fly toward the airport rotating beacon until they can
identify the runway lights.
iii. The airplane’s landing light should be on to make it more visible to other pilots
and ATC.
b. Inform your students that in order to fly a traffic pattern of the proper size and direction
when there is little to see but a group of lights, they must positively identify the
runway threshold and runway edge lights.
i. Your students can confirm that they are entering the pattern for the proper
runway by comparing the runway lights to the heading indicator.
ii. Once this is done, the location of the approach threshold lights should be known
at all times throughout the traffic pattern.
iii. The traffic pattern should be flown as it would be during the day.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 16 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards

III. Instrument Flying

A. Aeronautical experience requirements:
1. A private pilot (airplane) applicant is required to log 3 hours of flight training on the control
and maneuvering of an airplane solely by reference to instruments, including
straight-and-level flight, constant airspeed climbs and descents, turns to a heading,
recovery from unusual flight attitudes, radio communications, and the use of navigation
systems/facilities and radar services appropriate to instrument flight.
2. A commercial pilot (airplane) applicant is required to receive at least 10 hours of instrument
training, at least 5 hours of which must be in the appropriate class of airplane.
B. This lesson discusses one possible method for teaching a student to perform straight-and-level
flight by reference to instruments.
C. STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLIGHT
1. Begin by defining straight-and-level attitude instrument flying.
a. Flying straight means to maintain a constant heading on the heading indicator (HI),
which is done by keeping the wings level on the attitude indicator (AI) and the ball
centered on the turn coordinator (TC).
b. Flying level means to maintain a constant altitude on the altimeter (ALT), which is
done by holding a level pitch attitude on the AI.
c. Steady airspeed is maintained by holding a constant power (RPM) setting.
d. Explain to your students that flying straight-and-level requires a series of constant
corrections for unintended deviations in heading, altitude, and airspeed.
2. Next, discuss the primary/supporting concept of attitude instrument flying. Explain that
there are three parameters to be considered: they are the airplane’s pitch, bank, and
power.
a. Each of these parameters can be varied by the pilot in order to maintain a particular
flight condition at the desired value (e.g., bank can be varied in order to hold a
constant heading).
i. For this discussion, the term “flight condition” refers to an aeronautical value that
can be quantified, such as heading, airspeed, altitude, bank angle, climb rate,
or descent rate.
b. For any given maneuver (e.g., straight-and-level flight, turns, or descents) there will be
one primary instrument designated for each parameter. This instrument is
designated as the primary instrument because it is the only instrument that provides
the pilot with the following information:
i. Whether a desired flight condition that is controlled by a given parameter is
being maintained (e.g., in level flight, a particular airspeed is maintained by
only one power setting), and
ii. What action is necessary to correct for any observed deviation of the flight
condition from the desired value (e.g., if the airspeed is below the desired value
in straight-and-level flight, power must be increased).

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards 17

c. Each parameter will also have at least one supporting instrument.

i. These instruments are designated as supporting instruments because they
provide useful information about the trend of each flight condition to deviate
from the desired value, the rate at which each condition is deviating, and the
approximate extent of any pitch, bank, or power correction required to correct
for these deviations.
ii. Supporting instruments do not, however, provide the pilot with information about
the current status of the flight condition.
o For example, in level cruising flight, pitch controls altitude. Thus, the ALT
is the primary pitch instrument because it is the only instrument that tells
the pilot which direction (s)he needs to vary the pitch (up or down) if the
altitude deviates from the desired value.
o The supporting pitch instruments for level flight are the airspeed indicator
(ASI), the AI, and the vertical speed indicator (VSI). In addition to
providing raw pitch information, these instruments all provide clues as to
how rapidly the airplane's altitude is changing (if at all), and whether the
altitude is increasing or decreasing, but they cannot tell the pilot if the
change in altitude is bringing the airplane closer to the desired value, or
further from it-this information is only available from the primary pitch
instrument (the ALT).
d. Emphasize to your students that the terms “primary” and “supporting” can be
misleading because they could be interpreted to mean that the primary instruments
are more important than the supporting instruments.
i. The supporting instruments are extremely helpful aids to smooth, precise flying.
ii. For example, if the VSI shows a 100 fpm climb, the altitude will increase by
100 ft. over the course of 1 min., even though the ALT may show the desired
altitude and the pointers may not appear to be moving.
o The VSI (a supporting pitch instrument) is therefore a very useful aid in
maintaining a constant altitude, because if the VSI shows that the
climb/descent rate is zero, the altitude will not change.
o Accordingly, the pilot can make a correction for the slight climb shown on
the VSI before any altitude change appears on the ALT.
iii. The following explanation may be useful in helping your students to understand
the primary/supporting concept of instrument flying:
o The primary instruments tell the pilot about the airplane’s present
condition; e.g., while attempting to maintain level flight, the ALT always
indicates the airplane’s altitude at that instant, regardless of how rapidly
the altitude may be changing.
o The supporting instruments predict the future of the airplane’s
condition; e.g., even though the ALT may show that the airplane is
currently at the desired altitude, the airplane will not remain at that
altitude for very long if the VSI shows a 500 fpm climb.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
18 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards

3. Finally, explain straight-and-level flight solely by reference to instruments

a. The figure below illustrates the instrument indications for straight-and-level flight.

6 8 10 1

240
9 0
30+0-30
TEMP.
60 1
220 40 ALT
200

180
AIRSPEED 60
80 8 2
296
200
80 297
160 TRUE SPEED
298
100
180 140
KNOTS

120
100
7 3
110
160
6 4
140 120 5

1. AIRSPEED INDICATOR 2. ATTITUDE INDICATOR 3. ALTIMETER

24 W
21 3
5
10

0
15
UP

33 N
VERTICAL SPEED
100 FEET PER MIN
15 0 20
DOWN
L TURN COORDINATOR R
2
2 MIN 3 5 15
1
E 6 10
T
SE

4. TURN COORDINATOR 5. HEADING INDICATOR 6. VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

Figure2_3 - Standard Six IFR Instruments

b. Straight flight is maintained by holding the wings level on the AI and the TC, and
maintaining a constant heading on the HI.
i. Since a specific heading is desired, the HI is primary for bank.
o The supporting instruments for bank are the AI and the TC.
ii. If the airplane deviates from the desired heading, the AI is used to level the
wings. The pilot must also ensure that the ball of the TC is centered.
o The pilot must then determine the direction to turn in order to return to the
desired heading, and use the AI to establish a bank in the proper
direction.
■ The pilot should use an angle of bank no greater than the number of
degrees to be turned, but the bank angle should be limited to that
required for a standard-rate turn.
o Coordinated aileron and rudder are used to establish the turn.
iii. The ball of the TC should be centered. If it is not, the pilot may be
unintentionally holding rudder pressure, or the airplane may be improperly
trimmed (if rudder trim is available).
c. Level flight is maintained by adjusting pitch as necessary on the AI to maintain
altitude.
i. Since a specific altitude is desired, the ALT is primary for pitch.
o The supporting instruments for pitch are the AI and the VSI.
o As a trend instrument, the VSI will show immediately, even before the
ALT, the initial vertical movement of the airplane.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards 19

ii. If the airplane changes altitude, the AI is used to return to level flight, and the
pilot must determine if a climb or descent is required to return to the desired
altitude.
o The AI is used to make a small pitch adjustment in the proper direction,
and the VSI is used to ensure that the airplane is moving in the proper
direction.
o Small altitude deviations (i.e., 100 ft. or less) should be corrected with
pitch only, using a rate of approximately 200 fpm on the VSI.
o Large altitude deviations (i.e., greater than 100 ft.) may be more easily
corrected by adjusting both pitch and power, and using a greater rate of
return to altitude (approximately double the error in altitude).
iii. The VSI becomes the primary pitch instrument while returning to altitude after a
deviation is noticed during level flight.
o Pitch should be adjusted on the AI in order to establish and maintain the
desired descent rate.
o For example, if the airplane is 200 ft. below the desired altitude, pitch
should be increased to a climb attitude on the AI and fine-tuned in order
to maintain approximately a 400 fpm climb (double the altitude error) on
the VSI.
d. During straight-and-level flight, a constant airspeed is desired; thus the ASI is the
primary power instrument. Power is increased or decreased as necessary in order to
maintain the desired airspeed.
i. The manifold pressure gauge (MP) and/or RPM are supporting power
instruments for straight-and-level flight.
o When changing airspeed in level flight, power can be initially adjusted
using the MP/RPM.
o Once the airspeed has stabilized, power can then be fine-tuned using the
ASI in order to maintain the desired airspeed.
e. Advise your students that they will need to learn to overcome a natural tendency to
make a large control movement for a pitch change, and learn to apply small control
pressures smoothly, cross-checking rapidly for the results of the change and
continuing with the pressures as the instruments show the desired results at a rate
that they can interpret.
i. Small attitude changes can be easily controlled, stopped, and corrected.
ii. Large changes are more difficult to control.
f. Coordination of controls requires that the ball of the TC be kept centered and that the
available trim control devices be used whenever a change in flight conditions disturbs
the existing trim.
i. Trim is used to relieve all possible control pressures held after a desired attitude
has been attained.
ii. The pressure felt on the control yoke must be that which is applied while
controlling a planned change in airplane attitude, not pressure held because
“the pilot is being flown by the airplane.”
4. Private pilot PTS completion standards
a. Maintain altitude, ±200 ft.; heading, ±10; and airspeed, ±10 kt.
5. Instrument rating PTS completion standards
a. Maintain altitude, ±100 ft.; heading, ±10; and airspeed, 10 kt.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 20 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards

IV. Abnormal and Emergency Procedures

A. Explain to your students that several factors may interfere with a pilot’s ability to act promptly and
properly when faced with an emergency:
1. Reluctance to accept the emergency situation. Allowing one’s mind to become paralyzed by
the emergency may lead to failure to maintain flying speed, delay in choosing a suitable
landing area, and indecision in general.
2. Desire to save the airplane. If a pilot has been conditioned to expect to find a suitable
landing area whenever the instructor has simulated a failed engine, (s)he may be apt to
ignore good procedures in order to avoid rough terrain where the airplane may be
damaged. There may be times that the airplane will have to be sacrificed so that the pilot
and passengers can walk away.
3. Undue concern about getting hurt. Fear is a vital part of self-preservation, but it must not be
allowed to lead to panic. Pilots faced with an emergency must maintain their composure
and apply the proper concepts and procedures.
B. Emergency operations require that the pilot maintain situational awareness of what is happening.
You must help your student to develop an organized process for decision making that can be
used in all situations. One method is to use DECIDE:
D etect a change: Recognize immediately when indications, whether visual, aural, or intuitive,
are different from those expected.
E stimate need to react: Determine whether these different indications constitute an adverse
situation and, if so, what sort of action, if any, will be required to deal with it.
C hoose desired outcome: Decide how, specifically, you would like the current situation altered.
I dentify actions to control change: Formulate a definitive plan of action to remedy the situation.
D o something positive: Even if no ideal plan of action presents itself, something can always be
done to improve things at least.
E valuate the effects: Have you solved the predicament, or is further action required?

C. Pass on the following ideas about good judgment and sound operating practice as you prepare
your students to meet emergencies:
1. All pilots hope to be able to act properly and efficiently when the unexpected occurs. A safe
pilot will try to cultivate coolness in an emergency.
2. A pilot must know his/her airplane well enough to interpret the indications of trouble correctly
before taking corrective action. This requires regular study of the airplane’s POH.
3. While difficult, all pilots must make a special effort to remain proficient in emergency
procedures they will seldom, if ever, have to use.
4. Emphasize to your students that they must not be reluctant to accept the existence of an
emergency. They must take appropriate action immediately without overreacting. The
problem should be explained to ATC so that controllers can help them plan alternatives and
be in a position to grant them priority.
5. It is good operating practice to assume that an emergency will occur on every takeoff; i.e.,
expect the unexpected. If nothing unusual happens, the pilot gets a pleasant surprise. If
an emergency does occur, (s)he will be in the correct mind-set to recognize the problem
and handle it in a safe and efficient manner.
6. Smart pilots avoid putting themselves into situations in which they have no alternatives.
Encourage your students to remain continuously alert for suitable emergency landing
spots.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards 21

V. Determining Airworthiness
A. Your students must be familiar with all airworthiness considerations that apply to their aircraft and
to the type of flight operations being conducted.
B. From a safety-of-flight standpoint, an aircraft is considered airworthy when it meets its type design
specifications or is in a “properly altered condition” as defined by the FAA, and is in a condition
that allows for safe flight.
1. You should carefully instruct your students to determine that the airplane is physically in a
condition for safe flight during the preflight inspection.
a. This instruction should include the location of critical areas for inspection, appropriate
tolerances for each area, and the means to identify excessive wear or damage.

C. From an equipment standpoint, an aircraft is considered airworthy when all equipment required for
the intended operation is installed and operational.
1. Inform your students that 14 CFR Sec. 91.205 describes the required equipment for each
aircraft to conduct day and night operations under IFR or VFR, as appropriate.
a. Emphasize that all equipment required for the operation must be installed and
operational prior to beginning the flight.
b. These items are outlined in Lesson 3, Federal Regulations.
2. Explain that 14 CFR Sec. 91.213 describes the acceptable methods for the operation of an
airplane with inoperative instruments and equipment that are not listed under 14 CFR
Sec. 91.205, and that are not otherwise essential for safe flight. These acceptable
methods of operation are
a. Operation with an approved minimum equipment list (MEL)
1) An MEL is a specific inoperative equipment document for a particular aircraft,
identified by that aircraft's serial and registration number.
2) An MEL is designed to provide owners/operators with the authority to operate an
aircraft with certain items or components inoperative, provided the FAA finds an
acceptable level of safety can be maintained by
a) Appropriate operating limitations
b) A transfer of the function to another operating component
c) Reference to other instruments or components providing the required
information
3) Note that an MEL is a list of equipment that is NOT required to be operational for
safe flight.
a) MELs are described in more detail in Lesson 3, Federal Regulations
b. Operation without an MEL (the way most training airplanes are operated)
1) A pilot may take off in an aircraft with inoperative instruments and equipment,
and without an approved MEL, provided that the inoperative instruments and
equipment are not
a) Part of the VFR-day type certification instruments and equipment under
which the aircraft was type certificated
b) Indicated as required on the aircraft's equipment list or on the Kinds of
Operations Equipment List for the kind of flight operation being conducted
c) Required by any FAR
d) Required by an airworthiness directive

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
22 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards

2) The inoperative instruments or equipment must be

a) Removed from the airplane with the cockpit control placarded and the
maintenance properly recorded, or
b) Deactivated and placarded “inoperative.”
3) A determination must be made by a certificated and appropriately rated pilot or
an appropriately certificated mechanic that the inoperative instrument or
equipment does not constitute a hazard to the aircraft.
4) By following these procedures, the aircraft is considered to be in a “properly
altered condition” acceptable to the FAA.

D. From a legal standpoint, an aircraft is considered airworthy when all required maintenance and
inspections have been performed at the appropriate intervals, and when all required documents
are present. Specifically, the following requirements must be met:
1. An annual inspection must have been performed within the preceding 12 calendar
months.
a. The date of the last annual inspection can be verified in the aircraft's maintenance
logbooks.
2. A 100-hr. inspection must have been performed within the preceding 100 hr. of flight time if
the aircraft is operated for compensation or hire, or is used to provide flight instruction for
hire.
a. The 100-hr. interval may be exceeded by no more than 10 hr. to facilitate transport of
the aircraft to a maintenance location where the inspection can be performed.
1) However, if the 100-hr. inspection is overflown, the next inspection will be due
after 100 hr. of flight time less the amount overflown.
2) EXAMPLE: If the check is performed at the 105-hr. point, the next 100-hr. check
is due at the end of 95 hr., not 100 hr.; thus, it would be due at the 200-hr. point
b. The date of the last 100-hr. inspection can be verified in the aircraft's maintenance
logbooks.
3. An ATC transponder inspection must have been performed within the preceding 24
calendar months in order to operate the transponder.
a. If this inspection has not been performed, the transponder may not be operated, nor
may operations that require a transponder (e.g., flight inside Class B airspace) be
conducted without prior ATC approval.
b. The date of the last transponder inspection can be verified in the aircraft's airframe
logbook.
4. An altimeter and static system inspection must have been performed within the
preceding 24 calendar months if the airplane is to be operated under IFR.
a. The date of the last altimeter and static system inspection can be verified in the
aircraft's airframe logbook.
5. A VOR receiver accuracy check must have been performed by a pilot or mechanic within
the preceding 30 days if the airplane is to be operated under IFR.
a. The date, place, bearing error, and name of the pilot or mechanic who conducted the
last receiver check can be found in the aircraft's airframe logbook or in another
appropriate record (many airplane operators keep a separate VOR record inside the
airplane).

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 2: TEST Practical Test Standards 23

6. An emergency locator transmitter (ELT) inspection must have been performed within the
preceding 12 calendar months. The ELT battery must be replaced or recharged after half
of its useful life has expired, or following 1 hr. of cumulative use.
a. Note that an ELT is not required for flight training operations that are conducted within
50 NM of the airport of origin.
b. The date of the last ELT inspection can be verified in the aircraft's airframe logbook.
1) The ELT battery's expiration date can be found placarded on the ELT itself, as
well as recorded in the aircraft's airframe logbook.
7. All applicable one-time and recurring airworthiness directives (ADs) must have been
complied with within the appropriate time interval.
a. The date of compliance with each AD can be verified in the aircraft's maintenance
logbooks.
1) Most operators also maintain a list of all applicable ADs for a particular aircraft
and, in the case of recurring ADs, a record of the time and date when the next
action is required.
8. Any other periodic maintenance required by the manufacturer must have been performed
within the appropriate interval.
a. The date of the last action can be verified in the aircraft's maintenance logbooks.
9. All required certificates and documents must be carried aboard the aircraft. These can be
easily recalled using the memory aid ARROW.

A irworthiness certificate
R egistration
R adio station license
O perating limitations
W eight and balance

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 1

GLEIM FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR REFRESHER COURSE

LESSON 3
FEDERAL REGULATIONS
3.1 PART 1: DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS
I. Part 1 contains definitions of numerous terms and abbreviations used throughout the regulations.
A. Advise your students to refer to Part 1 anytime they do not understand the meaning of a word or
an abbreviation used in a regulation.
B. In addition to Part 1, more specialized definitions can often be found at the beginning of other
Parts (e.g., 14 CFR 61.1, Applicability and Definitions, contains definitions of terms specific to
the certification of pilots and flight/ground instructors).

II. The following terms are frequently misunderstood, so it may be worth spending some extra time to
clarify them to your students.
A. Category
1. Category, as used with respect to the certification, ratings, privileges, and limitations of
airmen, means a broad classification of aircraft.
a. EXAMPLES: Airplane, rotorcraft, glider, and lighter-than-air.
2. Category, as used with respect to the certification of aircraft, means a grouping of aircraft
based upon intended use or operating limitations.
a. EXAMPLES: Transport, normal, utility, acrobatic, limited, restricted, and provisional.

B. Ceiling means the height above the Earth’s surface of the lowest layer of clouds or obscuring
phenomena that is reported as “broken,” “overcast,” or “obscuration,” and not classified as “thin”
or “partial.”
C. Class
1. Class, as used with respect to the certification, ratings, privileges, and limitations of airmen,
means a classification of aircraft within a category having similar operating characteristics.
a. EXAMPLES: Single-engine, multi-engine, land, water, gyroplane, helicopter, airship,
and free balloon.
2. Class, as used with respect to certification of aircraft, means a broad grouping of aircraft
having similar characteristics of propulsion, flight, or landing.
a. EXAMPLES: Airplane, rotorcraft, glider, balloon, landplane, and seaplane.

D. Commercial operator means a person who uses an aircraft to transport persons or property for
compensation or hire.
1. If it is uncertain whether an operation is for compensation or hire, the test applied is whether
the operation is merely incidental to the person's other business or is, in itself,a major
enterprise for profit.

E. Controlled airspace means an airspace of defined dimensions within which air traffic control is
provided to IFR flights and, in some classes of airspace, to VFR flights.
1. Note that controlled airspace is a generic term that covers Class A, Class B, Class C,
Class D, and Class E airspace.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 2 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations

F. Flight time means pilot time that commences when an aircraft moves under its own power for the
purpose of flight and ends when the aircraft comes to a rest after landing.
G. Night
1. As used for general purposes, means the time between the end of evening civil twilight and
the beginning of morning civil twilight, as published in the American Air Almanac, converted
to local time.
a. While not a definition of ‘night,’ you should also inform your students that aircraft
position lights must be displayed during the period from sunset to sunrise.
2. As used for the purpose of meeting recency of experience requirements (14 CFR 61.57) and
aeronautical experience requirements to obtain a certificate or rating, means the period
from 1 hr. after sunset to 1 hr. before sunrise.

H. Operator is a person who uses, causes the use of, or authorizes the use of an aircraft for the
purpose of air navigation, including the piloting of an aircraft, with or without the right of legal
control (i.e., owner, lessee, or otherwise).
1. Remind your students that they are legally considered to be the aircraft operator when they
are acting as pilot in command.

I. Pilot in command (PIC) means the person who

1. Has final authority and responsibility for the operation and safety of the flight
2. Has been designated as pilot in command before or during the flight
3. Holds the appropriate category, class, and type rating, if appropriate, for the conduct of the
flight

J. Rating means a statement that, as part of a certificate, sets forth special conditions, privileges,
and limitations.

3.2 PART 61: CERTIFICATION RULES FOR PILOTS AND FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS
NOTE: The certification rules presented below are applicable to pilots training for pilot or flight
instructor certificates with a single-engine airplane rating only.
I. Part 61 addresses the certification, privileges, and limitations of pilots and flight/ground instructors.
A. Your students should be aware that Part 61 is the official source for information about the specific
requirements for obtaining each pilot and instructor certificate and associated ratings, and for
information about the privileges and limitations that apply to each certificate and rating.

II. Part 61 Definitions (61.1)

A. Aeronautical experience means pilot time obtained in an aircraft, flight simulator, or flight
training device for the purpose of meeting appropriate training and flight time requirements for a
pilot certificate, a rating, a flight review, or recency of flight experience requirements.
B. Authorized instructor means a person who holds
1. A current flight instructor certificate issued under Part 61 when conducting ground training or
flight training in accordance with the privileges and limitations of his/her flight instructor
certificate
2. A valid ground instructor certificate issued under Part 61 or Part 143 when conducting
ground training in accordance with the privileges and limitations of his/her ground instructor
certificate

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations 3

C. Cross-country time means

1. Except as provided in 2., 3., and 4. below, time acquired during a flight that
a. Was conducted by a person who holds a pilot certificate;
b. Was conducted in an aircraft;
c. Included a landing at a point other than the point of departure; and
d. Involved the use of dead reckoning, pilotage, electronic navigation aids, radio aids, or
other navigation systems to navigate to the landing point.
2. For the purpose of meeting the aeronautical experience requirements (except for a rotorcraft
category rating) for a private pilot certificate, a commercial pilot certificate, or an instrument
rating, or for the purpose of exercising recreational pilot privileges (except in a rotorcraft)
under Sec. 61.101(c), time acquired during a flight that
a. Was conducted in an appropriate aircraft;
b. Included a point of landing that was at least a straight-line distance of more than
50 NM from the original point of departure; and
c. Involved the use of dead reckoning, pilotage, electronic navigation aids, radio aids, or
other navigation systems to navigate to the landing point.
3. For the purpose of meeting the aeronautical experience requirements for an airline transport
pilot certificate (except with a rotorcraft category rating), time acquired during a flight that
a. Was conducted in an appropriate aircraft;
b. Was at least a straight-line distance of more than 50 NM from the original point of
departure; and
c. Involved the use of dead reckoning, pilotage, electronic navigation aids, radio aids, or
other navigation systems.
i. Note that there is no requirement to make a landing at a point other than the
point of departure.
4. For a military pilot who qualifies for a commercial pilot certificate (except with a rotorcraft
category rating) under Sec. 61.73, time acquired during a flight that
a. Was conducted in an appropriate aircraft;
b. Was at least a straight-line distance of more than 50 NM from the original point of
departure; and
c. Involved the use of dead reckoning, pilotage, electronic navigation aids, radio aids, or
other navigation systems.

D. Flight simulator means a device that

1. Is a full-size aircraft cockpit replica of a specific type of aircraft, or make, model, and series
of aircraft;
2. Includes the hardware and software necessary to represent the aircraft in ground operations
and flight operations;
3. Uses a force cueing system that provides cues at least equivalent to those cues provided by
a 3° freedom-of-motion system;
4. Uses a visual system that provides at least a 45° horizontal field of view and a 30° vertical
field of view simultaneously for each pilot; and
5. Has been evaluated, qualified, and approved by the FAA.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 4 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations

E. Flight training means that training, other than ground training, received from an authorized
instructor in flight in an aircraft.
1. Note that solo flight is therefore not considered to be “flight training,” even though 14CFR
61.109 refers to “solo flight training.”

F. Flight training device means a device that

1. Is a full-size replica of the instruments, equipment, panels, and controls of an aircraft, or set
of aircraft, in an open flight deck area or in an enclosed cockpit, including the hardware and
software for the systems installed, that is necessary to simulate the aircraft in ground and
flight operations;
2. Need not have a force (motion) cueing or visual system; and
3. Has been evaluated, qualified, and approved by the FAA.

G. Ground training means training, other than flight training, received from an authorized
instructor.
H. Instrument training means the time in which instrument training is received from an authorized
instructor under actual or simulated instrument conditions.
I. Knowledge test means a test on the aeronautical knowledge areas required for an airman
certificate or rating that can be administered in written form or by a computer.
J. Pilot time means time in which a person
1. Serves as a required pilot flight crewmember;
2. Receives training from an authorized instructor in an aircraft, flight simulator, or flight training
device; or
3. Gives training as an authorized instructor in an aircraft, flight simulator, or flight training
device.

K. Practical test means a test on the areas of operations for an airman certificate, rating, or
authorization that is conducted by having the applicant respond to questions and demonstrate
maneuvers in flight, in a flight simulator, or in a flight training device.
L. Set of aircraft means aircraft that share similar performance characteristics, such as similar
airspeed and altitude operating envelopes, similar handling characteristics, and the same
number and type of propulsion systems.
M. Training time means training received from an authorized instructor
1. In flight
2. On the ground
3. In a flight simulator or flight training device

III. Medical Certificates: Requirement and Duration (61.23)

A. You must hold at least a third-class medical certificate when exercising the privileges of a flight
instructor certificate if you are acting as the pilot in command (PIC) or serving as a required pilot
flight crewmember.
B. A medical certificate is NOT required if you are exercising the privileges of a flight instructor
certificate but are NOT acting as PIC or a required pilot flight crewmember.
1. Thus, the pilot you are flying with must meet the requirements to act as PIC if you do not
hold at least a third-class medical certificate.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations 5

IV. Student Pilots (61.83)

A. To be eligible for a student pilot certificate, a person must
1. Be at least 16 years of age.
2. Be able to read, speak, write, and understand English.
a. If the person is unable to meet one of these requirements due to medical reasons, the
FAA may place operating limitations on the student pilot certificate as necessary for
safety.

V. Requirements to Obtain a Recreational Pilot Certificate (Part 61, Subpart D)

A. The requirements to obtain a recreational pilot certificate are summarized in Part 61, Subpart D.
1. We have not listed the requirements here because of the very small number of individuals
who seek recreational pilot certificates.

VI. Requirements to Obtain a Private Pilot Certificate (Part 61, Subpart E)

A. Be at least 17 years of age.
B. Be able to read, write, and converse fluently in English.
C. Hold an airman medical certificate, appropriate to the intended operation.
D. Receive and log ground training from an authorized instructor or complete a home-study course
to learn
1. Applicable Federal Aviation Regulations ... that relate to private pilot privileges, limitations,
and flight operations.
2. Accident reporting requirements of the National Transportation Safety Board.
3. Use of the applicable portions of the Aeronautical Information Manual and FAA ACs
(advisory circulars).
4. Use of aeronautical charts for VFR navigation using pilotage, dead reckoning, and
navigation systems.
5. Radio communication procedures.
6. Recognition of critical weather situations from the ground and in flight, windshear avoidance,
and the procurement and use of aeronautical weather reports and forecasts.
7. Safe and efficient operation of aircraft, including collision avoidance, and recognition and
avoidance of wake turbulence.
8. Effects of density altitude on takeoff and climb performance.
9. Weight and balance computations.
10. Principles of aerodynamics, powerplants, and aircraft systems.
11. Stall awareness, spin entry, spins, and spin recovery techniques for airplane category
ratings.
12. Aeronautical decision making and judgment.
13. Preflight action that includes
a. How to obtain information on runway lengths at airports of intended use, data on
takeoff and landing distances, weather reports and forecasts, and fuel requirements.
b. How to plan for alternatives if the flight cannot be completed or delays are
encountered.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 6 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations

E. Pass the FAA private pilot knowledge test with a score of 70% or better.
1. The instructor who conducted the ground training or reviewed the person’s home-study in
the areas listed in VI.D. on the previous page is required to provide an endorsement
certifying that the person is prepared for the knowledge test.

F. Accumulate flight experience. Receive a total of 40 hr. of flight training and solo flight time,
including
1. 20 hr. of flight training from a certificated flight instructor (CFI), including at least
a. 3 hr. of cross-country, i.e., to other airports
b. 3 hr. at night, including
i. One cross-country flight of over 100 NM total distance
ii. 10 takeoffs and 10 landings to a full stop at an airport
c. 3 hr. of training to control and maneuver an airplane solely by reference to instruments
d. 3 hr. in a single-engine airplane in preparation for the private pilot practical test within
60 days prior to that test
2. 10 hr. of solo flight time in an airplane, including at least
a. 5 hr. of cross-country time
b. One solo cross-country flight of at least 150 NM total distance, with full-stop landings
at a minimum of three points and with one segment of the flight consisting of a
straight-line distance of at least 50 NM between the takeoff and landing locations
c. Three solo takeoffs and landings to a full stop at an airport with an operating control
tower

G. Receive and log ground and flight training and a logbook endorsement from the CFI who
conducted the training in the areas of operation listed below and certifies that the person is
prepared for the practical test.
1. Preflight preparation
2. Preflight procedures
3. Airport operations
4. Takeoffs, landings, and go-arounds
5. Performance maneuver
6. Ground reference maneuvers
7. Navigation
8. Slow flight and stalls
9. Basic instrument maneuvers
10. Emergency operations
11. Night operation
12. Postflight procedures
H. Successfully complete the private pilot practical test.

VII. Requirements to Obtain a Commercial Pilot Certificate (Part 61, Subpart F)

A. Be at least 18 years of age.
B. Be able to read, write, and converse fluently in English.
C. Hold an airman medical certificate, appropriate to the intended operation.
D. Receive and log ground training from an instructor or complete a home-study course to learn
1. Applicable Federal Aviation Regulations...that relate to commercial pilot privileges,
limitations, and flight operations

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations 7

2. Accident reporting requirements of the National Transportation Safety Board

3. Basic aerodynamics and the principles of flight
4. Meteorology to include recognition of critical weather situations, windshear recognition and
avoidance, and the use of aeronautical weather reports and forecasts
5. Safe and efficient operation of aircraft
6. Weight and balance computations
7. Use of performance charts
8. Significance and effects of exceeding aircraft performance limitations
9. Use of aeronautical charts and a magnetic compass for pilotage and dead reckoning
10. Use of air navigation facilities
11. Aeronautical decision making and judgment
12. Principles and functions of aircraft systems
13. Maneuvers, procedures, and emergency operations appropriate to the aircraft
14. Night and high-altitude operations
15. Procedures for operating within the National Airspace System

E. Pass the FAA commercial pilot knowledge test.

1. The instructor who conducted the ground training or reviewed the person’s home-study in
the areas listed in VII.D. beginning on the previous page is required to provide an
endorsement certifying that the person is prepared for the knowledge test.

F. Accumulate flight experience consisting of at least 250 hr. of flight time as a pilot, which includes
at least
1. 100 hr. in powered aircraft, of which 50 hr. must be in airplanes
2. 100 hr. of pilot in command flight time, which includes at least
a. 50 hr. in airplanes
b. 50 hr. in cross-country flight of which at least 10 hr. must be in airplanes
3. 20 hr. of training in the areas of operation listed in VII.H. on the next page, including at least
a. 10 hr. of instrument training of which at least 5 hr. must be in a single-engine airplane
b. 10 hr. of training in an airplane that has a retractable landing gear, flaps, and
controllable pitch propeller, or is turbine-powered
c. One cross-country flight of at least 2 hr. in a single-engine airplane in day-VFR
conditions, consisting of a total straight-line distance of more than 100 NM from the
original point of departure
d. One cross-country flight of at least 2 hr. in a single-engine airplane in night-VFR
conditions, consisting of a straight-line distance of more than 100 NM from the
original point of departure
e. 3 hr. in a single-engine airplane in preparation for the practical test within the 60 days
preceding the test

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 8 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations

4. 10 hr. of solo flight in a single-engine airplane conducting training in the areas of operation
required for a single-engine rating, which includes at least
a. One cross-country flight of not less than 300 NM total distance, with landings at a
minimum of three points, one of which is a straight-line distance of at least 250 NM
from the original departure point
i. In Hawaii, the longest segment need have only a straight-line distance of at
least 150 NM.
b. 5 hr. in night-VFR conditions with 10 takeoffs and 10 landings (with each landing
involving a flight in the traffic pattern) at an airport with an operating control tower

G. Hold an instrument rating, or the commercial certificate will be endorsed with a prohibition against
carrying passengers for hire on flights beyond 50 NM or at night.
H. Receive and log ground and flight training and a logbook endorsement from the CFI who
conducted the training in the areas of operations listed below and certifies that the person is
prepared for the practical test.
1. Preflight preparation
2. Preflight procedures
3. Airport operations
4. Takeoffs, landings, and go-arounds
5. Performance maneuvers
6. Ground reference maneuver
7. Navigation
8. Slow flight and stalls
9. Emergency operations
10. High-altitude operations
11. Postflight procedures
I. Successfully complete the commercial pilot practical test.

VIII. Requirements to Obtain a Flight Instructor Certificate (Part 61, Subpart H)

A. Be at least 18 years old.
B. Be able to read, write, and converse fluently in English.
C. Hold a commercial pilot certificate with an instrument rating or an airline transport pilot (ATP)
certificate.
D. Hold an airman medical certificate, appropriate to the intended operation.
E. Receive and log ground training to learn
1. Fundamentals of instructing
2. All subject areas in which ground training is required for recreational, private, and
commercial pilot certificates

F. Pass the fundamentals of instructing (FOI) and flight instructor knowledge tests.
NOTE: No instructor endorsement is required to take the FOI or any instructor knowledge test. To take
the knowledge test, an applicant will need proper identification, containing his/her photograph,
signature, actual address, and date of birth.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations 9

G. Receive flight instruction from a CFI who has held a flight instructor certificate during the
24 months immediately preceding giving the instruction and who has given at least 200 hr. of
flight instruction as a CFI. The CFI will endorse the person’s logbook certifying that (s)he is
competent in the following areas of operation:
1. Fundamentals of instructing
2. Technical subject areas
3. Preflight preparation
4. Preflight lesson on a maneuver to be performed in flight
5. Preflight procedures
6. Airport operations
7. Takeoffs, landings, and go-arounds
8. Fundamentals of flight
9. Performance maneuvers
10. Ground reference maneuvers
11. Slow flight, stalls, and spins
12. Basic instrument maneuvers
13. Emergency operations
14. Postflight procedures
H. Obtain a logbook endorsement from a CFI who has provided the person with spin entry, spin, and
spin recovery training in an airplane certificated for spins.
I. Successfully complete the flight instructor practical test.

IX. FAA 14 CFR Parts 61, 63, and 65 Regarding Airman Certificates
A. The FAA is adding a section to 14 CFR parts 61, 63, and 65 to expressly make individuals who
pose a security threat as determined by the Transportation Security Act (TSA) ineligible to hold
certificates, ratings, and authorizations issued under those parts.
1. This ineligibility means that the FAA will not issue a certificate, rating, or authorization to any
applicant who the TSA advises the FAA poses a security threat.
2. If the TSA issues an Initial Notification of Threat Assessment to an applicant, the FAA will
hold the application pending the outcome of the TSA’s final threat assessment review.
3. If the individual is issued a Final Notification of Threat Assessment, the FAA will deny an
application for any airman certificate, rating, or authorization.

B. With regard to certificates already issued, the FAA will suspend an individual’s airman certificates
after receiving the Initial Notification of Threat Assessment from the TSA.
1. Suspension is appropriate in the circumstance, because the TSA’s initial assessment that an
individual poses a security threat is still subject to review by the TSA’s Deputy
Administrator.
2. If a Final Notification of Threat Assessment is issued, the FAA will revoke the certificates.
3. If an Initial Notification is withdrawn, the FAA will withdraw its certificate suspension.

3.3 PART 91: GENERAL OPERATING AND FLIGHT RULES

I. Part 91 addresses general operating rules, flight rules, aircraft equipment requirements, and
maintenance requirements.
A. Your students should be aware that Part 91 is the official source for information about the rules
pertaining to flight operations, air traffic control clearances, operations in different airspace
classes, aircraft equipment requirements, and certain maintenance and inspection
requirements.
1. Additional maintenance and inspection requirements are also found in Part 43

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 10 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations

II. Subpart A -- General

91.3 Responsibility and Authority of the Pilot in Command
A. The pilot in command (PIC) of an airplane is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as
to, the operation of that airplane.
1. In most circumstances, unless you have specifically made arrangements with your student,
you will be PIC while providing flight instruction.
2. However, if your student is an appropriately-rated and certificated pilot, you may both log
pilot in command flight time.

B. In emergencies, the PIC may deviate from the FARs to the extent needed to maintain the safety
of the airplane and passengers.
1. If the PIC must deviate from the FARs in an emergency, (s)he may be required to file a
written report with the FAA.

91.9 Civil Aircraft Flight Manual, Marking, and Placard Requirements

A. No person may operate an aircraft that has an approved flight manual unless that manual is
aboard the aircraft.
B. No person may operate contrary to any limitations specified in an approved flight manual.
91.17 Alcohol or Drugs
A. No person may act, or attempt to act, as a crewmember of a civil aircraft
1. While under the influence of drugs or alcohol
2. Within 8 hr. after the consumption of any alcoholic beverage
3. While having .04% by weight or more alcohol in the blood
4. While using any drug that affects the faculties in any way contrary to safety

III. Subpart B -- Flight Rules

91.103 Preflight Action
A. Prior to every flight, the pilot in command is required to familiarize him/herself with all available
information concerning that flight and specifically to determine
1. Runway lengths at airports of intended use and the airplane’s takeoff and landing
requirements
2. On cross-country flights, weather, fuel requirements, alternate airports available, and any
known traffic delays

91.109 Flight Instruction: Simulated Instrument Flight and Certain Flight Tests
A. Dual instruction must be given in an airplane with dual controls. Dual instrument instruction may
be given in a single-engine airplane with a single throwover control wheel when
1. The person manipulating the controls has at least a private pilot certificate with appropriate
category and class ratings, and
2. The instructor determines that it can be done safely.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations 11

B. A safety pilot is required while conducting simulated instrument flight.

1. The safety pilot must hold at least a private pilot certificate with appropriate category and
class ratings, and
2. The instructor determines that it can be done safely.
a. Since the safety pilot is required for simulated instrument flight, (s)he is a required
flight crewmember who must also have a valid medical certificate.
3. The safety pilot must have adequate sideward and forward flight visibility, or another
observer in the aircraft must supplement the safety pilot.
4. Dual controls (except in lighter-than-air aircraft) or a single throwover control that meets the
requirements of item A. on the previous page must be present for the safety pilot.

91.113 Right-of-Way Rules: Except Water Operations

A. Converging. When aircraft of the same category are converging at approximately the same
altitude (except head-on), the aircraft to the right has the right-of-way.
1. Explain to your students that this rule means that, if they see an aircraft to their right, that
aircraft has the right-of-way, but if they see an aircraft to their left, they have the
right-of-way.
2. Remind your students that, even if they have the right-of-way, the other pilot may not see
them, so they must remain prepared to take evasive action.

B. Converging. When aircraft of the same category are converging at approximately the same
altitude (except head-on), the least-maneuverable aircraft has the right-of-way.
1. Balloons, gliders, and airships have the right-of-way over an airplane, but airplanes have
right-of-way over rotorcraft.
2. Aircraft towing or refueling other aircraft have the right-of-way over all other engine-driven
aircraft.
3. An aircraft in distress has right-of-way over all other aircraft.

C. Approaching head-on. The pilot of each aircraft shall alter course to the right.
D. Overtaking. An aircraft that is being overtaken has the right-of-way.
1. The overtaking aircraft shall alter course to the right.

E. Landing. Aircraft while on final approach to land or while landing have the right-of-way over other
aircraft in flight or on the ground.
1. When two or more aircraft are approaching the airport for landing, the aircraft at the lower
altitude has the right-of-way.
a. Pilots should not take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another aircraft that is on
final approach or to overtake that aircraft.

91.119 Minimum Safe Altitudes: General

A. Except for takeoff and landing, the following altitudes are required:
1. Anywhere, the airplane must have sufficient altitude to make an emergency landing without
undue hazard to persons or property on the surface if an engine fails.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
12 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations

2. Over congested areas of a city, town, or settlement, or over an open-air assembly of

persons, the airplane must have 1,000 ft. of clearance over the highest obstacle within a
2,000-ft. radius.
3. Over other than congested areas (e.g., farm land), the airplane must remain 500 ft. above
the surface.
4. Over open water or sparsely populated areas, the airplane must remain at least 500 ft. from
any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure.

B. Explain to your students that the general rule given in item A.1. overrides the more-specific rules
that follow it, particularly item A.2. regarding congested areas.
1. EXAMPLE: If a single-engine airplane experienced an engine failure at exactly 1,000 ft.
above the tallest building in a large city, successfully gliding to an emergency landing site
would be unlikely.

91.123 Compliance with ATC Clearances and Instructions

A. No one may deviate from ATC instructions or an ATC clearance unless amended instructions or
an amended clearance are obtained, an emergency exists, or the deviation is in response to a
traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS) resolution advisory.
1. A pilot who deviates from a clearance must notify ATC as soon as possible.
2. Pilots who are given priority by ATC in an emergency must submit a detailed report of the
emergency within 48 hr. to the manager of that ATC facility, if requested.
a. The report may be requested even if the pilot does not deviate from any rule of
Part 91.

B. If the meaning of an ATC clearance is uncertain, pilots should immediately ask for clarification
from ATC.
91.125 ATC Light Signals
A. ATC light signals have the meaning shown in the following table:

Light Signal On the Ground In the Air

Steady green Cleared for takeoff Cleared to land
Flashing green Cleared to taxi Return for landing (to be followed by
steady green at proper time).
Steady red Stop. Give way to other aircraft and continue
circling.
Flashing red Taxi clear of landing area (runway) in Airport unsafe -- Do not land.
use.
Flashing white Return to starting point on airport. Not applicable.
Alternating red and General warning signal -- Exercise General warning signal -- Exercise
green extreme caution. extreme caution.

91.126 Operating on or in the Vicinity of an Airport in Class G Airspace

A. Airplanes approaching to land at an airport without an operating control tower in Class G airspace
must make all turns in the traffic pattern to the left, unless the airport displays light signals or
markings indicating right turns.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations 13

B. Communications with control towers

1. No person may operate an airplane to, from, through, or on an airport having an operational
control tower unless two-way radio communication is established with the control tower.
2. Communications must be established prior to 4 NM from the airport, up to and including
2,500 ft. AGL.
3. Pilots experiencing in-flight radio failure may approach the airport and land if weather
conditions are at or above basic VFR weather minimums, visual contact with the tower is
maintained, and a clearance to land is received (e.g., a light signal).

91.127 Operating on or in the Vicinity of an Airport in Class E Airspace

A. When approaching to land at an airport in a Class E airspace area, airplanes should make all
turns in the traffic pattern to the left unless the airport displays light signals or markings
indicating right turns.
1. When departing, pilots must comply with any established traffic pattern for that airport.

B. For a discussion of communications with control towers, see 91.126.

91.129 Operations in Class D Airspace
A. Communications with ATC in Class D airspace
1. Pilots must establish two-way radio communication with the ATC facility providing air traffic
services prior to entering the Class D airspace area, and maintain communication while
operating within the Class D area.
2. When departing from the primary airport or a satellite airport with an operating control tower,
pilots must establish and maintain two-way radio communication with the control tower.
a. The primary airport is the airport for which the Class D airspace area is designated.
b. A satellite airport is any other airport within the Class D airspace area.
3. When departing from a satellite airport without an operating control tower, pilots must
establish and maintain two-way radio communication with the ATC facility providing air
traffic services to the Class D airspace area as soon as practicable after departing.
4. Pilots experiencing in-flight radio failure may enter the Class D airspace and land if weather
conditions are at or above basic VFR weather minimums, visual contact with the tower is
maintained, and a clearance to land is received (e.g., a light signal).

B. Airplanes approaching to land on a runway served by a visual approach slope indicator must
remain at or above the glide slope until a lower altitude is necessary for a safe landing.
1. Advise your students, however, that they are not prohibited from making normal bracketing
maneuvers above or below the glide slope for the purpose of remaining on the glide slope.

C. When approaching to land, airplanes should make left turns in the traffic pattern unless directed
otherwise by the tower.
D. Departing airplanes must comply with any departure procedures established for that airport by the
FAA.
E. A pilot may not, at any airport with an operating control tower, operate his/her airplane on a
runway or taxiway, or take off or land, unless an appropriate clearance is received from ATC.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
14 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations

91.130 Operations in Class C Airspace

A. Pilots must establish two-way radio communication with the appropriate ATC facility before
entering Class C airspace and maintain communication with that facility while within the Class C
airspace area.
B. When departing from the primary airport (the airport for which the Class C airspace area is
designated) or a satellite airport (any other airport within the Class C airspace area) with an
operating control tower, two-way radio communication must be established and maintained with
the tower and as instructed by ATC while in the Class C airspace area.
1. When departing from a satellite airport without an operating control tower, two-way radio
communication must be established with ATC as soon as practicable after departing.

C. Unless otherwise authorized by the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the Class C airspace
area, all aircraft must have a transponder with altitude encoding capability while operating in the
Class C airspace area and the airspace above the ceiling and within the lateral boundaries of the
Class C airspace area.
91.131 Operations in Class B Airspace
A. All aircraft must have an ATC clearance to operate within a Class B airspace area.
B. If it is necessary to conduct training operations within a Class B airspace area, procedures
established for these flights within the Class B airspace area must be followed.
C. All pilots operating within any Class B airspace area must be
1. At least a private pilot, or
2. A student pilot who has received flight training on the procedures necessary to operate in
that specific Class B airspace area and has received a flight instructor endorsement
authorizing solo flight privileges within the past 90 days.

D. However, certain Class B airspace area primary airports require the pilot to hold at least a private
pilot certificate to land or take off. These are the busiest airports, such as Atlanta Hartsfield and
Chicago O’Hare.
E. All aircraft must have operative two-way radio communications and a transponder with altitude
encoding capability (Mode C).
Visual Flight Rules
91.151 Fuel Requirements for Flight in VFR Conditions
A. No pilot may fly VFR during the day unless the airplane has enough fuel to fly to the destination
and thereafter for at least 30 min. at normal cruising speed.
B. No pilot may fly VFR at night unless the airplane has enough fuel to fly to the destination and
thereafter for at least 45 min. at normal cruising speed.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations 15

91.155 Basic VFR Weather Minimums

A. Except as provided in this section and 14 CFR 91.157, no pilot may operate an airplane under
VFR when the flight visibility is less, or the distance from clouds is less, than prescribed for the
corresponding altitude in the following table.

Cloud Clearance and Visibility Required for VFR

Flight Distance from Flight Distance from
Airspace Visibility Clouds Airspace Visibility Clouds
Class A Not Not applicable Class G:
applicable
1,200 ft. or less above the surface (regardless of
MSL altitude)

Class B 3 SM Clear of clouds Day 1 SM Clear of Clouds

Class C 3 SM 500 ft. below Night, except as 3 SM 500 ft. below

1,000 ft. above provided in B. below 1,000 ft. above
2,000 ft. horiz. 2,000 ft. horiz.

Class D 3 SM 500 ft. below More than 1,200 ft. above the surface but less than
1,000 ft. above 10,000 ft. MSL
2,000 ft. horiz.
Day 1 SM 500 ft. below
Class E: 1,000 ft. above
2,000 ft. horiz.
Less than 3 SM 500 ft. below
10,000 ft. MSL 1,000 ft. above Night 3 SM 500 ft. below
2,000 ft. horiz. 1,000 ft. above
2,000 ft. horiz.
At or above 5 SM 500 ft. below
10,000 ft. MSL 1,000 ft. above More than 1,200 ft. 5 SM 1,000 ft. below
1 SM horiz. above the surface 1,000 ft. above
and at or above 1 SM horiz.
10,000 ft. MSL

B. An airplane may be operated clear of clouds in Class G airspace at night below 1,200 ft. AGL
when the visibility is less than 3 SM but not less than 1 SM in an airport traffic pattern and within
½ mi. of the runway.
C. Except when operating under a special VFR clearance, you may not operate your airplane under
VFR while beneath the ceiling and within the lateral boundaries of the surface areas of Class B,
Class C, Class D, or Class E airspace designated for an airport when the ceiling is less than
1,000 ft.
1. You may not take off, land, or enter the traffic pattern of an airport unless ground visibility is
at least 3 SM. If ground visibility is not reported, flight visibility must be at least 3 SM.

D. You can help your students remember exceptions to the “typical” VFR visibility and cloud
clearance requirements (i.e., 3 SM, 1,000 ft. above, 500 ft. below, and 2,000 ft.
horizontally—most airspace areas have these minimums) by explaining why VFR visibility and
cloud clearance requirements are established and why they vary with altitude and airspace.
1. VFR visibility and cloud clearance requirements are established for the purpose of
preventing collisions between VFR and IFR aircraft.
a. This goal is achieved by requiring VFR aircraft to maintain spacing from clouds in
airspace areas that contain IFR traffic.
© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
16 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations

b. Appropriate spacing from clouds will allow adequate time for pilots to see and avoid
each other should an IFR aircraft emerge from a cloud in close proximity to another
aircraft that is not in contact with ATC.
2. In Class B airspace, the cloud clearance requirements are to remain clear of clouds because
all aircraft in Class B airspace are in contact with ATC.
a. ATC provides radar traffic separation for all aircraft, both IFR and VFR, so there is no
need to be concerned about an IFR aircraft emerging from a cloud in close proximity
to other aircraft.
3. Likewise, the cloud clearance requirements are to remain clear of clouds in Class G
airspace below 1,200 ft. AGL because aircraft do not operate on IFR flight plans in Class G
airspace.
a. The visibility and cloud clearance requirements increase at night and above 1,200 ft.
because of the increased risk of inadvertently flying into a cloud under those
conditions.
4. The VFR visibility and cloud clearance requirements increase above 10,000 ft. MSL in
Class E and Class G airspace because the 250 kt. speed limit (in effect below 10,000 ft.
MSL) no longer applies.
a. With potentially higher closing speeds, more distance between aircraft is required in
order to have sufficient time to see and avoid.

91.157 Special VFR Weather Minimums

A. These special minimums apply to VFR traffic operating within the lateral boundaries of the
surface areas of Class B, Class C, Class D, or Class E airspace designated for an airport.
B. Special VFR operations may be conducted only
1. With an ATC clearance
2. Clear of clouds
3. With flight visibility of at least 1 SM
C. To take off or land under VFR, ground visibility must be at least 1 SM.
1. If ground visibility is not reported, then flight visibility must be at least 1 SM.

D. Operation under special VFR at night is prohibited unless both the pilot and the aircraft are IFR
rated and equipped.
E. Solo student pilots may not operate under special VFR (FAR 61.89 (6)).

Subpart C -- Equipment, Instrument, and Certificate Requirements

91.205 Powered Civil Aircraft with Standard Category U.S. Airworthiness Certificates:
Instrument and Equipment Requirements
A. No person may operate a powered civil aircraft with a standard category U.S. airworthiness
certificate without the specified operable instruments and equipment.
B. Required equipment: VFR - day
1. Airspeed indicator
2. Altimeter
3. Magnetic direction indicator (compass)
4. Tachometer for each engine
5. Oil pressure gauge for each engine using a pressure system

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations 17

6. Temperature gauge for each liquid-cooled engine

7. Oil temperature gauge for each air-cooled engine
8. Manifold pressure gauge for each altitude engine
9. Fuel gauge indicating the quantity of fuel in each tank
10. Landing gear position indicator, if the aircraft has a retractable landing gear
11. For small airplanes certificated after March 11, 1996, an approved anticollision light system
12. Approved flotation gear for each occupant and one pyrotechnic signaling device if the
aircraft is operated for hire over water beyond power-off gliding distance from shore
13. Approved safety belt with approved metal-to-metal latching device for each occupant who is
2 yr. of age or older
14. For small civil airplanes manufactured after July 18, 1978, an approved shoulder harness for
each front seat
15. An emergency locator transmitter (ELT), if required by FAR 91.207
16. For normal, utility, and acrobatic category airplanes with a seating configuration, excluding
pilot seats, of nine or less, manufactured after December 12, 1986, a shoulder harness for
each seat in the airplane

C. Required equipment: VFR - night

1. All equipment listed in B., above.
2. Approved position (navigation) lights
3. Approved aviation red or white anticollision light system on all U.S.-registered civil aircraft
4. If the aircraft is operated for hire, one electric landing light
5. An adequate source of electricity for all electrical and radio equipment
6. A set of spare fuses or three spare fuses for each kind required that are accessible to the
pilot in flight

91.207 Emergency Locator Transmitters

A. ELT batteries must be replaced after 1 cumulative hr. of use or after 50% of their useful life (or
charge, if rechargeable) expires.
B. The expiration date for batteries used in an ELT must be legibly marked on the outside of the
transmitter.
C. The ELT must be inspected every 12 calendar months for
1. Proper installation
2. Battery corrosion
3. Operation of the controls and crash sensor
4. Sufficient signal radiated from its antenna

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
18 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations

91.209 Aircraft Lights

A. During the period from sunset to sunrise, no person may operate an aircraft unless it has lighted
position (navigation) lights.
B. A pilot may not park or move an aircraft in, or in dangerous proximity to, a night flight operations
area of an airport unless the aircraft
1. Is clearly illuminated,
2. Has lighted position lights, or
3. Is in an area marked by obstruction lights.
C. If an airplane is equipped with an anticollision light system (i.e., rotating beacon and/or strobe
lights), the system must be in operation at all times while the airplane is being operated.
1. However, the anticollision light system may be turned off if the pilot in command determines
that it would be in the interest of safety to do so, given the operating conditions.
2. For example, atmospheric conditions such as clouds or fog (particularly when they are
encountered at night) can scatter the light from the strobe/beacon, leading to
disorientation.

91.213 Inoperative Instruments and Equipment

A. No person may take off in an aircraft with inoperative instruments or equipment installed unless
1. An approved minimum equipment list (MEL) exists for that specific aircraft. Note that the
MEL is a list of equipment that does NOT have to be operable.
a. The MEL also lists the different flight limitations placed upon the aircraft when that
equipment is inoperative; e.g., you cannot fly at night if the landing light is out.
2. The aircraft has within it a letter of authorization, issued by the FAA FSDO in the area where
the operator is based, authorizing operation of the aircraft under the MEL. The MEL and
authorization letter constitute an STC (supplemental type certificate) for the aircraft.

B. The approved MEL must

1. Be prepared in accordance with specified limitations
2. Provide how the aircraft is to be operated with the instruments and equipment in an
inoperative condition

C. The aircraft records must include an entry describing the inoperative instruments and equipment.
D. The aircraft must be operated under all applicable conditions and limitations contained in the MEL
and the letter of authorization.
E. The following instruments and equipment may NOT be included in an MEL:
1. Instruments and equipment that are specifically or otherwise required by the airworthiness
requirements under which the aircraft is type-certificated and which are essential to the
safe operation of the aircraft
2. Instruments and equipment required by an Airworthiness Directive
3. Instruments and equipment required for operations by the FARs

F. Except as described above, a pilot may take off in a light, piston-driven airplane with inoperative
equipment and no MEL under any of the following conditions:
1. An FAA Master MEL (MMEL) has not been developed by the FAA, and the inoperative
equipment is not required by the aircraft manufacturer's equipment list, any other FARs,
ADs, etc.
2. An FAA MMEL exists, and the inoperative equipment is not required by the MMEL, the
aircraft manufacturer’s equipment list, any other FARs, ADs, etc.
© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations 19

3. The inoperative equipment is removed, or deactivated and placarded “inoperative,” and you
or an appropriate maintenance person determines that the inoperative equipment does not
constitute a hazard to the flight.
a. Under these conditions, the aircraft is deemed to be in a “properly altered condition” by
the FAA.

G. Special flight permits (from the FAA) are possible under FAR 21 when the requirements
previously noted cannot be met.
Subpart E -- Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, and Alterations
91.409 Inspections
A. Annual inspections are good through the last day of the 12th calendar month after the previous
annual inspection.
1. An annual inspection must be performed by a certified mechanic (A & P) who also has an
inspection authorization (IA).

B. For commercial operations, an inspection is also required every 100 hr.

1. The 100 hr. may not be exceeded by more than 10 hr. if necessary to reach a place at which
an inspection can be performed.
2. The next inspection, however, is due 200 hr. from the prior inspection; e.g., if the inspection
is done at 105 hr., the next inspection is due in 95 hr.
3. If you have an inspection done prior to 100 hr., you cannot add the time remaining before
100 hr. to the timetable for the next inspection.

91.417 Maintenance Records

A. Each owner or operator shall keep the following records:
1. Alteration or rebuilding records
2. 100-hr. inspections
3. Annual inspections
4. Progressive and other required inspections
B. The records must be kept for each aircraft (airframe), engine, propeller, and appliance.
C. Each record shall include a description of the work performed, the date of completion, and the
signature and certificate number of the person performing the work.

3.4 PART 141: PILOT SCHOOLS

I. Part 141 addresses the certification, privileges, limitations, and operating rules of FAA-approved pilot
schools. Additionally, Part 141 outlines the required curriculum for an approved certification course
to obtain each pilot and instructor certificate and rating.
A. If you are an instructor at an FAA-approved school, you should be familiar with Part 141 because
it is the official source for information about the specific requirements to obtain each certificate
and rating under this part of the regulations.
1. Tell your students that the advantage of training under Part 141 is that most certificates and
ratings can, in theory, be obtained with fewer total flight hours than when training under
Part 61.
2. To help your students make the best choice between these training options, you should also
be familiar with the differences between training under Part 61 and Part 141 for the various
certificates and ratings that your school offers.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 20 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations

II. 141.79 Flight Training

A. Only a flight instructor who has the ratings and the minimum qualifications specified in the
FAA-approved training course outline may give a student flight training that is to be credited in
an approved course of training.
1. A training course outline (TCO) is a summary of the elements of an FAA-approved course of
training intended for the purpose of obtaining a certificate or rating.
2. Once a pilot school’s TCO for a given certificate or rating has been approved, all training
conducted within that course must conform to the standards set forth in the TCO.
a. For example, most TCOs will specify that only a CFII may provide flight instruction for
an approved instrument rating course.

B. No student pilot may begin a solo practice flight in a Part 141 course unless that flight has been
approved by a flight instructor who is present at the airport.
C. Each chief instructor and assistant chief instructor must complete an approved syllabus of
training, or a flight instructor refresher course, at least once every 12 calendar months.
D. Each flight instructor who is assigned to a flight training course must
1. Prior to receiving initial authorization to train students in the course,
a. Accomplish a review of and receive a briefing on the standards and objectives of the
course, and
b. Accomplish an initial proficiency check in each make and model of aircraft in which the
instructor will provide flight training in that training course.
2. Every 12 calendar months following the initial authorization to provide training in the course,
accomplish a recurrent proficiency check in one of the aircraft in which that instructor
provides flight training.

III. 141.81 Ground Training

A. Except as outlined in item B. below, each instructor who is assigned to a ground training course
must hold a flight or ground instructor certificate with the appropriate rating for that course of
training (e.g., an instructor must hold either a CFII certificate or an IGI certificate in order to
provide ground instruction in an instrument rating certification course).
B. A person who does not hold a flight or ground instructor certificate with the appropriate rating for a
course of training may provide ground instruction in that course of training, provided
1. The chief instructor finds the person qualified to give the training, and
2. The training is given while under the supervision of the chief instructor or the assistant chief
instructor, who is on the premises while the training is given.

C. An instructor may not provide ground training in an approved course until that instructor has been
briefed on the objectives and standards of the course.

IV. 141.85 Chief Instructor Responsibilities

A. The chief instructor is responsible for
1. Certifying each student’s training record, graduation certificate, stage checks, and
end-of-course test reports; and providing the recommendations for course completion and
application for the certificate or rating.
2. Ensuring that each CFI and ground instructor passes an initial proficiency check before that
instructor is allowed to provide training in the school’s approved courses, and ensuring that
each instructor thereafter passes a recurrent proficiency check every 12 calendar months
after the month in which the initial test was accomplished.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations 21

3. Ensuring that each student accomplishes the required stage checks and end-of-course tests
in accordance with the school’s approved training course.
4. Maintaining training techniques, procedures, and standards for the school that are
acceptable to the FAA.

B. The chief instructor or an assistant chief instructor must be available at the pilot school or
available by telephone, radio, or other means during the time that training is being given for an
approved course.
C. The chief instructor may delegate authority for conducting stage checks, end-of-course tests, and
flight instructor proficiency checks to an assistant chief instructor or a check instructor.

V. 141.101 Training Records

A. Each pilot school must maintain a current and accurate record of the participation of each student
enrolled in an approved course of training that includes the following information:
1. The date of enrollment.
2. A chronological log of the student’s course attendance; subjects and flight operations
covered in the student’s training; and the names and grades of any tests taken by the
student.
3. The date on which the student was graduated from the course, terminated training, or
transferred to another school.

B. The student’s pilot logbook will NOT suffice for the records required to be maintained while
conducting training in an approved course.
1. Many commercially-available Part 141 syllabi include a folder or other form of training record
that complies with the requirements outlined in item V.A. above.

C. When a student graduates, terminates training, or transfers to another school, the student’s
record must be certified to that effect by the chief instructor.
D. Pilot schools must retain each student record for at least 1 year following the date of the student’s
graduation, termination of enrollment, or transfer to another school.
E. Pilot schools must provide a copy of the student’s training record upon request by the student.

VI. Appendix A - Recreational Pilot Certification Course

A. The requirements to obtain a recreational pilot certificate under Part 141 are summarized in
Appendix A to Part 141.
1. We have not listed the requirements here because of the very small number of individuals
who seek recreational pilot certificates.

VII. Appendix B - Private Pilot Certification Course (Airplane Single Engine Land)
A. Before enrolling in the flight portion of a private pilot certification course, a person must hold a
student or recreational pilot certificate.
B. The course must include at least 35 hr. of ground training that covers the aeronautical knowledge
areas outlined in FAR 61.105 (b) (listed in Module 3.2, item VI.D.).
C. The course must include at least 35 hr. of flight training on the areas of operation listed in FAR
61.107 (b) (1) (listed in Module 3.2, item VI.G.), which consists of at least
1. 20 hr. of flight training from a certificated flight instructor (CFI), including at least
a. 3 hr. of cross-country.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 22 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations

b. 3 hr. at night, including

i. One cross-country flight of over 100 NM total distance.
ii. 10 takeoffs and 10 landings to a full stop at an airport.
c. 3 hr. of instrument training.
d. 3 hr. of training in preparation for the private pilot practical test within 60 days prior to
that test.
2. 5 hr. of solo flight time, including at least
a. One solo cross-country flight of at least 100 NM total distance, with landings at a
minimum of three points and with one segment of the flight consisting of a
straight-line distance of at least 50 NM between the takeoff and landing locations.
b. Three solo takeoffs and landings to a full stop (with each landing involving a flight in
the traffic pattern) at an airport with an operating control tower.

D. Each student must demonstrate satisfactory proficiency prior to receiving an endorsement to

operate an airplane in solo flight.
E. Each student enrolled in a private pilot certification course must satisfactorily complete the stage
checks and end-of-course tests in accordance with the approved training course.

VIII. Appendix D - Commercial Pilot Certification Course (Airplane Single Engine Land)
A. Before enrolling in the flight portion of a commercial pilot certification course, a person must hold
at least a private pilot certificate and either
1. Hold an instrument rating, or,
2. Be concurrently enrolled in an instrument rating course and pass the instrument rating
practical test prior to completing the commercial pilot certification course.

B. The course must include at least 35 hr. of ground training that covers the aeronautical knowledge
areas outlined in 14 CFR 61.125 (b) (listed in Module 3.2, item VII.D.).
C. The course must include at least 120 hr. of flight training on the areas of operation listed in 14
CFR 61.127 (b) (1) (listed in Module 3.2, item VII.H.), which consists of at least
1. 55 hr. of flight training from a certificated flight instructor (CFI), including at least
a. 5 hr. of instrument training.
b. 10 hr. of training in a single-engine airplane that has retractable landing gear, flaps,
and a controllable pitch propeller, or is turbine powered.
c. One cross-country flight of at least 2 hr. in a single-engine airplane in day-VFR
conditions, consisting of a total straight-line distance of more than 100 NM from the
original point of departure
d. One cross-country flight of at least 2 hr. in a single-engine airplane in night-VFR
conditions, consisting of a straight-line distance of more than 100 NM from the
original point of departure
e. 3 hr. of training in preparation for the commercial pilot practical test within 60 days
prior to that test.
2. 10 hr. of solo flight time, including at least
a. One cross-country flight with landings at a minimum of three points, and one segment
of the flight consisting of a straight-line distance of at least 250 NM
i. In Hawaii, the longest segment need have only a straight-line distance of at
least 150 NM.
b. 5 hr. in night-VFR conditions with 10 takeoffs and 10 landings (with each landing
involving a flight in the traffic pattern) at an airport with an operating control tower

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 3: Federal Regulations 23

D. Each student must demonstrate satisfactory proficiency prior to receiving an endorsement to

operate an airplane in solo flight.
E. Each student enrolled in a commercial pilot certification course must satisfactorily complete the
stage checks and end-of-course tests in accordance with the approved training course.

IX. Appendix F - Flight Instructor Certification Course (Airplane Single Engine)

A. Before enrolling in the flight portion of a flight instructor or additional flight instructor rating
certification course, a person must hold at least a commercial pilot certificate with an instrument
rating or an airline transport pilot certificate.
B. The course must include at least 40 hr. of ground training if it is for the initial issuance of a flight
instructor certificate, or 20 hr. of training if the course is for an additional instructor rating.
1. The ground training must cover the aeronautical knowledge areas outlined in 14 CFR 61.185
(a) (listed in Module 3.2, item VIII.E.).
2. A student who has satisfactorily completed 2 years of study on the principles of education at
a college or university may be credited with no more than 20 hr. of the required ground
training.

C. The course must include at least 25 hr. of flight training on the areas of operation listed in
14 CFR 61.187 (b) (1) (listed in Module 3.2, item VIII.G.).
D. Each student enrolled in a flight instructor certification course must satisfactorily complete the
stage checks and end-of-course tests in accordance with the approved training course.
E. Each student must also receive a logbook endorsement from a flight instructor who certifies that
the student received ground and flight training on stall awareness, spin entry, spins, and spin
recovery procedures, and that the student has demonstrated instructional proficiency in these
subjects.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 1

GLEIM FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR REFRESHER COURSE

LESSON 4
THE NATIONAL AIRSPACE SYSTEM AND AIRPORT
OPERATIONS
4.1 AIRSPACE CLASSIFICATIONS: GENERAL
I. The federal airspace system is divided into six class designations.
A. Explain to your students that the objectives of this airspace classification are to
1. Simplify the airspace designations
2. Increase standardization of equipment and pilot requirements for operations in various
classes of airspace
3. Promote pilot understanding of ATC services available
4. Achieve international commonality and satisfy our responsibilities as a member state of the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
B. This airspace classification conforms with the ICAO airspace system.
1. Note that the airspace designated as Class F in the ICAO system is not used in the U.S.
C. The diagram below and the table on the next page show the airspace classification and summarize
the classifications with regard to the requirements and services available in each class of
airspace.
1. Use a similar diagram with your students when discussing airspace classifications and how
they relate to the corresponding chart symbols.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 2 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations

Airspace Features Class A Class B Class C Class D Class E Class G

Operations Permitted IFR IFR and VFR IFR and VFR IFR and VFR IFR and VFR IFR and VFR
Entry Requirements ATC clearance ATC clearance ATC clearance ATC clearance ATC clearance None
for IFR for IFR for IFR
All require radio All require radio All IFR require
contact. contact. radio contact.
Minimum Pilot Instrument rating Private or student Student certificate Student certificate Student Student
Qualifications certificate certificate certificate
Two-way Radio Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes for IFR No
Communications
VFR Minimum Visibility N/A 3 statute miles 3 statute miles 3 statute miles 3 statute miles1 1 statute mile2
1
VFR Minimum Distance N/A Clear of clouds 500 ft. below, 500 ft. below, 500 ft. below, Clear of clouds
from Clouds 1,000 ft. above, 1,000 ft. above, 1,000 ft. above,
and 2,000 ft. and 2,000 ft. and 2,000 ft.
horizontal horizontal horizontal
Aircraft Separation All All IFR, SVFR, and IFR, SVFR, and IFR and SVFR None
runway operations runway operations
Conflict Resolution N/A N/A Between IFR and No No No
VFR ops
Traffic Advisories N/A N/A Yes Workload Workload Workload
permitting permitting permitting
Safety Advisories Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Differs from ICAO No Yes3 Yes4 Yes for VFR4 No Yes for VFR5

1
Different visibility minima and distance from cloud requirements exist for operations above 10,000 ft. MSL.
2
Different visibility minima and distance from cloud requirements exist for night operations, operations above 10,000 ft. MSL,
and operations below 1,200 ft. AGL.
3
ICAO does not have speed restrictions in this class -- U.S. speed limit is 250 KIAS.
4
ICAO requires an ATC clearance for VFR.
5
ICAO requires 3 statute miles visibility.

4.2 DISCUSSION OF AIRSPACE

I. The following discussion of airspace classes (Modules 4.3 through 4.9) will focus on teaching
techniques that are appropriate for student pilots.
A. These modules therefore focus on VFR flight operations.

II. Below is a brief summary of pilot and equipment requirements for IFR operations:
A. For IFR operations in all airspace classes, the pilot in command must hold an instrument rating or
an airline transport pilot certificate.
B. For IFR operations in controlled airspace (i.e., airspace other than Class G airspace), including
special-use airspace, all aircraft must be operated on an IFR flight plan and have two-way radio
communications.
C. For IFR operations in Class A, B, and C airspace, all aircraft must have an operable Mode C
transponder.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations 3

4.3 CLASS A AIRSPACE

I. Definition. Class A airspace exists from 18,000 ft. MSL up to and including flight level (FL) 600,
including the airspace over the waters within 12 NM of the coast of the 48 contiguous states and
Alaska.
II. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements. Explain to your students that all pilots must
operate their aircraft under IFR in Class A airspace.
A. Thus, the pilot in command (PIC) of an airplane operating in Class A airspace must have an
instrument rating.
B. VFR flights are prohibited in Class A airspace.

4.4 CLASS B AIRSPACE

I. Definition. Class B airspace exists from the surface to 10,000 ft. MSL surrounding the nation’s
busiest airports in terms of IFR operations or number of passengers.
A. Explain that the configuration of each Class B airspace area is individually tailored and consists of
a surface area and two or more layers.
1. Most students grasp the analogy if you explain that Class B airspace areas resemble
upside-down wedding cakes.

II. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements for VFR Operations

A. Explain that the VFR visibility and cloud clearance requirements for operations in Class B airspace
are 3 SM and “clear of clouds.”
1. Additional cloud clearance is not needed because ATC provides radar separation for all
traffic, both VFR and IFR.
B. You must emphasize to your students that, regardless of weather conditions, an ATC clearance is
required prior to operating within Class B airspace.
1. All aircraft that are cleared to operate in Class B airspace receive radar separation services
within that Class B airspace.
C. A student pilot may not operate within Class B airspace unless (s)he has received training (ground
and flight) specific to that Class B area and has also received an instructor endorsement
authorizing solo operations within that Class B area within the past 90 days.
1. In order to land at a Class B primary airport, a student pilot must have received instruction at
that airport and been given an instructor endorsement authorizing solo operations at that
airport.
2. Note that there are some Class B primary airports (listed in Appendix D to Part 91) at which
student pilot solo operations are prohibited.
D. To enter Class B airspace, an airplane must be equipped with
1. An operable two-way radio capable of communicating with ATC on appropriate frequencies
for that area.
2. An operable Mode C transponder.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 4 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations

E. Explain to your students that the airspace within 30 NM of the primary airport for which the Class B
airspace was established, from the surface to 10,000 ft. MSL, is commonly called the Mode C
veil. An operable Mode C transponder is required within the Mode C veil, even in those areas
that are not actually within Class B airspace due to variations in the lateral and vertical
boundaries.
1. However, an airplane that was not originally certificated with an engine-driven electrical
system, or which has not been certificated with such a system installed, may conduct
operations within a Mode C veil, provided the pilot remains outside of Class A, B, or C
airspace and below the ceiling of Class B or C airspace designated for an airport or
10,000 ft. MSL, whichever is lower.

III. VFR Flight Procedures

A. Teach your students to obtain a clearance from ATC prior to entering Class B airspace by using
the appropriate frequency shown on the chart, which is selected based on their position.
1. Emphasize that obtaining a clearance is distinctly different from merely establishing radio
communications.
2. A clearance has been received when ATC uses the phrase, “(aircraft call sign) is cleared to
enter the (name of airport/facility) Class Bravo airspace.”
3. Your students must understand that a clearance is required whether they are landing at the
primary airport of the Class B airspace, they are landing at a satellite airport, or they intend
to transition through the airspace without landing.
B. When departing from the primary airport of the Class B airspace, pilots should inform clearance
delivery that they are departing under VFR and provide their intended route of flight and
requested cruising altitude.
C. If your students plan to transition through a Class B airspace area, you should encourage them, to
the extent possible, to transition through established VFR corridors or VFR transition routes.
1. These routes are shown on VFR Terminal Area Charts.

4.5 CLASS C AIRSPACE

I. Definition. Class C airspace exists from the surface to 4,000 ft. above the airport elevation
(charted in MSL) surrounding airports that have an operating control tower, are serviced by a radar
approach control, and handle a certain number of IFR operations or passengers.
A. Explain that the configuration of each Class C airspace area is individually tailored and consists of
a surface area and a shelf area.
1. The surface area is normally circular, has a 5 NM radius, and extends from the surface to
4,000 ft. above the airport elevation.
2. The shelf area is normally circular, has a 10 NM radius, and extends from 1,200 ft. to 4,000
ft. above the airport elevation.
B. Generally, the airspace between 10 and 20 NM from the airport for which the Class C airspace
was established is designated as the outer area.
1. Explain that the outer area extends from the lower limits of radar/radio coverage up to the
ceiling of the approach control’s airspace.
2. Pilots are encouraged, but not required, to contact ATC and participate in radar services
when within the outer area.
a. Make sure that your students understand that the outer area is not part of the Class C
airspace.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations 5

II. Operating Rules and Equipment Requirements for VFR Operations

A. The VFR visibility and cloud clearance requirements for operations in Class C airspace are 3 SM
and a distance from clouds of 1,000 ft. above, 500 ft. below, and 2,000 ft. horizontally.
B. Explain that two-way radio communications must be established and maintained with ATC prior to
entering Class C airspace.
1. No clearance is required for VFR operations.
2. Radar separation services are provided to aircraft within the Class C airspace and the outer
area after two-way radio communications and radar contact are established.
C. To enter Class C airspace, an airplane must be equipped with
1. An operable two-way radio capable of communicating with ATC on appropriate frequencies
for that area.
2. An operable Mode C transponder.
a. A Mode C transponder is also required within the lateral limits of Class C airspace up
to 10,000 ft. MSL.

III. VFR Flight Procedures

A. Explain that pilots must establish and maintain two-way radio communications with ATC prior to
entering Class C airspace by using the appropriate frequency shown on the chart, which is
selected based on their position.
1. Emphasize to your students that, while a clearance is not required to enter Class C airspace,
merely calling ATC does not constitute establishment of two-way radio communications.
a. The controller must respond using the aircraft’s call sign.
i. If the response received is, “(aircraft call sign), standby,” or, “(aircraft call sign),
proceed with request,” radio communications have been established and your
student may enter the Class C airspace.
ii. If the response received is, “Aircraft calling (facility name), standby,” radio
communications have not been established, and your student must remain
outside the Class C airspace.

2. Explain that ATC also has the option of requiring aircraft to remain clear of the Class C
airspace if the workload prevents immediate provision of Class C services.
a. Tell your students that if ATC’s response is, “(aircraft call sign), remain outside the
Class Charlie airspace and standby,” communications have been established, but
they may not enter the Class C airspace.
i. ATC will normally contact them again as soon as Class C services can be
provided.

B. Teach your students to establish and maintain communications with ATC when departing from an
airport situated within a Class C surface area as follows:
1. When departing from the primary airport of the Class C airspace, pilots should inform
clearance delivery that they are departing under VFR and provide their intended route of
flight and requested cruising altitude.
a. They must then change to the tower and approach/departure control frequencies as
directed by ATC and maintain two-way radio communications until leaving the Class
C airspace.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 6 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations

2. When departing from a satellite airport with an operating control tower, pilots must establish
and maintain two-way radio communications initially with that airport’s control tower.
a. Thereafter, they must maintain communications as instructed by ATC until leaving the
Class C airspace.
3. When departing from a satellite airport without an operating control tower, pilots must
establish two-way radio communications with ATC as soon as practical after departure.
a. Communications must be maintained until leaving the Class C airspace.

C. Explain to your students that if they plan to transition through a Class C airspace area without
landing, they may wish to climb above the ceiling of the airspace if weather conditions permit.
1. Operating above the airspace makes communication with ATC unnecessary.
2. The airplane will still need to have an operable Mode C transponder, however.

4.6 CLASS D AIRSPACE

I. Definition. Class D airspace exists from the surface to 2,500 ft. above the airport elevation (charted
in MSL) surrounding airports that have an operating control tower and weather reporting capability.
A. Explain that the configuration of each Class D airspace area is individually tailored and consists of
a surface area only.
1. The surface area is normally circular, has a 4 NM radius, and extends from the surface to
2,500 ft. above the airport elevation.
B. For airports with part-time towers, the airspace is classified as Class D only when the tower is in
operation.

II. Operating Rules and Equipment Requirements for VFR Operations

A. The VFR visibility and cloud clearance requirements for operations in Class D airspace are 3 SM
and a distance from clouds of 1,000 ft. above, 500 ft. below, and 2,000 ft. horizontally.
B. Explain that two-way radio communications must be established and maintained with ATC prior to
entering Class D airspace.
1. No clearance is required for VFR operations.
C. To enter Class D airspace, an airplane must be equipped with
1. An operable two-way radio capable of communicating with ATC on the appropriate
frequency.

III. VFR Flight Procedures

A. Pilots must establish and maintain two-way radio communications with ATC prior to entering Class
D airspace.
1. Explain to your students that communications must be established with ATC whether they
are landing at the primary airport of the Class D airspace, they are landing at a satellite
airport, or they intend to transition through the airspace without landing.
a. Pilots should contact the control tower on the published frequency and give their
position, altitude, destination, and any requests.
2. Emphasize that, while a clearance is not required to enter Class D airspace, merely calling
ATC does not constitute establishment of two-way radio communications.
a. See Module 4.5, item III.A., for a discussion of establishing radio communications.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations 7

B. When departing from an airport situated within a Class D surface area, pilots must establish and
maintain communications with ATC as follows:
1. When departing from the primary airport of the Class D airspace, pilots must establish
two-way radio communications with the tower and maintain them until leaving the Class D
airspace.
2. When departing from a satellite airport with an operating control tower, pilots must establish
and maintain two-way radio communications initially with that airport’s control tower.
a. Thereafter, they must maintain communications as instructed by ATC until leaving the
Class D airspace.
3. When departing from a satellite airport without an operating control tower, pilots must
establish two-way radio communications with the primary airport's control tower as soon as
practical after departure.
a. Communications must be maintained until leaving the Class D airspace.

C. Explain to your students that if they plan to transition through a Class D airspace area without
landing, they may wish to climb above the ceiling of the airspace if weather conditions permit.
1. Operating above the airspace makes communication with ATC unnecessary.

4.7 CLASS E AIRSPACE

I. Definition. Class E airspace is controlled airspace that is not Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class
D airspace.
A. Explain that Class E airspace extends upward from the surface or the designated floor to the
overlying controlled airspace.
1. Therefore, Class E airspace will not exist above 17,999 ft. MSL because Class A airspace
begins at 18,000 ft. MSL.
B. Your students will be more comfortable with the concept of Class E airspace if you explain that its
purpose is to provide separation for IFR traffic.
1. Therefore, its effect on normal VFR operations (i.e., not special VFR operations) is restricted
to visibility and cloud clearance requirements.

II. Operating Rules and Equipment Requirements for VFR Operations

A. The minimum VFR visibility and cloud clearance requirements for operations in Class E airspace
vary depending on the aircraft’s altitude.
1. Below 10,000 ft. MSL: 3 SM visibility and a distance from clouds of 1,000 ft. above, 500 ft.
below, and 2,000 ft. horizontally.
2. At or above 10,000 ft. MSL: 5 SM visibility and a distance from clouds of 1,000 ft. above and
below, and 1 SM horizontally.
a. Explain that the VFR visibility and cloud clearance requirements increase above
10,000 ft. MSL because the 250-kt. speed limit for aircraft below 10,000 ft. MSL no
longer applies.
b. Therefore, more space is required between aircraft with higher closing speeds in order
to avoid a collision in the same amount of time.

B. There are no communications or clearance requirements for VFR operations in Class E airspace.
C. There are no specific equipment requirements for VFR operations in Class E airspace.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 8 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations

III. VFR Flight Procedures

A. No special communications or clearance requirements exist for VFR operations in Class E
airspace.
B. Emphasize to your students that, unless they request VFR Flight Following from a radar facility,
they will not be in contact with ATC when operating in Class E airspace.
1. Therefore, they must be extra vigilant in scanning for other traffic.

4.8 CLASS G AIRSPACE

I. Definition. Class G airspace is all airspace which has not been designated as Class A, Class B,
Class C, Class D, or Class E airspace (i.e., airspace that has not been designated as controlled
airspace).
A. Explain that Class G airspace is commonly called “uncontrolled” airspace.

II. Operating Rules and Equipment Requirements for VFR Operations

A. The VFR visibility and cloud clearance requirements for operations in Class G airspace vary
depending on the aircraft’s altitude and the time of day.
1. At or below 1,200 ft. AGL:
a. Day: 1 SM visibility and “clear of clouds.”
b. Night: 3 SM visibility and a distance from clouds of 1,000 ft. above, 500 ft. below, and
2,000 ft. horizontally.
i. When in an airport traffic pattern in Class G airspace at night below 1,200 ft.
AGL, airplanes may operate “clear of clouds” with at least 1 SM visibility,
provided they remain within 1/2 mile of the runway.

2. Below 10,000 ft. MSL but above 1,200 ft. AGL:

a. Day: 1 SM visibility and a distance from clouds of 1,000 ft. above, 500 ft. below, and
2,000 ft. horizontally.
b. Night: 3 SM visibility and a distance from clouds of 1,000 ft. above, 500 ft. below, and
2,000 ft. horizontally.
3. At or above 10,000 ft. MSL and above 1,200 ft. AGL:
a. Day or Night: 5 SM visibility and a distance from clouds of 1,000 ft. above and below,
and 1 SM horizontally.
b. As with Class E airspace, the VFR visibility and cloud clearance requirements increase
above 10,000 ft. MSL because the 250-kt. speed limit no longer applies.

B. Explain that the VFR visibility and cloud clearance requirements in Class G airspace increase at
night and at altitudes above 1,200 ft. AGL because of the increased possibility of inadvertently
entering a cloud under those conditions.
1. At night, it is difficult to detect clouds against a darkened background.
a. Accordingly, it is prudent to remain a greater distance from clouds in order to avoid
accidentally drifting into them.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations 9

2. At higher altitudes (i.e., greater than traffic pattern altitude), marginal visibility conditions
seem “worse” than at lower altitudes.
a. With visibility less than 5 SM, a pilot can get the sensation of being in a “hole,” where it
is possible to see the ground beneath the airplane, but not ahead of it.
i. This sensation increases as altitude increases.
b. Under these conditions, there is little contrast between clouds and the background.
i. For this reason, it is more likely for a pilot to inadvertently enter a cloud at higher
altitudes; therefore, greater distances from clouds are required.

C. There are no communications or clearance requirements for VFR operations in Class G airspace.
D. There are no specific equipment requirements for VFR operations in Class G airspace.
E. If a control tower is operating at an airport in Class G airspace, a pilot must establish two-way radio
communications with the controller prior to 4 NM from the airport, up to and including 2,500 AGL.

III. VFR Flight Procedures

A. No special communications or clearance requirements exist for VFR operations in Class G
airspace.
B. Explain to your students that, because it is uncontrolled, they will not be in contact with ATC when
operating in Class G airspace.
1. Therefore, they must be extra vigilant in scanning for other traffic, particularly when the
visibility is less than 3 SM.

4.9 SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE

I. Definition. Special use airspace areas contain activities which must be confined due to their
nature.
A. Explain that each special use airspace area has defined lateral and vertical dimensions, and is
individually tailored to the activities for which it was designated.
1. The lateral dimensions of each area are depicted directly on VFR charts, while the vertical
dimensions are found in the special use airspace table located on the edge of the chart.
B. The operations of non-participating aircraft may be prohibited or restricted within these areas.

II. Operating Rules and Equipment Requirements for VFR Operations

A. Standard Class E VFR visibility and cloud clearance minimum requirements, depending on
altitude, apply to operations in special use airspace.
B. There are no specific equipment requirements for VFR operations in special use airspace areas.
C. Explain to your students that there are 5 major types of special use airspace. Each has different
operating rules.
1. Prohibited areas consist of defined lateral dimensions and extend upward from the surface
to a specified vertical limit. They are designed to keep aircraft out of areas that are
important to national security.
a. The flight of aircraft is prohibited within prohibited areas.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 10 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations

2. Restricted areas consist of defined lateral and vertical dimensions. They are designed to
contain unusual, often invisible, hazards to aircraft, such as aerial gunnery or guided
missiles.
a. The flight of aircraft, while not wholly prohibited, is subject to restrictions.
i. Emphasize to your students that they must obtain authorization from the
controlling agency in order to enter an active restricted area.

3. Warning areas consist of defined lateral and vertical dimensions extending from 3 NM
outward from the coast of the United States. They contain activities that are similar to
those found in restricted areas, and are intended to warn non-participating aircraft of the
hazards.
a. The flight of aircraft is neither prohibited nor restricted because warning areas are
typically located in international airspace.
i. Explain that the FAA cannot regulate the flight of aircraft in international
airspace, so no legal restrictions on flying in a warning area exist.
o Warning areas are still very hazardous, however, and must be avoided
when they are active.

4. Military operations areas (MOAs) consist of defined lateral and vertical dimensions. They
are designed to separate certain military training activities from IFR traffic.
a. Because VFR flight is neither prohibited nor restricted, no special communications or
clearance requirements exist.
b. However, MOAs contain a high volume of military activities which require acrobatic or
abrupt flight maneuvers, so pilots must be especially vigilant in scanning for other
traffic.
5. Alert areas consist of defined lateral and vertical dimensions. They are intended to inform
non-participating pilots to a high volume of pilot-training or an unusual type of aerial activity
(e.g., skydiving) in a concentrated area.
a. Because the flight of aircraft is neither prohibited nor restricted, no special
communications or clearance requirements exist.
b. However, alert areas contain a high volume of flight activity, so pilots must be
especially vigilant in scanning for other traffic.

III. VFR Flight Procedures

A. Emphasize to your students that VFR flight procedures for special use airspace vary depending on
the type of airspace.
1. Flight of any kind is prohibited within a prohibited area.
2. Pilots must obtain an ATC clearance to fly through an active restricted area.
a. A clearance is obtained by contacting the appropriate controlling agency, which is
listed in the special use airspace table found on the edge of the chart.
b. A clearance has been received when ATC uses the phrase, “(aircraft call sign) is
cleared to enter the (restricted area restricted area name).”
c. No clearance is required to fly through an inactive restricted area.
i. However, the only way to be sure of the status of a restricted area is to contact
the controlling agency.
o Pilots should not rely on the special use airspace table.
ii. Therefore, recommend to your students that they always contact the controlling
agency before entering a restricted area.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations 11

3. No special communications or clearance requirements exist to fly through a warning area,

an MOA, or an alert area.
a. Each of these special use airspace areas has its own unique hazards, however, and
care must be taken when operating within them.
i. Active warning areas should be avoided altogether.
ii. MOAs and alert areas require pilots to be extra vigilant in scanning for other
traffic.

4.10 AIRPORT SIGNS

I. Emphasize to your students that a thorough understanding of airport signs is very important to safe
ground operations.
A. Familiarity with airport signs helps pilots to maintain positional awareness while taxiing, allows
pilots to use airport diagrams more effectively, and helps to prevent runway incursion incidents.

II. The figures below illustrate some of the more important airport signs. Explain each of them to your
students, and point out examples of each sign at your airport.
A. Runway holding position sign (illustration A). These signs are located at the holding position on
taxiways that intersect a runway and on runways that intersect another runway. They are placed
adjacent to the runway holding position markings (four yellow lines, two solid, and two broken)
which are painted on the taxiway or runway.

4-22
A

4
Illustration A

1. Explain that the numbers on the sign correspond to the locations of the runway’s thresholds.
a. Illustration A indicates that the threshold for runway 4 is to the left, and the threshold
for runway 22 is to the right.

B. Runway approach area holding position sign (illustration B). At some airports, it is necessary
for aircraft to hold at a point on a taxiway which is not immediately adjacent to the runway so as to
prevent them from interfering with takeoff and landing operations on that runway.

4-APCH

4
4

ILS

Illustration B

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
12 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations

1. Explain that illustration B indicates that aircraft must hold at this point in order to protect the
approach path to runway 4 or the departure path from runway 22.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations 13

C. ILS critical area holding position sign (illustration C). At some airports, when the instrument
landing system (ILS) is being used, it is necessary for aircraft to hold at a point on a taxiway that
is different from the standard holding position. This point is usually farther from the runway than
the standard holding position.

ILS

ILS
Illustration C

1. Explain that holding at this point is necessary to prevent aircraft on the ground from
interfering with the ILS signal.
D. No entry sign (illustration D). These signs are used to prohibit aircraft from entering an area.
They may be found on a taxiway that is intended to be used in only one direction, at an
intersection of a vehicle roadway with a runway or taxiway, or adjacent to areas not intended for
aircraft which may easily be mistaken for aircraft movement areas.

road intended
for vehicles

Illustration D

E. Taxiway location sign (illustration E). These signs identify the taxiway on which an aircraft is
currently located.

B
B 4-22
B

4
Illustration E

1. Explain that illustration E indicates that the aircraft is located on taxiway bravo.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
14 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations

F. Runway location sign (illustration F). These signs identify the runway on which an aircraft is
currently located.

22

22

22-4

ILS
Illustration F

1. Explain that illustration F indicates that the aircraft is currently located on runway 22.
G. Runway boundary sign (illustration G). These signs are visible to aircraft leaving a runway.
They are intended to provide another visual cue as to when the aircraft is clear of the runway.

22

Illustration G

1. Explain that these signs are placed adjacent to the runway holding position markings
which are painted on the taxiway, and consist of a graphic representation of these
markings.
H. ILS critical area boundary sign (illustration H). These signs are visible to aircraft leaving an ILS
critical area. They are intended to provide another visual cue as to when the aircraft is clear of
the critical area.

22

Illustration H

1. Explain that these signs are placed adjacent to the ILS critical area holding position
markings which are painted on the taxiway, and consist of a graphic representation of
these markings.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations 15

I. Destination sign (illustration I). These signs show the taxi route to a particular destination on the
airport surface. They may provide directions to runways, ramps, terminals, military areas, FBOs,
etc.

TERM

TERM

Illustration I

1. Explain that illustration I indicates that aircraft following the taxi route to the terminal should
turn right.
J. Direction signs (illustrations J and K). These signs identify the intersecting runways or taxiways
leading out of an intersection on the airport surface.

22•33
22 B

22•33
B

Illustration J Illustration K

1. Explain that illustration J indicates that runways 22 and 23 are to the right, and that
illustration K indicates that taxiway bravo is to the left.
K. Runway distance remaining sign (illustration L). These signs indicate how much runway
distance remains in thousands of feet. This information is relevant to LAHSO as well as to normal
operations.

22
22

Illustration L

1. Explain that illustration L indicates that 4,000 feet of runway remain.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 16 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations

L. Land and hold short point sign (illustration M). These signs indicate a land and hold short point
that is at a location other than an intersecting runway. Explain that aircraft may be instructed to
hold short of these points during LAHSO.

HS-1

Departing aircraft

HS-1
.....
HS-1
land and hold short

Illustration M

M. Taxiway ending sign (illustration N). These signs indicate that a taxiway ends at that point (i.e.,
there is a “dead end”).

22

Illustration N

III. Refer your students to chapter 2 in the Aeronautical Information Manual or to Chapter 3 in Gleim’s
Pilot Handbook for more information about airport signs and markings.

4.11 RUNWAY AND TAXIWAY MARKINGS

I. Runway Markings
A. Point out to your students that most runway markings are white.
1. Explain that a runway is marked in accordance with its present usage as a visual runway,
nonprecision instrument runway, or precision instrument runway. Pilots can use any of
these runways for takeoff and landing.
B. Discuss the following runway markings with your students.
1000'
500' 500' 500'
20
L

RUNWAY
THRESHOLD DESIGNATION
BAR MARKING MARKING
THRESHOLD TOUCHDOWN AIMING SIDE PAVEMENT
MARKINGS ZONE POINT STRIPE EDGE Figure4_3
MARKINGS MARKING MARKING Runway Markings

1. Designation marking. Runway numbers are determined based on the magnetic heading of
an aircraft taking off or landing on that runway, and letters differentiate between left (L),
right (R), or center (C) parallel runways, if applicable.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations 17

2. Centerline marking. The runway centerline is a dashed line.

3. Threshold bar marking. A threshold bar marking is a solid white line that is used to mark
the beginning of the runway surface that is available for landing.
a. A displaced threshold is a threshold that is not at the beginning of the paved
runway.

7
LANDING
NON-LANDING DISPLACED PORTION OF
PORTION OF THRESHOLD RUNWAY
RUNWAY

Figure4_4 - Displaced Threshold

i. The paved area before the displaced runway threshold (marked by arrows) is
available for taxiing, the takeoff of aircraft, and a landing rollout from the
opposite direction, but not for landing in the direction of the runway in
question.
ii. White arrows are located along the centerline in the area between the beginning
of the runway and the displaced threshold.
iii. White arrow heads are located across the width of the runway just prior to the
threshold bar.

4. Threshold markings. Threshold markings consist of several longitudinal stripes grouped

on either side of the runway centerline prior to the designation marking. These stripes help
pilots to identify the runway threshold area.
5. Aiming point markings. Aiming point markings serve as a visual aiming point during
landing. Aiming point markings are two broad white stripes located on each side of the
runway centerline approximately 1,000 ft. from the landing threshold.
6. Touchdown zone markings. Touchdown zone markings help pilots to identify the
touchdown zone for landing operations and are coded to provide distance information in
500-ft. increments.
7. Side stripe marking. Runway side stripes are continuous white stripes located on each
side of the runway to provide a visual contrast between the runway and the abutting terrain
or shoulders.
8. Chevrons. Chevrons are used to show pavement areas (e.g., blast pads, stopways, etc.)
aligned with the runway that are unusable for landing, takeoff, and taxiing. Chevrons are
yellow.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 18 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations

10
CHEVRON THRESHOLD
(YELLOW) (WHITE)
Figure4_5
Chevrons

9. Closed or temporarily closed runway.

a. A permanently closed runway has all runway lighting disconnected, all runway
markings obliterated, and yellow crosses placed at each end of the runway and at
1,000-ft. intervals.
b. A temporarily closed runway is marked by yellow crosses placed only at each end of
the runway.
i. Alternatively, raised lighted yellow crosses are placed at each end of the
runway.
ii. A visual indication may not be present depending on the reason for the closure,
the duration of the closure, the airport configuration, and the existence (and
operating hours) of a control tower.

II. Taxiway Markings

A. Point out to your students that most taxiway markings are yellow. You should discuss the following
taxiway markings with your students.
1. Taxiway centerline marking. The taxiway centerline is a single continuous yellow line that
indicates the desired taxi path.
a. Explain that, ideally, the airplane should be kept centered over this line during taxiing
to ensure wingtip clearance.
2. Taxiway edge markings. These markings are used to define the edge of the taxiway when
the taxiway edge does not correspond with the edge of the pavement. There are two types
of taxiway edge markings:
a. A continuous double yellow line should not be crossed.
b. A dashed double yellow line indicates the edge of the taxiway where the adjoining
pavement is also intended for use by aircraft, i.e., a parking ramp.
3. Closed or temporarily closed taxiway
a. A permanently closed taxiway has all lighting disconnected and yellow crosses placed
at each entrance of the taxiway and possibly at 1,000-ft. intervals.
b. A temporarily closed taxiway is usually treated as a hazardous area that no part of the
airplane may enter and is blocked with barricades.
i. Alternatively, a yellow cross may be installed at each entrance to the taxiway.

III. Holding Position Markings

A. Point out to your students that holding position markings are yellow and typically have
red-and-white holding position signs mounted next to them.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations 19

1. Runway holding position markings. These markings indicate where an aircraft should
stop. They consist of four yellow lines, two solid and two dashed, extending across the
width of the taxiway or runway. See detail 1 in the next figure.
a. Explain that the solid lines are always on the side where the aircraft is to hold.
b. On taxiways, these markings identify the location where aircraft are to stop when they
do not have clearance to proceed onto the runway at a controlled airport or when
there is not adequate separation from other aircraft at an uncontrolled airport.
i. Emphasize that, when exiting the runway, an aircraft is not clear of the runway
until all parts of the airplane have crossed the holding position marking.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
20 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations

2. Holding position markings for ILS critical areas. These markings consist of two solid
yellow lines extended across the width of the taxiway that are spaced 2 ft. apart and
connected by pairs of perpendicular lines, as shown in the next figure (see detail 2).
a. Explain to your students that, when the ILS critical area is being protected, they must
stop at the ILS holding position unless they have a clearance from ATC to proceed.

15
DETAIL 1 RUNWAY HOLDING
POSITION MARKINGS,
YELLOW, SEE
DETAIL 1
ILS HOLDING
POSITION MARKINGS,
YELLOW, SEE DETAIL 2

ILS CRITICAL
DETAIL 2
AREA
Figure4_6
Holding Position Marking

3. Holding position markings for taxiway/taxiway intersections. These markings consist of

one dashed line extending across the width of the taxiway.
B. Other Markings
1. Vehicle roadway markings. These markings are used to define a pathway for vehicle
operations in areas that are also intended for aircraft.
a. Vehicle roadway markings consist of a white solid line to delineate each edge of the
roadway and a dashed line to separate lanes within the edges of the roadway.
i. An alternative to solid edge lines is the use of zipper markings (staggered
lines).

APRON
ROADWAY EDGE
STRIPES
ROADWAY LANE LINE

ROADWAY STOP LINE ROADWAY EDGE STRIPES

(ZIPPER STYLE)

TAXIWAY CENTERLINE
MARKING

TAXIWAY EDGE MARKINGS

Figure4_7 - Vehicle Roadway Marking

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations 21

2. Non-movement area boundary markings. These markings delineate movement areas,

i.e., areas on the airport surface that are under air traffic control.
a. Non-movement area boundary markings consist of two yellow lines, one solid and one
dashed.
i. Explain that the solid line is located on the non-movement area side, while the
dashed line is located on the movement area side.

BOTH LINES ARE YELLOW

DASHED LINE ON SOLID LINE ON

MOVEMENT SIDE NON-MOVEMENT
SIDE
Figure4_8
Non-Movement Area Boundary Marking

4.12 AIRPORT LIGHTING

I. Runway Lights.
A. Point out to your students that runway lights are primarily white. You should discuss the following
runway lights with your students:
1. Runway edge lights. These lights are used to outline the edges of the runway during
periods of darkness or restricted visibility.
a. Emphasize that runway edge lights are white, except on instrument runways, where
yellow replaces white on the last 2,000 ft. or half the runway length, whichever is less,
to form a caution zone for landings.
2. Runway threshold lights. These lights (sometimes called runway end lights) mark the
ends of the runway. Explain that they appear
a. Green to aircraft on approach (i.e., they indicate the landing threshold)
b. Red to aircraft taking off or on the landing rollout (i.e., they indicate the end of the
runway)
3. In-runway lighting. This lighting is installed on some precision approach runways to
facilitate landing under adverse visibility conditions.
a. Touchdown zone lighting consists of two rows of flush white lights on either side of
the centerline in the runway touchdown zone.
b. Runway centerline lighting consists of semi-flush centerline lights spaced at 50-ft.
intervals along the runway centerline.
i. When viewed from the landing threshold, the runway centerline lights are white
until the last 3,000 ft. of the runway.
o Then they alternate red and white until 1,000 ft. from the end of the
runway.
o For the last 1,000 ft. of the runway, all lights are red.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 22 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations

c. Taxiway lead-off lights are semi-flush lights defining the curved path of travel from
the runway centerline to a point on an exit taxiway to expedite movement of aircraft
from the runway.
i. These lights alternate green and yellow from the runway centerline to the
runway holding position or ILS critical area boundary, as appropriate.

4. Runway end identifier lights (REILs). These lights are installed at many airports to
provide rapid and positive identification of the approach end of a particular runway.
a. The REIL system consists of a pair of synchronized flashing lights located laterally on
each side of the runway threshold.

II. Taxiway Lights

A. Point out to your students that taxiway lights are primarily blue and green. Discuss the following
taxiway lights with your students:
1. Taxiway edge lights. These lights are blue and outline the edges of taxiways during
periods of darkness or restricted visibility conditions.
2. Taxiway centerline lights. These green lights are used on some airports to mark the
taxiway centerline during low visibility conditions.
3. Clearance bar lights. These lights consist of three in-pavement steady-burning yellow
lights located at holding positions on taxiways to help pilots identify the holding position in
low visibility conditions.
4. Runway guard lights. These lights are installed at taxiway/runway intersections and are
primarily used to help pilots identify taxiway/runway intersections during low visibility
conditions.
a. Runway guard lights consist of either a pair of elevated flashing yellow lights installed
on either side of the taxiway or a row of in-pavement yellow lights installed across the
entire taxiway at the runway holding position marking.
5. Stop bar lights. When installed, these lights are used to confirm the ATC clearance to
enter or cross the active runway in low visibility conditions.
a. Stop bars consist of a row of red, unidirectional, steady-burning in-pavement lights
installed across the entire taxiway at the runway holding position, and elevated
steady-burning red lights on each side.
b. A controlled stop bar is operated in conjunction with the taxiway centerline lead-on
lights, which extend from the stop bar toward the runway.
c. Following an ATC clearance to proceed, the stop bar is turned off and the lead-on
lights are turned on. These lights are automatically reset by a sensor or timer.
i. Impress upon your students that they should never cross a red illuminated stop
bar, even if an ATC clearance has been given to proceed onto or across the
runway.
ii. If, after crossing the stop bar, the lead-on lights are inadvertently extinguished,
pilots should stop, hold their position, and contact ATC for further instructions.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations 23

III. Pilot-controlled lighting (PCL)

A. Explain to your students that PCL is available at many airports where there is no operating control
tower or FSS. PCL is normally activated on the airport’s CTAF.
B. The control system consists of a three-step control responsive to seven, five, and/or three
microphone clicks.
1. Suggest to your students that they always initially key the microphone seven times to assure
that all controlled lights are at maximum available intensity.
2. They may then lower the intensity (if applicable) by keying five or three times.
C. Explain that, due to the close proximity of airports using the same frequency, radio-controlled
lighting receivers may be set at a low sensitivity requiring the airplane to be relatively close. The
lights will usually remain on for a period of 15 min. unless they are reset by re-keying the
microphone.

IV. Airport Rotating Beacons

A. Explain that the primary purpose of rotating beacons is to identify the location of airports at night.
1. Rotating beacons usually flash 24 to 30 times per minute.
2. White and green alternating flashes indicate a lighted land airport for civil use.
3. Two whites and a green indicate a military airport.
B. Inform your students that operation of the green and white rotating beacon in Class B, C, D, and E
surface areas during the day often indicates that the weather is below basic VFR weather
minimums, meaning that conditions are
1. Less than 3 SM visibility, and/or
2. Ceiling less than 1,000 ft.
a. Emphasize, however, that there is no regulatory requirement for daylight operation of
the rotating beacon.

4.13 SIGNIFICANCE OF NOTICES TO AIRMEN (NOTAMS) TO AIRPORT OPERATIONS

I. Explain to your students that the National Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) System disseminates
time-critical aeronautical information which is either of a temporary nature or not sufficiently known
in advance to permit publication on aeronautical charts or in other operational publications.
A. Emphasize that NOTAM information is aeronautical information that could affect the decision to
make a flight.

II. Explain that, of the three types of NOTAMs, local NOTAMs and distant NOTAMs are the most likely
to contain information relevant to airport operations. Flight Data Center (FDC) NOTAMs may also
impact airport operations.
A. Information regarding runway closures, airport closures, and changes in the status of navigational
aids is found in distant NOTAMs.
1. These NOTAMs can be obtained from any flight service station briefer.
B. Information regarding taxiway closures, rotating beacon outages, and airport lighting that does not
affect instrument approach criteria will be found in local NOTAMs.
1. These NOTAMs can be obtained from ATC or from the flight service station in whose area
the airport is located.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 24 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations

C. FDC NOTAMs are regulatory in nature and include information such as amendments to published
Instrument Approach Procedures and other current aeronautical charts.
1. FDC NOTAMs are also used to advertise temporary flight restrictions, which sometimes
impact airport operations.

4.14 LAND AND HOLD SHORT OPERATIONS (LAHSO)

I. Explain that LAHSO is an acronym for “Land And Hold Short Operations.” These operations, in
which a landing aircraft is required to hold short of an intersecting runway, taxiway, or other point
on the landing runway, take place at some large, busy airports in order to increase capacity.
II. LAHSO is an ATC procedure that requires pilot participation in order to balance the needs for
increased airport capacity and system efficiency with the requirement for safety. LAHSO can be
done safely provided pilots and controllers are knowledgeable and understand their
responsibilities.
III. Explain to your students that, at an airport with an operating control tower, ATC may clear them to
land and hold short.
A. Pilots may accept such a clearance provided they have determined that their aircraft can safely
land and stop within the Available Landing Distance (ALD).
1. ALD data are published in the special notices section of the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD).
2. Controllers will also provide ALD data upon request.
3. Pilots who are not familiar with LAHSO should not participate in the program.
IV. Emphasize that, as pilot-in-command, your students have the final authority to accept or
decline any land and hold short clearance. The safety and operation of the aircraft remain
their responsibility. Pilots are expected to decline a LAHSO clearance if they determine that
it will compromise safety.
A. A LAHSO clearance, just as with any other ATC clearance, must be adhered to once accepted,
unless an amended clearance is obtained or an emergency occurs.
B. A LAHSO clearance does not eliminate the possibility of a rejected landing (go-around).

4.15 AVOIDING RUNWAY INCURSION

I. Tell your students that the FAA defines runway incursion as any occurrence at an airport involving
an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on the ground that creates a collision hazard or results in a
loss of separation with an aircraft taking off, intending to take off, landing, or intending to land.
Some examples of runway incursions are:
A. At an airport without an operating control tower, a departing aircraft may taxi into position for
takeoff without first checking for landing traffic. If an aircraft is on short final when this happens, a
go-around will be necessary, or a collision could result.
B. While taxiing at an airport with a complex taxiway layout, a pilot may become confused as to
his/her location and inadvertently cross or turn onto a runway that is being used by another
aircraft. Depending on the timing of the incursion, the other aircraft may have to abort a takeoff or
perform a go-around. A collision may be unavoidable.
C. At an airport with an operating control tower, a pilot may misunderstand a clearance (or fail to
obtain the correct clearance due to inattention) and cross a runway of which (s)he was instructed
to hold short. The pilot could also turn onto the wrong runway when cleared for takeoff. Any
aircraft using these runways may have to abort a takeoff or perform a go-around. Again, a
collision may be unavoidable.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 4: The National Airspace System and Airport Operations 25

II. Emphasize that runway incursions that are most likely to cause accidents are common at
high-volume airports with complex taxiway layouts and multiple parallel or intersecting runways.
A. The vast majority are caused by general aviation pilots who are confused or disoriented, do not
understand a controller’s instructions, or are not paying attention to their surroundings.
B. The likelihood of an accident increases when the visibility is low.

III. Impress upon your students that the following practices will help them to avoid a runway incursion
incident:
A. Read back all runway crossing and/or hold short instructions.
B. Review airport layouts as part of preflight planning, before descending to land, and while taxiing as
needed.
C. Know airport signage.
D. Review Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) for information on runway/taxiway closures and construction
areas.
E. Do not hesitate to request progressive taxi instructions from ATC when unsure of the taxi route.
F. Check for traffic before crossing any runway or entering a taxiway.
G. Turn on the aircraft’s lights and rotating beacon or strobe lights while taxiing.
H. When landing, clear the active runway as quickly as possible; then wait for taxi instructions before
further movement.
I. Study and use proper radio phraseology as described in the Aeronautical Information Manual,
Chapter 4, or Gleim’s Pilot Handbook, Chapter 3, in order to respond to and understand ground
control instructions.
J. Write down complex taxi instructions at unfamiliar airports.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 1

GLEIM FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR REFRESHER COURSE

LESSON 5
AVIATION WEATHER AND WEATHER-RELATED
DECISION MAKING
5.1 GENERAL
I. You should emphasize to your students that weather is relevant to each flight they make. A pilot
should never begin a flight without considering weather.
A. 14 CFR Sec. 91.103 states that, for any flight conducted under IFR or not in the vicinity of an
airport, the pilot is required to become familiar with appropriate weather reports and forecasts.
1. The FAA expects each pilot to obtain an official weather briefing from an appropriate source
(e.g., a Flight Service Station or DUATS) prior to such flights.
B. Even for local flights, it is appropriate to consider local weather reports and forecasts, because
even a session of touch and goes can be significantly affected by rapidly changing weather.
1. For example, on a day with widely scattered thunderstorms, use a series of radar images or
METAR observations to show your students that a local airport can rapidly alternate several
times between clear skies and heavy rain over the course of a few hours.
a. Explain to your students that if they fail to consider the possibility of rapidly changing
weather and closely monitor the weather during each circuit around the traffic pattern,
they could be caught beneath or inside a thunderstorm.

II. This lesson will help you to explain sources of weather information, aviation weather products,
special weather hazards, and weather-related decision-making.

5.2 WEATHER INFORMATION

I. Sources of Weather Information: Aviation weather services are a joint effort of the National
Weather Service (NWS), the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the Department of Defense
(DOD) Weather Service, and other aviation-oriented groups and individuals.
To help your students better-understand aviation weather services, it is useful for you as a CFI to
know how weather products are created and distributed. The following organizations are
responsible for collecting weather data and creating the weather reports and forecasts that are
distributed to pilots:
A. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). NOAA is an agency of the
Department of Commerce. Among its six major divisions are the National Environmental Satellite
Data and Information Service and the National Weather Service.
1. The National Environmental Satellite Data and Information Service (NESDIS) is located
in Washington, D.C., and directs the weather satellite program.
2. The National Weather Service (NWS) collects and analyzes weather data and uses this
data to prepare forecasts on a national, hemispheric, and global scale. The following are
descriptions of the NWS facilities tasked with these duties:
a. The National Center Operations (NCO) is located in Washington, D.C., and is the
focal point of the NWS’s weather processing center. Using worldwide weather
reports, the NCO prepares weather analysis charts and guidance forecasts for use by
NWS offices and others. The majority of the charts are computer generated, but a
few are still manually prepared by meteorologists. The winds and temperatures aloft
forecast is one example of an NCO product.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 2 Lesson 5: Aviation Weather and Weather-Related Decision Making

b. The Storm Prediction Center (SPC), located in Norman, Oklahoma, is responsible

for monitoring and forecasting severe weather over the 48 contiguous states and for
developing severe weather forecasting techniques in addition to conducting
research. Its products include severe weather (convective) outlooks and severe
weather watches.
i. For more information about the Storm Prediction Center, visit their web site at
http://www.spc.noaa.gov/
c. The Aviation Weather Center (AWC), located in Kansas City, Missouri, identifies
existing or imminent weather hazards, issues warnings and forecasts, and analyzes
hazardous weather. The AWC also produces 2-day operational forecasts, aviation
area forecasts (FA), and in-flight aviation weather advisories for the 48 contiguous
states.
i. Visit the Aviation Weather Center web site at
http://www.aviationweather.noaa.gov/
d. The Tropical Prediction Center (TPC), located in Miami, Florida, issues hurricane
advisories for the Atlantic, the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, the eastern Pacific, and
adjacent land areas. It also conducts hurricane research and develops hurricane
forecasting techniques. A similar facility, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center in
Honolulu, Hawaii, issues advisories for the central Pacific.
i. Visit the Tropical Prediction Center web site at http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/

B. A Weather Forecast Office (WFO)prepares and issues various public, marine, and aviation
forecasts and weather warnings for its area of responsibility. These products include terminal
aerodrome forecasts (TAF) and transcribed weather broadcasts (TWEB). The Honolulu WFO
also issues aviation area forecasts (FA) and in-flight advisories.
C. Because of international flights and a need for worldwide weather forecasts, foreign weather
services also have a vital role as sources of weather information.

II. Preflight and En Route Weather Acquisition: Your students should be aware that the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) provides a wide range of weather services at no charge to them as
pilots. The following are descriptions of those FAA facilities from which pilots may obtain weather
information prior to and during a flight:
A. Automated Flight Service Station (AFSS). All Flight Service Stations in the contiguous 48
states are now automated. With about one AFSS per state, these “hub” facilities use improved
technology to enhance the pilot weather briefing services that were previously available at
non-automated facilities. In addition to other services such as processing flight plans and relaying
ATC clearances, AFSSs provide the following preflight/in-flight briefings, transcribed weather
briefings, and weather broadcasts:
1. Three types of In-person and Live Voice Telephone Weather Briefings are provided:
a. A standard weather briefing is normally obtained a few hours prior to a flight and
contains all applicable planning information that the AFSS can provide concerning
weather and aeronautical information (such as Notices to Airmen [NOTAMs]) that will
affect the flight.
b. An outlook weather briefing is normally obtained 6 hr. or more prior to a flight and
contains general information useful for advance planning only.
c. An abbreviated weather briefing is normally limited to some specific information and is
obtained to supplement weather information obtained from another source or to
update a prior briefing.
2. The En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS), or Flight Watch, is a weather information
service offered by selected AFSSs on a common low-altitude frequency of 122.0 MHz.
Above 18,000 ft., discrete frequencies are used for the service, which is extremely useful
for obtaining in-flight weather updates.
© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 5: Aviation Weather and Weather-Related Decision Making 3

3. The Telephone Information Briefing Service (TIBS) offers continuous telephone

recordings of aviation weather information and special announcements covering at least
four areas or routes in the AFSS’s service area.
4. The Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) provides continuous aeronautical and
meteorological information in a route format over selected VOR and NDB frequencies. At
selected locations, telephone access to the TWEB has been provided (TEL-TWEB).
5. The Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS) is a continuous broadcast
service over selected VORs of in-flight aviation weather advisories, i.e., AIRMETs,
SIGMETs, convective SIGMETs, severe weather forecast alerts (AWW), center weather
advisories (CWA), and urgent PIREPs (UUA).
B. The following Air Traffic Control Facilities and Services provide en route weather services to
pilots:
1. The Air Traffic Control System Command Center (ATCSCC), also known as “central flow
control,” is located in Herndon, Virginia. ATCSCC has the mission of balancing air traffic
demand with system capacity. Since weather is the most common reason for air traffic
delays and re-routings, the ATCSCC is supported full-time by Air Traffic Control System
Command Center Weather Unit Specialists, who disseminate weather information that
pertains to national air traffic flow management.
2. An Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) is an en route radar facility that provides air
traffic control services to en route aircraft operating under IFR and, as workload permits,
under VFR. Center controllers have access to weather information, either from their radar
equipment directly or from other sources.
a. The Center Weather Service Unit (CWSU) is a joint agency aviation weather support
team located at each ARTCC that provides weather consultation and advice to
managers and staff within the ARTCC and other supported FAA facilities. The
CWSU, composed of NWS meteorologists and FAA traffic management personnel,
provides FAA traffic managers with accurate and timely weather information.
3. Air Traffic Control Tower (ATCT) personnel share the responsibility for official weather
observations with the NWS at some airports. All ATCTs have access to aviation weather
information that they can provide to pilots.
a. Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) is a continuous loop voice recording
of current airport weather and other information made by tower personnel that is
broadcast over a discrete frequency by some ATCTs. The ATIS frequency is listed
on navigation charts and in the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD).
i. ATIS broadcasts normally contain the following:
o The time of the latest weather observation
o Ceiling
o Visibility and obstructions to visibility
o Temperature and dew point
o Wind direction (magnetic) and velocity
o Altimeter setting
o Remarks, including instrument approach and runway in use
NOTE: The ceiling and sky condition, visibility, and obstructions may be
omitted from the ATIS broadcast if the ceiling is above 5,000 ft. and the
visibility is more than 5 mi.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 4 Lesson 5: Aviation Weather and Weather-Related Decision Making

ii. The ATIS information is updated upon receipt of any official weather information,
which normally occurs hourly.
o Advise your students that this means that the information contained in an
ATIS broadcast may be up to 1 hour old.
o Therefore, they should be prepared for the actual wind speed/direction,
cloud heights, and runway information to be different from the information
contained in the broadcast.
iii. The system is designed so that arriving or departing VFR or IFR traffic can copy
the ATIS information, prior to contacting ATC, in order to reduce ATC
frequency congestion.
o Each broadcast is identified by a letter of the alphabet, i.e., “Information
Alpha,” “Information Bravo,” etc.
o Advise your students that they should indicate to controllers that they have
the latest information by using the current ATIS code in their initial
transmission (e.g., “...five miles north, landing with Bravo”).

C. The Direct User Access Terminal System (DUATS) is an FAA-funded, computer-based

information system that enables certificated pilots (including student pilots) to obtain their own
weather briefings and to file flight plans directly without going through an AFSS. DUATS products
also include free color weather graphics.
1. The Data Transformation Corporation (DTC) DUATS web site is at http://www.duat.com.
Information and free software for non-Internet access to its service is available at (800)
243-3828. The direct dial number for text-only products not requiring special software is
(800) 245-3828.
2. The GTE DUATS web site is at http://www.duats.com. Information and free software for
non-Internet access to its service is available at (800) 345-3828. The direct dial number for
text-only products not requiring special software is(800) 767-9989.

5.3 AVIATION WEATHER PRODUCTS

I. Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR)
A. An aviation routine weather report (METAR) is a weather observer’s (human or automated)
interpretation of the weather conditions at a given site and time. The METAR is used by the
aviation community and the NWS to determine the weather conditions (VFR, MVFR, or IFR) at an
airport, as well as to produce a terminal aerodrome forecast (TAF), if appropriate.
1. Although the METAR code is being adopted worldwide, each country is allowed to make
modifications or exceptions to the code for use in that particular country; e.g., the U.S. will
report prevailing visibility in statute miles, runway visual range (RVR) values in feet, wind
speed in knots, and altimeter setting in inches of mercury. However, temperature and dew
point will be reported in degrees Celsius.
B. Elements. A METAR report contains the following sequence of elements in the following order:
1. Type of report
2. ICAO station identifier
3. Date and time of report
4. Modifier (as required)
5. Wind
6. Visibility
7. Runway visual range (RVR) (as required)

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 5: Aviation Weather and Weather-Related Decision Making 5

8. Weather
9. Sky condition
a.
Vertical visibility is reported when the sky is obscured by a surface-based
phenomenon.
10. Temperature/dew point
11. Altimeter
12. Remarks (RMK) (as required)
NOTE: The elements in the body of a METAR report are separated by a space, except
temperature and dew point, which are separated with a solidus, /. When an element does not
occur or cannot be observed, that element is omitted from that particular report.
C. Example of a METAR report

METAR KGNV 201953Z 24015KT 3/4SM R28/2400FT +TSRA BKN008 OVC015CB

26/25 A2985 RMK TSB32RAB32

To aid in the discussion, we have divided the report into the 12 elements:

METAR KGNV 201953Z _______ 24015KT 3/4SM R28/2400FT +TSRA

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
BKN008 OVC015CB 26/25 A2985 RMK TSB32RAB32
9 10 11 12

1.Aviation routine weather report

2.Gainesville, FL
3.Observation taken on the 20th day of the month at 1953 UTC (or Zulu)
4.Modifier omitted; i.e., not required for this report
5.Wind 240 true at 15 kt.
6.Visibility 3/4 SM
7.Runway 28, runway visual range 2,400 ft.
8.Thunderstorm with heavy rain
9.Ceiling 800 ft. broken, 1,500 ft. overcast, cumulonimbus clouds
10.
Temperature 26C, dew point 25C
11.
Altimeter 29.85
12.
Remarks: Thunderstorm began at 32 min. past the hour; rain began at 32 min. past the
hour.
D. Advise your students that a good way to become proficient at reading METARs is to practice
decoding them.
1. The NWS Internet Weather Source provides the most recently observed weather conditions
for locations in the U.S. and worldwide.
a. For U.S. locations, go to http://www.nws.noaa.gov/
b. On the left side of the page, under the heading “Observations,” select “Surface
Weather.”
c. When the next page opens, select a state. This will display the observing locations in
that state.
d. Next, select a location (town, airport name) to view the latest observation.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 6 Lesson 5: Aviation Weather and Weather-Related Decision Making

2. The observations will include the time, “plain English” data, the coded METAR, maximum
and minimum temperatures, precipitation accumulation, and a 24-hour summary.
a. Your students can practice decoding the coded METARs for several locations and
then confirm their interpretations using the “plain English” data shown above the
METAR.

II. Satellite Weather Pictures

Figure5_1
Visible and IR Satellite

A. Satellite weather pictures are of either visible or infrared (IR) imagery. They are useful in
assessing the development and dissipation of weather over the entire country and coastal
regions.
1. A visible picture shows the reflection of sunlight from clouds and the Earth to the satellite
sensor.
a. The greater the reflected sunlight reaching the sensor, the whiter the object is on the
picture.
i. The amount of reflectivity reaching the sensor depends upon the height,
thickness, and ability of the object to reflect sunlight.
ii. Since clouds are much more reflective than the Earth, clouds will usually show
up white on the picture, especially thick clouds.
iii. Thus, the visible picture is primarily used to determine the presence of clouds
and the type of cloud from shape and texture.
b. Useful visible images are only available during the day because sunlight is necessary
for illumination.
2. An IR picture shows heat radiation being emitted by the Earth and clouds.
a. The images show temperature differences between cloud tops and the ground, as well
as temperature gradations of cloud tops and along the Earth’s surface.
i. Ordinarily, cold temperatures are displayed light gray or white.
ii. High clouds appear whitest.
iii. However, various computer-generated enhancements are sometimes used to
sharply illustrate important temperature contrasts.
b. IR images are used to determine cloud-top temperatures, which can approximate the
height of the cloud.
i. These images can be useful at night because visible satellite images are only
available with sunlight.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 5: Aviation Weather and Weather-Related Decision Making 7

B. Two kinds of weather satellites are in use today by the U.S.

1. Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) in geostationary equatorial orbit
2. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) satellite in polar orbit
C. NWS satellite pictures are available on the Internet from the following sites:
1. The Aviation Weather Center has various satellite pictures (images) available on its product
page at http://aviationweather.gov/awc/aviation_weather_center.html#satellite
a. Scroll down the page to “CURRENT CONDITIONS.”
b. The first heading is “Satellite” followed by subheadings for “Infra Red,” “Visible/Fog,”
and “Water Vapor” images.
2. The Tropical Prediction Center also has various satellite images at
http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/graphics.html
3. GOES imagery and products available at http://www.goes.noaa.gov/

III. Radar Summary Chart

1435Z FRI 14 APR 2000 RADAR SUMMARY SD14 Figure5_2
DUMP TIME 1445Z START 1450Z 55
50 LOCAL WARNING RADARS-- NONE 90
Radar
NE
110 100 Summary
13
Chart
13 NE
0
RW
H NE

F
180 RW
R
R
NE 40
NE
45 NE R 210 65
R NA NE NE
150
160 NA NE
R R 160 S SW
230
S RW R RW NE NE
S 250 R 260 NE NE 70
NE
35
260 R
300 NE NE NE
C
R
NA R NA 290
NA NE
NE IWX

B
NE 270

D
R
R
230 RW R R NE 090
R
250 NE
NA R NE NE NE
MX NE 17 R
NE R
R
125 430
NE NE TRW
180 R NE
RW 330 R RW NA NE 160 RW
R
R 75
NE R

A NE NE

NE
NE 170 RW 210
250
RW
TRW

210
RW
NA RW
160 R 290
190 R NE NE NE
NA
NE
R R 30
NE NA
NE R
R 09
NE NE 430
NE NA TRW
W TRW
NE R TRW
30 RW
NE 390

G
NE NE RW R
NE 250 RW
LEGEND.... NE W
TRW RW RW
25
SHADING-- ECHO AREAS NE
CONTOURS AT INTENSITIES 1- 3- 5 NE
TOPS 999 --BASES 999 --100S OF W
PREFIX-A-- ACFT RPTD TOP- WEATHER WATCH AREAS NA
MVMT -- AREAS+LINES -- PENANTS EYW
NE
MVMT -- CELLS-- ARROWS WITH SPEED NONE
TRW
PRECIP TYPE AND CHANGE OF INTENSITY US DEPT OF COMMERCE
IS NEW OR INCRG, - IS DCRG NOAA / NWS / NMC WASHINGTON
120 125 NE 0
D164 1764 110 100
1435Z FRI9 14 APR 2000 RADAR SUMMARY SD14
0
8

A. The radar summary chart is a computer-generated graphical display of a collection of automated

radar weather reports (SDs). It displays areas of precipitation; information about precipitation
type, intensity, configuration, and coverage; echo tops; and cell movement.
1. The radar summary chart is available hourly at 35 minutes past the hour.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 8 Lesson 5: Aviation Weather and Weather-Related Decision Making

B. The radar summary chart helps preflight planning by identifying general areas and movement of
precipitation and/or thunderstorms.
1. Radar detects only drops or ice particles of precipitation size; it does not detect clouds and
fog.
a. You should emphasize to your students that the absence of echoes does not
guarantee clear weather, and cloud tops will most likely be higher than the
precipitation tops detected by radar.
2. The chart must be used in conjunction with other charts, reports, and forecasts.
C. A national radar image is available on the Internet at
http://www.aviationweather.gov/awc/aviation_weather_center.html
1. Scroll down to the heading titled “CURRENT CONDITIONS.”
2. Under the side subheading of “Radar,” click on National Radar Comp withTops/Conv
SIGMETs.

IV. Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF)

A. The terminal aerodrome forecast (TAF) is a concise statement of the expected weather at a
specific airport during a 24-hour period. It covers an area within a 5-SM radius of the center of
the airport and is prepared four times daily at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, and 1800Z. Many of the
weather codes used in the METAR are also used in the TAF.
B. Elements. A TAF contains the following sequence of elements in the following order (items a-i).
Forecast change indicators (items j-l) and probability forecast (item m) are used as appropriate.

Forecast of
Communications Header Meteorological Conditions Time Elements
a. Type of report e. Wind j. Temporary (TEMPO)
b. ICAO station identifier f. Visibility k. From (FM)
c. Date and time of origin g. Weather l. Becoming (BECMG)
d. Valid period date and time h. Sky condition m. Probability (PROB)
i. Wind shear (optional)

C. Example of a TAF.

TAF
KOKC 051130Z 051212 14008KT 5SM BR BKN030 WS018/32030KT TEMPO 1316 1
1/2SM BR FM1600 16010KT P6SM SKC BECMG 2224 20013G20KT 4SM SHRA OVC020
PROB40 0006 2SM TSRA OVC008CB=

To aid in the discussion, we have divided the TAF above into elements a.-m. as follows:

TAF KOKC 051130Z 051212 14008KT 5SM BR BKN030

a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.
WS018/32030KT TEMPO 1316 1 1/2SM BR FM1600 16010KT P6SM SKC
i. j. k.
BECMG 2224 20013G20KT 4SM SHRA OVC020
l.
PROB40 0006 2SM TSRA OVC008CB=
m.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 5: Aviation Weather and Weather-Related Decision Making 9

a. Routine terminal aerodrome forecast

b. Oklahoma City, OK
c. Forecast prepared on the 5th day at 1130 UTC (or Z)
d. Forecast valid from the 5th day at 1200 UTC until 1200 UTC on the 6th
e. Wind 140° true at 8 kt.
f. Visibility 5 SM
g. Visibility obscured by mist
h. Ceiling 3,000 ft. broken
i. A vertical visibility (VV) may also be forecast as a sky condition when the sky is
expected to be obscured by a surface-based phenomena.
i. Low-level wind shear at 1,800 ft., wind 320° true at 30 kt.
j. Temporary (spoken as occasional) visibility 1½ SM in mist between 1300 UTC and
1600 UTC
k. From (or after) 1600 UTC, wind 160° true at 10 kt., visibility more than 6 SM, sky clear
l. Becoming (gradual change) wind 200° true at 13 kt., gusts to 20 kt., visibility 4 SM in
moderate rain showers, ceiling 2,000 ft. overcast between 2200 UTC and 2400 UTC
m. Probability (40% chance) between 0000 UTC and 0600 UTC of visibility 2 SM,
thunderstorm, moderate rain, ceiling 800 ft. overcast, cumulonimbus clouds (The =
sign indicates end of forecast.)

V. Aviation Area Forecast (FA)

A. An area forecast (FA) is a forecast of visual meteorological conditions (VMC), clouds, and general
weather conditions over an area the size of several states. They are issued three times a day for
each of the six areas in the contiguous states, plus Alaska and Hawaii. The FA is comprised of
four sections:
1. Communication and product header section. This section identifies the office for which the
FA is issued (e.g., MIA for Miami), the date and time of issue, the product name, the valid
times, and the states and/or areas covered by the FA.
2. Precautionary statements section. Three statements are in all FAs:
a. SEE AIRMET SIERRA FOR IFR CONDS AND MTN OBSCN.
b. TS IMPLY SEV OR GTR TURB SEV ICE LLWS AND IFR CONDS.
c. NON MSL HGTS ARE DENOTED BY AGL OR CIG.
3. Synopsis section. The synopsis is a brief summary of the location and movements of fronts,
pressure systems, and circulation patterns for an 18-hr. period.
4. VFR clouds/weather section. This section contains a 12-hr. specific forecast, followed by a
6-hr. (18-hr. in Alaska) categorical outlook giving a total forecast period of 18 hr. (30 hr. in
Alaska).
a. The forecast is of clouds and weather that are significant to VFR operations.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 10 Lesson 5: Aviation Weather and Weather-Related Decision Making

B. Example of a partial FA

MIAC FA 060945
SYNOPSIS AND VFR CLDS/WX
SYNOPSIS VALID UNTIL 070400
CLDS/WX VALID UNTIL 062200 . . . OTLK VALID 062200-070400
NC SC GA FL AND CSTL WTRS
.
SEE AIRMET SIERRA FOR IFR CONDS AND MTN OBSCN.
TS IMPLY SEV OR GTR TURB SEV ICE LLWS AND IFR CONDS.
NON MSL HGTS DENOTED BY AGL OR CIG.
.
SYNOPSIS . . . LOW PRES SYS OVR S CNTRL GLFMEX WITH QSTNRY FNTL
SYS EXTDG EWD FROM LOW ACRS SRN FL PENINSULA. BY 04Z . . . LOW
PRES SYS WILL BE OVR ATLC E OF SRN FL PENINSULA . . . MOVG EWD.
.
NC
CIGS BKN-OVC015-025. TOPS 060-080. CHC —DZ. OTLK . . . MVFR CIGS.
.
GA
NW OF AND-ABY LN . . . CIGS OVC015-025. TOPS 060-080. OTLK . . . MVFR
CIGS.
NE OF AND-ABY-SAV LN . . . SCT CI. BECMG 1622 SCT030-050 SCT-BKN100.
TOPS TO FL200. BKN CI. OTLK . . . VFR BECMG 0104 MVFR CIGS.
S OF ABY-SAV LN . . . SCT030-050 SCT-BKN100. TOPS TO FL200. BKN CI.
BECMG 1622 CIGS BKN-OVC030-050. CHC —RA LWRG VIS 3-5SM.
OTLK . . . MVFR CIGS.

C. Your students can view the FA on the Internet by starting at the Aviation Weather Center’s product
page: http://aviationweather.gov/awc/aviation_weather_center.html
D. Under the heading of “AVIATION PRODUCTS,” they should click Area Aviation Forecast
(description).
1. Next, they should choose and click the FA they would like to see. If they are not sure, the
states that are covered by each FA are listed next to the FA.

VI. Pilot Weather Report (PIREP): PIREPs are textual reports of actual conditions aloft observed by
pilots.
A. Explain that a PIREP will include some or all of the following elements: the weather reporting
station nearest to the reported conditions, the location of the reporting aircraft, the time of the
report, the aircraft’s altitude, the aircraft type, the sky condition, the weather conditions (including
flight visibility), the temperature, the wind speed and direction, any turbulence, any icing, and any
necessary remarks.
B. Emphasize to your students that PIREPs are the only source for direct pilot observations of cloud
tops, icing, and turbulence.
1. Therefore, pilots are encouraged to make frequent reports.
a. Advise your students that they are not required to provide all of the elements listed in
item F.1. above when giving a PIREP.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 5: Aviation Weather and Weather-Related Decision Making 11

VII. For a one-stop Internet site for METAR, TAF, PIREPs, AIRMETs, SIGMETs, winds, and satellite and
radar images (but not the FA), direct your students to the Aviation Digital Data Service web site at
http://adds.aviationweather.noaa.gov/
A. On the left side of the screen, they will see several “tabs.”
1. Your students can click the topic they want to view and follow the on-screen instructions.
B. If your students need help or information, tell them to click the box in the upper right corner of the
screen, titled “FYI/Help.”

5.4 ANALYZING SPECIAL WEATHER PHENOMENA AND HAZARDS

I. Wind Shear
A. Wind shear is defined as the rate of change of wind velocity.
1. Any change in wind speed or direction over a given distance constitutes wind shear.
B. Explain to your students that, as a practical consideration for pilots, the term “wind shear” usually
refers to a rapid change in wind speed or direction that occurs over a relatively short distance.
1. Your students must be aware that a report or forecast of wind shear at an airport should be
regarded as a significant hazard to flight.
C. The effects of wind shear on an aircraft can be felt as turbulence and can be seen in fluctuations of
airspeed, altitude, vertical speed, and pitch attitude.
D. Wind shear can be critical when it occurs close to the ground, such as immediately after takeoff or
during an approach to landing. Explain to your students that hazardous wind shear encounters
usually involve a decreasing headwind or an increasing tailwind.
1. Hazardous wind shear effects:
a. When a headwind component shears to a calm wind or a tailwind component, OR a
calm wind shears to a tailwind component:
i. Airspeed will decrease
ii. Pitch attitude will decrease (i.e., the nose will pitch down)
iii. Vertical speed/Altitude:
o If climbing: Rate of climb will decrease, possibly becoming a descent
o If level: Altitude will decrease
o If descending: Rate of descent will increase
b. When an updraft shears to a calm wind or a downdraft, OR a calm wind shears to a
downdraft:
i. Airspeed and pitch attitude should remain initially unaffected
ii. Vertical speed/Altitude:
o If climbing: Rate of climb will decrease, possibly becoming a descent
o If level: Altitude will decrease
o If descending: Rate of descent will increase

E. Severe wind shear (defined as a change in airspeed of more than 15 kt. or a change in vertical
speed of more than 500 fpm) is a hazard that is closely associated with thunderstorms and
microbursts, which are explained in the following sections.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 12 Lesson 5: Aviation Weather and Weather-Related Decision Making

II. Thunderstorms
A. Formation of Thunderstorms: Tell your students that the air must have the following 3 qualities
for a thunderstorm to form:
1. Sufficient water vapor.
2. An unstable lapse rate (i.e., temperature variation with altitude).
3. An initial upward boost (lifting) to start the storm process in motion.
a. This upward boost can come from surface heating, converging winds, sloping terrain,
a frontal surface, or any combination of these factors.
B. A thunderstorm’s life cycle progresses through three stages: cumulus, mature, and dissipating.
1. The cumulus stage begins as a cumulus cloud and is characterized by continuous updrafts.
2. The mature stage is characterized by both updrafts and downdrafts. This stage is
associated with the most severe turbulence due to wind shear between the updrafts and
downdrafts.
a. The beginning of the mature stage is signaled by precipitation falling from the cloud
base.
3. The dissipating stage is characterized by continuous downdrafts as the storm “rains itself
out.”
C. Hazards Associated With Thunderstorms: Tell your students that any of the following hazards
may be associated with thunderstorms:
Figure5_3
Thuderstorm Hazards
Turbulence

Anvil Anvil

Cumulonimbus

❄ ❄ ❄ ❄❄ ❄
❄ Snow/Icing
❄ ❄ ❄ ❄
❄ ❄

Wall Cloud

Rain Free Cloud Base

Tornado Wind Shear, Hail, and Rain

1. Tornadoes. The most violent thunderstorms draw air into their bases with great vigor. If
the incoming air has any tendency toward rotation, a concentrated vortex may form from
the surface well into the structure of the cloud. If this vortex touches the ground, it is called
a tornado (if the vortex touches water, it is called a “water spout”).
a. Winds within a tornado may exceed 200 kt.
b. Any aircraft that penetrates a tornado will almost certainly suffer structural damage.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 5: Aviation Weather and Weather-Related Decision Making 13

2. Squall Lines. A squall line is a non-frontal, narrow band of active thunderstorms. Squall
lines are often too dense to be safely penetrated and too long to be easily
circumnavigated.
a. They often develop ahead of a cold front in moist, unstable air, but they may also
develop in unstable air far removed from any front.
b. Squall lines often contain severe steady-state thunderstorms and present the single
most intense weather hazard to aircraft.
3. Turbulence
a. Hazardous turbulence is present in all thunderstorms, and in a severe thunderstorm it
can seriously damage an airframe.
b. The strongest turbulence within the cloud occurs as the result of wind shear between
updrafts and downdrafts.
i. Outside the cloud, shear turbulence has been encountered several thousand
feet above and 20 mi. laterally from a severe storm.
c. It is almost impossible to hold a constant altitude in a thunderstorm, and maneuvering
in an attempt to do so greatly increases stresses on the aircraft.
i. Advise your students that stresses will be least if a power setting is selected that
should keep the airspeed below the maneuvering speed and the aircraft is held
in a constant attitude while being allowed to “ride the waves.”

4. Hail competes with turbulence as the greatest thunderstorm hazard to aircraft.

a. Hail forms when supercooled raindrops that are lifted above the freezing level by
updrafts begin to freeze.
i. If the updrafts are strong enough, the hailstones will remain aloft long enough
for other drops to attach and freeze to them. Sometimes the hailstones grow
into huge ice balls.
b. Eventually, the updraft cannot support the weight of the hailstones, so they fall,
possibly some distance from the storm core.
i. Hail has been observed in clear air several miles from the parent thunderstorm.
c. As hailstones fall below the freezing level, they begin to melt, and precipitation may
reach the ground as either hail or rain.
i. Advise your students that rain at the surface does not mean the absence of hail
aloft.
ii. They should anticipate possible hail with any thunderstorm, especially beneath
the anvil of a large cumulonimbus cloud.

5. Icing
a. There are two kinds of icing.
i. Structual icing is the accumulation of ice on the exterior of the aircraft. Types
of structural ice are clear ice, rime ice, and mixed ice.
ii. Induction icing is icing on the air intakes and the carburetor that affects the
powerplant operation.
b. Remind your students that two conditions are necessary for structural icing to form: the
presence of visible moisture and a temperature at the collecting surface that is at or
below freezing.
i. Updrafts in a thunderstorm can carry liquid water above the freezing level,
where it becomes supercooled (i.e., it remains in a liquid state, but is cooled
below freezing temperature).
ii. This supercooled water freezes instantly upon contact with an aircraft, resulting
in a rapid accumulation of ice which may cause a stall and loss of control
© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
14 Lesson 5: Aviation Weather and Weather-Related Decision Making

before the aircraft can escape the thunderstorm.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 5: Aviation Weather and Weather-Related Decision Making 15

c. Tell your students that aerodynamic cooling can lower the temperature of an airfoil to
0° Celsius even though the ambient temperature is above freezing.
d. Emphasize that ice is extremely difficult to forecast accurately, so a forecast that does
not include icing should not be relied on when atmospheric conditions of cold
temperatures and high humidity exist.
i. PIREPS provide the best information about the presence of ice on a real-time
basis.
e. Explain that in-flight structural icing affects aircraft performance negatively in four
ways:
i. Ice, especially clear ice, can change the shape of an airfoil, thereby reducing
lift.
ii. Ice of any type increases the weight of an aircraft.
iii. Ice on aircraft surfaces increases drag.
iv. Ice on the propeller blades reduces blade efficiency, thereby reducing thrust.
6. Effect on Altimeters
a. Atmospheric pressure usually falls rapidly with the approach of a thunderstorm, then
rises sharply with the arrival of the cold downdraft and heavy rain showers, falling
back to normal as the storm moves on.
i. This cycle of pressure change may occur in as little as 15 min.
b. Advise your instrument students that if the altimeter setting is not corrected for
changes in atmospheric pressure, the indicated altitude may be in error by over 100 ft
in the vicinity of a thunderstorm.
7. Lightning
a. While a lightning strike can puncture the skin of an aircraft and can damage
communication and electronic navigational equipment, the danger of fire or an
explosion is extremely small.
b. Nearby lightning can temporarily blind the pilot, rendering him/her momentarily unable
to navigate either by instrument or by visual reference.
i. Nearby lightning can also induce permanent errors in the magnetic compass.
c. Lightning discharges, even distant ones, can disrupt radio communications on low and
medium frequencies.
d. Give your students the following useful tips about lightning:
i. The more frequent the lightning, the more severe the thunderstorm.
ii. Increasing frequency of lightning indicates a growing thunderstorm.
iii. Decreasing frequency of lightning indicates a storm nearing the dissipating
stage.
iv. At night, frequent distant flashes playing along a large sector of the horizon
suggest a probable squall line.

III. Microbursts are an especially hazardous weather phenomenon because they can occur with little or
no warning. They are small-scale intense downdrafts that, on reaching the surface, spread outward
in all directions from the downdraft center. This outward spread causes the presence of both
vertical and horizontal wind shears that can be extremely hazardous to all aircraft, especially at low
altitudes where there might not be sufficient altitude for recovery from a microburst downdraft that is
stronger than the aircraft’s ability to climb. Characteristics of microbursts include the following:
A. Size. The microburst downdraft is typically less than one mile in diameter as it descends from the
cloud base to about 1,000 to 3,000 ft. above the ground.
1. In the transition zone near the ground (i.e., below 3,000 ft. AGL), the downdraft changes to
a horizontal outflow that can extend to approximately 2½ miles in diameter.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
16 Lesson 5: Aviation Weather and Weather-Related Decision Making

B. Intensity. The downdrafts can be as strong as 6,000 feet per minute, with horizontal winds near
the surface of 45 kt. These strong horizontal winds can result in a 90-kt. shear across the
microburst.
C. Visual signs. Microbursts can be found almost anywhere there is convective activity.
1. They may be embedded in heavy rain associated with a thunderstorm or in light rain in
benign-appearing virga.
2. When there is little or no precipitation at the surface accompanying the microburst, a ring of
blowing dust may be the only visual clue of its existence.
D. Duration. An individual microburst will seldom last longer than 15 min. from the time it strikes the
ground until dissipation.
1. An important consideration for pilots is that the microburst intensifies for about 5 min. after it
strikes the ground, with the maximum intensity winds lasting approximately 2 to 4 min.
2. Once microburst activity starts, multiple microbursts in the same general area are not
uncommon and should be expected.
3. Sometimes microbursts are concentrated into a line structure, and under these conditions,
microburst activity may continue for as long as an hour.
E. Microburst wind shear may create a severe hazard for aircraft within 1,000 ft. of the ground,
particularly during the approach to landing and landing and takeoff phases.
1. The aircraft may encounter a headwind (performance increasing) followed by a downdraft
and tailwind (both performance decreasing), possibly resulting in terrain impact, as shown
in the figure below.

INCREASING INCREASING
HEADWIND TAILWIND

OUTFLOW OUTFLOW

TYPICALLY
1-2 MILES

Figure5_4
Microburst

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 5: Aviation Weather and Weather-Related Decision Making 17

5.5 WEATHER-RELATED DECISION MAKING

I. Explain to your students that the go/no-go decision-making process as it relates to weather
conditions is a continuation of the decision-making process you will study in Lesson 6: Human
Factors.
A. Advise your students that the decision-making process is facilitated when they have their personal
minimums checklist filled out. A personal minimums checklist is used by a pilot to preflight
him/herself in much the same manner as (s)he uses an aircraft checklist to preflight his/her
airplane. An example of a personal minimums checklist is available below:

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
18 Lesson 5: Aviation Weather and Weather-Related Decision Making

PILOT AIRCRAFT
Experience/Recency Fuel Reserves (Cross-Country)
Takeoff/landings........................ In the last days VFR Day................... hours
Hours in make/model................. In the last days Night................... hours
IFR Day.................... hours
Instrument approaches.............. In the last days Night................... hours
(simulated or actual)
Experience in Type
Instrument flight hours............... In the last days Takeoffs/landings in
(simulated or actual) aircraft type............ in the last days
Terrain and airspace................. familiar
Aircraft Performance
Physical Condition Establish that you have additional performance available
Sleep......................................... In the last 24 hours over that required. Consider the following:
Food and water......................... In the last hours * Gross weight
Alcohol....................................... None in the hours * Load distribution
last * Density altitude
Drugs or medication.................. None in the hours * Performance charts
last Aircraft Equipment
Stressful events......................... None in the days Avionics.................... familiar with equipment (including
last autopilot and GPS systems)
COM/NAV.................equipment appropriate to flight
Illnesses.................................... None in the days Charts....................... current
last Clothing.................... suitable for preflight and flight
Survival gear............ appropriate for flight and terrain

ENVIRONMENT EXTERNAL PRESSURES

Airport Conditions Trip Planning
Crosswind............................ % of max POH Allowance for delays.............................. minutes
Runway length..................... % more than POH
Diversion or Cancellation Alternate Plans
Weather Notification of person(s) you are meeting
Reports and forecasts..................... not more than
Passengers briefed on diversion or cancellation plans and
hours old alternatives
Modification or cancellation of car rental, restaurant, or
Icing conditions............................... within aircraft/pilot hotel reservations
capabilities
Arrangement of alternative transportation (Airline, car, etc.)
Weather for VFR Personal Equipment
Ceiling Day....................... feet
Night...................... feet Credit card and telephone numbers available for alternate
plans
Visibility Day...................... miles
Night...................... miles Appropriate clothing or personal needs (eye wear,
medication...) in the event of an unexpected stay
Weather for IFR
Precision Approaches
Ceiling.............................. feet above min.
Visibility............................ mile(s) above min.
Non-Precision Approaches
Ceiling.............................. feet above min.
Visibility............................ mile(s) above min.
Missed Approaches
No more than.................... before diverting
Takeoff Minimums
Ceiling.............................. feet
Visibility............................ mile(s)

1. Explain that they should compare the current and forecast weather to their personal
minimums. If the weather is better than their minimums, they are a “go” for weather
reasons.
2. If the weather is below their minimums, they are a “no-go” for weather reasons.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 5: Aviation Weather and Weather-Related Decision Making 19

II. Use scenarios similar to the following to discuss personal weather minimums, e.g., go/no-go
decisions, with your students.
A. After discussing the concept of personal weather minimums with your student, agree on a set of
minimums to use in your discussion. For example, your student’s personal minimums might be a
ceiling of 2,000 ft. and 5 SM visibility. Discuss several METARs with your student to see if (s)he
should depart on a flight under the reported weather conditions. For example,
1. METAR KXYZ 101853Z 16005KT 4SM HZ BKN018 24/19 A2992.
a. At this airport, the visibility is 4 SM in haze (HZ), and the ceiling is a broken layer of
clouds at 1,800 ft. (BKN018).
b. While these conditions are above the regulatory VFR weather minimums requirement,
they are below your student’s personal minimums. Thus, (s)he should either delay or
reschedule the flight.
2. METAR KXYZ 201253Z 21010KT 8SM SCT020 OVC080 30/20 A2992
a. At this airport, the visibility is 8 SM with a scattered cloud layer at 2,000 ft. (SCT020)
and the ceiling is an overcast layer at 8,000 ft. (OVC080).
b. You bet! Your student can go and enjoy his/her flight.
3. METAR KXYZ 301955Z 02008KT 4SM BR SCT100 27/25 A2992
a. At this airport, the visibility is 4 SM in mist (BR) with a scattered cloud layer at
10,000 ft. (SCT 100).
b. Since visibility is below your student’s minimums, (s)he should delay the flight until the
visibility is at least 5 SM.

B. Explain to your students that they cannot make an informed weather-related go/no-go decision by
only considering reports of current conditions; they will also need to apply their minimums to the
forecast conditions at the time of arrival. Using the same personal minimums, look at several
TAFs to determine if your student should depart on a flight under the forecast weather conditions.
For these examples, assume that your student is headed to KXYZ with an ETA of 2300Z:
1. TAF
KXYZ 291720Z 291818 04014KT P6SM VCSH SCT025 BKN050
TEMPO 2024 3SM SHRA BKN020
FM 2400 P6SM BKN050
FM0600 03015G20KT P6SM SCT020 SCT050 TEMPO 0812 BKN050
BECMG 1618 04020G25KT=
a. This forecast calls for the following temporary (spoken as “occasional”) conditions
between 2000Z and 2400Z (TEMPO 2024): 3 SM visibility, rain showers (SHRA), and
a broken ceiling at 2,000 ft.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
20 Lesson 5: Aviation Weather and Weather-Related Decision Making

b. Advise your student that (s)he should treat any forecast occasional or temporary
conditions as though they will occur.
c. Because the forecast visibility at the planned ETA is below your student’s personal
minimums, (s)he should cancel the flight or postpone it until (s)he can arrive when
better visibility is forecast.
i. One option would be to wait for an hour or so in order to arrive after 2400Z,
when the forecast calls for better than 6 SM visibility (P6SM) and a broken
ceiling at 5,000 ft.

2. TAF
KXYZ 291130Z 291212 00000KT P6SM SCT150 OVC250
FM1400 01004KT P6SM SCT150 BKN250
FM1800 35005KT P6SM FEW250
FM2300 VRB03KT P6SM SKC
BECMG 0709 33008KT=
a. This forecast calls for the following conditions from (spoken as “after”) 2300Z
(FM2300): wind variable at 3 kt., better than 6 SM visibility, and clear skies.
b. Looks good! Your student should have a nice trip.

C. Emphasize to your students that, in addition to looking at the weather at their departure and arrival
airports, they must determine the conditions that will be encountered en route and apply their
personal minimums to those conditions as well.
1. It is important for your students to understand that the conditions at their departure and/or
arrival airports may meet or exceed their minimums, but conditions en route may be below
those minimums.
a. Stress to your students that if they begin a flight into deteriorating weather, regardless
of the conditions at the point of departure, it is likely that the flight will not be
completed as planned. They may need to return to the departure point or land at
another airport. Worse, an accident could result due to spatial disorientation or
collision with obstacles.
2. An alternative possibility that you should address is that conditions could improve along the
route.
a. Even if the weather at the departure airport is right at your student’s personal
minimums, it may be reasonable to begin a cross-country flight if conditions are
quickly improving along the route.
3. Some things your students (and you!) should do in making a go/no-go decision for a
cross-country flight are:
a. Determine what weather conditions will be encountered by referring to METARs and
TAFs for several airports along the route, area forecasts, surface analysis charts,
low-level significant weather prognostic charts, and other weather products.
i. A flight service specialist can help by combining these sources into a meaningful
briefing.
b. Determine if the conditions are improving, getting worse, or remaining stable.
c. Based on this determination, make a decision about beginning the flight.
4. Impress on your instrument students that, while en route weather conditions are less
restrictive for instrument-rated pilots, who do not need to worry about visibility or ceilings
until they are ready to land, an instrument rating does not guarantee a safe flight in all
weather conditions (e.g., icing, thunderstorms, turbulence, etc.).

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 5: Aviation Weather and Weather-Related Decision Making 21

III. Below are some weather judgment tips for everyone (including CFIs):
A. Do NOT fly in or near thunderstorms. You can fly safely around scattered thunderstorms, but do
not try to fly through or under a thunderstorm.
B. Do NOT continue your VFR flight into IFR weather conditions, even if you are instrument-rated.
1. If you are on the ground, wait it out or file an IFR flight plan and obtain a proper clearance.
2. If you are in the air, turn around.
C. Do NOT proceed “on top” of a ceiling, hoping to find a hole at the other end or getting ATC to “talk
you down” if you get caught on top.
D. Do allow more margin for weather at night. It is harder to see that the weather is getting worse,
especially on a dark night (no moon).

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 1

GLEIM FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR REFRESHER COURSE

LESSON 6
HUMAN FACTORS
6.1 AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKING (ADM)
I. Discuss the following terms and definitions with your students when you present the concept of
aeronautical decision making.
A. Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM) is a systematic approach to the mental process used by
aircraft pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of
circumstances.
B. Attitude is a personal motivational predisposition to respond to persons, situations, or events in a
given manner that can, nevertheless, be changed or modified through training.
1. Explain that a pilot’s attitude serves as a sort of “mental shortcut” to decision making.
C. Attitude management is the ability to recognize hazardous attitudes in oneself and the willingness
to modify them as necessary through the application of an appropriate antidote thought.
D. Cockpit resource management (CRM), in single-pilot or multiperson crew configurations, is the
effective use of all personnel and material assets available to a pilot or a flight crew.
1. Explain that CRM emphasizes good communication and other interpersonal relationship
skills, not just in the cockpit, but also with ATC, ground control, etc.
E. Headwork is required to accomplish a conscious, rational thought process when making
decisions.
1. Emphasize that good decision making involves risk identification and assessment,
information processing, and problem solving.
F. Judgment is the mental process of recognizing and analyzing all pertinent information in a
particular situation, rationally evaluating alternative actions in response to it, and making a timely
decision on which action to take.
G. Personality is the embodiment of personal traits and characteristics of an individual that are set at
a very early age and are extremely resistant to change.
H. Poor judgment (PJ) chain is a series of mistakes that may lead to an accident or incident.
1. Explain that two basic principles generally associated with the creation of a PJ chain are
a. One bad decision often leads to another, and
b. As a string of bad decisions grows, it reduces the number of subsequent alternatives
for continued safe flight.
2. Emphasize that ADM is intended to break the PJ chain before it can cause an accident or
incident.
I. Risk management is the part of the decision-making process which relies on situational
awareness, problem recognition, and good judgment to reduce risks associated with each flight.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 2 Lesson 6: Human Factors

J. Risk elements in ADM take into consideration the four fundamental risk elements:
1. The pilot
2. The aircraft
3. The environment
4. The type of operation that comprises any given aviation situation
K. Situational awareness is the accurate perception and understanding of all the factors and
conditions within the four fundamental risk elements that affect safety before, during, and after the
flight.
L. Skills and procedures are the procedural, psychomotor, and perceptual skills used to control a
specific aircraft or its systems.
1. Explain that skills and procedures are the “stick and rudder” or airmanship abilities that are
gained and perfected through conventional training, and become almost automatic through
experience.
M. Stress management is the personal analysis of the kinds of stress experienced while flying and
the application of appropriate stress assessment tools and coping mechanisms.

II. ADM Process

A. Conventional training programs tend to focus on skills and procedures (how to perform a
maneuver, how to operate equipment, etc.) with only a minimal emphasis on headwork (how to
make rational, systematic decisions based on situational conditions, called decision making).
1. Unfortunately, a student’s decision-making ability is often developed informally by listening
to other pilots around the airport (hangar-flying sessions) and many times through
experience.
2. It is your job as an instructor to help your students learn to make sound decisions during the
training process, rather than developing their approach to decision-making after receiving
their pilot certificates through hearsay and trial-and-error.
B. ADM provides a structured, systematic approach to analyzing changes that occur during a flight
and the effect these changes might have on a flight’s safe outcome.
1. Starting with the recognition of change and following with an assessment of alternatives, a
decision to act or not to act is made, and the results are monitored.
C. ADM enhances the conventional decision-making process with an awareness of the importance of
attitudes in decision making, a learned ability to search for and establish the relevance of all
information, and the motivation to choose and execute the actions that assure safety in a time
frame permitted by the situation. Therefore, ADM decreases the probability of pilot error.
D. The ADM process addresses all aspects of decision making in the cockpit and identifies the steps
involved in good decision making. Explain that these steps are
1. Identifying personal attitudes hazardous to safe flight
2. Learning behavior modification
3. Learning how to recognize and cope with stress
4. Developing risk assessment skills
5. Using all resources in a single-pilot or multicrew situation
6. Evaluating the effectiveness of one’s ADM skills

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 6: Human Factors 3

III. THE DECIDE MODEL

A. Teach your students that a good tool to use in making good aeronautical decisions is the DECIDE
Model shown below.
1. Detect. The decision maker detects that a change has occurred.
2. Estimate. The decision maker estimates the need to counter or react to the change.
3. Choose. The decision maker chooses a desirable outcome (in terms of success) for the
flight.
4. Identify. The decision maker identifies actions which could successfully control the change.
5. Do. The decision maker takes the necessary action.
6. Evaluate. The decision maker evaluates the effect(s) of his action countering the change.
B. Explain that the six elements of the Decide Model represent a continuous loop decision process
that can be used to assist a pilot in the decision-making process when (s)he is faced with a
change in a situation that requires a judgment to be made.
1. Emphasize to your students that if they practice the Decide Model in all decision making, its
use can become very natural and result in better decisions under all kinds of situations.

IV. Operational Pitfalls

A. Tell your students that pilots, particularly those with considerable experience, have strong
tendencies to try to complete a flight as planned, please passengers, meet schedules, and
generally demonstrate that they have the “right stuff.”
1. Emphasize that this drive to demonstrate the “right stuff” can have an adverse effect on
safety and can lead to an unrealistic assessment of their piloting skills under stressful
conditions.
B. These tendencies ultimately may lead to practices that are dangerous and often illegal, and may
lead to a mishap.
1. Several of these practices have been identified and grouped into the following operational
pitfalls listed below. Point out to your students that all experienced pilots have fallen prey
to, or have been tempted by, one or more of the following operational pitfalls in their flying
careers. Emphasize that these dangerous tendencies or behavior patterns must be
identified and eliminated.
a. Peer pressure. Poor decision making may be based upon an emotional response to
peers rather than an objective evaluation of a situation.
b. Mind set may produce an inability to recognize and cope with changes in a situation if
the outcome is different from that anticipated or planned.
c. Get-there-itis. This tendency, common among pilots, clouds the vision and impairs
judgment by causing a fixation on the original goal or destination combined with a
total disregard for any alternative course of action.
d. Duck-under-syndrome is the tendency to sneak a peek by descending below
minimums during an approach, based on a belief that there is always a built-in
“fudge” factor that can be used or on an unwillingness to admit defeat and shoot a
missed approach.
i. Emphasize to your students that relying on such a “fudge” factor can be
extremely hazardous because certain circumstances (an altimeter error on the
high end of what is considered acceptable, use of the alternate static source,
unusually low temperatures, etc.) can reduce any altitude buffer for the
approach to zero.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 4 Lesson 6: Human Factors

e. Scud running refers to pushing the capabilities of the pilot and the aircraft to the limits
by trying to maintain visual contact with the terrain while trying to avoid physical
contact with it.
i. Explain that this attitude is characterized by the old pilot’s joke: “If it’s too bad to
go IFR, we’ll go VFR.”
f. Continuing VFR into instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) often leads to spatial
disorientation or collision with ground/obstacles.
i. Emphasize that, while this practice is especially dangerous if the pilot is not
instrument qualified or current, even instrument-rated pilots can experience
spatial disorientation or controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) if they are not
mentally prepared for flight in IMC and aware of their position.
g. Getting behind the aircraft means that a pilot allows events or the situation to control
his/her actions rather than the other way around. This dangerous tendency is
characterized by a constant state of surprise at what happens next.
h. Loss of positional or situational awareness is an extreme case of getting behind
the aircraft, which results in a pilot not knowing his/her location, being unable to
recognize deteriorating circumstances, and/or misjudging the rate of deterioration.
i. Operating without adequate fuel reserves. Ignoring minimum fuel reserve
requirements, while either VFR or IFR, is generally the result of overconfidence, lack
of flight planning, or ignoring the regulations.
j. Descent below the minimum en route altitude is typically the result of poor altitude
control due to inattentiveness, distraction, or a poor instrument scan.
k. Flying outside the envelope results from an unjustified reliance on the (usually
mistaken) belief that the aircraft’s high performance capability meets the demands
imposed by the pilot’s (usually overestimated) flying skills.
l. Neglect of flight planning, preflight inspections, checklists, etc. , indicates a
pilot’s unjustified reliance on his/her short- and long-term memory, regular flying
skills, repetitive and familiar routes, etc.

V. Hazardous Attitudes and Antidotes to Hazardous Attitudes

A. Discuss the following hazardous attitudes and their antidotes with your students:
1. Antiauthority (Don’t tell me!). This attitude is found in people who do not like anyone
telling them what to do. In a sense, they are saying, "No one can tell me what to do." They
may be resentful of having someone tell them what to do or may regard rules, regulations,
and procedures as silly or unnecessary. Emphasize to your students, however, that they
should always question authority (e.g., ATC) if they feel it is in error.
2. Impulsivity (Do something quickly!) is the attitude of people who frequently feel the need
to do something-anything-immediately. They do not stop to think about what they are
about to do or determine the best alternative. Instead, they do the first thing that comes to
mind.
3. Invulnerability (It won’t happen to me.). Many people believe that accidents happen to
others, but never to them. They know accidents can happen, and they know that anyone
can be affected. However, they never really believe that they will be personally involved.
Emphasize that pilots who think this way are more likely to take chances and increase risk.
4. Macho (I can do it.). Pilots who are always trying to prove that they are better than anyone
else are thinking I can do it -- I’ll show them. Pilots with this kind of attitude will try to prove
themselves by taking risks in order to impress others. Point out that, while this pattern is
thought to be a male characteristic, women are equally susceptible.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 6: Human Factors 5

5. Resignation (What’s the use?). Pilots who think What’s the use?do not see themselves as
being able to make a great deal of difference in what happens to them. They are apt to
think that things go well due to good luck. When things go badly, they may feel that
someone is out to get them, or they may attribute the situation to bad luck. The pilot will
leave the action to others, for better or worse. Point out that, sometimes, such pilots will
even go along with unreasonable requests just to be nice.

VI. Antidotes for Hazardous Attitudes

A. Explain that hazardous attitudes that contribute to poor pilot judgment can be effectively
counteracted by redirecting them so that appropriate action can be taken.
1. Recognition of hazardous thoughts is the first step in neutralizing them in the ADM process.
B. After recognizing and labeling a thought as hazardous, the pilot should correct the hazardous
thought by stating the corresponding antidote.
1. Tell your students that antidotes should be memorized for each of the hazardous attitudes
so that they automatically come to mind when needed.
C. The hazardous attitude antidotes, shown below, should be learned thoroughly and practiced by all
pilots.

Hazardous Attitude Antidote

Antiauthority: Don’t tell me! Follow the rules. They are usually
right.

Impulsivity: Do something quickly! Not so fast. Think first.

Invulnerability: It won’t happen to me. It could happen to me.

Macho: I can do it. Taking chances is foolish.

Resignation: What’s the use? I’m not helpless. I can make a

difference.

6.2 TEACHING ADM

I. Reference Publications
A. There are six manuals oriented to the ADM needs of variously rated pilots available from the
National Technical Information Service (NTIS).
1. These manuals provide multifaceted materials designed to reduce the number of
decision-related accidents.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 6 Lesson 6: Human Factors

B. The following manuals are available from NTIS:

Report Number Title NTIS Number

DOT/FAA/PM-86/41 Aeronautical Decision Making for Student ADA182549

and Private Pilots

DOT/FAA/PM-86/42 Aeronautical Decision Making for ADA198772

Commercial Pilots

DOT/FAA/PM-86/43 Aeronautical Decision Making for N8724880

Instrument Pilots

DOT/FAA/PM-86/44 Aeronautical Decision Making for Instructor ADA182611

Pilots (how to teach ADM)

DOT/FAA/PM-86/45 Aeronautical Decision Making for ADA180325

Helicopter Pilots

DOT/FAA/PM-86/46 Aeronautical Decision Making -- Cockpit ADA205115

Resource Management

C. These manuals provide the framework for teaching ADM.

1. You may wish to consider adding a copy of each manual to your aviation library and making
them or selected excerpts available to your students after you have introduced the concept
of ADM in each course of training.
D. Any of the series of ADM training manuals may be obtained by writing or calling NTIS.
National Technical Information Service
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22161
(800) 553-NTIS (6847)
E-mail: [email protected]
Fax: (703) 321-8547
E. The ADM manual for instructor pilots contains all of the necessary background information for
effectively teaching the subject material of the ADM manual for student and private pilots.
1. The instructor pilot manual supplements the student and private pilot manual and is not
designed to be used on its own.

II. Principles of ADM Training

A. The ADM manual for student and private pilots is simple and repetitive for two reasons.
1. Simplicity provides frequent positive reinforcement.
2. Repetition builds good judgment habits and refreshes memory so that information can be
© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 6: Human Factors 7

readily recalled in a variety of circumstances, even when under stress.

B. The scenarios in the student and private pilot ADM manual should stimulate the student’s interest
and appreciation of the need for good pilot judgment and decision making.
1. Discussion of these stories and similar ones from your own personal experiences is
important for developing the student’s judgment and decision-making skills.
C. You, the instructor, as a role model and an opinion shaper, profoundly affect the student.
1. Your attitudes toward safe flying and toward teaching ADM concepts may influence the
student’s judgment much more than actual flight training.
2. Additionally, instruction is greatly improved when you act as a coach and consistently use
effective instructional principles.
D. Use of decision-making concepts to guide conversations with the student focuses the instruction
on judgment-related training and increases the student’s ability to provide self-generated
feedback upon which good judgment depends.
E. Knowing how to recognize and respond to hazardous attitudes and high stress is very important in
exercising good pilot judgment.
1. You should encourage your student to develop these skills but, in doing so, you should
never attempt to analyze or modify the student’s personality.
F. The student learns concepts and behavioral techniques, then repeatedly applies this learning to
relevant flight situations during ground and flight training.
1. Through repeated reinforcement and continued student involvement, ADM training builds
new intellectual and behavioral habits.
2. Spaced practice which includes repetition, feedback, and positive reinforcement is
essential.

III. The Instructor’s Role in Training

A. Although ADM training is designed to help pilots overcome a variety of circumstances which may
result in poor pilot judgment, flight instructors are the key element of this training.
1. By always setting a good example and by giving your students support and encouragement
throughout this training, you help them develop good judgment and sound flying practices.
B. To help prepare yourself for this role, think about the difference between the instructor as evaluator
and the instructor as coach.
1. The evaluator sees his/her role as one of telling the student what to do, then monitoring the
student’s performance.
a. Most of the time is spent making assignments, watching performance, answering
questions, measuring performance, and making positive or negative evaluation.
b. The amount of learning is actually up to the student.
2. In contrast, the coach sees his/her role as someone who actively stimulates learning.
a. The instructor not only makes assignments and observes the results but also helps the
student learn through demonstration and personalized instruction.
b. The instructor-coach does more than answer questions and point out errors. (S)he
also asks pertinent questions to stimulate the student’s thought process and
encourages correct ways of doing things by helping the student analyze mistakes.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 8 Lesson 6: Human Factors

IV. When to Begin ADM Training

A. Ground instruction
1. Students must be exposed to the ADM concepts early in their pilot training, i.e., during the
first quarter of the course.
2. This training will provide the foundation for practical exercises during flight training.
B. Flight instruction
1. You should begin ADM training during flight lessons once the student has the ability to
control the aircraft confidently during the most basic maneuvers.
a. Use your own judgment, but a suggested starting point is about three flight lessons
before you expect the student to solo.
2. You should provide your students actual preflight or in-flight hands-on experience, in the
form of an ADM lesson.
a. Each lesson should take no more than 5 minutes and should be integrated into the
flight lesson.

C. Items needed for ground and flight instruction are covered in the appropriate ADM manual
available from NTIS as discussed previously.

6.3 PILOT SELF-ASSESSMENT

I. Remind your students that, when they are pilot in command of an aircraft, they are directly
responsible for, and are the final authority as to, the operation of that aircraft.
A. To effectively exercise that responsibility and to make effective decisions regarding the outcome of
the flight, a pilot must have an understanding of his/her own limitations.
B. Emphasize that a pilot’s performance during a flight is affected by many factors, such as health,
recency of experience, knowledge, skill level, and attitude.

II. Personal Minimums Checklist

A. Explain that, just as a checklist is used to thoroughly preflight an aircraft, a personal checklist can
help a pilot determine if (s)he is prepared for a particular flight. This determination is the first
decision point of a flight.
B. Introduce the concept of a personal minimums checklist to all of your students shortly before
you expect them to solo. You should also discuss this concept with your advanced students,
some of whom may not have been exposed to the idea during their previous training. An
example of a personal minimums checklist is on the next page.
1. This checklist is designed to make pilots think about four categories of risk by using the
acronym PAVE (Pilot, Aircraft, enVironment, and External pressures).
a. This checklist is an easy-to-use, personal tool that can be tailored to any individual’s
level of skill, knowledge, and ability.
b. This checklist helps pilots to control and manage risk by identifying even the subtle risk
factors.
c. You can print out an 8 1/2 x 11 version of the PAVE checklist by visiting
http://flysafe.faa.gov/Flysafe/training/PCL.htm or you can make copies of the PAVE
checklist we have provided and distribute them to your students.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 6: Human Factors 9

PILOT AIRCRAFT
Experience/Recency Fuel Reserves (Cross-Country)
Takeoff/landings.................... In the last days VFR Day............... hours
Hours in make/model............. In the last days Night ................ hours
IFR Day................. hours
Instrument approaches........... In the last days
Night................ hours
(simulated or actual)
Instrument flight hours............ In the last days
Experience in Type
Takeoffs/landings in
(simulated or actual)
aircraft type.......... in the last days
Terrain and airspace.............. familiar
Aircraft Performance
Physical Condition Establish that you have additional performance available
Sleep.................................. In the last 24 hours over that required. Consider the following:
Food and water..................... In the last hours * Gross weight
Alcohol................................None in the last hours * Load distribution
Drugs or medication............... None in the last hours * Density altitude
Stressful events.................... None in the last days * Performance charts

Illnesses.............................. None in the last days Aircraft Equipment

Avionics................ familiar with equipment (including
autopilot and GPS systems)
COM/NAV..............equipment appropriate to flight
Charts................... current
Clothing.................suitable for preflight and flight
Survival gear.......... appropriate for flight and terrain

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 10 Lesson 6: Human Factors

ENVIRONMENT EXTERNAL PRESSURES

Airport Conditions Trip Planning
Crosswind....................... % of max POH Allowance for delays........................ minutes
Runway length................. % more than POH
Diversion or Cancellation Alternate Plans
Weather Notification of person(s) you are meeting
Reports and forecasts................. not more than Passengers briefed on diversion or cancellation plans and
alternatives
hours old
Modification or cancellation of car rental, restaurant, or
Icing conditions..........................within aircraft/pilot hotel reservations
capabilities Arrangement of alternative transportation (Airline, car, etc.)
Personal Equipment
Weather for VFR
Credit card and telephone numbers available for alternate
Ceiling Day................... feet
plans
Night.................. feet
Appropriate clothing or personal needs (eye wear,
Visibility Day.................. miles medication...) in the event of an unexpected stay
Night.................. miles

Weather for IFR

Precision Approaches
Ceiling......................... feet above min.
Visibility....................... mile(s) above min.
Non-Precision Approaches
Ceiling......................... feet above min.
Visibility....................... mile(s) above min.
Missed Approaches
No more than................ before diverting
Takeoff Minimums
Ceiling......................... feet
Visibility....................... mile(s)

III. Explain to your students that each item on the PAVE checklist provides them with either a space to
complete a personal minimum or a checklist item to think about.
A. Encourage your students to spend some time completing each blank and considering other items
that apply to their personal minimums.
B. Tell your students that they have permission to choose higher minimums than those specified in
the regulations, aircraft flight manuals, or other rules.
C. Explain how to use the checklist.
1. Tell your students to use it at home as they start planning a flight and again just before
making the final decision to fly.
a. Emphasize that they, as the pilots, are responsible for determining whether they are fit
to fly for a particular flight, even though they hold a current medical certificate.
2. Advise your students to be wary if they have an item that is marginal in any single risk factor
category.
3. Tell your students that they should not make the flight if there are marginal items in two or
more risk factor categories--DON’T GO!
D. Explain to your students that they should periodically review and revise their checklist as personal
circumstances change, such as their proficiency, recent experience, or training.
1. Be very clear that pilots should never make their minimums less restrictive unless a
significant positive development has taken place with their flying.
© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 6: Human Factors 11

a. However, a pilot may make his/her minimums more restrictive at any time.

E. Emphasize to your students that they should never make their minimums less restrictive when
they are planning a specific flight, or else external pressures will become an influence.

IV. Another personal minimums checklist that can be easily committed to memory is the I’M SAFE
checklist.
A. This checklist contains all of the most common categories of pilot impairment.

Illness. Do I have any symptoms?

Medication. Have I been taking prescription or over-the-counter drugs?

Stress. Am I under psychological pressure from the job? Do I have money,

health, or family problems?

Alcohol. Have I been drinking within the last 8 hours? Within 24 hours?

Fatique. Am I tired or not adequately rested?

Eating. Have I eaten enough of the proper foods to keep adequately nourished
during the entire flight?

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 12 Lesson 6: Human Factors

6.4 STRESS AND FLYING

I. What Is Stress?
A. Explain that stress is a term used to describe the body’s nonspecific response to demands placed
on it, whether pleasant or unpleasant, by physical, physiological, or psychological factors known
as stressors.
1. Physical stressors include conditions associated with the environment, such as temperature
and humidity extremes, noise, vibration, and lack of oxygen.
2. Physiological stressors include fatigue, lack of physical fitness, sleep loss, missed meals
(leading to low blood sugar levels), and illness.
3. Psychological stressors are related to social or emotional factors, such as a death in the
family, birth of a baby, a divorce, etc.
a. Also, they may be related to mental workload, such as analyzing a problem, navigating
an aircraft, or making decisions.

B. Tell your students that stress is a response to a set of circumstances that induces a change in a
pilot’s current physiological and/or psychological patterns of functioning, thereby forcing the pilot
to adapt to these circumstances.
1. Stress is an inevitable and necessary part of life that adds motivation to life and heightens a
pilot’s response to meet any challenge.
C. Point out that even those things in life that we find pleasurable can be stressors since they
represent changes in our environment that we have to deal with.
1. Everyone is stressed to some degree all the time, and a certain amount of stress is good.
a. It keeps pilots alert and prevents complacency, thus helping to prevent accidents.

II. Handling Stress in Flying

A. Emphasize to your students that, while some amount of stress is desirable, higher stress levels,
particularly when experienced over long periods of time, can adversely affect performance.
1. Thus, performance will generally increase with the onset of stress but will peak and then
begin to fall off rapidly as stress levels exceed a pilot’s adaptive abilities to handle the
situation.
B. Boredom is seen at the lower stress levels, followed by optimal performance at the moderate
stress levels, followed by overload and panic at the highest stress levels, as shown below.

OPTIMAL
PERFORMANCE
PERFORMANCE

BOREDOM PANIC

STRESS Figure6_2
Stress vs. Performance Graph

1. Complex or unfamiliar tasks require higher levels of performance than simple or overlearned
tasks.
a. Thus, complex or unfamiliar tasks are also more subject to the adverse effects of
increasing stress than tasks that are simple or familiar.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 6: Human Factors 13

C. Explain to your students that accidents often occur when flying task requirements exceed a pilot’s
capability to meet those requirements.
1. The difference between pilot capabilities and task requirements is called the margin of
safety.
2. In the example below, the margin of safety is minimal during the approach under ideal
conditions.

PILOT
MARGIN OF CAPABILITIES
SAFETY
EFFORT

TASK REQUIREMENTS

PRE- TAXI TAKEOFF CRUISE APPROACH &

TAXI
TAXI
FLIGHT LANDING Figure6_3
TIME Margin of Saftey Graph

a. In this example, an accident may have occurred during approach if there were any
emergencies, distractions, or anything else degrading pilot capabilities (e.g., fatigue,
illness, etc.).

D. Explain to your students that stress has a gradual and cumulative effect that develops so slowly
that stress can be well established before its effects become apparent. Emphasize that there is a
limit to a pilot’s adaptive ability.
1. This limit, referred to as the stress tolerance level, is based on a pilot’s ability to cope with
the situation.
2. Explain that, if the number or intensity of the stressors becomes too great, the pilot is
susceptible to an environmental overload.
a. At this point, a pilot’s performance will begin to decline, and judgment will deteriorate.

III. Signs of Inadequate Coping

A. Individuals who are overstressed (not coping adequately) often show symptoms in three ways:
1. Emotional
2. Physical
3. Behavioral
B. These symptoms differ depending on whether the aggression is focused inward or outward.
1. Individuals who turn their aggression inward demonstrate the following characteristics:
a. Emotional symptoms include depression, preoccupation, sadness, and withdrawal.
b. Physical symptoms include headaches, insomnia, appetite changes, weight gain or
loss, indigestion, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and constipation.
c. Behavior symptoms include a morbid preoccupation with illness (hypochondria),
self-medication, a reluctance to accept responsibility, tardiness, absenteeism, and
poor personal appearance and hygiene.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 14 Lesson 6: Human Factors

2. Individuals who turn their aggression on other people or objects show few physical
symptoms.
a. Emotional symptoms may show up as overcompensation, denial, suspicion, paranoia,
agitation, restlessness, defensiveness, excessive sensitivity to criticism,
argumentativeness, arrogance, and hostility.
b. Behavioral symptoms include episodes of desperate “acting out” or temper tantrums.
i. These individuals tend to be accident prone.
ii. Be especially wary of authorizing student pilots who exhibit these tendencies for
solo flight.

IV. Life Stress Management

A. Life stress is the stress incurred due to the demands of daily life.
1. It is different from the situational stress that is created by the demands of the cockpit.
B. Explain to your students that there are many techniques available that can help them reduce their
life stress, or help them cope with it better. Not all of the following ideas may be the solution, but
some of them should be effective for most individuals.
1. Become knowledgeable about stress.
2. Take a realistic assessment of oneself.
3. Take a systematic approach to problem solving.
4. Develop a lifestyle that will buffer against the effects of stress.
5. Practice behavioral management techniques.
6. Establish and maintain a strong support network.
V. Cockpit Stress Management
A. Emphasize that good cockpit stress management begins with good life stress management.
1. Explain that a pilot who begins a flight with minimal stress will have additional reserves
available to deal with the demands of the cockpit.
a. Conversely, a pilot who is already stressed by problems at home or at work may
become overwhelmed by what would otherwise be reasonable demands in the
cockpit.
2. Point out that, because many of the stress coping techniques used for life stress
management are not usually practical in flight, pilots must condition themselves to relax
and think rationally when stress appears.
B. The following is a list of techniques for cockpit stress management. Discuss each item with your
students.
1. Avoid situations that distract you from flying the aircraft.
a. EXAMPLE: You should not fly when preoccupied with a bad day at work or a fight with
your spouse.
2. Reduce your workload in order to reduce stress levels. A manageable workload will create a
proper environment in which to make good decisions.
3. If an emergency occurs, be calm. Think for a moment, weigh the alternatives, and then act.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 6: Human Factors 15

4. Maintain proficiency in your aircraft because proficiency builds confidence. Be thoroughly

familiar with the aircraft, its systems, and emergency procedures.
5. Know and respect your personal limitations.
6. Do not let little mistakes bother you until they build into a big distraction from flying the
aircraft. Wait until after landing; then “debrief” and analyze past actions.
7. If flying is adding to your stress, either stop flying or seek professional help to manage your
stress within acceptable limits.

6.5 EXERCISING GOOD JUDGMENT AS A FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR

I. Your flying habits, as observed by students during flight instruction or when conducting other pilot
operations, have a vital impact on safety.
A. Students use their flight instructor as a role model whose flying habits they attempt to imitate,
consciously or unconsciously.
1. Thus, the instructor’s advocacy and description of safety practices mean little to a student if
the instructor does not demonstrate them consistently.
B. For this reason, you must carefully observe the safety practices taught to your students.
1. EXAMPLE: If a student sees the instructor start an airplane and take off without referring to
a checklist, no amount of instruction in the use of the checklist will convince that student to
faithfully use one during solo flight operations.

II. To maintain a professional image as a flight instructor, you must carefully observe all regulations and
recognized safety practices during all flight operations.
A. An instructor who is observed to fly with apparent disregard for loading limitations or weather
minimums, for example, creates an impression of irresponsibility that many hours of
conscientious flight instruction cannot correct.

III. Habitual observance of regulations, safety precautions, and the precepts of courtesy will enhance
your image of professionalism. More importantly, such habits make your instruction more effective
by developing the same habits in your students.
A. The most important decision a pilot will make (and that you will influence) is to learn and adhere to
published rules, procedures, and recommendations.
1. Emphasize that, by learning and adhering to these rules and procedures, your students can
take most hazards out of flying.

IV. As a flight instructor, you must go beyond the requirements of developing technically proficient
students who are knowledgeable in the areas of their aircraft, flight procedures, and maneuvers.
A. You must teach your students not only to know and understand their own and their equipment's
strengths and limitations, but also to understand how these factors interact with the environment
in which they are operating.
B. Thus, you must teach and develop good pilot judgment in your students.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 16 Lesson 6: Human Factors

6.6 COCKPIT RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CRM)

I. CRM means the effective use of all resources (people and materials) to achieve safe and efficient
flight operations.
A. While CRM is typically thought of in terms of a multi-person flight crew, the concept applies to solo
operations as well, because CRM refers to the use of all resources available in the cockpit (e.g.,
official publications, navigation equipment, ATC, flight service stations, etc.), not just interactions
between crew members.

II. CRM as applied to your students’ solo operations and personal flying
A. Explain to your students that, to make informed decisions during flight operations, they must be
aware of the resources found both inside and outside the cockpit. This is the essence of CRM.
1. Your students must not only identify the resources available to them, but they must also
evaluate whether there is time to use a particular resource, and the impact that the use of
that resource will have upon the safety of the flight.
2. EXAMPLE: The assistance of ATC may be useful to a pilot who gets lost. However, in an
emergency situation when action needs to be taken quickly, time may not be available to
contact ATC before the situation must be dealt with.
B. Internal resources are found in the cockpit during flight.
1. Emphasize that some of the most valuable internal resources are ingenuity, knowledge, and
skill. Pilots can expand their internal (cockpit) resources immensely by improving their
capabilities.
a. This can be done by frequently reviewing flight information publications, such as
federal regulations and the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM), as well as by
pursuing additional training.
2. A thorough understanding of all the equipment and systems in the aircraft is necessary to
fully utilize all resources.
a. Point out that, while GPS and autopilot systems are valuable resources, if a pilot does
not fully understand how to use the equipment, or (s)he relies on them so much that
(s)he becomes complacent, the equipment can become a detriment to safe flight.
b. Remind your students of the importance of monitoring the flight instruments and the
aircraft’s position by other means while using a GPS or an autopilot.
3. Teach your students that checklists are essential cockpit resources for verifying that the
aircraft instruments and systems are checked, set, and operating properly, as well as
ensuring that the proper procedures are performed if there is a system malfunction or
in-flight emergency.
a. Additionally, the Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH), which is required to be carried
onboard the aircraft, is essential for accurate flight planning and for resolving in-flight
equipment malfunctions.
b. Other valuable cockpit resources include current aeronautical charts and publications,
such as the Airport/Facility Directory.
4. Point out that passengers can also be a valuable resource.
a. Passengers can help watch for traffic and may be able to provide information in an
irregular situation, especially if they are familiar with flying.
b. A strange smell or sound may alert a passenger to a potential problem.
c. You should advise your students, as pilot in command, to brief their passengers before
the flight to make sure that they are comfortable voicing any concerns.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 6: Human Factors 17

C. External resources
1. Possibly the greatest external resources available during flight are ATC and flight service
station (FSS) specialists.
a. ATC can help reduce pilot workload by providing traffic advisories, radar vectors, and
assistance in emergency situations.
b. FSSs can provide updates on weather, answer questions about airport conditions, and
may offer direction-finding assistance.
2. Emphasize to your students that the services provided by ATC and FSS specialists can be
invaluable in enabling them to make informed in-flight decisions.

III. CRM as applied to the instructor-student relationship

A. It is often tempting for flight instructors to regard flight training operations essentially as single-pilot
operations.
1. With primary students, especially pre-solo students, the tendency may be to treat the
student almost as a passenger who simply happens to touch the controls, even to the point
of disregarding his/her input about subjects that are not directly related to the lesson.
a. As your primary students become more capable, you should delegate progressively
more responsibility to them for handling the flight operations that take place between
the ramp and the practice area.
2. With advanced students, including post-solo student pilots working on cross-country
procedures, the tendency may be to regard yourself almost as a passenger, whose only
job is to direct the student’s practice and evaluate his/her performance while (s)he handles
the other aspects of the flight.
a. With advanced students, you must keep yourself mentally involved in the flight, even if
you specifically wish to observe the student’s abilities to perform as pilot in
command.

B. As a flight instructor, you need to regard yourself and your student as the crew of your training
aircraft.
1. You must also make your student aware of this fact.
2. Ensure that you have briefed your student on exactly what each of your responsibilities will
be during normal operations (i.e., back and forth between the practice area and the airport),
training operations, and emergency situations.
3. Ask your student to help you look for traffic, listen for radio calls, etc.
a. Note that anything you ask the student to assist you with would be required of him/her
during solo operations; therefore, it is a good instructional practice to involve your
students not just for reasons of safety, but also to enhance learning.

C. Ensuring that a positive exchange of flight controls takes place during training operations is also
related to CRM in a flight training situation.
1. Once you get comfortable with a student, particularly an advanced student, it is easy to get
complacent about making a positive exchange of the flight controls.
2. Regardless of the student’s experience level, you and your student must always be
completely clear about who is flying the airplane. One recommended method is to use the
sequence below:
a. Pilot relinquishing control: “You have the flight controls.”
b. Pilot taking control: “I have the flight controls.”
c. Pilot relinquishing control (repeats): “You have the flight controls.”

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 18 Lesson 6: Human Factors

6.7 AVOIDING HAZARDOUS OPERATIONS

I. Explain to your students that most preventable accidents have one common factor -- the human
factor -- rather than a mechanical malfunction.
A. Very often, the pilot was aware of the possible hazards when (s)he made the decision that led to
the wrong course of action.
1. In the interest of expediency, cost savings, self-gratification, or other often irrelevant factors,
a series of decisions were made that led to an accident.
B. Explain that this cycle of decisions began at the flight planning desk with decisions made on how
much fuel to carry, the route, the alternate route, and adequate weather conditions.
1. This cycle continued throughout the flight with decisions made about speed, altitude, and
when to descend.
2. Emphasize that each flight is a sequence of choices with certain milestones in the sequence
that require particular attention and discretion.
C. Impress upon your students that, while simple errors of equipment operation are seldom serious,
mistakes in judgment can be fatal.
1. One essential decision point before beginning any flight is the pilot’s personal minimums
checklist (see Module 6.3).

II. Emphasize to your students that the following hazardous operations contribute significantly to
unsafe flight:
A. Flight while under the influence of alcohol or drugs, including applicable prescription drugs, is
never acceptable.
B. Flight with a known medical deficiency is never expedient or legal.
C. Flight outside the certified flight envelope is never safe.
1. Weight, balance, speed, maneuvers, G-loading, and flight in known icing should be limited to
flight manual parameters.
2. When pilots venture beyond the limits of known performance data, they are in the
wilderness, and all discoveries could be unhappy experiences.
D. Flight with less than the required minimum fuel is never reasonable.
E. VFR flight into IMC is never justified.
F. Descent below the applicable minimum en route altitude anywhere is never justified.
G. Casual neglect of any applicable checklist is never justified.
1. A checklist may be made larger or smaller; however, certain standards should be
established for all flights so that the first decision point is whether to begin the flight. This
can be the toughest decision.

III. How to Be a Safe Pilot

A. Explain to your students that a pilot does not have to be a genius to be a safe pilot.
1. However, pilots should accept the fact that they are not in possession of all facts or skills for
all situations, and therefore be willing to accept the recommendations of those who
specialize in evaluating, assessing, and administering aviation procedures.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 6: Human Factors 19

B. Reaching a consensus on all matters within the aviation community can prove difficult, if not
impossible.
1. Even though the rules and procedures are designed to serve most of the people most of the
time, a pilot can always argue for different ways of doing things.
2. Impress upon your students that an experienced, mature pilot will accept and follow the rules
and procedures which have been established to benefit the aviation community.
a. The immature, emotionally unbalanced pilot has strong tendencies to satisfy a
personal need regardless of the consequences.

C. When a pilot exhibits one or more of the five hazardous attitudes or irrational behavior, that pilot
may also be exposing an emotional weakness in his/her personality.

IV. Development of Good Decision-Making Skills

A. Explain to your students that the development of good decision-making skills is far more difficult
than developing good flying skills.
1. Good judgment may mean not flying while under the influence of any medication or when it
is too windy, or refusing a revenue flight when it would require flying in marginal weather.
B. Warn your students that many pilots fail to make proper decisions, sometimes due to a lack of
knowledge, but too often as the result of a human tendency to rationalize a situation until it
appears justifiable.
1. Remind your students that, when a pilot really wants to do something (e.g., loading that one
last passenger when close to maximum gross weight), the pilot can generally make
himself/herself believe that it is all right to do it.
a. A pilot can be his/her own worst enemy.

C. Emphasize to your students that, when they operate an aircraft, human lives are held in the
balance. Thus, they have a moral responsibility to operate in the safest possible manner.
1. Successful decision making is measured by a pilot’s consistent ability to keep
himself/herself, any passengers, and the aircraft in good condition regardless of the
conditions of any given flight.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 1

GLEIM FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR REFRESHER COURSE

LESSON 7
FUNDAMENTALS OF INSTRUCTING
7.1 THE LEARNING PROCESS
I. In order to successfully meet the challenges of teaching a complex task to multiple individuals with
widely varied personalities, backgrounds, and aptitudes, it is essential for flight instructors to have
an understanding of the ways that people learn.
II. Learning can be defined as a change in behavior as a result of experience.
A. The behavior change can be physical and overt (an improved ability to maintain a glide path, for
instance) or it may involve complex intellectual or attitudinal changes, which affect behavior in
more subtle ways (the development of stronger motivation or more acute perceptions and
insights, for instance).

III. Characteristics of Learning

A. Learning is purposeful.
1. Most people have fairly definite ideas about what they want to do and achieve; i.e., most
students have goals both for the short term (a given learning situation) and the long term (a
career). Students learn from any activity that tends to further their goals.
2. Thus, in the process of learning, the student’s goals are of great significance. A student’s
goals will affect how and what (s)he learns.
B. Learning is a result of experience.
1. Knowledge cannot be poured into the student’s head. The student can learn only from
personal experiences. What one student learns from a given situation (e.g., a lecture) will
be different from what another student learns from the same situation because of the
personal differences that color their experiences.
2. Learning a physical skill requires actual experience in performing that skill.
a. Student pilots learn to fly an airplane only if their experience includes flying.

C. Learning is multifaceted.
1. Psychologists classify learning by many types, including verbal, conceptual, perceptual,
motor skills, emotional, and problem solving.
2. Learning is multifaceted in another sense. While learning the subject at hand, the student
may be learning other things as well. They may be developing attitudes about aviation
(good or bad) or a sense of self-reliance, based on their unique experience.
a. Though sometimes called “incidental,” this kind of learning can have a significant
impact on a student’s total development.

D. Learning is an active process.

1. Students do not automatically soak up knowledge like a sponge absorbs water.
2. An instructor cannot assume that a student remembers something simply because (s)he
attended the lesson.
3. For students to learn, they must react and respond to the material -- either outwardly or
inwardly, intellectually or emotionally.
4. If learning is a process of changing behavior, clearly that process must be an active one.

IV. The Principles of Learning

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
2 Lesson 7: Fundamentals of Instructing

A. Principle of readiness
1. Individuals learn best when they are ready to learn.
a. Getting students ready to learn is the instructor’s job.
b. Readiness implies a degree of single-mindedness and eagerness toward the subject.
2. If a student has a strong purpose, a clear objective, and a definite reason for learning
something, (s)he will make more progress than if (s)he lacks motivation.
a. When students are ready to learn, they will meet the instructor at least halfway, and
this simplifies the instructor’s job.
3. There are factors that the instructor will not be able to control (e.g., a student’s personal
problem), which may render the instructor unable to inspire a readiness to learn and cause
the student to have little interest in learning.
B. Principle of exercise
1. This principle states that those things most often repeated are best remembered.
a. This principle is the basis of practice and drill.
2. A student will not learn to perform crosswind landings on a single instructional flight.
a. Students learn by applying what they have been told and shown.
b. Every time practice occurs, learning continues.
3. The instructor must provide opportunities for students to practice and must make sure that
this process is directed toward a goal.
C. Principle of effect
1. Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and
learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling.
2. An experience that produces feelings of defeat, frustration, anger, confusion, or futility is
unpleasant for the student.
a. EXAMPLE: If an instructor attempts to teach landings during the first flight lesson, the
student is likely to feel inferior and be dissatisfied.
3. Impressing students with the difficulty of a flight maneuver can make the teaching task
difficult.
a. Usually it is better to tell a student that a maneuver, although challenging, is within
his/her capability to understand or perform.
4. Whatever the learning situation, it should contain elements that affect the students positively
and give them feelings of satisfaction.
D. Principle of primacy
1. Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable, impression.
a. For an instructor, this means that what is taught must be right the first time.
2. For example, if a student does not learn the proper use of the rudder, the instructor will have
a difficult task of unteaching the bad habits and reteaching the correct ones.
3. The first experience should be positive and functional and lay the foundation for all that is to
follow.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 7: Fundamentals of Instructing 3

E. Principle of intensity
1. A vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring
experience.
a. A student is likely to gain greater understanding of stalls by performing them than from
merely reading about them.
2. A student will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute.
F. Principle of recency
1. Things most recently learned are best remembered.
a. Conversely, the further a student is removed temporally from a new fact or
understanding (i.e., the more time that passes between learning a fact and attempting
to recall it), the more difficult it is to remember it.
2. The instructor recognizes the law of recency when planning a summary for a ground lesson
or a postflight critique.
a. The instructor repeats, restates, or reemphasizes important points at the end of a
lesson to make sure a student remembers them.

V. Factors Involved in How People Learn

A. Initially, all learning comes from perceptions that are directed to the brain by one or more of the
five senses (i.e., sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste).
1. Perceiving involves more than the reception of stimuli from the five senses. Perceptions
result when a person gives meaning to the sensations. Thus, perceptions are the basis of
all learning.
2. It is therefore very important for the instructor to have knowledge of the factors that affect the
perceptual process. Some factors are internal to each individual, and some are external.
These factors include:
a. The perceiver’s physical organism
b. The perceiver’s basic needs
c. The perceiver’s goals and values
d. The perceiver’s self-concept
e. The availability or lack of sufficient time and opportunity to turn sensations into
meaningful perceptions
f. The presence of any element of threat

B. The element of threat does not promote effective learning because fear adversely affects a
person’s perceptions by narrowing the perceptual field.
1. Confronted with a threat, students tend to limit their attention to the threatening object or
condition.
2. Anything threatening, whether it is something the instructor says or does or an unsettling
feeling of being out of control in a maneuver, adversely affects all of a student’s physical,
mental, and emotional faculties.
C. Insight involves the grouping of perceptions into meaningful wholes (i.e., getting the whole
picture).
1. Creating insight is one of the instructor’s major responsibilities.
2. Instruction, as opposed to the trial-and-error method of learning, speeds the learning
process by teaching the relationship of perceptions as they occur, thus promoting the
development of insights by students.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 4 Lesson 7: Fundamentals of Instructing

3. Instructors can help students develop insights by

a. Pointing out the relationship of perceptions as they occur.
b. Providing a safe and non-threatening environment in which to learn.
c. Helping the student acquire and maintain a favorable self-concept.
D. Motivation is the dominant force in a student’s progress and ability to learn.
1. Negative motivations are those that may produce fear and be accepted by the student as
threats. They may be useful in certain situations, but they are not as effective in promoting
efficient learning as positive motivations.
2. Positive motivations are essential to true learning. Positive motivations are provided by the
promise or achievement of rewards, whether financial, personal, or societal.

VI. Levels of Learning

A. Rote
1. Rote learning, the lowest level of learning, is the ability to repeat something that has been
taught without understanding or being able to apply what has been learned.
2. EXAMPLE: A flight instructor tells a student pilot to enter a turn by banking the airplane with
aileron control and applying sufficient rudder pressure in the same direction to prevent
slipping or skidding.
a. A student who can repeat this instruction, but does not know what it means, has
learned by rote.

B. Understanding
1. At this level, the student cannot only repeat what has been taught, but also understands the
principles and theory behind the knowledge.
2. EXAMPLE: With proper instruction on the effect and use of the flight controls, and
experience in their use in straight flight, the student can develop old and new perceptions of
the flight controls and their use into an insight about how to make a turn; i.e., the student
develops an understanding of how to turn the airplane.
C. Application
1. At this level, the student not only understands the theory but can apply what has been
learned and perform it correctly.
2. EXAMPLE: When a student understands the procedures for entering a turn, has had turns
demonstrated to him/her, and has practiced turn entries until consistency has been
achieved at an acceptable skill level, the student has developed the ability to apply what
has been taught.
3. Application is a major level of learning, and one at which an instructor is too often willing to
stop.
a. Discontinuing instruction on one element of piloting performance once the application
level has been reached, and directing further instruction exclusively to other
elements, violates the building block concept of instruction (in which new learning and
habit patterns are based on a solid foundation of experience and/or old learning) by
failing to apply what has been learned to future lessons.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 7: Fundamentals of Instructing 5

D. Correlation
1. At this level, the student is able to associate an element which has been learned with other
segments or blocks of learning.
a. This level of learning should be the objective of all instruction.
2. EXAMPLE: The student who has achieved this level of learning in turn entries has
developed the ability to correlate the elements of turn entries with the performance of
combined piloting operations (i.e., operations requiring more of the pilot than a simple turn
entry), such as ground reference maneuvers or eights-on-pylons.

VII. Principles Applied in Learning a Physical Skill

A. Physical skills involve more than muscles.
1. The perception of a skill changes as it becomes easier. Concepts of how to perform the skill
are developed, and attitudes toward it are changed.
B. Desire to learn
1. A student who has a desire to learn a skill will initially learn it more quickly, and will show
more rapid improvement. Students have a desire to learn skills that appear to bring them
closer to intended goals or that meet their needs (the principle of readiness).
2. The instructor should build on the student’s natural enthusiasm about his/her goals or needs
by relating the lesson objective to those goals or needs.
C. Patterns to follow
1. The best way to prepare a student to perform a task is to provide a clear, step-by-step
example. A good example provides a clear picture of each step necessary to perform a
task, thereby allowing students to understand what is necessary to complete the task and
how to perform it.
2. In flight, the instructor provides a demonstration of each maneuver, emphasizing the steps
and techniques used in order to provide the student with a clear impression of what to do.
D. Performance of the skill
1. Physical skills cannot be learned from an explanation or by watching a demonstration. The
student must practice the new skill in order to develop coordination between the muscles
and the visual and tactile senses.
2. As a student gains proficiency in a skill, verbal instructions become more meaningful.
a. A long, detailed explanation is confusing if it is given before the student begins
performing a skill or maneuver. Specific comments are more meaningful and useful
after the skill has been partially mastered.

E. Knowledge of results
1. The instructor provides a helpful and often critical function in making certain that students
are aware of their progress.
a. A student should know when his/her performance is right and when it is wrong.
i. A student may already know that something is wrong with his/her performance,
but may not know how to correct it. An instructor’s guidance is critical in this
situation.

2. Students should be told of their progress as soon after the performance of a maneuver or
task as possible, because they should not be allowed to practice mistakes.
3. One way to make students aware of their progress is to repeat a demonstration, showing the
students the standard that must ultimately be met.
© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
6 Lesson 7: Fundamentals of Instructing

F. The pattern of progress

70

PERCENT OF CORRECT PERFORMANCES

60

50 PLATEAU

40

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

PERIODS OF PRACTICE
Figure7_1
The Pattern of Progress

1. Learning typically follows a pattern which is called the learning curve, shown above.
a. There is normally rapid improvement in the performance of a skill during the early
stages of learning.
b. After these initial stages, improvement slows significantly (or stops altogether) for a
significant period of time. This slowing of the rate of improvement is called a learning
plateau.
c. A learning plateau is normal and should be expected after a period of rapid
improvement. You should prepare your students for this plateau to prevent
discouragement and minimize frustration.

G. Duration and organization of a lesson

1. A primary consideration in planning for student performance of a skill is the length of time
devoted to practice.
a. A beginning student will reach a point at which additional practice is not only
unproductive, but may even be harmful.
i. When that point is reached, errors increase and motivation declines.

2. As a student gains experience, longer periods of practice are profitable.

3. Depending on the skill being learned, the practice period (and perhaps the instructional
period as well) may need to be divided into segments rather than taking place all at one
time. In other cases, it may be beneficial to integrate the instruction and practice of a skill
into one continuous sequence.
H. Evaluation vs. critique
1. In the initial stages of learning a skill, practical suggestions are more valuable to the student
than a grade.
2. Early evaluation is usually instructor-oriented. It provides a check on the effectiveness of the
instruction, can be used to predict eventual student proficiency, and can help in identifying
special problem areas.
3. The observations on which the evaluations are based can also identify the student’s
strengths and weaknesses, which the instructor must understand in order to make
constructive criticism.
© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 7: Fundamentals of Instructing 7

I. Application of skill
1. In order to prevent a newly learned skill from going unused, two things are needed:
a. The student must learn the skill so well that it becomes easy, even habitual, to perform
it.
b. The student must recognize the types of situations in which it is appropriate to use the
skill.

VIII. Memory
A. Memory is an integral part of the learning process. It is composed of three parts: the sensory
register, the short-term or working memory, and the long-term memory.
1. The sensory register receives input from the environment and quickly processes it
according to the individual’s preconceived concept of what is important. This occurs on a
subconscious level.
a. Precoding is the selective process by which the sensory register recognizes certain
stimuli and immediately transmits them to the working memory for action.
i. Irrelevant stimuli are discarded by the sensory register

2. The short-term memory (or working memory) is the receptacle of the information deemed
important by the sensory register.
a. The information may temporarily remain in the short-term memory, or it may rapidly
fade.
3. The long-term memory is where information is stored for future use.
a. For the stored information to be useful, some special effort must have been expended
during the recoding process.

IX. Factors Related to Forgetting and Retention

A. The following are three theories of forgetting:
1. The theory of disuse states that a person forgets those things which are not used. For
example, high school and college graduates are often saddened by the small amount of
actual data retained several years after graduation.
2. The theory of interference states that people forget something because a new experience
has overshadowed it, or the learning of similar things has intervened. In other words, new
or similar events can displace things that have been previously learned.
3. The theory of repression states that some forgetting is due to the submersion of ideas into
the subconscious mind. Material that is unpleasant or produces anxiety is forgotten by the
individual, although not intentionally. It is a subconscious and protective response.
Repression is unlikely to be a cause of forgetting flying skills and facts in all but a few
cases.
B. Each of the preceding theories implies that knowledge is not lost when it is forgotten; it is made
unavailable for recall. The instructor’s task is to ensure that the knowledge is available for ready
recall. To do this, instructors should teach thoroughly and with meaning. Material thoroughly
learned is highly resistant to forgetting.
C. The following five principles are generally accepted as having a direct application to retention
(remembering):
1. Praise stimulates remembering.
a. A student’s action that results in a pleasurable return (e.g., praise) tends to be
repeated. Actions that are met without praise or with a negative response do not
tend to be repeated.
© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 8 Lesson 7: Fundamentals of Instructing

2. Recall is promoted by association.

a. Each bit of information or action that is associated with something to be learned tends
to facilitate later recall by the student of that fact or skill. Unique or disassociated
facts tend to be forgotten.
3. Favorable attitudes aid retention.
a. People learn and remember only what they wish to know. Without the motivation to do
so, there is little chance for recall.
b. The most effective motivation is based on positive or rewarding objectives.
4. Learning is most effective when all the senses are used.
a. Although we generally receive what we learn through the eyes and ears, other senses
also contribute to most perceptions.
b. When several senses respond together, a fuller understanding and a greater chance
of recall are achieved.
5. Meaningful repetition aids recall.
a. Each repetition gives the student an opportunity to gain a clearer and more accurate
perception of the subject to be learned, but repetition alone does not guarantee
retention.
i. Practice provides an opportunity for learning but does not cause learning.
b. Research indicates that three or four repetitions provide the maximum benefit, after
which the rate of learning and probability of retention fall off rapidly.

X. How Transfer of Learning Affects the Learning Process

A. The student may be either aided or hindered by things previously learned. This process is called
transfer of learning.
B. Positive transfer occurs when the learning of one skill aids in learning another skill.
1. EXAMPLE: Flying rectangular courses aids in flying traffic patterns.
C. Negative transfer occurs when a previously learned skill interferes with learning a new skill.
1. EXAMPLE: A student may try to steer a taxiing plane with the control yoke in the same
manner as (s)he drives a car.
2. Negative transfer thus substantiates the interference theory of forgetting.
D. By making certain that the student understands that what is learned can be applied to many other
training and operational situations, the instructor helps facilitate a positive transfer of learned skills
to future training.
1. This is the basis for the building-block technique of instruction, in which each simple task is
performed acceptably and correctly before the next learning task is introduced, because
that task builds on what came before it.
2. Beginning instruction in more advanced and complex operations before basic skills have
been mastered leads to the development of poor habit patterns in the performance of the
more complex skills.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 7: Fundamentals of Instructing 9

XI. How the Formation of Habit Patterns Affects the Learning Process
A. The formation of correct habit patterns from the beginning of any learning process is essential to
further learning and for correct performance after the completion of training.
1. It is much easier to foster proper habits from the beginning of training than to correct faulty
ones later.
2. Faulty performance of the elements of a task are inevitably carried through to all future
learning that incorporates that task.

7.2 THE TEACHING PROCESS

I. The presentation of new material by an instructor involves the following four steps:
A. Preparation
B. Presentation
C. Application
D. Review and Evaluation
II. These four steps are discussed in detail in the following section.
A. Preparation for a Lesson or an Instructional Period
1. For each lesson or instructional period, the instructor must determine the material to be
covered, the objectives of the lesson, and the goals to be attained.
2. The preparation for a lesson also includes an instructor’s requirements for home study or
other special preparation by the student.
3. As part of the preparation, the instructor should make certain that all necessary supplies,
materials, and equipment required for the lesson are readily available and that the
equipment is operating properly.
4. The instructor’s preparation for a lesson should include reference to the syllabus or PTS
involved and a review of the general objectives that are to be accomplished.
5. The instructor must develop a detailed written lesson plan if the instructional period is to be
effective.
a. A lesson plan includes a statement of the lesson’s objectives, the procedures and
facilities to be used in presenting it, the specific goals to be attained, and the means
to be used for evaluating the results that are achieved.

B. Presentation of Knowledge and Skills

1. Instructors have several methods of lesson presentation to choose from, including the
lecture method, the guided discussion method, and the demonstration/performance
method. The choice of method is determined by the nature of the subject matter and the
objective of teaching it.
2. The lecture method is used primarily to introduce students to new subject material. It is also
valuable for
a. Summarizing ideas
b. Showing relationships between theory and practice
3. The guided discussion method is used in a classroom situation to teach subjects about
which students may have some intuition. The instructor draws out what the students know
by encouraging discussion through the skillful use of questions.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
10 Lesson 7: Fundamentals of Instructing

4. The demonstration/performance method is used extensively for flight and ground training.
a. The demonstration/performance method is composed of four steps:
i. Instructor explanation
ii. Instructor demonstration
iii. Student performance and instructor supervision
iv. Instructor evaluation
b. In developing a lesson, the instructor should organize explanations and
demonstrations to help the student achieve the desired learning outcome.
c. The telling-and-doing technique of flight instruction is a variation on the
demonstration/performance method and will be discussed further in Lesson 9. It is
composed of the following four steps:
i. Instructor tells; instructor does.
ii. Student tells; instructor does.
iii. Student tells; student does.
iv. Student does; instructor evaluates.

C. Application, by the Student, of the Knowledge and Skills Presented by the Instructor
1. The student may be asked to explain the new material after a classroom presentation, or to
perform a procedure or operation after a demonstration.
a. EXAMPLE: At the end of a classroom period on the flight computer, the student may
be asked to work a flight planning problem involving the computation of groundspeed,
drift correction, and estimated time en route.
2. The application step is where the student uses what the instructor has presented.
3. During most flight instruction, the instructor’s explanation and demonstration activities are
alternated with the student’s performance efforts.
a. Usually, the instructor will have to interrupt the student’s efforts for corrections and
further demonstrations.
b. This is necessary because it is very important that the student perform the maneuver
the right way the first few times. This is when habits are established.
i. Faulty habits are difficult to correct and must be addressed as soon as possible.

D. Review and Evaluation of Student Performance

1. Review and evaluation are integral parts of each ground or flight lesson. Before the end of
the instructional session, the instructor should review what has been covered during the
lesson and require students to demonstrate how well the lesson objectives have been met.
a. The instructor’s evaluation may be informal and noted only for use in planning the next
lesson for the students, or it may be formally recorded to certify the students’
progress in the course.
b. Students should be made aware of their progress. Any advances or deficiencies
should be noted at the conclusion of the lesson.
i. The failure of the instructor to make students aware of their progress, or the lack
of it, may create a barrier that could impede further instruction.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 7: Fundamentals of Instructing 11

2. In flight training, the instructor must remember that it is difficult for students to obtain a clear
picture of their progress, because they seldom have a chance to compare their
performance with that of other students.
a. Students are normally only able to compare their performance with that of their
instructor.
i. Students may become discouraged when their only visible competition (the
instructor) is doing well and they are not.
ii. It is therefore important that the instructor’s feedback adequately compares a
student’s performance to the completion standards of the lesson plan so (s)he
has a realistic picture of how (s)he is doing.

3. Each lesson should include a selective review and evaluation of things previously learned.
a. If the evaluation reveals a deficiency or fault in the knowledge or performance of the
present lesson, it must be corrected before new material can be presented.
b. If deficiencies or faults not associated with the present lesson are revealed, they
should be carefully noted and pointed out to the student.
i. Corrective measures that are practicable within the limitations of the current
lesson should be taken immediately.
ii. More thorough remedial actions that are beyond the scope of the present lesson
must be included in future lesson plans.

4. The evaluation of student performance and accomplishment during a lesson should be

based on the objectives and goals that were established in the instructor's lesson plan.

7.3 LESSON PLAN

I. A lesson plan is an organized outline for a single instructional period. Lesson plans should be
prepared in writing for each instructional period, regardless of the instructor’s experience or the
student’s level.
A. A lesson plan should be developed to show specific knowledge and/or skills to be taught.
1. The lesson plan is a guide for the instructor in that it tells him/her what to do, in what order to
do it, and what procedure to use in teaching the material of the lesson.
B. A so-called “mental outline” is not a lesson plan.
C. To be effective, the lesson plan must be in writing.
1. Another instructor should be able to take the lesson plan and know what to do in conducting
the period of instruction.
2. When the lesson plan is in written form, it can be analyzed for adequacy and completeness.

II. Purpose of the Lesson Plan

A. Lesson plans are designed to ensure that each student receives the best possible instruction
under the existing conditions.
B. Lesson plans help instructors keep a constant check on their own activity, as well as that of their
students.
C. The development of lesson plans by instructors signifies, in effect, that they have taught the
lessons to themselves prior to attempting to teach the lessons to students.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 12 Lesson 7: Fundamentals of Instructing

D. An adequate lesson plan, when properly used, should

1. Ensure a wise selection of material and the elimination of unimportant details
2. Make certain that due consideration is given to each part of the lesson
3. Aid the instructor in presenting the material in a suitable sequence for efficient learning
4. Provide an outline of the teaching procedure to be used in a single instructional period
5. Serve as a means of relating the lesson to the objectives of the course of training
6. Give the inexperienced instructor confidence
7. Promote uniformity of instruction regardless of the instructor or the date on which the lesson
is given

III. Characteristics of a Well-Planned Lesson

A. Unity. Each lesson should be a unified segment of instruction. A lesson is concerned with certain
limited objectives that are stated in terms of desired student learning outcomes. Teaching
procedures and materials should be selected to attain these objectives.
B. Content. Each lesson should contain new material. However, the new facts, principles,
procedures, or skills should be related to material previously presented.
1. A short review of earlier lessons is usually necessary, particularly in flight training.
C. Scope. Each lesson should be reasonable in scope. A person can master only a few principles or
skills at a time, depending on complexity.
1. Presenting too much material in a lesson results in confusion; presenting too little material
results in inefficiency.
D. Practicality. Each lesson should be planned in terms of the conditions under which the training is
to be conducted.
1. Lesson plans conducted in an airplane or ground trainer will differ from those conducted in a
classroom.
E. Flexibility. While the lesson plan provides an outline and a sequence for the training to be
conducted, a degree of flexibility should be incorporated.
F. Relation to course of training. Each lesson should be planned and taught so that its relation to the
course objectives are clear to each student.
G. Instructional steps. Every lesson, when adequately developed, falls logically into the four steps of
the teaching process: preparation, presentation, application, and review and evaluation.

IV. How to Use a Lesson Plan Properly

A. Be familiar with the lesson plan. The instructor should study each step of the plan and should be
thoroughly familiar with as much information related to the subject as possible.
B. Use the lesson plan as a guide. The lesson plan is an outline for conducting an instructional
period. It assures that pertinent materials are at hand and that the presentation is accomplished
with order and unity.
1. Having a plan prevents the instructor from getting off of the topic, omitting essential points,
and introducing irrelevant material.
C. Adapt the lesson plan to the class or student. In teaching a lesson, the instructor may find that the
procedures outlined in the lesson plan are not leading to the desired results. In this situation, the
instructor should change the approach; the use of standard lesson plans may not be effective for
students requiring a different approach.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 7: Fundamentals of Instructing 13

D. Revise the lesson plan periodically. After a lesson plan has been prepared for a training period, a
continuous revision may be necessary due to changes in regulations, textbooks, or instructional
equipment (including the training aircraft).

V. Lesson Plan Formats

A. The format and style of a lesson plan depend on several factors.
1. The subject matter is directly related to how a lesson is presented and what teaching
method is used.
2. Ground lessons will be structured differently for one-on-one training vs. a classroom setting.
3. Preferably, each lesson should have somewhat limited objectives that are achievable within
a reasonable period of time. The number and organization of objectives will depend on
their characteristics and complexity.
B. Most aviation lesson plans have the following common characteristics: objectives, content that
supports the objectives, and completion standards.
C. These characteristics may be incorporated into a lesson in a variety of ways, and may be given
different names. An example of one approach is given below:
1. Lesson objective. The objective of the lesson should be clearly stated in terms of desired
student learning outcomes.
a. The objective is the reason for the lesson, i.e., what the instructor expects the student
to know or be able to do at the completion of the lesson.
2. Content. This section lists the items that must be covered in order to achieve the lesson
objective.
3. Schedule. The instructor should estimate the total amount of time to be spent on a particular
lesson as well as the approximate time to be devoted to each part of the lesson.
4. Equipment. The equipment list includes all instructional materials and training aids required
to teach the lesson.
5. Instructor’s actions. This section outlines the instructor’s proposed procedures for
presenting the content of the lesson.
6. Student’s actions. This section outlines the desired student responses to instruction.
7. Completion standards. These standards supply the basis for determining how well the
student has met the lesson objective.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 14 Lesson 7: Fundamentals of Instructing

VI. A sample lesson plan for a flight instruction period on stalls is shown below.

LESSON Stalls STUDENT Larry DATE 7-20

OBJECTIVE ● To familiarize the student with the stall warnings and handling
characteristics of the airplane as it approaches a stall. To
develop the student’s skill in recognition and recovery from
stalls.

CONTENT ● Configuration of airplane for power-on and power-off stalls.

● Observation of airplane attitude, stall warnings, and handling
characteristics as it approaches a stall.
● Control of airplane attitude, altitude, and heading.
● Initiation of stall recovery procedures.

SCHEDULE ● Preflight Discussion :10

● Instructor Demonstrations :25
● Student Practice :45
● Postflight Critique :10

EQUIPMENT ● Chalkboard or notebook for preflight discussion.

INSTRUCTOR’S ● Preflight — Discuss lesson objective

ACTIONS ● Inflight — Demonstrate elements. Demonstrate power-on and
power-off stalls and recovery procedures. Coach student
practice.
● Postflight — Critque student performance and assign study
material.

STUDEBT’S ● Preflight — Discuss lesson objective and resolve questions.

ACTIONS ● Inflight — Review previous maneuvers including slow flight.
Perform each new maneuver as directed.
● Postflight — Ask pertinent questions.

COMPLETION ● Student should demonstrate competency in controlling the

STANDARDS airplane at airspeeds approaching a stall. Student should
recognize and take prompt corrective action to recover from
power-on and power-off stalls.

7.4 EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

I. Communication takes place when one person transmits ideas or feelings to another person or to a
group of people.
A. Its effectiveness is measured by the similarity between the idea transmitted and the idea received.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 7: Fundamentals of Instructing 15

II. Elements of the Communication Process

A. Source (sender, speaker, transmitter, or instructor). The instructor’s effectiveness as a
communicator is related to at least three basic factors.
1. First, successful communicators have an ability to select and use symbols (words, figures)
that are meaningful to the listener.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
16 Lesson 7: Fundamentals of Instructing

2. Second, communicators, consciously or unconsciously, reveal attitudes toward themselves,

toward the ideas they are trying to transmit, and toward the listener.
a. These attitudes must be positive if the communication is to be effective.
b. The presentation should show that the instructor is confident in the subject, that the
message is important, and that students need to know the information.
3. Third, successful communicators speak from a background of accurate, up-to-date,
stimulating material.
a. Instructors should exercise great care to ensure that ideas and feelings used in the
presentation are meaningful to students.
i. Reliance on technical language (which is often meaningful only to those with
technical backgrounds) to express ideas to beginning students usually impedes
effective communication.

B. Symbols
1. Ideas are communicated only when symbols (e.g., words, gestures) are combined into units
(e.g., sentences, paragraphs, lectures, or chapters) that mean something to the student.
a. When symbols are combined into these units, each becomes important for effective
communication.
2. The parts of the total idea must be selected carefully if they are to convey messages that the
listener can react to and understand.
a. The parts of the idea must be analyzed to determine which are best suited to starting
and ending the communication, and which are best for the process of explaining,
clarifying, or emphasizing.
i. All of these functions are required for effective transmission of ideas.

3. The process of communicating ideas via simple symbols culminates with the determination
of the medium best suited for their transmission.
a. Many channels (media) are available for transmission, but most communicators select
the channels of hearing and seeing.
i. Flight instructors should also use the channel of touch, i.e., touching or
manipulating the flight controls.
b. The instructor will be more successful in gaining and retaining the student’s attention
by using a variety of channels to convey an idea.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 7: Fundamentals of Instructing 17

C. Receiver (student)
1. When students react with understanding and change their behavior according to the intent of
the instructor, effective communication has taken place.
2. In order for an instructor to change the behavior of students, some of the students’ abilities,
attitudes, and experiences need to be understood.
a. Students begin aviation training with widely varied abilities and backgrounds.
i. Some students may already be familiar with aviation and/or have well-developed
motor skills, while others may have no background knowledge or skills.
o The instructor needs to determine the student’s existing abilities and tailor
the presentation to them.
ii. Students’ viewpoints and cultural backgrounds may vary greatly.
o An instructor should be aware of these differences, but efforts to
accommodate them should not be taken too far.

b. The student’s attitude may indicate resistance, willingness, or passive neutrality.

i. To gain and hold a student’s attention, attitudes should be molded into forms
that promote reception of information.
c. The student’s background, experience, and educational level will determine the
approach an instructor should take.
i. What the student knows, along with the student’s abilities and attitudes, will
guide the instructor in communicating.
ii. The major barriers to effective communication are usually found in this particular
area.

III. Barriers to Effective Communication

A. Lack of common experience
1. Probably the greatest single barrier to effective communication is the lack of common
experience between instructor and student.
2. Words rarely carry precisely the same meaning from the mind of the instructor to the mind of
the student. Words, in themselves, do not transfer meaning at all.
a. Words, whether spoken or written, are merely stimuli used to arouse a response in the
student.
i. The nature of this response is determined by the student’s past experiences
with the words and the things they refer to.
ii. A communicator’s words cannot communicate the desired meaning to another
person unless the listener has had some experience with the objects or
concepts to which these words refer.
o Therefore, if technical language must be used in presenting an idea, it is
essential that all terms be fully understood by the student.

B. Confusion between the symbol and the symbolized object

1. Languages have many words that mean different things to different people.
a. Confusion between the symbol and the symbolized object results when a word is not
correctly associated with what it is meant to represent.
2. Instructors should carefully choose words or symbols to represent exactly what they intend.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
18 Lesson 7: Fundamentals of Instructing

C. Overuse of abstractions
1. Concrete words refer to objects that people can relate directly to their experiences.
a. EXAMPLE: If you are discussing a particular general aviation trainer-type airplane and
refer to it as a Cessna 172, your student will have a mental image of this airplane.
i. The name Cessna 172 represents a concrete reality. It can be touched, seen,
and heard.

2. Abstract words stand for ideas that cannot be directly experienced, things that do not
provide mental images in the minds of students.
a. EXAMPLE: If you say, “I saw a general aviation airplane,” your student will not form a
mental image of a Cessna 172 because the term is abstract.
3. Abstract words are necessary and can be useful. Their purpose is not to bring forth specific
items of experience in the minds of the receivers, but rather to serve as shorthand symbols
that sum up vast areas of experience.
a. EXAMPLE: “Aerodynamics” is a term that encompasses many specific subjects that
are applicable to all types of aircraft.
4. Although abstractions are useful, they can lead to misunderstanding.
a. The danger in using abstractions is that they will not evoke the same specific items of
experience in the minds of the students that the instructor intends.
i. The student has no way of knowing what experiences the instructor intends an
abstraction to include.

5. When abstractions are used, they should be linked with specific experiences through
examples and illustrations.
a. Even better, the level of abstraction should be reduced by using concrete and specific
words as much as possible.
b. By using concrete words, the instructor narrows, and gains better control of, the image
produced in the minds of the students.

D. Interference
1. Factors outside the direct control of the instructor can also influence the communication
process.
2. Physiological interference is any biological problem that may inhibit symbol recognition, such
as hearing loss, injury, or physical illness.
3. Environmental interference is caused by external physical conditions, such as noise or
temperature.
4. Psychological interference is a product of how the instructor and the student feel at the time
the communication process is occurring.
a. If either the student or the instructor are not committed to the communication process,
communication is impaired.
b. Fear of the situation or mistrust between the instructor and the student could severely
inhibit the flow of information.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 7: Fundamentals of Instructing 19

7.5 CRITIQUE AND EVALUATION

I. Critique
A. The instructor’s critique
1. No instructor skill is more important than the ability to analyze, appraise, and judge student
performance.
a. A student looks to the instructor for guidance, suggestions for improvement, and
encouragement.
b. To enhance a student’s acceptance of further instruction, the instructor should keep
the student informed of the progress made.
i. This will help to minimize student frustrations, which will keep the student
motivated to learn.

2. A critique should always be conducted immediately after the student’s performance, while
the details are easy to recall.
a. The instructor may critique any activity which a student performs or practices to
improve skill, proficiency, and learning.
3. A critique is a step in the learning process, not the grading process.
4. A critique is not necessarily negative in content. It considers the good along with the bad,
the whole in terms of its parts, and the parts in relation to each other.
B. The purpose of a critique
1. The purpose of a critique is to improve the student’s performance and to provide him/her
with something constructive to work with and build upon.
a. The critique should provide direction and guidance to improve performance.

C. Characteristics of an effective critique

1. A critique should be objective.
a. The effective critique is focused on student performance, and should not reflect the
personal opinions, likes, dislikes, and biases of the instructor.
b. The critique must be based on the performance as it was, not as it could have been.
2. A critique should be flexible.
a. The instructor must fit the tone, technique, and content of the critique to the occasion
and the student.
b. An effective critique is flexible enough to satisfy the requirements of the moment.
3. A critique should be acceptable.
a. Before students willingly accept their instructor’s criticism, they must first accept the
instructor.
b. The students must have confidence in the instructor’s qualifications, teaching ability,
sincerity, competence, and authority.
c. Instructors cannot rely solely on their position to make a critique acceptable to their
students.
4. A critique should be comprehensive.
a. A comprehensive critique is not necessarily long, nor must it treat every aspect of the
performance in detail.
b. The instructor must decide whether the greater benefit will come from a discussion of
a few major points or a number of minor points.
c. An effective critique covers strengths as well as weaknesses.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 20 Lesson 7: Fundamentals of Instructing

5. A critique should be constructive.

a. A critique is pointless unless a student profits from it.
b. Praise for praise’s sake is of no value if a student is not taught how to capitalize on
things that are done well and to use them to compensate for lesser
accomplishments.
c. Also, it is not enough to identify a fault or weakness.
i. To tell students that their work is unsatisfactory with no explanation will most
likely result in the students becoming frustrated.
ii. Students must be briefed on the errors made and told how to correct them so
progress and accomplishment can be made.

6. A critique should be thoughtful.

a. An effective critique reflects an instructor’s thoughtfulness toward the student’s need
for self-esteem, recognition, and approval from others.
i. The critique should never minimize the inherent dignity and importance of the
individual.
b. Ridicule, anger, or teasing at the expense of the student has no place in the critique.
7. A critique should be specific.
a. The instructor’s comments and recommendations should be specific, i.e., they should
not be so general that the student can find nothing to hold on to.
b. Express ideas with firmness and authority in terms that cannot be misunderstood.
i. Students should have no doubt about what they did well and what they did
poorly, and should know specifically how they can improve.

II. Evaluation
A. Whenever learning takes place, the result is a definable, observable, measurable change in
behavior and/or knowledge.
1. Evaluations are used to define, observe, and measure or judge this new behavior.
B. The purpose of an evaluation is to determine how a student is progressing in a course of
instruction.
1. During instruction, some sort of evaluation is essential to determine what the student is
learning and how well (s)he is learning it.
C. Types of evaluation
1. Oral quizzing
a. The most practical means of evaluation is oral quizzing of students by the instructor.
Questions may be loosely classified as fact and thought questions.
i. The answer to a fact question is based on memory or recall.
ii. Thought questions require the student to combine a knowledge of facts with an
ability to analyze situations, solve problems, and arrive at conclusions.
b. Proper quizzing by the instructor can have a number of desirable results. It can
i. Reveal the effectiveness of training procedures,
ii. Check student retention and comprehension of what has been learned,
iii. Review material already covered,
iv. Help retain student interest and stimulate thinking,
v. Emphasize the important points of training,
vi. Identify points that need more emphasis, and
vii. Promote active student participation.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 7: Fundamentals of Instructing 21

c. Characteristics of effective questions:

i. Each question must have only one correct answer.
o This is a characteristic of good objective-type (fact) questions and
generally true of all good questions.
o Each question should call for a specific answer that can be readily
evaluated by the instructor, though the answer to thought questions may
be expressed in a variety of ways.
ii. Each question must apply to the subject being taught.
iii. Each question should be brief and concise, but must be clear and definite.
iv. Each question should center on only one idea, limited to who, what, where,
when, how, or why, not a combination.
v. Each question should present a challenge.
o A question must be of suitable difficulty for the students at that particular
stage of training.

2. Written tests
a. A written test is a set of questions, problems, or exercises used to determine whether
a person has obtained a particular knowledge or skill.
i. As evaluation devices, written tests are only as good as the knowledge and
proficiency of the test writer.
b. Characteristics of a good written test
i. Reliability is the degree to which test results are consistent with repeated
measurements.
o A written test that has reliability yields consistent results when applied to
different groups.
ii. Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure.
o A written test has validity when it measures only the achievement of the
objectives of the instruction given, and nothing else.
iii. Usability refers to the functionality of tests.
o A written test is usable when it is easy to administer by the instructor, easy
for the student to understand, the wording is clear and concise, the
figures are appropriate to the test items and clearly drawn, and the test is
easily graded.
iv. Comprehensiveness is the degree to which a test measures the overall
objectives of the evaluation.
o A written test is comprehensive when it liberally samples whatever is
being measured.
v. Discrimination is the degree to which a test distinguishes the difference
between students.
o A written test having the characteristic of discrimination will measure small
differences in achievement between students.
o It will also distinguish between students whose achievement of the course
objectives is both high and low.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
22 Lesson 7: Fundamentals of Instructing

3. Performance tests
a. Performance tests are useful for evaluating the results of training that involves an
operation, a procedure, or a process.
b. An FAA practical test is an example of a performance test.
i. While flight instructors do not administer the practical test for a certificate or
rating, they are responsible for preparing their students for this test and
determining their students’ readiness for the applicable test.
ii. Accordingly, flight instructors must be thoroughly familiar with the standards
against which the students’ performance will be evaluated (i.e., the appropriate
PTS).
c. Flight instructors must administer performance tests, either formally or informally,
because performance tests are the only reliable means to determine that a student is
ready for a practical test or a new operating privilege (e.g., student solo).
i. When determining readiness for a practical test, instructors should use the
appropriate PTS as the standard for successful completion.
ii. When determining readiness for a new operating privilege for which official
standards have not been designated, instructors should use their best
judgment to establish standards of acceptable performance. Instructors should
then adhere to those standards.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 1

GLEIM FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR REFRESHER COURSE

LESSON 8
FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR PROFESSIONAL
RESPONSIBILITIES AND INSTRUCTOR ENDORSEMENTS
8.1 FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR PROFESSIONALISM
I. Although the term professionalism is widely used, it is rarely defined. In fact, no single definition
can encompass all of the qualifications and considerations that must be present for true
professionalism to exist. The following are some of the major considerations and qualifications of
any professional:
A. Professionalism exists only when a service is performed for someone, or for the common good.
B. Professionalism is achieved only after extended training and preparation.
C. Performance as a professional is based on study and research.
D. Professionals must be able to reason logically and accurately.
E. Professionalism requires good decision-making ability. Professionals cannot limit their actions and
decisions to standard patterns and practice.
F. Professionalism demands a code of ethics. Professionals must be true to themselves and to those
they serve. Anything less than a sincere performance is quickly detected and immediately
destroys a professional’s effectiveness.

II. Several basic elements of professionalism should concern you as a flight instructor.
A. Sincerity
1. As a professional flight instructor, you must be straightforward and honest. Attempting to
hide an inadequacy will make it impossible for you to command the respect and full
attention of your students.
a. Student confidence tends to be destroyed if instructors bluff when they are in doubt
about some point.
2. Teaching a student pilot is based upon the student’s acceptance of the flight instructor as a
competent, qualified instructor and an expert pilot.
3. Any appearance of instructor pretentiousness, whether real or imagined by the student, will
cause the student to lose confidence in the instructor, and learning will be adversely
affected.
B. Acceptance of the student
1. A professional flight instructor must accept students as they are, including all of their faults
and problems.
2. The student is a person who wants to learn to fly, and the instructor is a person who has an
interest (financial or otherwise) in helping the student learn.
a. With this understanding, the professional relationship between the instructor and the
student should be based on a mutual acknowledgment that the student and the
instructor are important to each other and that both are working toward the same
objective.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
2 Lesson 8: Flight Instructor Professional Responsibilities and Instructor Endorsements

C. Personal appearance and habits

1. Your personal appearance has an important effect on your professional image. Instructors
are expected to be neat, clean, and appropriately dressed.
2. Personal habits also have a significant effect on a flight instructor’s professional image.The
exercise of common courtesy is perhaps the most important of these habits.
a. A rude, thoughtless, or inattentive instructor cannot hold the respect of students.

D. Demeanor
1. Your attitude and behavior contribute significantly to a professional image.
2. You should avoid
a. Erratic movements, distracting speech habits, and unpredictable changes in mood
b. Any tendency toward frequently countermanding directions, reacting differently to
similar or identical errors at different times, demanding unreasonable performances
or progress, or criticizing a student unfairly
3. Effective instruction is best fostered by a calm, pleasant, thoughtful demeanor that puts the
student at ease, and portrays both competence in the subject matter and genuine interest
in the student’s well being.
E. Self-improvement
1. You should never become complacent or satisfied with your own qualifications and abilities.
a. Flight instructors should constantly seek ways to improve their qualifications, their
effectiveness, and the services they provide to students.
2. Flight instructors are considered authorities on aeronautical matters and are the experts to
whom many pilots refer questions concerning regulations, requirements, and new operating
techniques.
a. Therefore, you have the opportunity and responsibility of introducing new procedures
and techniques through your students and through certificated pilots with whom you
come in contact.

F. Safety practices and accident prevention

1. To maintain a professional image, you must carefully observe all regulations and recognized
safety practices during all flight operations.
2. Habitual observance of regulations, safety precautions, and courtesy will enhance an
instructor’s image of professionalism.
a. Such habits will make the instructor more effective by encouraging the same habits in
his/her students.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 8: Flight Instructor Professional Responsibilities and Instructor Endorsements 3

8.2 TEACHING BY EXAMPLE

I. Your flying habits, both during flight instruction and as observed by students when you are
conducting other pilot operations, have a vital impact on safety.
A. Students consider their flight instructor to be a model of perfection whose flying habits they attempt
to imitate, consciously or unconsciously.
B. Thus, your advocacy and description of safety practices mean little to your students if you do not
demonstrate them consistently.
1. EXAMPLE: If your student sees that you start the airplane and take off without referring to a
checklist, no amount of instruction in the use of a checklist will convince the student to
faithfully use one during solo flight operations.

II. As a flight instructor, you must carefully observe all regulations and recognized safety practices
during all flight operations.
A. An instructor who is observed flying with apparent disregard for regulations and safety practices
(e.g., load limitations or weather minimums) by his/her students creates an impression of
irresponsibility that many hours of conscientious flight instruction cannot correct.
B. Habitual observance of regulations, safety practices, and the precepts of courtesy will make you
more effective in developing the same habits in your students.
1. EXAMPLE: All pilots are required by law to dispose of drained/sumped fuel properly. The
old method of simply throwing sumped fuel onto the tarmac to evaporate is unacceptable
and illegal.
a. Inform your students that this practice causes air pollution, as well as possible water
and soil contamination due to the runoff of leaded gasoline.
b. Demonstrate your concern for the environment by always using (and teaching your
students to use) a Gasoline Analysis Test Separator (GATS) jar to sump your
airplane’s fuel tanks. This device allows you to sump all of the airplane’s tanks,
inspect the fuel sample, and filter out water and other contaminants while returning
the fuel sample back to your airplane’s tanks; contaminated fuel can then be taken to
a disposal unit on the ramp.
c. You must consistently use approved fuel sampling practices if you expect your
students to do the same.

III. You must go beyond the requirements of developing technically proficient students who are
knowledgeable in the areas of their airplane, flight procedures, and maneuvers.
A. You must teach your students not only to know their own limitations and the limitations of their
equipment but also to be guided by those limitations.
B. You must teach and develop your students’ aeronautical decision-making processes.

8.3 INSTRUCTOR RESPONSIBILITIES

I. Student pilot supervision
A. Your evaluation of a student’s demonstrated ability during flight instruction must be based upon
established standards of performance, suitably modified to apply to the student’s experience level
and stage of development as a pilot.
1. In evaluating student demonstrations of piloting ability, it is important for you to keep the
student informed of his/her progress.
a. This may be done as each procedure/maneuver is completed, or summarized during
post-flight critiques.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 4 Lesson 8: Flight Instructor Professional Responsibilities and Instructor Endorsements

B. Flight instructors have a moral and ethical obligation to provide guidance and restraint with respect
to the solo operations of their students.
1. Before receiving an instructor endorsement for solo flight,
a. A student should be required to demonstrate the consistent ability to perform all of the
fundamental maneuvers.
b. The student should also be capable of handling ordinary problems that might occur,
such as traffic pattern congestion, a change in the active runway, or unexpected
crosswinds.
2. In the case of an observed unsatisfactory performance during a student’s solo operations, it
is your responsibility to try to correct the problem by the most reasonable and effective
means.

II. Answering student questions

A. When answering student questions, you should clearly understand the question before attempting
an answer.
1. An instructor should display interest in student questions and give as direct and accurate an
answer as possible.
2. If a student’s question is too advanced for the particular lesson such that confusion may
result from a complete answer, you may
a. Carefully explain that the question was good and pertinent;
b. Explain that to answer would unnecessarily complicate the learning task at hand; and
c. Advise the student to reintroduce the question later at the appropriate point in training,
or (in the case of a classroom setting) meet outside class for a more complete
discussion.
3. Occasionally, a student will ask a question that you cannot answer. The best course is to
freely admit not knowing the answer.
a. You should then promise to research the answer or offer to help the student look it up
in appropriate references.

III. Observation of other pilots’ actions

A. When instructors witness unsafe or inept operations by pilots who are not aware they are being
observed, they have a moral responsibility to try to correct the behavior, if possible.
1. This responsibility also applies to pilots who have requested an instructor’s evaluation or
guidance.
B. If an instructor is unable to correct the situation by personal contacts and good advice, (s)he
should report the situation to an FAA aviation safety counselor.

IV. Practical test recommendations

A. You, as a flight instructor, are a far better judge of your students’ flying abilities than the examiner
who conducts the practical test.
1. This is because you have flown with the student for many more hours than the examiner will
fly with them during the practical test.
B. Accordingly, you have a responsibility NOT to endorse a pilot candidate for his/her practical test
unless you believe that (s)he is competent to exercise ALL of the privileges of that certificate or
rating on an average day.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 8: Flight Instructor Professional Responsibilities and Instructor Endorsements 5

1. You cannot count on the examiner who conducts the practical test to serve as a “pilot filter”
because the examiner may catch a marginal student on a good day, or, due to weather or
time constraints, the examiner may elect to omit certain tasks with which your student has
had difficulty.
C. No conscientious flight instructor would knowingly put his/her student and future passengers at
risk.
1. Therefore, you should not endorse a pilot candidate who is not proficient in all operations
authorized by a certificate or rating for the corresponding practical test. Obtaining a
certificate or rating bestows all the privileges of that certificate or rating on the student pilot,
including those in which the student lacks proficiency.
a. EXAMPLE: If you endorse an instrument student who is unable to consistently perform
an NDB approach for his/her instrument rating practical test, that student’s examiner
may not expose the student’s weakness by asking him/her to perform an NDB
approach during the test, thereby allowing the student to successfully complete the
test.
b. As a result, the student will obtain all instrument flying privileges, and may eventually
be required to perform an NDB approach on his/her own in actual conditions, the
outcome of which may not be a success.
2. You cannot rely on your student’s assessment of his/her own flying abilities to keep them out
of trouble until they gain further instruction-YOU are the expert, and it is not unreasonable
for your students to interpret your practical test endorsement as an endorsement of their
ability to fully exercise the privileges of the new certificate/rating.
D. Exercising restraint with regard to practical test recommendations is particularly critical in the case
of flight instructor candidates.
1. Incompetent flight instructors endanger not only themselves and their passengers; they
endanger their students and their students’ future passengers as well.

V. Aircraft checkouts
A. Before authorizing an unfamiliar pilot to rent an aircraft, or a familiar pilot to rent a new aircraft
type, you should ensure that (s)he is thoroughly familiar with all aspects of that aircraft’s
operation.
1. This is necessary regardless of whether your instructional session is the pilot’s first exposure
to the aircraft, or (s)he has logged many hours in the type.
B. An aircraft checkout should address at least the following items:
1. The major aircraft systems, including
a. Flight controls
b. Engine and propeller
c. Fuel system
d. Electrical system
e. Pressurization system, if applicable
f. Environmental system
g. Retractable landing gear, if applicable
h. Anti- and de-icing system
2. Engine, airspeed, and airframe limitations
3. Preflight procedures
4. Avionics operation
5. Takeoff and landing characteristics
6. Slow-speed and stall characteristics
7. Normal operating procedures
© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 6 Lesson 8: Flight Instructor Professional Responsibilities and Instructor Endorsements

8. Abnormal and emergency procedures

9. Anything unusual or unique about the aircraft type or the specific aircraft in which the
checkout is performed
C. The degree of detail and the length of time required for an aircraft checkout will depend on the
pilot’s experience level and his/her level of familiarity with that aircraft type or similar types.
1. For example, an exhaustive ground session covering each element listed in item V.B. on
the previous page is not required for a pilot who is transitioning from a Cessna 152 into a
Cessna 172, or for a pilot who has logged many hours in the aircraft type.
a. However, you should address each element at some point in the checkout, either
through direct questions or by noting indirect indications of the pilot’s knowledge of
those areas.
2. Conversely, a pilot who is transitioning for the first time into a complex, high-performance,
pressurized, or tailwheel aircraft will probably require substantial amounts of ground and
flight instruction before (s)he can safely operate as pilot in command.
a. Note also that instructor endorsements are required prior to acting as pilot in command
of a complex, high-performance, or tailwheel aircraft, and before acting as pilot in
command of a pressurized aircraft capable of high-altitude operations (defined as an
aircraft with a service ceiling above 25,000 ft. MSL).

8.4 REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS AND AUTHORIZATIONS

I. Flight Instructor Records
A. As a CFI, you are required to sign the logbook of each person to whom you have given flight
training or ground training.
B. You are required to maintain a record (in a logbook or some other document) of the following:
1. The name of each person whose logbook or student pilot certificate you have endorsed for
solo flight privileges, and the date of the endorsement
2. The name of each person you have endorsed for a knowledge or practical test, along with
the kind of test, the date, and the results
C. You are required to retain these records for at least 3 years.

II. Flight Instructor Privileges

A. You are authorized, within the limitations of your flight instructor certificate and ratings, to give
training and endorsements that are required for, and relate to, the following:
1. A student pilot certificate
2. A pilot certificate
3. A flight instructor certificate
4. A ground instructor certificate
5. An aircraft rating
6. An instrument rating
7. A flight review, operating privilege, or recency-of-experience requirement
8. A practical test
9. A knowledge test

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 8: Flight Instructor Professional Responsibilities and Instructor Endorsements 7

III. Flight Instructor Limitations and Qualifications

A. As a CFI, you are subject to the following limitations:
1. You may not conduct more than 8 hr. of flight training in any 24-consecutive-hour period.
2. You may not conduct flight training in any aircraft for which you do not hold a pilot certificate
and a flight instructor certificate with the applicable category and class rating, and type
rating (if appropriate).
3. You may not conduct instrument flight training for the issuance of an instrument rating or a
type rating not limited to VFR unless you hold an instrument rating on your flight instructor
certificate and pilot certificate that is appropriate to the category and class of aircraft in
which the instrument training is being provided.
B. To endorse a student pilot’s certificate or logbook for solo flight privileges, you must have
1. Given that student the flight training required for solo flight privileges, and
2. Determined that the student is prepared to conduct the flight safely under known
circumstances, subject to any limitations listed in the student’s logbook that you consider
necessary for the safety of the flight.
C. To endorse a student pilot’s logbook for a solo cross-country flight, you must have determined that
the student’s flight preparation, planning, equipment, and proposed procedures are adequate for
the proposed flight under the existing conditions and within any limitations listed in the logbook
that you consider necessary for the safety of the flight.
D. To endorse a student pilot’s logbook for solo flight in a Class B airspace area or at an airport within
Class B airspace, you must have
1. Given the student ground and flight training in that specific Class B airspace or at that
specific airport, and
2. Determined that the student is proficient to operate the aircraft safely.
E. To endorse the logbook of a recreational pilot, you must have
1. Given that pilot the ground and flight training required by 14 CFR 61.101, and
2. Determined that the recreational pilot is proficient to operate the aircraft safely.
F. To endorse the logbook of a pilot for a flight review, you must have conducted a review of that pilot
in accordance with the requirements of 14 CFR 61.56(a).
G. To endorse the logbook of a pilot for an instrument proficiency check, you must have tested that
pilot in accordance with the requirements of 14 CFR 61.57(d).
1. To conduct an instrument proficiency check, you must have an instrument rating on your
flight instructor certificate.
2. The tasks required to be performed on the instrument proficiency check are specified in the
FAA’s Instrument Rating Practical Test Standards.
H. If you hold a multiengine rating on your flight instructor certificate, you may not give the training
required for the issuance of a certificate or rating in a multiengine airplane unless you have at
least 5 hr. of pilot-in-command time in the specific make and model of multiengine airplane.
I. You cannot make any self-endorsement for a certificate, rating, flight review, authorization,
operating privilege, practical test, or knowledge test that is required under Part 61.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 8 Lesson 8: Flight Instructor Professional Responsibilities and Instructor Endorsements

8.5 FAA FORM 8710-1: AIRMAN CERTIFICATE OR RATING APPLICATION

I. Your student must present a completed FAA Form 8710-1, Airman Certificate or Rating Application,
to his/her examiner on the day of a practical test.
A. It is strongly encouraged that you assist your student in completing the application before the day
of the practical test.
1. Take the time to methodically complete each item on the form with your student, and write
legibly.
2. Remember to complete the Practical Test Recommendation block on the back side of the
form, as your student will not be able to take the practical test without this evidence of your
official recommendation.
B. Any errors on the form that are not detected by the examiner, such as an incorrect address or birth
date, may cause problems when the FAA attempts to issue the permanent certificate.
C. The FAA also requires much of the information contained in the form to be presented in a specific
format.
1. While these formats are described in the itemized instructions for completing the form, most
students do not realize that the FAA wants certain items to be expressed in one format
only.
a. The FAA requires dates to be presented as three groups of digits separated by
hyphens. The groups of digits represent the month, day, and year. Years should be
shown with four digits. EXAMPLE: The date December 13, 2003 should be
expressed as 12-13-2003, NOT 12/13/03 or some other variation.

D. A student who arrives for a practical test with an incomplete or incorrectly filled out 8710-1 form will
waste the examiner’s time and set a negative tone for the practical test.
1. In some cases, the examiner may not conduct practical test at all.
2. Therefore, both you and your student should be motivated to take the time and effort to fill
out your student’s Form 8710-1 correctly.

8.6 INSTRUCTOR ENDORSEMENTS

I. Student pilot endorsements
A. Student pilot certificates provide spaces for CFI endorsements on the back for solo flight and solo
cross-country flight.
1. The student pilot certificate must be endorsed prior to the student’s first solo flight in each
make and model of airplane.
2. The student pilot certificate must be endorsed prior to the student’s first solo cross-country
flight.
a. This endorsement is for aircraft category (e.g., airplane), not make and model of
aircraft (e.g., Cessna 152).

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 8: Flight Instructor Professional Responsibilities and Instructor Endorsements 9

3. Shown below is an example student pilot certificate endorsed.

Front Back

CONDITIONS OF ISSUE: This certificate shall be in the personal possession of the airman at

certificate by an Aviation Medical Examiner may be reversed by the FAA within 60 days. Section
61.19 of the Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) sets forth the duration of a student pilot
certificate. Unless otherwise limited, the duration of a medical certificate is set forth in §61.23 of
the FAR. The holder of this certificate is governed by the provisions of FAR §§ 61.53, 63.19, and
all times while exercising the privileges of his or her airman certificate. The issuance of a medical
EE--

I certify that the holder of this certificate has met the requirements of the regulations and is
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Exp. Date
INSTRUCTOR’S CERT.
Department of Transportation

7/01
Federal Aviation Administration

CERTIFICATED INSTRUCTOR’S ENDORSEMENT FOR STUDENT PILOTS

MEDICAL CERTIFICATE 3rd CLASS
AND STUDENT PILOT CERTIFICATE

264750091
This certifies that (Full name and address):

PASSENGER-CARRYING PROHIBITED
Richmond, Kane Everett

65.49(d) relating to physical deficiency (14 CFR Parts 61, 63, and 65).
7771 Coral Way

No.
N. Ft. Myers, Fl. 33903

Tracey Lin Law

INSTRUCTOR’S
Date of Birth Ht. Wt. Hair Eyes Sex

SIGNATURE
1/30/67 5'9" 140 Brn. Brn. M
has met the medical standards prescribed in Part 67, Federal
Aviation Regulations, for this class of Medical Certificate.
Limitations

AIRCRAFT CATEGORY
None

MAKE AND MODEL

OF AIRCRAFT
competent for the following:

C-152
Date of Examination Examiner’s Serial No.

Rotorcraft
1/26/00 11967-1

Airplane

Glider
Signature
Examiner

E.W. Williams, II, D.O.

Typed Name
E.W. Williams II, D.O.

6-3-00
DATE
AIRMAN’S SIGNATURE
Kane Everett Richmond Following Aircraft
A. To Solo The
Country Flights
Solo Cross-

FAA Form 8420-2 (7-92) Supersedes Previous Edition

B. To Make

Figure8_1
FAA Medical - front

B. Endorsement for presolo aeronautical knowledge: 14 CFR 61.87(b)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has satisfactorily completed the presolo knowledge
exam of § 61.87(b) for the(make and model aircraft).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

1. This endorsement is required for each make and model of airplane that the student will fly
solo.
C. Endorsement for presolo flight training: § 61.87(c)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required presolo training in a (make
and model aircraft). I have determined (s)he has demonstrated the proficiency of § 61.87(d) and
is proficient to make solo flights in (make and model aircraft).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

1. This endorsement is required for each make and model of airplane that the student will fly
solo.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
10 Lesson 8: Flight Instructor Professional Responsibilities and Instructor Endorsements

D. Endorsement for presolo flight training at night: § 61.87(c) and (m)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required presolo training in a (make
and model aircraft). I have determined (s)he has demonstrated the proficiency of § 61.87(m) and
is proficient to make solo flights at night in a (make and model aircraft).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

1. A student pilot may not operate an aircraft in solo flight at night unless (s)he has received
a. Flight training at night on night flying procedures that includes takeoffs, approaches,
landings, and go-arounds at night at the airport where the solo flight will be
conducted;
b. Navigation training at night in the vicinity of the airport where the solo flight will be
conducted; and
c. The endorsement shown in D. above.
2. This logbook endorsement is valid for only 90 days.
E. Endorsement for solo flight (each additional 90-day period): § 61.87(n)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training to qualify for solo
flying. I have determined (s)he meets the applicable requirements of § 61.87(n) and is proficient
to make solo flights in (make and model).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

F. Endorsement for solo takeoffs and landings at another airport within 25 NM: § 61.93(b)(1)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of § 61.93(b)(1). I
have determined that (s)he is proficient to practice solo takeoffs and landings at (airport name).
The takeoffs and landings at (airport name) are subject to the following conditions: (List any
applicable conditions or limitations.)

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

1. The purpose of this endorsement is to allow a student to practice takeoffs and landings at
another airport within 25 NM from the airport where the pilot normally receives training.
G. Endorsement for initial solo cross-country flight: § 61.93(c)(1)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required solo cross-country training. I
find (s)he has met the applicable requirements of § 61.93, and is proficient to make solo
cross-country flights in a (make and model aircraft).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

1. This endorsement should be made in the student pilot’s logbook at the same time the
student’s pilot certificate is endorsed for cross-country flight.
2. Unlike the student pilot certificate endorsement, which is for the specific category of aircraft,
this logbook endorsement is for the specific make and model of aircraft to be flown.
a. Thus, this endorsement is required for each make and model of aircraft to be flown on
solo cross-country flights.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 8: Flight Instructor Professional Responsibilities and Instructor Endorsements 11

H. Endorsement for each solo cross-country flight: § 61.93(c)(2)

I have reviewed the cross country planning of (First name, MI, Last name). I find the planning
and preparation to be correct to make the solo flight from (location) to (destination) via (route of
flight) with landings at (name the airports) in a (make and model aircraft) on (date). (List any
applicable conditions or limitations.)

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

1. The instructor may want to stipulate additional conditions in the above endorsement.
2. This logbook endorsement is required prior to a student pilot’s solo cross-country flight.
I. Endorsement for repeated solo cross-country flights not more than 50 NM from the pointof
departure: § 61.93(b)(2)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training in both directions
between and at both (airport names). I have determined that (s)he is proficient of § 61.93(b)(2) to
conduct repeated solo cross-country flights over that route, subject to the following
conditions:(List any applicable conditions or limitations.)

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

1. This endorsement is for repeated solo cross-country flights to an airport that is within 50 NM
from the airport at which the flight originated.
2. The student must also have his/her student pilot certificate endorsed for cross-country flight
and the logbook endorsed for initial solo cross-country flight (see H. above).
a. Separate endorsements (as shown in I. above) are not required to be made for each
flight.

J. Endorsement for solo flight in Class B airspace: § 61.95(a)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of § 61.95(a). I have
determined (s)he is proficient to conduct solo flights in (name of Class B) airspace. (List any
applicable conditions or limitations.)

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

1. The ground and flight training must be for the specific Class B airspace area in which the
student will solo.
2. This logbook endorsement is valid for 90 days.
K. Endorsement for solo flight to, from, or at an airport located in Class B airspace: §§ 61.95(a)
and 91.131(b)(1)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of § 61.95(a)(1). I
have determined that (s)he is proficient to conduct solo flight operations at (name of airport). (List
any applicable conditions or limitations.)

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

1. The ground and flight training must be for the specific airport at which the solo operations
will be conducted.
2. This logbook endorsement is valid for 90 days.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 12 Lesson 8: Flight Instructor Professional Responsibilities and Instructor Endorsements

II. Recreational pilot endorsements

A. Endorsement for aeronautical knowledge test: §§ 61.35(a)(1) and 61.96(b)(3)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of § 61.97(b). I have
determined that (s)he is prepared for the (name the knowledge test).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

B. Endorsement for flight proficiency/practical test: §§ 61.96(b)(5), 61.98(a) and (b), and 61.99

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of §§ 61.98(b) and
61.99. I have determined that (s)he is prepared for the (name the practical test).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

C. Endorsement for recreational pilot to operate within 50 NM of the airport where training was
received: § 61.101(b)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of § 61.101(b). I have
determined (s)he is competent to operate at the (name of airport).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

1. This endorsement is required for each airport that a recreational pilot intends to use as a
home base.
D. Endorsement for recreational pilot to act as PIC on a flight that exceeds 50 NM of the
departure airport: § 61.101(c)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required cross-country training of
§ 61.101(c). I have determined that (s)he is proficient in cross-country flying of part 61,
subpart E.

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

1. The recreational pilot must have received ground and flight training on the cross-country
requirements of Subpart E, Private Pilots, of Part 61.
E. Endorsement for recreational pilot with less than 400 flight hours and not logged PIC time
within the preceding 180 days: § 61.101(f)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required 180-day recurrent training of
§ 61.101(f) in a (make and model aircraft). I have determined him/her proficient to act as PIC of
that aircraft.

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 8: Flight Instructor Professional Responsibilities and Instructor Endorsements 13

F. Endorsement for a recreational pilot to conduct solo flights for the purpose of obtaining an
additional certificate or rating while under the supervision of an authorized flight
instructor: § 61.101(i)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of § 61.87 in a (make
and model aircraft). I have determined (s)he is prepared to conduct a solo flight on (date) under
the following conditions: (List all conditions which require endorsement, e.g., flight which requires
communication with ATC, flight in an aircraft for which the pilot does not hold a category/class
rating, etc.).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

III. Private pilot endorsements

A. Endorsement for aeronautical knowledge test: §§ 61.35(a)(1), 61.103(d), and 61.105

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of § 61.105. I have
determined (s)he is prepared for the (name the knowledge test).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

B. Endorsement for flight proficiency/practical test: §§ 61.103(f), 61.107(b), and 61.109

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of §§ 61.107 and
61.109. I have determined (s)he is prepared for the (name the practical test).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

IV. Instrument rating endorsements

A. Endorsement for aeronautical knowledge test: §§ 61.35(a)(1) and 61.65(a) and (b)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of § 61.65(b). I have
determined that (s)he is prepared for the(name the knowledge test).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

B. Endorsement for flight proficiency/practical test: § 61.65(a)(6)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of § 61.65(c) and (d).
I have determined (s)he is prepared for the Instrument - (Airplane, Helicopter, or Powered-lift)
practical test.

S/S [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

V. Commercial pilot endorsements

A. Endorsement for aeronautical knowledge test: §§ 61.35(a)(1) and 61.123(c)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of § 61.125. I have
determined that (s)he is prepared for the (name the knowledge test).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 14 Lesson 8: Flight Instructor Professional Responsibilities and Instructor Endorsements

B. Endorsement for flight proficiency/practical test: §§ 61.123(e) and 61.127

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of §§ 61.127 and
61.129. I have determined (s)he is prepared for the (name the practical test).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

VI. Flight instructor endorsements

A. Endorsement for fundamentals of instructing training received: §§ 61.183(d) and
61.185(a)(1)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required fundamentals of instruction
training of § 61.185(a)(1).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

1. Note that CFI candidates are not required to have this endorsement prior to taking the
fundamentals of instructing knowledge test.
a. The endorsement is only required prior to taking the flight instructor practical test.

B. Endorsement for flight instructor ground and flight proficiency/practical test: §§ 61.183(g)
and 61.187(a) and (b)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of § 61.187(b). I have
determined (s)he is prepared for the CFI - (aircraft category and class) practical test.

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

C. Endorsement for flight instructor certificate with instrument - (category/class)
rating/practical test: §§ 61.183(g) and 61.187(a) and (b)(7)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required CFII training of
§ 61.187(b)(7). I have determined (s)he is prepared for the CFII - (airplane, helicopter, or
powered-lift) practical test.

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

D. Endorsement for spin training: § 61.183(i)(1)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of § 61.183(i). I have
determined that (s)he is competent and proficient in instructional skills for training stall
awareness, spin entry, spins, and spin recovery procedures.

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

1. The above spin training endorsement is required of flight instructor-airplane and flight
instructor-glider applicants only.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 8: Flight Instructor Professional Responsibilities and Instructor Endorsements 15

VII. Ground instructor endorsements

A. Endorsement for a ground instructor who does not meet the recent experience
requirements: § 61.217(b)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has demonstrated satisfactory proficiency on the
appropriate ground instructor knowledge and training subjects of § 61.213(a)(3) and (a)(4).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05 [*or CGI, as appropriate]
(The expiration date would apply only to a CFI.)

1. Note that the expiration date applies only if the above endorsement is given by a CFI.
Ground instructor certificates do not expire.

VIII. Additional endorsements

A. Endorsement for completion of a flight review: § 61.56(a) and (c)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) , (pilot certificate) , (certificate number) , has
satisfactorily completed a flight review of § 61.56(a) on (date) .

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

1. No logbook entry reflecting unsatisfactory performance on a flight review is required.
B. Endorsement for completion of an instrument proficiency check: § 61.57(d)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name), (pilot certificate), (certificate number), has satisfactorily
completed the instrument proficiency check of § 61.57(d) in a (list make and model of aircraft) on
(date).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

1. No logbook entry reflecting unsatisfactory performance on an instrument proficiency check is
required.
C. Endorsement for a pilot to act as PIC in a complex airplane: § 61.31(e)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name), (pilot certificate), (certificate number), has received the
required training of § 61.31(e) in a (make and model of complex airplane). I have determined that
(s)he is proficient in the operation and systems of a complex airplane.

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

D. Endorsement for a pilot to act as PIC in a high performance airplane: § 61.31(f)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name), (pilot certificate), (certificate number), has received the
required training of § 61.31(f) in a (make and model of high performance airplane). I have
determined that (s)he is proficient in the operation and systems of a high performance airplane.

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
16 Lesson 8: Flight Instructor Professional Responsibilities and Instructor Endorsements

E. Endorsement to act as PIC in a pressurized aircraft capable of high altitude operations:

§ 61.31(g)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name), (pilot certificate), (certificate number), has received the
required training of § 61.31(g) in a (make and model of pressurized aircraft). I have determined
that (s)he is proficient in the operation and systems of a pressurized aircraft.

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

1. This endorsement is required prior to acting as pilot in command of a pressurized aircraft
with a service ceiling greater than 25,000 ft.
F. Endorsement for a pilot to act as PIC in a tailwheel airplane: § 61.31(i)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name), (pilot certificate), (certificate number), has received the
required training of § 61.31(i) in a (make and model of tailwheel airplane). I have determined that
(s)he is proficient in the operation of a tailwheel airplane.

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

G. Endorsement to act as PIC of an aircraft in solo operations when the pilot does not hold an
appropriate category/class rating: § 61.31(d)(3)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the training as required by § 61.31(d)(3) to
serve as a PIC in a (category and class of aircraft). I have determined that (s)he is prepared to
serve as PIC in that (make and model of aircraft).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

H. Endorsement to certify completion of prerequisites for a practical test: FAR 61.39(a)(6)

I have given (First name, MI, last name) flight training in preparation for a (type of practical test)
practical test within the preceding 60 days and find him/her prepared for the required practical test
and to have demonstrated satisfactory knowledge of the subject areas in which the applicant was
shown to be deficient by his/her airman knowledge test.

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

I. Endorsement for retesting after failure of a knowledge or practical test: § 61.49.

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the additional (flight and/or ground) training
as required by § 61.49. I have determined that he/she is prepared for the (name the
knowledge/practical test).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

1. You may also complete the endorsement in the space provided at the bottom of the
applicant's airman knowledge test report in the case of a failure on a knowledge test.
2. You must sign the block provided for the instructor’s endorsement on the reverse side of
FAA Form 8710-1 for each retake of a practical test.
3. An applicant may retake either a knowledge or practical test if (s)he has received additional
training and an instructor’s endorsement.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 8: Flight Instructor Professional Responsibilities and Instructor Endorsements 17

J. Endorsement for review of a home study curriculum: § 61.35(a)(1)

I certify I have reviewed the home study curriculum of (First name, MI, Last name). I have
determined (s)he is prepared for the (name the knowledge test).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

K. Endorsement for an airman seeking an additional aircraft category or class rating (other
than ATP): § 61.63(b) or (c)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name), (pilot certificate), (certificate number), has received the
required training for an additional (name the aircraft category/class rating). I have determined
that (s)he is prepared for the (name the practical test) for the addition of a (name the aircraft
category/class rating).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

L. Endorsement for an airman seeking a type rating concurrently with an additional category
or class rating (other than ATP): § 61.63(d)(2) and (3)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of § 61.63(d)(2) and
(3) for an addition of a (name the category/class/type rating). I have determined that (s)he is
prepared for the (name the practical test) for the addition of a (name the aircraft
category/class/type rating).

S/S [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 1

GLEIM FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR REFRESHER COURSE

LESSON 9
TEACHING FLIGHT MANEUVERS AND PROCEDURES
9.1 AIRCRAFT FAMILIARIZATION
I. Encourage new students to take a few minutes to acquaint themselves with the cockpit before
getting ready to start the engine on their first few flights, and whenever preparing to fly an unfamiliar
airplane.
A. Suggest that your students sit in the cockpit for a few minutes after performing the preflight
inspection to familiarize themselves with the location of all controls and switches, and to think of
any questions to ask.
B. The aircraft’s POH should have a control panel diagram, similar to that of the Cessna illustrated
below, that can be studied at home.
C. You may suggest that students take a blank sheet of paper and, without the aid of a diagram or
photo, sketch the airplane’s control panel and review normal control positions and normal gauge
indications.

1 3 5 7 9 28 11
2 4 6 8 10 13

23

24

26 17 25 19 21 29 12
14 16 15 18 20 22 27

1. CLOCK 11. HOBBS METER 21. PROPELLER CONTROL

2. AIRSPEED INDICATOR 12. TEMPERATURE CONTROL 22. MIXTURE CONTROL
3. TURN COORDINATOR 13. CONTROL YOKE 23. FUEL QUANTITY GAUGES
4. ATTITUDE INDICATOR 14. MAGNETO SWITCH 24. ENGINE INSTRUMENTS
5. HEADING INDICATOR 15. TACHOMETER 25. LIGHT DIMMER CONTROLS
6. ALTIMETER 16. ELECTRICAL SWITCHES 26. CIRCUIT BREAKER PANEL
7. VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (VSI) 17. PARKING BRAKE 27. FLAP CONTROL LEVER
8. NAV 1 INDICATOR 18. ALTERNATE STATIC SOURCE 28. G.P.S.
9. NAV 2 INDICATOR 19. THROTTLE 29. AUTO PILOT Figure9_1
10. AVIONICS 20. FRICTION LOCK Cessna Instrument Panel

II. After the first few lessons, when a new student is able to confidently control the airplane in basic
maneuvers, spend some time on the ground discussing the airplane’s performance, systems,
V-speeds, and general limitations.
A. It is important for student pilots to become familiar with these items early in their training so that
they learn to regard them as integral elements of the flying process that must always be
considered.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 2 Lesson 9: Teaching Flight Maneuvers and Procedures

B. However, be careful that you do not introduce too much information at once. The student may
allow small details to distract him/her from mastery of the fundamental elements of a skill if (s)he
is presented with too many of the finer points at an early stage.
1. EXAMPLE: A detailed explanation of takeoff performance considerations, such as runway
surface, runway slope, and wind direction, could be extremely confusing and distracting to
a student who is still attempting to learn basic aircraft control and become familiar with the
flight environment.

9.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

I. You may wish to discuss some of the basic principles of flight with a new student before his/her first
flight, or you may wish to wait until that student has flown with you a few times, allowing him/her an
opportunity to observe these principles on his/her own.
A. As an alternative to having a ground discussion, you may wish to point out some or all of these
principles while in flight.
B. This technique is often the best way to approach a prospective student’s introductory flight, as it
allows you to make the flight interesting and enjoyable while simultaneously presenting
information that will be used in all future lessons.
1. A suggested sequence follows:
a. Perform the takeoff and get the airplane to a safe maneuvering altitude and practice
area.
b. Demonstrate the effects of each of the primary flight controls: rudder, elevator, and
ailerons (in that order).
c. Demonstrate how to use rudder and aileron together to prevent adverse yaw.
d. Demonstrate that, if constant elevator pressure is maintained, the airplane’s nose will
drop and the airplane will descend when the wings are banked.
i. This demonstration may be used to introduce coordinated level turns.
e. Demonstrate the relationship of power changes to pitch changes.
f. Demonstrate the use of elevator trim by having the student hold the nose on the
horizon while you gradually apply nose-up or nose-down trim. Then, have the
student trim away the pressure until none remains.
g. Demonstrate how to initiate and maintain a climb, including how to keep the airplane
coordinated by “stepping on the ball.”
h. Demonstrate how to initiate and maintain a descent.
i. You can use the descent demonstration as a way to return to the airport.
ii. If traffic conditions allow and the student is able to make a controlled descent,
you can let him/her continue to fly the airplane until you are almost ready to
land.
i. Note that you should allow the student to repeat your actions after each
demonstration.

II. Your discussion of the basic principles of flight should address the following elements:
A. Flight instruments
1. When your students have an understanding of the flight instruments and their individual
limitations, you will gain a valuable tool that can be used to point out the relationships
between variables such as pitch and airspeed, to quantify areas that are deficient, and to
provide helpful suggestions for making improvements.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 9: Teaching Flight Maneuvers and Procedures 3

2. Explain each of the six primary flight instruments as follows:

a. The airspeed indicator (ASI) displays the speed at which the airplane is moving
through the air.
b. The attitude indicator (AI) displays the attitude of the airplane (nose up, nose down,
wings banked) in relation to the horizon.
c. The altimeter (ALT) displays the height of the airplane above mean sea level (MSL)
when properly adjusted to the current pressure setting.
d. The turn coordinator (TC) displays the rate at which a turn is being made. The
miniature airplane in the TC display banks in the direction of the turn.
i. At the bottom of the instrument is a ball in a glass tube called an inclinometer.
The inclinometer indicates whether the airplane is in coordinated flight (ball
centered) or uncoordinated flight.
ii. “Step on the ball” in order to center it by applying rudder pressure on the side
where the ball is deflected
e. The heading indicator (HI) displays the heading (direction) the airplane is pointed.
i. The HI must be set to match the compass before takeoff in order to provide
reliable heading information.
f. The vertical speed indicator (VSI) displays whether the airplane is in level flight,
climbing, or descending. The rate of climb or descent is indicated in hundreds of feet
per minute.

B. Airplane control
1. Explain that airplane control is composed of three components: pitch control, bank control,
and power control.
a. Pitch control is the control of the airplane about its lateral axis (i.e., wingtip to wingtip)
by applying elevator pressure to raise or lower the nose in relation to the horizon.
b. Bank control is the control of the airplane about its longitudinal axis (i.e., nose to tail)
by use of the ailerons to attain the desired angle of bank in relation to the horizon.
c. Power control is the control of power or thrust by use of the throttle to establish or
maintain a desired airspeed, climb rate, or descent rate in coordination with attitude
changes.

C. Straight-and-level flight
1. Explain that straight-and-level flight means that the airplane maintains a constant heading
and a constant altitude.
a. This is accomplished by making constant small corrections for unintended deviations
in heading and altitude.
2. Point out that the pitch attitude for level flight is obtained by selecting some portion of the
airplane's nose or instrument glare shield as a reference point and then keeping that point
in a fixed position relative to the horizon.
a. That position should then be cross-checked against the altimeter to determine whether
the pitch attitude is correct for the power setting being used.
i. If altitude is being lost or gained, the pitch attitude should be readjusted in
relation to the horizon, and then the altimeter should be checked to determine
if altitude is being maintained.
b. Mention that the pitch information obtained from the attitude indicator will also show
the position of the nose relative to the horizon if the miniature airplane is properly
adjusted.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
4 Lesson 9: Teaching Flight Maneuvers and Procedures

3. Explain that, to achieve straight flight, your student should select two or more outside visual
reference points directly ahead of the airplane (e.g., roads, section lines, towns, lakes, etc.)
to form an imaginary line and then keep the airplane headed along that line.
a. Both wingtips should also be equidistant above or below the horizon (depending on
whether the airplane is a high-wing or low-wing type).
b. While using these references, remind your student to occasionally check the heading
indicator (HI) to determine that the airplane is maintaining a constant heading, and to
return to the desired heading if necessary.
4. Emphasize that straight-and-level flight requires almost no application of control pressure if
the airplane is properly trimmed and the air is smooth.
a. Teach your students to trim the airplane so it will fly straight and level without constant
assistance.
i. This is called “hands-off flight.”
ii. Improper trim technique usually results in flying that is physically tiring,
particularly in prolonged straight-and-level flight.
b. Explain that the airplane should be trimmed by first applying control pressure to
establish the desired attitude, and then adjusting the trim so that the airplane will
maintain that attitude without control pressure in hands-off flight.
5. The airspeed will remain constant in straight-and-level flight with a constant power setting.
a. Emphasize that significant power changes will result in significant airspeed changes,
which will require considerable changes in pitch attitude to maintain altitude.
b. Pronounced changes in pitch attitude will also be necessary as the flaps and landing
gear (if retractable) are operated.

D. Turns
1. Explain that a turn is a basic flight maneuver used to change from, or return to, a desired
heading. This maneuver involves the coordinated use of the ailerons, rudder, and
elevator.
2. To enter a turn, teach your student to simultaneously apply aileron pressure and rudder
pressure in the desired direction.
a. Explain that the rate at which the airplane rolls into a bank depends on the rate and
amount of control pressure applied.
i. Relatedly, the amount of bank depends on how long the ailerons are deflected.
b. Point out that rudder pressure must be enough to keep the ball of the inclinometer
centered.
i. If the ball is not centered, teach your student to “step on the ball” to recenter it.
c. Explain that the best outside reference for establishing the degree of bank is the angle
made by the top of the engine cowling or the instrument panel with respect to the
horizon.
d. Point out that the attitude indicator (AI) will also show the angle of the wings in relation
to the horizon. Referring to the AI will help your student learn to judge the degree of
bank based on outside references.
3. Explain that some of the lift produced by the wings is used to turn the airplane.
a. Thus, to maintain a constant altitude, your student will need to apply enough back
elevator pressure to prevent a descent.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 9: Teaching Flight Maneuvers and Procedures 5

4. The roll-out from a turn to straight flight is similar to the roll-in to the turn from straight flight
except that control pressures are used in the opposite direction. Explain that aileron and
rudder pressures are applied in the direction of the roll-out.
a. Teach your student that, as the angle of bank decreases, the elevator pressure should
be released smoothly as necessary to maintain altitude. Remind your student that
the vertical component of lift increases when the airplane is no longer banked.
b. Point out that the airplane will continue turning as long as it is banked, so the roll-out
must be started before reaching the desired heading.

E. Climbs
1. Explain that climbs and climbing turns are basic flight maneuvers in which the pitch attitude
and power setting result in a gain in altitude. In a straight climb, the airplane gains altitude
while traveling straight ahead. In climbing turns, the airplane gains altitude while turning.
2. Teach your student to enter the climb by simultaneously advancing the throttle and applying
back elevator pressure.
a. Point out that, as the power is increased to the climb setting, the airplane’s nose will
tend to rise toward the climb attitude on its own.
b. Also point out that, as the pitch attitude increases and the airspeed decreases,
progressively more right-rudder pressure must be used to compensate for torque
effects and to maintain heading.
i. Explain that, because the angle of attack and power setting are relatively high
and the airspeed is relatively slow, the airplane will have a tendency to roll and
yaw to the left due to turning tendencies created by the rotating propeller.
o While right-rudder pressure will correct for the yaw, some aileron pressure
may also be required to keep the wings level.

3. To maintain the climb, back elevator pressure must be maintained to keep the pitch attitude
constant.
a. Explain that, as the airspeed decreases, the elevators may try to return to their
streamlined or neutral position, which will cause the nose to lower.
i. Nose-up trim will therefore be required.
b. Teach your student to cross-check the airspeed indicator (ASI) because the airplane
gives certain degrees of climb performance at certain airspeeds, and because the
ASI will provide an indirect indication of the pitch attitude.
i. If the airspeed is higher than desired, your student must raise the nose.
ii. If the airspeed is lower than desired, your student must lower the nose.
4. Explain that, to return to straight-and-level flight from a climbing attitude, your student should
start the level-off below the desired altitude in order to avoid climbing through it.
a. To level off, the nose should be lowered gradually, because a loss of altitude will result
if the pitch attitude is decreased too abruptly before allowing the airspeed to increase
adequately.
i. Explain that, as the nose is lowered, the airplane will need to be retrimmed to
eliminate control pressures.
ii. Teach your student to reduce the throttle setting to appropriate cruise power
setting and to trim the airplane when the airspeed reaches the desired cruise
speed.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
6 Lesson 9: Teaching Flight Maneuvers and Procedures

F. Descents
1. A descent is a basic maneuver in which the airplane loses altitude in a controlled manner.
Explain that descents can be made
a. With partial power, as used during an approach to a landing
b. Without power, i.e., a glide
c. At cruise airspeeds, during en route descents
i. The following discussion applies to en route descents, which are the simplest to
introduce.
2. Teach your student that, to enter a descent, (s)he should first apply carburetor heat (if
recommended by the manufacturer) and then reduce power to the desired setting.
a. The power reduction will simultaneously cause the nose to pitch down and the airplane
to begin a descent.
b. Teach your student to adjust the pitch attitude in order to establish the desired rate of
descent and to adjust the power setting in order to maintain the desired airspeed.
3. Explain that, when the descent is established, your student should cross-check the airspeed
indicator (ASI) and vertical speed indicator (VSI) to ensure that the desired airspeed and
descent rate are being maintained.
a. If the airspeed is higher than desired, teach your student to make a slight power
reduction, and then allow the airspeed to stabilize in order to confirm the adjustment.
i. If the airspeed is lower than desired, teach your student to slightly increase
power and allow the airspeed to stabilize.
b. If the descent rate is higher than desired, teach your student to slightly increase the
pitch attitude, and then allow the descent rate to stabilize to confirm the adjustment.
i. If the descent rate is lower than desired, teach your student to slightly decrease
the pitch attitude and allow the descent rate to stabilize.
c. Once the desired airspeed and descent rate are established, teach your student to
note the position of the airplane’s nose relative to the horizon and the indications of
the attitude indicator (AI).
i. The airplane should be trimmed to relieve all control pressures.

4. Explain that the level-off from a descent must be started before reaching the desired altitude
in order to avoid descending through it.
a. To level off, teach your student to simultaneously raise the nose to a level attitude and
increase power to the desired cruise setting.
i. Remind your student that the addition of power will tend to raise the nose.
b. Teach your student to apply appropriate elevator control pressure to resume level
flight and retrim to relieve the control pressures.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 9: Teaching Flight Maneuvers and Procedures 7

9.3 ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE OF MANEUVERS

I. Ground Training
A. Ground training is extremely important and necessary to facilitate flight training. Each preflight and
postflight discussion is as important as the actual flight instruction of each flight training lesson.
1. Unfortunately, most students and many CFIs incorrectly overemphasize the in-airplane
portion of a flight lesson.
a. The airplane and its operating systems, ATC, other traffic, etc., are major distractions
from the actual flight maneuver being practiced and the aerodynamic theory/factors
underlying the maneuver.
b. When you discuss these elements with your student on the ground, (s)he will have the
necessary background knowledge to make use of your comments and suggestions in
the cockpit, despite all of the distractions.
i. Attempting to introduce a complex flight maneuver or procedure for the first time
while in flight is very difficult, if not impossible.

B. When learning a new maneuver or procedure, the effort and results belong to your student. As an
instructor, you are responsible for directing your student’s effort to obtain optimum results.
1. Impress upon your students that they must prepare for each flight lesson so they will know
what is going to happen and why.
C. Before each flight, you should sit down with your student for a preflight briefing.
1. First, go over any questions that your student may have from the previous lesson.
2. Then, go over each maneuver that is to be performed during the lesson and answer any
questions.
a. During this part of the preflight briefing, you will discover how much your student
prepared for the lesson.
b. You can then tailor the rest of the briefing based on your assessment of the student’s
preparation.

D. After the flight, sit down with your student for a postflight briefing.
1. Begin by asking your student to critique his/her performance, and follow with your own
critique.
2. Answer any questions your student may have.
3. Preview the next lesson with your student, and assign work to be done in preparation for the
lesson.

II. Flight Maneuver Analysis Sheet (FMAS)

A. We have developed a method of analyzing and studying flight maneuvers that incorporates
10 variables:
1. Maneuver
2. Objective
3. Flight path
4. Power setting(s)
5. Altitude(s)
6. Airspeed(s)
7. Control forces
8. Time(s)
9. Traffic considerations
10. Completion standards

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
8 Lesson 9: Teaching Flight Maneuvers and Procedures

B. A copy of an FMAS (front and back) appears below for your convenience. When you reproduce
the forms for your students, photocopy them on the front and back of a single sheet of paper to
make the forms more convenient. The front side contains space for analysis of the above
variables. The back side contains space for
1. Make- and model-specific information
a. Weight
b. Airspeeds
c. Fuel
d. Center of gravity
e. Performance data
2. Flight instrument review of maneuver
a. Attitude indicator ...............................AI
b. Airspeed indicator .............................ASI
c. Turn coordinator ...............................TC
d. Heading indicator ..............................HI
e. Vertical speed indicator ....................VSI
f. Altimeter ...........................................ALT
3. Common errors

C. A major benefit of the FMAS is preflight lesson preparation. It serves to facilitate discussion of
flight maneuvers with your student before and after each flight. The FMAS emphasizes preflight
planning, airplane make and model knowledge, flight instruments, and common errors.
1. Also, the FMAS helps you, your students, and pilots in general to focus on the operating
characteristics of the airplane, including weight and balance. Weight and balance, which
includes fuel, should be carefully reviewed prior to each flight.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 9: Teaching Flight Maneuvers and Procedures 9

CFI
Student

GLEIM’S Date

FLIGHT MANEUVER ANALYSIS SHEET

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
10 Lesson 9: Teaching Flight Maneuvers and Procedures

1. MANEUVER
2. OBJECTIVES/PURPOSE

3. FLIGHT PATH (visual maneuvers)

4.
POWER SETTINGS 5. ALT 6. A/S

MP RPM SEGMENT OF MANEUVER

a.
b.
c.
Pencil in expected indication on each of 6 flight instruments on reverse side.

7. CONTROL FORCES

a.

b.

c.

8. TIME(S), TIMING

9.
TRAFFIC CONSIDERATIONS CLEARING TURNS REQUIRED

10. COMPLETION STANDARDS/ATC CONSIDERATIONS

© Gleim Publications, Inc., 1995-2003. Permission granted to reproduce for personal use.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 9: Teaching Flight Maneuvers and Procedures 11

AIRPLANE MAKE/MODEL

WEIGHT AIRSPEEDS

Gross VSO
Empty VS1
ASI AI ALT
Pilot/Pasngrs VX
Baggage VY
Fuel (gal x 6) VA
VNO TC HI VSI
CENTER OF GRAVITY VNE
Fore Limit VFE
PRIMARY vs. SUPPORTING INSTRUMENTS
Aft Limit VLO
(IFR maneuvers) -- instruments: AI, ASI, ALT, TC,
Current CG VR HI, VSI, RPM and/or MP
(most relevant to instrument instruction)

FUEL PITCH BANK POWER

ENTRY
Capacity
L gal R gal primary
supporting
Current Estimate
L gal R gal ESTABLISHED
primary
Endurance supporting

Fuel-Flow -- Cruise (GPH)

PERFORMANCE DATA

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
12 Lesson 9: Teaching Flight Maneuvers and Procedures

Airspeed Power*
MP RPM
Takeoff Rotation

Climbout

Cruise Climb

Cruise Level

Cruise Descent

Approach**

Approach to Land (Visual)

Landing Flare

* If you do not have a constant-speed propeller, ignore manifold pressure (MP).

**Approach speed is for holding and performing instrument approaches.

COMMON ERRORS

© Gleim Publications, Inc., 1995-2003. Permission granted to reproduce for personal use.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 9: Teaching Flight Maneuvers and Procedures 13

III. Flight Training

A. After you complete your preflight briefing, including a review and critique of your student’s FMAS,
you should move out to the airplane and observe your student performing the preflight inspection,
engine start, taxi, etc. Critique his/her performance, including flight maneuvers on the way to your
practice area.
1. For example, if you observe poor radio technique or inadequate attention to traffic, explain
both the deficiency and corrective action.
2. Vary takeoffs and landings (normal, soft-field, short-field) and other maneuvers as a
cumulative review process throughout the curriculum; e.g., do S-turns across a road after
execution of a surprise emergency approach and landing.
B. As you approach the practice area, implement the telling-and-doing technique of flight
instruction. It is similar to the demonstration/performance method of teaching and is also used for
ground instruction. The telling-and-doing technique is very effective in teaching skills.
1. Instructor tells, instructor does. This is a continuation of preparing your student to
practice the maneuver, which began during the preflight discussion. It is important that
your demonstration conform to the explanation as closely as possible. If a deviation
occurs, you should point it out and immediately explain why it occurred.
2. Student tells, instructor does. This step assures you that the explanation and
demonstration have been adequate and are thoroughly understood by the student. This is
a transition to the next step. Frequently this step is changed to instructor tells, student
does, which may fit the learning/teaching style of the student/instructor.
3. Student tells, student does. This step is where learning takes place and where
performance habits are formed. You must be alert during this step to detect any errors in
technique and to prevent the formation of bad habits.
4. Student does, instructor evaluates. During this step, you review what has been covered
during the flight and determine to what extent your student has met the objectives outlined
during the preflight discussion.
C. During the first step (instructor tells, instructor does) and second step (student tells, instructor
does), you will demonstrate one complete circuit of the maneuver that you are introducing to your
student.
1. Point out the pattern that (s)he is supposed to fly, noting the visual references to be used.
a. As you correct for any wind, mention the wind direction and how you are correcting for
this condition.
b. Keep your explanation simple and to the point.
2. This step is a transition from the preflight discussion to your student’s actual performance of
the maneuver.
D. During the third step (student tells, student does), you should instruct and correct your student’s
errors as each part of the maneuver is being performed.
1. During this step, you will concentrate on specific items as they are encountered (e.g., wind
drift correction errors).
E. The fourth step (student does, instructor evaluates) is when you take an overall look at your
student’s performance of the maneuver.
1. Your student may have a specific problem (e.g., altitude control) which prevents him/her
from seeing the whole maneuver.
a. While concentrating to maintain altitude, (s)he fails to plan for the next part of the
maneuver.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 14 Lesson 9: Teaching Flight Maneuvers and Procedures

2. You should redirect your student to the basic elements of the maneuver, i.e., planning,
orientation, and airplane control.
3. Stress that all of the parts are required to complete the maneuver successfully.
F. Note that in the demonstration/performance method of instruction, student performance and
instructor supervision of a maneuver are performed concurrently.
1. Again, the telling-and-doing technique of flight instruction is a variation on the
demonstration/performance method.
G. Note that each maneuver should be taught based on both outside visual references and reference
to flight instruments. This is known as integrated flight instruction.

9.4 OPERATIONS AT AIRPORTS WITHOUT OPERATING CONTROL TOWERS

I. General Operating Practices
A. The use of standard traffic patterns and the use of common traffic advisory frequency (CTAF)
procedures (by radio-equipped aircraft) are recommended at all airports without operating control
towers.
1. Instruct your students in the proper use of self-announce procedures when operating at an
airport without an operating control tower. Generally, where there is no tower, FSS, or
UNICOM CTAFs in operation on the airport, use of the MULTICOM frequency 122.9 is
recommended for self-announce procedures. Such airports will be identified in appropriate
aeronautical information publications (i.e., A/FD).
B. Teach your students that, as part of their preflight familiarization with all available information
concerning a flight, they should review all appropriate publications (A/FD, AIM, NOTAM, etc.) for
pertinent information about current traffic patterns at the departure and arrival airports.
1. It is recommended that pilots also use visual indicators, such as the segmented circle, wind
direction indicator, landing direction indicator, and traffic pattern indicators, to determine or
verify traffic pattern information.
C. Explain that the FAA encourages (but does not require) pilots to use a standard traffic pattern.
1. Point out that other traffic patterns may already be in common use at some airports, or that
special circumstances or conditions may exist that prevent the use of a standard traffic
pattern.
a. For example, pilots inbound on an instrument approach procedure or performing
straight-in VFR approaches will not adhere to a standard “downwind, base, and final”
type of pattern.
2. Accordingly, pilots must remain alert for traffic that is not established in a leg of a standard
traffic pattern.
a. The use of any traffic pattern procedure does not alter the responsibility of each pilot to
see and avoid other aircraft.
b. Emphasize to your students that they should be alert at all times for aircraft executing
straight-in approaches.

D. Explain that pilots of inbound non-radio-equipped aircraft will determine the runway in use by
observing the landing direction indicator or by other means.
1. Impress upon your students that procedures at airports without operating control towers do
not require the use of two-way radios; therefore, they must be especially vigilant for other
aircraft while operating in the traffic pattern.
E. If you wish to conduct practice instrument approaches with a student, you must be particularly alert

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 9: Teaching Flight Maneuvers and Procedures 15

for other aircraft in the pattern so as to avoid interrupting the flow of traffic.
1. Position reports on the CTAF should include your distance and direction from the airport, as
well as your intentions upon completion of the approach.

II. Recommended Standard Traffic Pattern

A. Explain that, prior to entering the traffic pattern at an airport without an operating control tower,
aircraft should avoid the flow of traffic until established on the entry leg.
1. For example, wind and landing direction indicators can be checked while at an altitude of
500 to 1,000 ft. above the traffic pattern altitude.
2. Teach your students that, when the proper traffic pattern direction has been determined,
they should then proceed to a point well clear of the pattern before descending to the
pattern altitude.

2 1
DOWNWIND CROSS-
WIND

UPWIND
5 6
3 RUNWAY 4 6
FINAL LANDING RUNWAY
(OR LANDING STRIP)
INDICATORS

TRAFFIC
PATTERN WIND CONE
INDICATORS
LANDING
DIRECTION
INDICATOR

Key:
1. Enter pattern in level flight, abeam the midpoint of the runway, at pattern altitude, or as directed by ATC.
2. Maintain pattern altitude until abeam approach end of the landing runway on the downwind leg.
3. Complete the turn to final at least 1/4 mile from the runway.
4. Continue straight ahead until beyond departure end of runway.
5. If remaining in the traffic pattern, commence turn to crosswind leg beyond the departure end of the
runway, within 300 feet of pattern altitude. Figure9_4
6. If departing the traffic pattern, continue straight out, or exit with a 45˚ left turn (right turn for right
Airport Traffic
traffic pattern) beyond the departure end of the runway, after reaching pattern altitude.
Pattern

B. Emphasize that arriving aircraft should be at the appropriate traffic pattern altitude before entering
the traffic pattern.
1. Explain that descending into the traffic pattern greatly increases the chances of a midair
collision in which the descending airplane descends into another airplane already
established in the traffic pattern.
a. This scenario is especially likely when the descending airplane is of the low-wing type
and the airplane in the pattern is of the high-wing type.

C. Teach your students that entry to the downwind leg should be made at a 45° angle, abeam the
midpoint of the runway.
1. Explain that one method to enter the traffic pattern at an airport without an operating control
tower is to fly in the landing direction parallel to, and slightly to one side of, the runway at
© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
16 Lesson 9: Teaching Flight Maneuvers and Procedures

an altitude 500 to 1000 ft. above the traffic pattern altitude.

a. Once the airplane is about 15 sec. past the departure end of the runway, a 45° turn
should be made in the same direction as the traffic pattern direction (i.e., turn left if
the runway is using left traffic; turn right if the runway is using right traffic).
b. This heading should be maintained for approximately 1 min.; then a descent to traffic
pattern altitude and a 180° turn in the direction of the traffic pattern should be
simultaneously begun.
c. At the completion of the 180° turn, the airplane should be at the traffic pattern altitude
and established on the 45° entry leg to the downwind.
Key:
1. Overfly the airport at 500 - 1000ft above the traffic pattern altitude to check wind sock and runway indicators.

Figure9_5
270 Degree Traffic
Pattern Entry

D. Explain that the recommended traffic pattern altitude for airplanes is 1000-ft. above ground level
(AGL).
1. However, large and turbine-powered airplanes should enter the traffic pattern at an altitude
of 1,500 ft. AGL or 500 ft. above the established pattern altitude.
2. Tell your students that pilots may vary the size of the traffic pattern depending on their
aircraft’s performance characteristics.
a. Help your students find a reference on the airframe that can be used to help establish
the appropriate distance from the runway while on the downwind leg.
i. EXAMPLE: On many airplanes, the airplane is a good distance from the runway
on downwind when the runway appears approximately halfway down the wing
on the pilot’s side.

E. Teach your students to maintain the traffic pattern altitude until the aircraft is at least abeam the
approach end of the landing runway on the downwind leg.
1. The base leg turn should then commence when the aircraft is at a point approximately
45 degrees relative bearing from the runway threshold.
2. On many small training airplanes, this is the point when the touchdown area (i.e., the
numbers) appears to be approximately halfway between the wing and the tail.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 9: Teaching Flight Maneuvers and Procedures 17

F. Emphasize that landing and takeoff should be accomplished on the operating runway that is most
nearly aligned into the wind.
1. Explain that, if a secondary runway is also being used, pilots using that runway are expected
to avoid the flow of traffic to the primary runway.
2. However, this fact does not relieve pilots using the primary runway of the responsibility of
looking for traffic.
G. Teach your students that, after takeoff, they should continue straight ahead until the airplane is
beyond the departure end of the runway.
1. Additionally, when executing a go-around maneuver, teach your students to continue
straight ahead, beyond the departure end of the runway, while maintaining awareness of
other traffic, so as not to conflict with aircraft established in the pattern.
a. Point out that, in cases in which a go-around was caused by an aircraft on the runway,
your student may be required to maneuver parallel to the runway in order to maintain
visual contact with the conflicting aircraft.
b. Explain that this procedure is necessary only to maintain visual contact with a
conflicting aircraft, however, and should not necessarily be a part of every
go-around.

H. Explain that the FAA recommends that a pilot remaining in the traffic pattern should not commence
a turn to the crosswind leg until beyond the departure end of the runway and within 300 ft. below
traffic pattern altitude, while ensuring that the turn to downwind leg will be made at the traffic
pattern altitude.
1. Point out, however, that factors such as marginal airplane performance, obstacles,
conflicting traffic, or nearby restricted airspace may require the turn to crosswind to occur at
a lower altitude.
I. When departing the traffic pattern, teach your students to continue straight out or exit with a 45°
turn in the direction of the traffic pattern.
1. This turn should commence only when the airplane is beyond the departure end of the
runway, and after reaching pattern altitude.
2. Remind your students that they need to be aware of any traffic entering the traffic pattern
before commencing the turn.
J. Though a moot point for most training aircraft, explain that airplanes should not be operated in the
traffic pattern at an indicated airspeed of more than 200 kt.
K. Teach your students that, throughout the traffic pattern, right-of-way rules apply as stated in 14
CFR Part 91.113.
1. Any aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other aircraft.
2. When converging aircraft are of different categories, a balloon has the right-of-way over any
other category of aircraft.
3. A glider has the right-of-way over an airship, airplane, or rotorcraft.
4. An airship has the right-of-way over an airplane or rotorcraft.
5. An airplane has the right-of-way over a rotorcraft.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 1

GLEIM FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR REFRESHER COURSE

LESSON 10
FLIGHT SAFETY
10.1 ANALYSIS OF ACCIDENTS AND INCIDENTS
I. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) Definitions
A. Explain to your students that an aircraft accident is an occurrence associated with the operation
of an aircraft that takes place between the time any person boards an aircraft with the intention of
flight and the time all such persons have disembarked, and in which one of the following results:
1. Any person suffers death or serious injury.
2. The aircraft sustains substantial damage.
B. A serious injury is any injury that
1. Requires hospitalization for more than 48 hr., commencing within 7 days from the date the
injury was sustained;
2. Results in a fracture of any bone (except simple fractures of fingers, toes, or nose);
3. Causes severe hemorrhages or nerve, muscle, or tendon damage;
4. Involves injury to any internal organ; or
5. Involves second- or third-degree burns, or any burns affecting more than 5% of the body
surface.
C. Substantial damage is damage or failure that adversely affects the structural strength,
performance, or flight characteristics of the aircraft and that would normally require major repair or
replacement of the affected component.
1. Engine failure; damage limited to an engine; bent fairings or cowling; dented skin; small
punctured holes in the skin or fabric; ground damage to rotor or propeller blades; damage
to landing gear, wheels, tires, flaps, engine accessories, brakes, or wingtips are not
considered “substantial damage.”
D. An incident is an occurrence, other than an accident, associated with the operation of an aircraft
that affects or could affect the safety of operations.

II. The NTSB is an independent Federal agency charged by Congress with the task of investigating
every civil aviation accident in the United States and significant accidents in the other modes of
transportation – railroad, highway, marine and pipeline – and issuing safety recommendations
aimed at preventing future accidents. The NTSB does not produce or enforce legislation in any
form.
A. The NTSB determines the probable cause of all U.S. civil aviation accidents and publishes detailed
accident reports outlining its findings.
B. There are two types of NTSB accident reports:
1. Preliminary reports are issued following a preliminary investigation of an accident, but
before any final conclusions are made.
a. These reports consist of a description of the observed events of the accident and a
summary of all known information regarding the accident (e.g., reported weather
conditions, excerpts of radio transmissions, etc.).
i. They do not list a probable cause for the accident.
b. Information contained in preliminary reports may be in error and is subject to change.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
2 Lesson 10: Flight Safety

2. Final reports are issued following the NTSB’s full investigation and determination of a
probable cause for the accident. Final reports can be subdivided into 2 types based on the
nature of the accident:
a. Reports for accidents that did not result in fatalities consist of a summary of the events
of the accident and all relevant information, followed by the NTSB’s determination of
the probable cause of the accident.
b. Reports for accidents that resulted in fatalities are considerably more extensive than
reports for non-fatal accidents. They typically consist of several sections, including
the following:
i. History of the Flight: This section outlines the circumstances of the flight,
including the reasons the flight was being conducted, the applicable
regulations.
ii. Personnel/Pilot Information: This section provides background information
about the flight crew and any relevant passengers, including certificates and
ratings held, flight experience, character descriptions, etc.
iii. Aircraft Information: This section describes the accident aircraft, including
airframe and engine times, maintenance history, typical types of operations,
etc.
iv. Meteorological Information: This section describes the reported and forecast
weather conditions at the time of the accident, including wind velocity, ceilings,
visibility, relevant pilot reports, etc.
v. Wreckage and Impact Information: This section describes the condition and
location of any aircraft wreckage associated with the accident, including
whether the engine(s) were developing power at the time of impact, any
instrument indications that can be determined, any engine or flight control
positions that can be determined, whether damage to significant aircraft
components occurred before or after impact, etc.
vi. Medical and Pathological Information: This section describes the
physiological condition of the crew and any relevant passengers, including the
presence of drugs or alcohol in the blood, relevant past medical history, official
cause(s) of death, etc.
vii. Additional Information: This section contains any other information relevant to
the accident.
viii. Probable Cause: This section explains the probable cause determined by the
NTSB, including any actions recommended to prevent future accidents of the
same type.
o This section sometimes also lists any contributing factors to the accident
which, while not considered to be direct causes, increased the likelihood
of the accident’s occurrence.

C. The NTSB web site includes a database of accident reports that have been produced since the
agency’s formation, available at www.ntsb.gov/ntsb/query.asp
1. As a flight instructor, you may wish to use this searchable database to find and analyze
relevant aircraft accidents with your students at certain key points in their training.
a. EXAMPLE: When teaching a student pilot flight by reference to instruments and
recovery from unusual attitudes, find and analyze several accident reports involving
spatial disorientation and continued VFR flight into IMC in order to underscore the
importance of being able to control the airplane by reference to instruments in an
emergency.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 10: Flight Safety 3

2. The web site presents each accident report first as a synopsis of the full report, including the
probable cause of the accident if the report is a final report.
a. For more detail about the accident, click on the “narrative” link at the bottom of the
synopsis to see the full report.

10.2 FLIGHT SAFETY PUBLICATIONS

I. The majority of aviation magazines contain a column that highlights an NTSB accident/incident
report, with an analysis of what to learn from the mishap. Many magazines also regularly feature
an account of an accident or near-accident that is submitted by a reader who describes his/her
personal experiences.
A. These articles often provide more analysis of an accident than a typical NTSB report, and they
may be better organized for the purpose of clearly explaining the events of the accident and
making key points about its cause.
1. The reader-submitted accounts of their own experiences are also beneficial because they
often reveal, in the pilot’s own words, the thought process that accompanied the chain of
decisions that culminated in the accident.
2. Such articles often illustrate points about aeronautical decision making very well because it
is possible to see theoretical concepts, such as operational pitfalls or a poor judgment
chain, played out in reality.
B. As an instructor, you may find it helpful to save relevant articles and provide them to your students
at key points in their training.
1. EXAMPLE: An article that discusses a controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) accident might be
appropriate for an instrument student who is beginning the cross-country portion of his/her
flight training.

II. The FAA’s National Aviation Safety Data Analysis Center (NASDAC) has a web page that contains
NTSB and FAA accident/incident databases with excellent search devices. The address
ishttp://nasdac.faa.gov/
A. The following searchable databases that may be useful to you as a CFI are available:
1. Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS): The Aviation Safety Reporting System
(ASRS) receives, processes, and analyzes reports of unsafe occurrences and hazardous
situations that are voluntarily submitted by pilots, air traffic controllers, and others.
a. Information collected by the ASRS is used to identify hazards and safety discrepancies
in the National Airspace System. It is also used to formulate policy and to strengthen
the foundation of aviation human factors safety research.
2. Near Midair Collision System (NMACS): The Near Midair Collision System (NMACS)
database is used to record reports of in-flight incidents where two aircraft have closed to an
unsafe distance, but avoided an actual collision.
3. FAA Accident/Incident Data System (AIDS): The Accident/Incident Data System (AIDS)
database contains data records for general aviation and commercial air carrier incidents
since 1978.
a. The NASDAC database for AIDS contains incidents only because NASDAC uses the
NTSB accident database as the primary source for accident information.
4. NTSB Aviation Accident and Incident Data System (NTSB): The NTSB Aviation
Accident and Incident Data System contains preliminary and final NTSB accident and
incident reports.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 4 Lesson 10: Flight Safety

5. NTSB Safety Recommendations to the FAA with FAA Responses: The NTSB uses the
information it gathers during accident investigations and the determination of probable
cause to make safety recommendations to all elements of the transportation industry.
a. While the recipient of a recommendation does not have to implement the proposed
action, it does have to respond formally to the recommendation and specify what
action is or is not being taken and why.
b. This database contains the NTSB recommendations to the FAA and the FAA’s
responses.
6. World Aircraft Accident Summary (WAAS): The World Aircraft Accident Summary
(WAAS) provides brief details of all known major operational accidents to jet and turboprop
aircraft, helicopters, and the larger piston-engine types worldwide.
B. Most of these databases have a feature that allows you to search for information based on the
airport at which the events took place.
1. You may wish to use these databases to find relevant occurrences that took place at your
airport in order to point out potential local safety hazards to your students.

III. The Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS), mentioned in item B.1.a. above, also has its own
web page. The address ishttp://asrs.arc.nasa.gov/
A. This page contains a searchable database of ASRS reports (similar to that described in item
B.1.a.above), instructions about how to submit a report, and valuable information about the FAA’s
policy regarding immunity for pilots who submit ASRS reports.
B. Encourage your students to consider submitting an ASRS report if they are ever involved in an
unsafe situation, such as a near-midair-collision or a runway incursion.
1. Remind them that submitting an ASRS report may provide them with limited immunity from
an enforcement action that could otherwise result from the unsafe situation.
2. Point out also that, by submitting an ASRS report, your student will provide other pilots with
an opportunity to learn from his/her mistakes.
C. As a flight instructor, you are exposed to the flight training environment on a regular basis. You
must remember that your risk of being involved in an unsafe situation increases proportionally to
your exposure to the flight environment.
1. As such, you should also consider filing an ASRS report any time you inadvertently allow an
unsafe situation to develop during a training flight.
2. By identifying and reporting the circumstances that led to the unsafe condition, you may be
able to help other instructors avoid a similar situation.

10.3 STALL AND SPIN AWARENESS

I. Ground Training
A. When teaching stall and spin awareness, you should ensure that your student understands some
basic concepts. These include
1. The definitions of a stall and a spin, including the aerodynamic requirements for each to
occur.
a. Remind your students that, for a stall to occur, the critical angle of attack must be
exceeded. For a spin to occur, the airplane must first be stalled; then it must be
allowed to yaw.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 10: Flight Safety 5

2. Aerodynamics related to stalls and spins.

3. The factors affecting stall speed.
B. These topics were discussed in detail in Lesson 1, Teaching Aerodynamics.

II. Flight Training -- Stalls

A. As a flight instructor, you are required to give stall training. You should emphasize to your
students that the techniques and procedures required to perform stalls in any given aircraft may
differ, and that your students must be aware of the flight characteristics of each aircraft flown.
1. The most effective method of introducing stalls is through the simulation of scenarios that
can lead to inadvertent stalls in actual flight.
a. EXAMPLE: Introduce the concept of a power-off stall by simulating an approach to
landing (at a safe altitude) in which the airplane is gradually configured for landing
while descending through a simulated traffic pattern.
i. Explain to your student that you are simulating an attempt to “stretch the glide”
to the runway without adding power; then stall the airplane and recover after
turning final.
ii. Before beginning the demonstration, choose a predetermined altitude to
represent ground level. Be sure to stall the airplane sufficiently above this
predetermined altitude to allow room for a full recovery before reaching the
“ground.”

2. You should perform stall demonstrations and practice, including slow flight and other
maneuvers incorporating distractions that can lead to inadvertent stalls, at a sufficient
altitude to enable recovery above 1,500 ft. AGL in single-engine airplanes and 3,000 ft.
AGL in multiengine airplanes.
a. Ensure that your students are aware of these minimum altitudes before allowing them
to practice stalls in solo flight.
3. Single-engine stalls should not be demonstrated or practiced in multiengine airplanes.
a. Additionally, engine-out minimum control airspeed demonstrations in multiengine
airplanes should not be attempted when the density altitude and temperature are
such that the engine-out minimum control airspeed is close to the stall speed (i.e., at
the critical density altitude), since loss of directional control could result.

B. Stall avoidance practice at slow airspeeds

1. The main purpose of practicing slow flight is to enable students to become familiar with the
control techniques appropriate for low airspeeds, and the rapidity with which control
effectiveness (and thus, aircraft control) can be lost.
a. When teaching slow flight, you should cover two distinct situations. They are
i. The establishment and maintenance of airspeeds appropriate for approaches to
a landing.
ii. Turning flight at the slowest airspeed at which the particular airplane is capable
of continued controlled flight without stalling.

2. Emphasize to your students that improper airspeed management which results in a stall is
most likely to occur when they are distracted by one or more other tasks.
a. Pilots at all skill levels must be aware of the increased risk of entering an inadvertent
stall while performing tasks that are secondary to controlling the airplane.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
6 Lesson 10: Flight Safety

3. Stall awareness (and thus, avoidance) is best-promoted by creating distractions while the
student is practicing certain maneuvers during which the likelihood of an inadvertent stall is
increased. The student will learn to detect the signs of an impending stall and quickly apply
the appropriate correction in order to avoid a stall.
a. Have your student divide his/her attention between completing an assigned task (i.e.,
a distraction) and flying the airplane at a low airspeed while maintaining control and
avoiding a stall. The following distractions can be used:
i. Drop a pencil and ask your student to pick it up.
ii. Ask your student to determine a heading to an airport using a chart.
iii. Have your student reset the heading indicator.
iv. Ask your student to read the outside air temperature.
v. Ask your student to identify terrain or objects on the ground.
vi. Have your student climb 200 ft. and maintain altitude, then descend 200 ft. and
maintain altitude.
vii. While flying at a low airspeed, cover the airspeed indicator while having your
student use various flap settings and assigning various tasks (distractions).

C. Stall recognition
1. Teach your students that there are several ways to recognize that a stall is impending before
it actually occurs. When one or more of these indications are noted, initiation of a recovery
should be instinctive.
a. Explain that vision is useful in detecting a stall condition by noting the attitude of the
airplane and the airspeed approaching stall speed. Emphasize, however, that this
sense can be fully relied on only when the stall is the result of an intentional unusual
attitude of the airplane.
b. Hearing is also helpful in sensing a stall condition, since the tone level and intensity of
sounds incidental to flight decrease as the airspeed decreases.
c. Kinesthesia, or the mind’s sensing of changes in direction, speed, or motion, is
probably the most important and the best indicator of an approaching stall to the
trained and experienced pilot. Explain that, if this sensitivity is properly developed, it
will warn of a decrease in speed or the beginning of a settling or “mushing” of the
airplane.
d. Emphasize that the feeling of control pressures is also very important. As speed is
reduced, the “live” resistance to pressures on the controls becomes progressively
less.
i. The airplane controls become less and less effective as one approaches the
critical angle of attack.
ii. Point out that, in a complete stall, all controls can be moved with almost no
resistance and with little immediate effect on the airplane.
e. Remind your students that many airplanes are equipped with stall warning devices
(e.g., a horn) to alert the pilot when the airflow over the wing(s) approaches a point
that will not allow lift to be sustained.
i. Stress, however, that pilots should not place total reliance on a stall warning
device for stall avoidance.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 10: Flight Safety 7

2. Impress upon your students that it is vital for them to maintain positive control of the airplane
at all times in the following ways:
a. Knowing the airplane.
i. Your students should have an intimate familiarity with the pitch attitudes, power
settings, and flap configurations appropriate to various phases of flight.
o As their flight instructor, it is your job to help them attain this level of
familiarity.
ii. Your students should also be aware of the sights and sounds that are indicative
of even the slightest changes of pitch, bank, and yaw.
b. Flying the airplane in trim. Emphasize that a trimmed airplane can (and should) be
flown “hands-off” (i.e., without the need to hold any constant control pressure) so that
it remains stable at times when other tasks prevent the pilot from devoting total
attention to flying the airplane.

D. Stall recovery
1. First and foremost, impress upon your students that the key factor in recovering from a stall
is regaining positive control of the airplane by reducing the angle of attack.
a. Since the basic cause of a stall is always an excessive angle of attack, the cause must
be eliminated by releasing the back elevator pressure that was necessary to attain
that angle of attack, or by moving the elevator control forward.
2. Second, have your students promptly and smoothly apply maximum allowable power to
increase airspeed and to minimize the loss of altitude.
a. Remind them that the carburetor heat must be turned off in order to obtain maximum
power.
3. Third, teach your students to establish straight-and-level flight (or possibly climbing flight)
with coordinated use of the controls.
a. At this time, the wings should be leveled, if they were previously banked.
b. Emphasize to your students that the ailerons should only be used in conjunction with
coordinated rudder input, and only after the angle of attack has been reduced.
i. Explain that the adverse yaw caused by the downward-deflected aileron, if not
counteracted with rudder input, can place the airplane in uncoordinated flight.
o This could induce a spin if the airplane is still in a stalled condition.
ii. Thus, the primary control input to raise a lowered wing should be made with
rudder.

E. Power-off stalls
1. Inform your students that power-off stalls are practiced to simulate inadvertent stalls entered
during normal approach-to-landing conditions and configurations.
a. Many stall/spin accidents have occurred in these power-off situations, such as
i. Crossed-control turns from base leg to final
ii. Attempting to recover from a high sink rate on final approach by using only an
increased pitch attitude
iii. Improper airspeed control on final or in other segments of the traffic pattern
b. When introducing power-off stalls to your students, use a simulation of one or more of
the above situations to illustrate how inadvertent power-off stalls can occur and to
help your students understand why power-off stalls must be practiced.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
8 Lesson 10: Flight Safety

F. Power-on stalls
1. Inform your students that power-on stalls are practiced to simulate takeoff and climb-out
conditions and configurations.
a. Many stall/spin accidents have occurred during those phases of flight, especially
during go-arounds.
i. A causal factor in go-around accidents has been the pilot’s failure to maintain
positive control due to a nose-high trim setting or premature flap extraction.
ii. Failure to maintain positive control during short-field takeoffs has also been an
accident causal factor.
b. When introducing power-on stalls to your students, use a simulation of one or more of
the above situations to illustrate how inadvertent power-on stalls can occur and to
help your students understand why power-on stalls must be practiced.

G. Crossed-control stalls in gliding turns

1. You should demonstrate crossed-control stalls in gliding turns to simulate improper control
technique during the turn from base to final.
a. Perform the stalls from a properly coordinated turn, a slipping turn, and a skidding
turn.
2. Explain that the object of a crossed-control stall demonstration is to show the effect of
improper control technique and emphasize the importance of coordinated control when
making a turn.
a. You should allow your students to perform crossed-control stalls during dual
instruction if they are so inclined, but emphasize that these stalls should NOT be
performed during solo flight.
i. Crossed-control stalls can be unpredictable and, when performed correctly,
usually result in an incipient spin.
b. Point out that crossed-control stalls are used for demonstration purposes only and do
not need to be performed on a private pilot or commercial pilot practical test.
i. Thus, they do not need to be practiced to the same level of proficiency as
normal power-off and power-on stalls.

H. Stalls during go-arounds

1. Explain to your students that inadvertent stalls frequently occur during go-arounds as the
pilot attempts to transition rapidly from a descent into an immediate climb.
a. Often, the result is poor attitude control, poor coordination, and improper
reconfiguration of the airplane (i.e., failure to retract the gear and flaps at the proper
time).
2. Demonstrate how an inadvertent stall can occur due to improper go-around procedures.
a. Have your students perform a full-flap, gear-extended, power-off stall and recovery,
but have them attempt to climb with full flaps.
i. In most airplanes, if a normal climb pitch attitude is held with full flaps, a
secondary stall will occur.
b. Have your student perform a full-flap, gear-extended, power-off stall and recovery, but
have them retract the flaps rapidly while holding a higher-than-normal-climb pitch
attitude.
i. A secondary stall or settling with a loss of altitude should result.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 10: Flight Safety 9

I. Elevator trim stall

1. Emphasize to your students that elevator trim tabs are extremely powerful devices.
a. Many airplanes can be induced to stall with NO elevator back pressure whatsoever if
they are trimmed full-nose-up and full power is applied.
i. The situation is often aggravated when flaps are extended.
b. Point out that, during an approach to landing, the airplane normally has a lot of
nose-up trim due to the reduced airspeed, and the flaps are normally extended.
i. If the pilot does not maintain positive control of the pitch attitude by applying
necessary control pressure when power is added during a go-around, the
combination of nose-up trim, flaps, and the addition of power can result in a
violent pitch-up of the nose and an inadvertent stall.

2. Demonstrate elevator trim stalls to your students as follows:

a. Have your students place the airplane in the landing configuration, in a trimmed
descent.
b. After the descent is established, take the controls and initiate a go-around by adding
full power, holding no elevator pressure and only light rudder pressure.
c. Allow the nose to pitch up and torque to yaw the airplane to the left.
i. At the first indication of a stall, recover to a normal climbing pitch attitude by
using positive forward pressure on the yoke.
d. Emphasize the importance of correct attitude control, application of control pressures,
and proper trim during go-arounds.
3. You should allow your students to perform elevator trim stalls during dual instruction if they
are so inclined, but emphasize that these stalls should NOT be performed during solo
flight.
J. Engine failure in a climb followed by a simulated gliding turn to return to an airport
1. Your students need to be aware that attempting to return to the departure runway after an
engine failure shortly after takeoff is extremely hazardous.
a. Explain that the combination of low altitude, low airspeed, nose-high pitch attitude, and
increased stall speed in a turn all contribute to the likelihood of a stall/spin accident.
i. Even if the airplane does not stall, it may contact the ground in a wing-low
attitude, resulting in a cartwheel that would be catastrophic for the airplane and
its occupants.
b. Emphasize to your students that they should attempt to find a suitable landing area
somewhere ahead of the airplane, and try to minimize the amount of turning
required.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
10 Lesson 10: Flight Safety

2. To make this point, you should demonstrate to your students how much altitude the airplane
loses following a power failure after takeoff and during a 270° turn back to the airport.
a. 270° of turn was chosen because the airplane must turn more than 180° to return to
the runway, but less than 360° (see figure below).

45°

45°

Power 180°
Loss

Figure10_1
270 Degree Emergency Landing Turn

3. This maneuver should be performed using medium-to-steep bank, with the emphasis on stall
avoidance.
a. Establish the best rate of climb airspeed (VY).
b. Reduce power smoothly to idle as the airplane passes through a cardinal altitude.
c. Lower the nose to maintain the best glide airspeed, and make a 270° turn while
maintaining airspeed.
d. Point out the altitude loss, and emphasize how rapidly airspeed decreases following a
power failure in a climb attitude.
4. Teach your students to add a reasonable buffer (perhaps 200 ft.) to the amount of altitude
lost in the turn, and then add that number to the airport elevation to determine the
MINIMUM indicated altitude at which a turn back to the airport should be attempted.
a. EXAMPLE: If a given airplane loses 600 ft. in a 270° power-off gliding turn and the
airport elevation is 100 ft., a turn back to the airport should be attempted no lower
than an indicated altitude of 900 ft. (600 ft. altitude loss + 100 ft. airport elevation +
200 ft. buffer = 900 ft. MSL minimum altitude)
b. Explain that the best ratio of rate-of-turn to altitude loss will be obtained in a
medium-to-steep bank (about 35-45°)
c. Advise your students to make their turn into the wind if a crosswind is present in order
to minimize the gliding distance required.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 10: Flight Safety 11

III. Flight Training -- Spins

A. Spin training is required for flight instructor–airplane and flight instructor–glider applicants only.
1. However, at your and your student’s discretion, you may wish to provide spin training to
private or commercial pilot applicants in an approved airplane.
2. Regardless of the grade of certificate sought, the emphasis of spin training with all pilots
(with the possible exception of an aerobatic course) should be placed on spin avoidance.
B. Spin training must be accomplished in an airplane approved for spins.
1. Before practicing intentional spins, you and your students should review the recommended
entry and recovery procedures in the airplane’s POH.
2. The training should begin with the practice of both power-on and power-off stalls so that your
students can become familiar with the airplane’s stall characteristics.
a. Spin avoidance, incipient spins, and actual spin entry, spin, and spin recovery
techniques should be practiced from an altitude above 3,500 ft. AGL.

C. Incipient spins should be practiced by instructor applicants in order to train them to recover from a
student’s poorly performed stall or unusual attitude that results in a spin.
D. Spin entry, spins, and spin recovery should be demonstrated by you and repeated, in both
directions, by your student.
1. Begin with the entry procedure for a power-off stall (gear and flaps retracted, or as specified
by the manufacturer).
a. As the airplane approaches a stall, smoothly apply full rudder in the direction of
desired spin rotation, and continue to apply back elevator pressure to the limit of
travel.
b. The ailerons should be neutral.
2. Allow the spin to develop so your student can experience the sensation and sight picture,
but plan to be fully recovered no later than one full turn after entry.
a. Observe the airspeed indicator during the recovery to ensure that the airplane does
not exceed VNE.
3. Emphasize that the recovery procedure recommended by the manufacturer in the POH
should be followed.
a. However, in the absence of specific recovery techniques found in the airplane’s POH,
the following general technique is suggested for spin recovery.
i. Neutralize the ailerons.
ii. Close the throttle.
o Power aggravates the spin characteristics and causes an excessive loss
of altitude and increase in airspeed during the recovery.
iii. Apply rudder opposite the direction of rotation to slow the rotation.
iv. Apply positive forward elevator movement to break the stall.
o In some airplanes, opposite rudder and forward elevator may need to be
held for some time before the spinning stops.
o However, in many other airplanes (assuming normal trim settings), simply
relaxing the elevator back pressure will be sufficient to break the stall.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 12 Lesson 10: Flight Safety

v. Neutralize the rudder as the spin rotation stops.

o Otherwise, excessive yaw can occur in the other direction, placing great
strain on the airframe and potentially resulting in a secondary spin.
vi. Smoothly apply sufficient back pressure to return to level flight.
o Avoid excessive elevator back pressure, which could result in
over-stressing the airframe or cause a secondary stall.

10.4 TEACHING BY EXAMPLE

I. Your flying habits, as observed by students during flight instruction or when conducting other pilot
operations, have a vital impact on safety.
A. Your students use you as a role model whose flying habits they attempt to imitate, consciously or
subconsciously.
1. Thus, your advocacy and description of safety practices mean little to your students if you do
not demonstrate them consistently.
B. For this reason, you must carefully observe the safety practices that you teach to your students.
1. EXAMPLE: If your student sees you deliberately “bust minimums” during an instrument
approach, no amount of instruction on the critical importance of instrument approach
minimums will convince him/her to faithfully adhere to them during solo flight operations.

II. To maintain a professional image as a flight instructor, you must carefully observe all regulations and
recognized safety practices during all flight operations.
A.
B. In
Youother words,
cannot “practice
expect what youtopreach.”
your students “do as you say, and not as you do.”

10.5 USE OF CHECKLISTS

I. You must use, and you must instruct your students to use, the appropriate checklist for each phase
of flight while on the ground or in the air (e.g., before starting engine, climb, before landing, etc.).
II. Explain that a checklist can provide a listing of actions or confirmations. For example, your student
either turns on the fuel pump or confirms that the fuel pump is on.
III. Teach your students that all checklists should be read aloud at all times.
A. Explain that calling out each item on the checklist will force them to direct their attention to the
item.
B. Emphasize that using a checklist must not be regarded as an objective in and of itself. A checklist
is only a tool used to assist the pilot in the safe operation of the airplane—THAT is the objective.
1. Your students must understand that “going through the motions” by simply reading the
checklist aloud without actually performing or verifying the items is NOT acceptable.

IV. Impress upon your students that they must remember proper scanning vigilance and division of
attention at all times when using a checklist.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 10: Flight Safety 13

10.6 USE OF PERFORMANCE CHARTS AND GRAPHS

I. As a flight instructor, you must display sound judgment when determining whether the required
performance is within your airplane’s and your own capabilities and operating limitations.
A. Explain to your students that the performance charts, graphs, and/or tables are found in Section 5,
Performance, of the POH.
1. Emphasize that the performance data do not make any allowance for lack of pilot proficiency
or mechanical deterioration of the airplane.
2. Accordingly, pilots must approach performance figures conservatively by adding a suitable
buffer to any figures obtained from the POH.
B. Explain that performance figures are available in most POHs for all critical phases of flight,
including takeoff, climb, cruise, descent, and landing.
C. You must instruct your students in the use of performance charts and develop their judgment in
determining whether the flight can be safely conducted.

II. Determinants of Airplane Performance

A. Explain to your students that air density is perhaps the single most important factor affecting
airplane performance. The general rule is that, as air density decreases, so does airplane
performance.
1. Explain that temperature, altitude, barometric pressure, and humidity all affect air density.
The density of the air DECREASES
a. As air temperature INCREASES
b. As altitude INCREASES
c. As barometric pressure DECREASES
d. As humidity INCREASES
2. Teach your students that the engine produces power in proportion to the density of the air.
a. Thus, as air density decreases, the power output of the engine also decreases.
i. This decrease in power is true of all engines not equipped with a supercharger
or turbocharger.

3. Additionally, the propeller produces thrust in proportion to the mass of air being accelerated
through the rotating blades.
a. Thus, as air density decreases, propeller efficiency decreases.
4. The wings produce lift as a result of the air passing over and under them.
a. Thus, as air density decreases, the lift efficiency of the wings decreases.

B. Explain the effect of air density on lift and drag to your students:
1. Lift and drag vary directly with the density of the air.
a. As air density increases, lift and drag increase.
b. As air density decreases, lift and drag decrease.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 14 Lesson 10: Flight Safety

2. Air density is affected by pressure, temperature, humidity, and altitude.

a. At an altitude of 18,000 ft., the density of the air is one-half the density at sea level
(given standard conditions). If an airplane is to maintain the same lift at high
altitudes, the amount of air flowing over the wing must be the same as at lower
altitudes. Thus, the speed of the air over the wings (true airspeed) must be increased
at high altitudes.
i. Explain that this is why an airplane requires a greater takeoff distance to
become airborne at higher altitudes than with similar conditions at lower
altitudes.
ii. Point out, however, that while the airplane requires a higher true airspeed to
become airborne at high altitudes, it will become airborne at the same indicated
airspeed regardless of altitude.
b. Because air expands when heated, warm air is less dense than cool air.
i. When other conditions remain the same, an airplane will require a longer takeoff
run on a hot day than on a cool day.
c. Because water vapor weighs less than an equal amount of dry air, moist air (high
relative humidity) is less dense than dry air (low relative humidity).
i. Therefore, when other conditions remain the same, the airplane will require a
longer takeoff run on a humid day than on a dry day.
ii. Point out that this condition is compounded on a hot, humid day because the
expanded air can hold much more water vapor than on a cool day. The more
moisture in the air, the less dense the air.

3. Explain that less-dense air causes additional performance losses beyond the loss of lift.
Engine horsepower and propeller efficiency decrease because fewer air molecules are
available for combustion, resulting in a loss of power, and because the propeller blades
(which are airfoils) are less effective when air is less dense.
a. Because the propeller is not pulling with the same force and efficiency as when the air
is dense, it takes longer to obtain the necessary forward speed to produce the lift
required for takeoff.
i. Thus, the airplane requires a longer takeoff run.
ii. The rate of climb will also be lower for the same reasons.
4. Based on the above discussion, you should emphasize to your students that they should
beware of high, hot, and humid conditions, i.e., high altitudes, hot temperatures, and high
moisture content (high relative humidity).

10.7 WEIGHT AND BALANCE CONSIDERATIONS

I. Effects of Weight on Flight Performance
A. Impress upon your students that increased weight reduces the performance of their airplane in
almost every respect. The most important performance deficiencies of a heavily-loaded or
overloaded airplane are
1. Higher takeoff speed required
2. Longer takeoff run required
3. Reduced rate and angle of climb
4. Shorter range
5. Reduced cruising speed
6. Reduced maneuverability
7. Higher stalling speed
8. Higher landing speed required
9. Longer landing roll required

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 10: Flight Safety 15

II. Effects of Weight on Airplane Structure

A. Explain that an airplane is certified to be able to withstand certain total loads placed on its
structure.
1. Thus, as long as the gross weight and load factor limits are observed, the total load on the
airplane will remain within limits.
2. However, if the maximum gross weight is exceeded, load factors well within the load factor
limits can cause structural damage.
B. Remind your students that, while structural failures from overloading may be dramatic and
catastrophic, they more often affect structural components gradually, in a way that is difficult to
detect.
1. The results of habitual overloading tend to be cumulative and may result in structural failure
later during completely normal operations.
2. Overloading can also accelerate metal fatigue.

III. Effects of Balance on Flight Performance

A. Explain that the CG location affects the total load placed on the wings in flight.
B. With a forward CG, a greater downward force on the tail is required to counteract the
downward-pitching moment of the nose in order to maintain level cruising flight.
1. Thus, the total lift required from the wing is increased.
2. The wing must therefore fly at a higher angle of attack, which results in more drag and a
higher indicated stall speed.
C. With an aft CG, less downward force on the tail is required, meaning that less lift is required to be
produced by the wing.
1. Thus, the wing flies at a lower angle of attack with less drag and a higher cruise speed.
2. The reduction in wing loading causes a reduction in the stalling speed.

IV. Effects of Balance on Stability

A. Teach your students that, in general, an airplane becomes less stable and less controllable as the
CG moves aft.
1. The elevator and rudder have a shorter arm (i.e., distance) from the CG, and therefore
require greater deflection to produce the same result.
2. Recovery from a stall is more difficult because the airplane’s tendency to pitch nose-down is
reduced.
3. If the CG is moved beyond the aft limit, elevator and rudder authority may be reduced to
such an extent that stall and spin recovery can become impossible.
B. As the CG moves forward, the airplane becomes more stable and more controllable, but it also
becomes more nose-heavy.
1. If the CG is moved beyond the forward limit, the elevator may not be able to counteract the
downward pitching moment of the nose, particularly at low airspeeds, e.g., takeoff, landing,
and power-off glides.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 16 Lesson 10: Flight Safety

V. Management of Weight and Balance

A. Teach your students that all aircraft are delivered from the manufacturer with the empty weight, CG
data, and the Equipment list.
1. The equipment list is found in Section 6, Weight and Balance/Equipment List, in the POH.
a. The equipment list shows not only the equipment that is installed in the airplane but
also the weight and arm.

B. Explain that the owner is responsible to ensure that the equipment list and empty weight/CG data
are kept up-to-date.
1. Unless this is done, the pilot has no basis for performing loading/CG calculations.
C. Emphasize that there is a significant difference between the basic empty weight (BEW) and the
licensed empty weight (LEW).
1. The BEW is the weight of the standard aircraft, optional equipment, unusable fuel, and full
operating fluids, including full engine oil.
2. The LEW is the weight of the standard aircraft, optional equipment, unusable fuel, and full
operating fluids, excluding usable engine oil (older aircraft).

10.8 AVOIDING WAKE TURBULENCE

I. Wake turbulence
A. Explain that wake turbulence is a phenomenon resulting from the passage of an aircraft through
the atmosphere. Though the term includes thrust stream turbulence, jet blast, jet wash, propeller
wash, and rotor wash both on the ground and in the air, it mostly refers to turbulence created by
wingtip vortices.

Figure10_2
Wingtip Vortices

B. Wingtip Vortices. Remind your students that lift is generated by the pressure differential between
the upper and lower wing surfaces, with the lowest pressure occurring on the upper wing surface
and the highest pressure occurring on the underside of the wing.
1. Explain that this pressure differential triggers a roll-up of the airflow behind the wing,
originating at the wingtips.
a. It results in swirling air masses trailing downstream of the wingtips.
b. The airflow is outward, upward, and around each wingtip.
2. After the roll-up is completed, the wake consists of two counter rotating cylindrical vortices.
3. Teach your students that most of the energy is within a few feet of the center of each vortex,
but pilots should avoid a region within about 100 ft. of the vortex core.
4. Explain that the vortices spread outward and descend at a rate of several hundred feet per
minute behind the generating airplane.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 10: Flight Safety 17

C. Explain that the strength of an airplane’s wingtip vortices is governed by the weight, speed, and
wing shape of the generating aircraft. The angle of attack of a given wing directly affects the
strength of its vortex.
1. Point out the following relationships for a given wing in steady-state flight:
a. For any given airspeed, as weight increases, angle of attack increases.
i. A wing in the clean configuration (flaps retracted) has a greater angle of attack
than when flaps are extended.
b. As airspeed decreases, angle of attack increases.
2. Emphasize that the greatest vortex strength therefore occurs when the generating aircraft is
HEAVY, CLEAN, and SLOW, e.g., especially during takeoff.
a. Peak vortex tangential speeds exceeding 300 ft. per second have been recorded.
3. Explain that, in rare instances, a wake turbulence encounter could cause in-flight structural
damage of catastrophic proportions. However, the usual hazard is associated with induced
rolling moments that can exceed the roll-control capability of the encountering aircraft.
D. Vortex Avoidance Procedures
1. Inform your students that, under certain conditions, airport traffic controllers employ vortex
avoidance procedures for separating IFR aircraft.
a. Controllers will also provide to VFR aircraft with whom they are in communication and
which, in the controller’s opinion, may be adversely affected by wake turbulence from
a larger aircraft, the position, altitude, and direction of flight of larger aircraft followed
by the phrase, “Caution: wake turbulence.”
2. Emphasize that, regardless of whether a warning has been given, pilots are expected to
adjust their operations and flight path as necessary to preclude serious wake encounters.
3. Explain to your students that the following vortex avoidance procedures are recommended:
a. Landing behind a larger aircraft that is landing on the same runway -- Stay at or
above the larger aircraft’s final approach flight path. Note the touchdown point and
land beyond it.
b. Landing behind a larger aircraft that is landing on a parallel runway closer than
2,500 ft. to your runway-- Consider possible vortex drift to your runway. Stay at or
above the larger aircraft’s final approach path and note its touchdown point.
c. Landing behind a larger aircraft that is landing on a crossing runway -- Cross
above the larger aircraft’s flight path.
d. Landing behind a larger aircraft departing on the same runway -- Note the larger
aircraft’s rotation point. Land well prior to that rotation point.
e. Landing behind a larger aircraft departing on a crossing runway -- Note the larger
aircraft’s rotation point.
i. If the larger aircraft rotates past the intersection, continue your approach and
land prior to the intersection.
ii. If the larger aircraft rotates prior to the intersection, avoid flight below its flight
path.
o Abandon the approach unless your landing is assured well before
reaching the intersection.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
18 Lesson 10: Flight Safety

f. Departing behind a larger aircraft taking off -- Note the larger aircraft’s rotation
point and then rotate prior to that rotation point. Continue to climb above and stay
upwind of the larger aircraft’s climb path until turning clear of its wake.
i. Avoid subsequent headings that will cross below and behind a larger aircraft.
ii. Be alert for any critical takeoff situation that could lead to a vortex encounter.
g. Intersection takeoffs on the same runway-- Be alert to adjacent larger aircraft
operations, particularly upwind of your runway. If an intersection takeoff clearance is
received, avoid a subsequent heading that will cross below a larger aircraft’s path.
h. Departing or landing after a larger aircraft has executed a low approach, missed
approach, or touch-and-go landing-- Because vortices settle and move laterally
near the ground, the vortex hazard may exist along the runway and in your flight
path.
i. You should ensure that an interval of at least 2 min. has elapsed before your
takeoff or landing.
i. En route VFR-- Avoid flight below and behind a larger aircraft’s path. If you observe a
larger aircraft above and on the same track as your airplane (meeting or overtaking),
adjust your position laterally, preferably upwind.
4. Emphasize to your students that the bottom line for avoiding a wake turbulence encounter is
to stay at or above the flight path of the generating aircraft.
a. If this is not possible due to performance limitations or other restrictions, it is
necessary to pass well clear to either side of the generating aircraft’s flight path.

E. Helicopters
1. Inform your students that, in a slow hover taxi or a stationary hover near the surface, the
main helicopter rotor or rotors generate downwash which produces high-velocity outwash
vortices that extend outward to a distance approximately three times the diameter of the
rotor.
a. When this rotor downwash hits the surface, the resulting outwash vortices have
behavioral characteristics similar to wingtip vortices produced by fixed-wing aircraft.
i. However, the vortex circulation is outward, upward, around, and away from the
main rotor(s) in all directions.
ii. Emphasize that pilots of small aircraft should avoid operating within three rotor
diameters of any helicopter in a slow hover taxi or stationary hover.

2. Teach your students that, in forward flight, departing or landing helicopters produce a pair of
strong, high-speed trailing vortices similar to wingtip vortices of larger fixed-wing aircraft.
a. Emphasize to your students that they should use caution when operating behind or
crossing behind landing and departing helicopters.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 10: Flight Safety 19

F. Jet Engine Exhaust

1. Explain that, during ground operations, jet engine blast (i.e., thrust stream turbulence) can
cause damage and upsets if encountered at close range.
a. Thus, pilots must maintain adequate separation during ground operations.
b. An illustration of exhaust velocities behind a wide-body jet at takeoff power is shown
below.

G. Pilot Responsibility
1. Teach your students to use the same degree of concern in vortex visualization and
avoidance procedures as they do in collision avoidance.
a. Remind your students that wake turbulence may be encountered in flight as well as
during operation on the airport surface.
2. Emphasize to your students that, in operations conducted behind all aircraft, their
acceptance of the following instructions from ATC will be considered an acknowledgment
that they will ensure a safe takeoff and landing interval and that they also accept the
responsibility of providing their own wake turbulence separation:
a. Traffic information
b. Instructions to follow another aircraft
c. A visual approach clearance

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 20 Lesson 10: Flight Safety

10.9 POST-SEPTEMBER 11, 2001 CONSIDERATIONS

I. In the wake of the terrorist attacks that took place on September 11, 2001, U.S. pilots have found
themselves in an unusually volatile regulatory environment.
A. Since general aviation operations were allowed to resume following a total shut-down of all civil
flight operations on September 11, pilots have seen many changes in their operating
environment.
1. These changes include new and expanded Special Use Airspace areas (i.e., Restricted and
Prohibited Areas), numerous Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFRs) and other operational
limitations or requirements, which may only be in effect part- time and vaguely defined.
B. Some changes have been made with little or no advance notice as government agencies respond
to perceived security threats.
1. As a result, information regarding these changes is sometimes inaccurate or incomplete,
and pilots may receive varying interpretations of the information from different official and
non-official sources.
a. Additionally, recent modifications to airspace dimensions and classifications do not yet
appear on most aeronautical charts.
2. It is imperative that pilots speak to a preflight briefer prior to each flight and specifically
request all NOTAMs which could affect the proposed flight. Call 1-800-992-7433
(1-800-WX-BRIEF).
a. AOPA also has constant updates about regulatory changes at www.aopa.org. B.
Interception by Military or Law-Enforcement Aircraft

II. Interception by Military or Law-Enforcement Aircraft

A. Because of the rapidly-changing regulatory situation, pilots must be aware that interception by
military or law-enforcement aircraft is a possibility should they unknowingly violate restricted
airspace.
B. Accordingly, it is imperative that all pilots be familiar with the procedures to follow if they are
intercepted (see Paragraphs 5-6-2 and 5-6-4 of the Aeronautical Information Manual for more
information):
1. If you are intercepted, the intercepting aircraft will appear alongside your aircraft (usually
slightly above and to the left) and rock its wings up and down.
a. You are expected to rock your wings in response.
2. If the intercepting aircraft wants you to follow it, it will begin a slow, level turn, typically to the
left.
a. You are expected to follow the aircraft around to the desired heading.
3. If the intercepting aircraft wants you to land at an airport, it will circle the airport, lower the
landing gear, and overfly the runway in the intended direction of landing.
a. You are expected to land at the airport if you determine that it is safe to do so.
4. If the intercepting aircraft has determined that you should be allowed to continue your flight,
it will perform an abrupt break-away maneuver consisting of a climbing turn of 90 degrees
or more that does not cross your flight path.
a. You are expected to rock your wings in response.
5. If you have been intercepted while in distress, you are expected to flash all of your aircraft's
lights at irregular intervals (day or night); this signals to the intercepting aircraft that you are
in distress.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 10: Flight Safety 21

C. In addition to using the signals described above, you should squawk 7700 and attempt to establish
contact with the intercepting aircraft or with an air traffic control facility on 121.5 MHZ.
D. Finally, it is now more than ever imperative that you monitor the ATC facility in control of your
airspace in order to remain aware of any unusual developments. Establish contact with the
facility and request VFR flight following.

10.10 FAA 14 CFR PARTS 61, 63, AND 65 REGARDING AIRMAN CERTIFICATES
I. The FAA is adding a section to 14 CFR parts 61, 63, and 65 to expressly make individuals who pose
a security threat as determined by the Transportion Security Act (TSA) ineligible to hold certificates,
ratings, and authorizations issued under those parts.
A. This ineligibility means that the FAA will not issue a certificate, rating, or authorization to any
applicant who the TSA advises the FAA poses a security threat.
B. If the TSA issues an Initial Notification of Threat Assessment to an applicant, the FAA will hold the
application pending the outcome of the TSA’s final threat assessment review.
C. If the individual is issued a Final Notification of Threat Assessment, the FAA will deny an
application for any airman certificate, rating, or authorization.

II. With regard to certificates already issued, the FAA will suspend an individual’s airman certificates
after receiving the Initial Notification of Threat Assessment from the TSA.
A. Suspension is appropriate in the circumstance, because the TSA’s initial assessment that an
individual poses a security threat is still subject to review by the TSA’s Deputy Administrator.
B. If a Final Notification of Threat Assessment is issued, the FAA will revoke the certificates.
C. If an Initial Notification is withdrawn, the FAA will withdraw its certificate suspension.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 1

GLEIM FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR REFRESHER COURSE

LESSON 11
RECURRENCY AND TRANSITION TRAINING
11.1 RECURRENCY TRAINING – REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS
I. Sec. 61.56 -- Flight Review
A. As a flight instructor, you have the responsibility of conducting flight reviews for certificated pilots.
You should be aware that a flight review consists of a minimum of 1 hr. of flight training and 1 hr.
of ground training. The review must include
1. A review of the current general operating and flight rules of 14 CFR Part 91, and
2. A review of those maneuvers and procedures that, in your judgment, are necessary for the
pilot to demonstrate that (s)he is capable of safely exercising the privileges of his/her pilot
certificate.
B. Explain to your students that no pilot (other than a student pilot) may act as pilot in command of an
aircraft unless, within the preceding 24 calendar months, that pilot has
1. Accomplished a flight review given by a CFI or other person designated by the FAA in an
aircraft for which that pilot is rated, and
2. Received a logbook endorsement from the person who gave the review certifying that the
review has been completed satisfactorily.
C. However, remind your students that a flight review is not required if, within the preceding 24
calendar months, a pilot has
1. Completed a pilot proficiency check conducted by the FAA, an approved check airman, or
one of the U.S. armed forces for a pilot certificate, a rating, or an operating privilege, or
2. Satisfactorily completed one or more phases of the FAA-sponsored Pilot Proficiency Award
Program.
a. This program is commonly known as the Wings Program.

D. A student pilot is also not required to complete a flight review, provided (s)he is undergoing training
for a certificate and has a current solo flight endorsement.
E. Flight instructors who hold a current flight instructor certificate and have satisfactorily completed an
approved flight instructor refresher course within the preceding 24 calendar months (including the
course you are taking now) are not required to accomplish the 1 hr. of ground training normally
required for a flight review.

II. Sec. 61.57 -- Recent Flight Experience: Pilot in Command

A. Inform your students that they may not act as pilot in command of an airplane carrying passengers
or an airplane certificated for more than one required pilot flight crewmember, unless
1. They have made three takeoffs and landings within the preceding 90 days in an aircraft of
the same category and class as the aircraft to be flown (e.g., airplane single-engine land),
and if a type rating is required, in the same type.
a. Point out that, in a tailwheel airplane, the landings must also have been made to a full
stop.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 2 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training

B. Explain to your students that, to carry passengers at night, they must have made three takeoffs
and landings to a full stop at night within the preceding 90 days in the category, class, and type (if
a type rating is required) of aircraft to be used.
1. In this case, night refers to the period beginning 1 hr. after sunset and extending to 1 hr.
before sunrise.
C. Instrument experience
1. Inform your instrument students that, to act as PIC under IFR or in weather conditions less
than the minimums prescribed for VFR, they must have logged the following flight
experience in actual or simulated instrument flight within the preceding 6 calendar months;
this experience must have been obtained in the appropriate category of aircraft to be flown,
in an approved flight simulator or flight training device that is representative of the aircraft
category to be flown, or in any combination thereof:
a. At least six instrument approaches
b. Holding procedures
c. Intercepting and tracking courses through the use of navigation systems
i. You may wish to point out that intercepting and tracking courses through the use
of navigation systems will occur as a result of performing instrument
approaches and holding procedures; accordingly, no special effort is required
to specifically obtain this experience.
2. Explain to your students that, if they do not meet the experience requirements during the
prescribed time or within 6 months thereafter, they must pass an instrument proficiency
check consisting of the tasks indicated in the FAA’s Instrument Rating Practical Test
Standards.
a. The instrument proficiency check may be given by an FAA inspector, a designated
examiner, a company check airman, a representative of an armed force, or an
appropriately-rated flight instructor.

11.2 RECURRENCY TRAINING – GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

I. Encourage your students to design a currency program that is tailored to their particular operating
environments and needs.
A. Point out that, in many cases, currency activities can be incorporated into normal operations in
order to reduce the need for separate flights.
1. EXAMPLE: An instrument-rated pilot can, at the expense of only a few extra minutes at the
end of a business or personal flight, take steps to maintain currency by requesting an
instrument approach from ATC instead of performing a faster visual approach.
a. Note that the approach must be performed under simulated instrument conditions with
an appropriately rated safety pilot to meet currency requirements.

B. Emphasize to your instrument students that instrument-rated pilots should regard the minimum
regulatory currency requirements to act as PIC under IFR as only the foundation for a
comprehensive currency program that will enable them to operate safely under IFR in the
National Airspace System, taking into account weather conditions and air traffic activity
appropriate to their experience levels and operating environments.
C. Stress that, in most cases, pilots should acknowledge the need to adopt a currency program that
goes beyond the minimums specified in 14 CFR.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training 3

II. Teach your students that they must set specific goals to attain with their personal currency program.
A. These goals may include items such as
1. Minimum flight time per month
2. Regular night operations (flight time, takeoffs, landings)
3. Practicing maneuvers appropriate for the certificate and ratings held
4. Regular flights with a CFI
III. As a CFI, you can assist your students (other than student pilots) in developing a personal currency
program.
A. Point out to your students that having a personal currency program will not only help them to
maintain adequate currency levels, but will also keep them interested in flying.
1. Additionally, remind your students that the training process for an advanced certificate or
rating, should they decide to pursue one, will be significantly less costly and
time-consuming if they have maintained their proficiency through a personal currency
program.
B. Consider establishing a personal currency program for your former students by contacting them at
regular intervals (e.g., every 6 months) to invite them to the airport for a “workout” in the airplane
of their choice, during which bad habits can be corrected and areas for improvement can be
identified.

11.3 FLIGHT REVIEW

I. Structure and Intent of the Flight Review
A. The objective of the flight review is to ensure that pilots who intend to act as pilot in command have
the opportunity to ride with a flight instructor of their choice within a specified period of time, in
order to obtain an appraisal of their proficiency level and to have an opportunity to seek
assistance or guidance if any deficiency is identified.
1. As an instructor conducting a flight review, you should not treat the review as a test or a
check ride, but rather as an instructional service designed to assess a pilot’s knowledge
and skills.
B. Due to the complexity of the aviation operating environment and the variety of operations
conducted within the National Airspace System, you may want specific guidance on how to
structure and plan a flight review for which the contents are tailored to the needs of the pilot being
reviewed.
1. AC 61-98A, Currency and Additional Qualification Requirements for Certificated Pilots,
provides information for certificated pilots and flight instructors to use in completing the
flight review required by FAR 61.56.
a. This AC is a useful reference when putting together a flight review.
2. The Practical Test Standards (PTS) appropriate to the pilot’s grade of certificate may also
assist you in selecting appropriate maneuvers.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 4 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training

II. Pre-review Considerations

A. Before accepting responsibility for conducting the review, you should interview the pilot to
determine the nature of his/her flying and operating requirements.
1. You must be willing to refer the pilot to another instructor if, in your judgment, you will not be
able to satisfactorily conduct the review.
a. EXAMPLE: If a pilot asked you to conduct a flight review in his/her pressurized
single-engine turboprop when you have no experience with turbine engines or
pressurized airplanes, you would not be able to conduct an effective review of the
essential procedures required to safely operate the airplane.

B. The following are some, but not all, of the elements to consider:
1. The type of equipment flown
a. The maneuvers and procedures reviewed will vary depending on the category, class,
and make and model of aircraft used.
i. EXAMPLE: A review in a light twin-engine aircraft should be different from one
conducted in a small, two-seat tailwheel aircraft without a radioor extra
instrumentation.
b. You may recommend that the pilot take the review in the aircraft usually flown or in the
most complex or challenging make and model used if several aircraft are flown
regularly.
c. You may also want to recommend that the pilot take a review in more than one
category/class of aircraft under certain circumstances.
i. EXAMPLE: A pilot with airplane single-engine land and glider ratings may have
flown only single-engine airplanes in the last 2 yr. but is also considering flying
gliders in the near future.
o You should recommend that the pilot complete an additional review in a
glider given by a qualified flight instructor before he/she acts as pilot in
command of a glider.

2. The nature of the pilot’s flight operations

a. You should consider the type of flying usually done by the pilot before establishing the
plan for conducting the review.
i. EXAMPLE: A pilot who typically conducts long-distance flights between busy
terminal areas may need a review that is different from the review required by a
pilot who usually makes local flights into and out of the same airport.
b. Consider the need for an in-depth review of certain subjects or procedures if the type
of flight operations is likely to change or if other extenuating circumstances exist.
i. EXAMPLE: A pilot who normally conducts only local flight operations at an
airport outside of Class B airspace may have plans to begin flying to a location
within a Class B airspace area.
o In this situation, you should emphasize Class B airspace equipment
requirements and operating procedures in the flight review.
o You may even want to perform part of the flight portion of the review inside
a Class B airspace area.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training 5

3. The pilot’s total amount and recency of flight experience

a. Before beginning the flight review, you should look over the pilot’s logbook to
determine his/her total flight time, types of experience, and recency of experience in
order to evaluate the need for particular maneuvers and procedures in the review.
i. EXAMPLES:
o A pilot who has not flown in several years may require an extensive review
of basic maneuvers from the PTS appropriate to that pilot’s grade of
certificate.
■ This same pilot may also require a rather extensive review of 14
CFR Part 91.
o A pilot who is upgrading to a faster airplane should receive more
emphasis on aircraft systems, aircraft performance information, and
cross-country procedures appropriate to a faster airplane.

b. Regardless of the pilot’s flight experience, you should ensure that the flight review plan
will include all areas in which you determine that the pilot should receive training in
order to operate safely.
4. Your instructor qualifications
a. In addition to considering factors related to the pilot who is the subject of the review,
you must also consider whether your own experience and qualifications are
appropriate to the review.
i. EXAMPLE: If a pilot wants his/her flight review to concentrate on instrument
procedures, but you have little or no experience providing instrument
instruction, you may wish to refer the pilot to another instructor.
b. In order to conduct an effective flight review, you must ensure that you have
appropriate experience in the make and model of aircraft in which the review will take
place.
i. You should obtain recent flight experience in any aircraft in which you are not
current, or with which you are not familiar, before attempting to conduct a flight
review in that aircraft.
o This experience should include obtaining instructional knowledge of the
aircraft’s limitations, characteristics, and performance.

c. You must hold an appropriate category and class rating on your pilot certificate (and a
type rating, if required) for the aircraft in which the review is to be conducted.
i. You must also have the appropriate category and class rating on your flight
instructor certificate for the aircraft in which the review is to be conducted.

C. You may then agree to conduct the review.

1. After analyzing the elements described above, you should review each consideration with
the pilot and reach a mutual understanding regarding how the review will be conducted.
2. You may want to provide the pilot with reading materials or some recommended publications
for him/her to study before actually beginning the flight review.
3. You should also review the criteria for the pilot's satisfactory completion of the review.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 6 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training

III. Planning and Recording the Review

A. After reaching an agreement with the pilot regarding how the flight review will be conducted, you
should prepare a plan for carrying out the review.
1. The plan should include
a. A list of regulatory subjects to be covered
b. The maneuvers and procedures to be accomplished
c. The anticipated sequence in which the segments will occur
d. The location where the review will be performed
2. A sample Flight Review Plan and Checklist is shown on the following page.
a. Although not required by 14 CFR 61.189, Flight Instructor Records, you may wish to
retain this form as your record of the scope and content of the review.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training 7

FLIGHT REVIEW PLAN AND CHECKLIST

Name Date
Grade of Certificates Certificate No.
Ratings and Limitations
Class of Medical Date of Medical
Total Time Flight Time in Type
Aircraft to Be Used: Make and Model N#
Location of Review

I. REVIEW OF 14 CFR PART 91

Ground Instruction Hours: (minimum 1 hr.)
Remarks:

II. REVIEW OF MANEUVERS AND PROCEDURES (List in order of anticipated performance.)

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
Flight Instruction Hours: (minimum 1 hr.)
Remarks:

III. OVERALL COMPLETION OF REVIEW

Remarks:
Signature of CFI Date
Certificate No. Expiration Date
I have received a flight review which consisted of the ground instruction and flight
maneuvers and procedures noted above.
Signature of the Pilot Date

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
8 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training

B. Review of 14 CFR Part 91 operating and flight rules

1. You should tailor the review of general operating and flight rules to the needs of the pilot
being reviewed.
2. The objective of the review is to ensure that the pilot can comply with all regulatory
requirements and operate safely in various types of airspace under an appropriate range of
weather conditions.
a. Thus, you should plan to conduct a review that is broad enough to meet this objective,
yet flexible enough to provide a more comprehensive review of any areas in which
the pilot’s knowledge is weaker.
i. Because aeronautical information is constantly changing, you may want to use
other reference sources in addition to 14 CFR Part 91 (e.g., the AIM) to ensure
that the pilot’s knowledge is up-to-date.

3. The regular occurrence of pilot deviations by certificated pilots in controlled airspace has
emphasized the need to ensure that all pilots are familiar with the operating requirements of
Class B, Class C, Class D, and other airspace areas.
a. Remember that the flight review may be the only regular proficiency and recurrency
training experienced by some pilots.
b. You should therefore place appropriate emphasis on this part of the review.
4. A sample format for organizing the 14 CFR Part 91 review is shown on the following page.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training 9

Sample Format for Organizing the 14 CFR Part 91 Review

Subpart Description Remarks
A General All pilots
B Flight Rules (General) All pilots
Visual Flight Rules All pilots
Instrument Flight Rules If applicable
(EXAMPLE: Instrument-rated pilot)
C Equipment, Instrument, and All pilots
Certificate Requirements
D Special Flight Operations If applicable (EXAMPLE: Pilot
involved in glider towing operations)
E Maintenance, Preventive All pilots
Maintenance, and Alterations
F Large and Turbine-Powered If applicable (NOTE: Pilot may be
Multiengine Airplanes subject to requirements of 14 CFR
61.58)
G Additional Equipment and If applicable (See Subpart F note.)
Operating Requirements for Large
and Transport Category Aircraft
H Foreign Aircraft Operations and If applicable (EXAMPLE: Flights
Operations of U.S.-Registered to Canada or Mexico)
Civil Aircraft Outside of the United
States
I Operating Noise Limits If applicable (EXAMPLE:
Agricultural aircraft pilot)
J Waivers If applicable (EXAMPLE: Pilot
involved in airshows)

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
10 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training

C. Review of maneuvers and procedures

1. The maneuvers and procedures covered during the review are those that you determine the
pilot should perform in order to demonstrate that (s)he can safely exercise the privileges of
his/her pilot certificate.
a. Accordingly, your evaluation of the pilot’s skills and knowledge should ensure that
(s)he can safely operate at his/her level of certification, within regulatory requirements
and throughout a wide range of conditions.
b. Consistent with the need to include these critical subjects and maneuvers, you should
construct a review sequence that closely duplicates a typical flight profile for the pilot
who will receive the review.
2. You should prepare a preliminary plan for the flight review based on an interview or another
assessment of the pilot’s qualifications and skills, as described in item B. above. The
proposed sequence of maneuvers should be outlined to the pilot who is taking the review.
a. The flight portion of the review may consist of a flight to the practice area in order to
review maneuvers (with a later return to the departure airport for takeoff and landing
practice), or it may be composed of a flight to another airport for takeoff and landing
practice, with the maneuvers accomplished en route (e.g., slow flight, stalls, etc.).
b. You should request that the pilot complete whatever preflight preparation is necessary
to conduct the planned review prior to arriving for his/her appointment.
i. Preparation items may include checking weather, calculating required runway
lengths, calculating weight and balance data, completing a flight log, filing a
flight plan, and conducting the preflight inspection.
ii. As the instructor, you should inspect these items for accuracy and discuss them
with the pilot as a part of the review.

3. Before beginning the flight portion of the review, you should discuss various operational
areas with the pilot.
a. This oral review should include, but not be limited to, areas such as
i. Aircraft systems, speeds, and performance
ii. Meteorological and other hazards (e.g., wind shear and wake turbulence)
iii. Operations in controlled airspace (e.g., Class B airspace areas)
b. The emphasis during the discussion should be on having practical knowledge of
recommended procedures and regulatory requirements.
4. Regardless of the pilot’s experience level, you should review at least those maneuvers that
are considered critical to safe flight, such as stalls, slow flight, and takeoffs and landings.
a. Based on your in-flight assessment of the pilot’s skills, you may wish to add other
maneuvers from the PTS appropriate to his/her grade of certificate.
5. Remember that the in-flight review does NOT need to be limited to evaluation purposes.
You may provide instruction in weak areas or, based on mutual agreement with the pilot,
defer this instruction to a followup flight.
6. To assist you in selecting maneuvers and procedures critical to safe flight, a list of
maneuvers for various categories and classes of aircraft is shown on the following page.
a. This list is NOT all-inclusive. It is provided in order to assist you in your selection of
appropriate maneuvers and procedures.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training 11

SAMPLE LIST OF FLIGHT REVIEW KNOWLEDGE, MANEUVERS, AND PROCEDURES

All Categories and Classes of Aircraft

Pilot certificates and other 14 CFR Part 61 requirements
Aircraft performance and limitations
Aircraft loading, weight and balance
Aircraft systems and operating procedures
Abnormal and emergency procedures
Flight planning and obtaining weather information
Aircraft documents and records
Avoidance of hazardous weather
Air traffic control and airspace
Preflight inspection
Use of checklist
Radio communication and navigation (if aircraft equipped)
Collision avoidance, traffic pattern operations, ground operations
Navigation by pilotage
Airplane, Single-Engine Land (ASEL)
Takeoffs and landings (normal, crosswind, short, and soft-field
Go-arounds
Maneuvering during slow flight
Stalls
Constant altitude turns
Simulated forced landings and other emergency operations
Flight by reference to instruments (except recreational pilots)
Airplane, Multiengine Land (AMEL)
Same as ASEL, plus:
Simulated engine-out procedures and performance
Airplane, Single-Engine Sea (ASES)
Same as ASEL (except soft-field takeoffs and landings), plus:
Glassy and rough water landings
Airplane, Multiengine Sea (AMES)
Same as ASEL, AMEL, and ASES, as applicable
Glider
Takeoff and tow procedures (appropriate to type of tow used)
Simulated rope break procedures
Stall recognition and recovery
Flight at minimum controllable airspeed
Gliding spirals
Accuracy landings

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 12 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training

IV. Postreview Considerations

A. Upon completion of the review, you should complete the Flight Review Plan and Checklist and
debrief the pilot.
1. Regardless of whether the review was satisfactory, you should always provide the pilot with
a comprehensive analysis of his/her performance (i.e., a critique), including suggestions for
improving any weak areas.
B. Unsatisfactory completion of the review
1. You should not endorse the pilot’s logbook to note an unsatisfactory review, but you should
sign the logbook to record the instruction given.
a. Then recommend additional training in the areas of the review that were
unsatisfactory.
2. A pilot who is denied an endorsement for a flight review may continue to exercise the
privileges of his/her pilot certificate, provided a period of 24 calendar months has not
elapsed since the pilot's last successful flight review or pilot proficiency check.
3. If a pilot has performed a flight review and believes that you have unfairly judged his/her
ability to complete the review successfully, the pilot may request a flight review from
another CFI.
C. Satisfactory completion of the review
1. When the pilot has successfully completed the review, you must endorse the pilot’s logbook,
certifying that (s)he has satisfactorily accomplished the flight review.
2. Endorsement for completion of flight review:
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name), (pilot certificate) (certificate number) has satisfactorily
completed a flight review required by Sec. 61.56(a) on (date).

Signature Date Name CFI No. Expiration Date

11.4 THE FAA’S PILOT PROFICIENCY AWARD (WINGS) PROGRAM

I. The objective of the Pilot Proficiency Award Program (commonly known as the Wings Program) is to
provide pilots with an incentive to establish and participate in a personal recurrent training
program.
A. Inform your students that all pilots holding at least a recreational pilot certificate and a current
medical certificate (when required) may participate in the Wings Program.
B. The following discussion is paraphrased from AC 61-91H, Pilot Proficiency Award Program.

II. Explain that the Wings Program is a 20-phase program.

A. Upon the completion of each of the first 10 phases, the pilot is presented with a set of wings (about
the size of a lapel pin or tie tack) and a completion certificate.
B. Only a completion certificate is awarded for completion of each of the remaining phases,
Phases XI through XX.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training 13

III. Training Requirements for Phases I through XX

A. Explain to your students that each phase of the Wings Program can be completed by following the
required training profiles that have been established for the various categories and classes of
aircraft, including ultralights.
1. These training profiles represent those phases of operation that have been identified by
accident reports as the phases that are most likely to produce accidents.
B. Emphasize that all training requirements for a single phase of the program must be completed
within 12 months.
1. Tell your students that, after completing each phase of the program, they may begin working
on the requirements for the next phase at any time.
a. However, 12 months must pass between the date of completion of one phase of the
program and submission of the application for completion of the next phase.
b. Thus, the Wings Program is a 20-yr. proficiency program.

C. Explain that the following flight training is required for airplanes:

1. One hr. of flight training to include basic airplane control, stalls, turns, and other maneuvers
directed toward mastery of the airplane
2. One hr. of flight training to include approaches, takeoffs, and landings, including crosswind,
soft-field, and short-field techniques
3. One hr. of instrument training in an airplane or in an FAA-approved aircraft simulator or
training device
D. Safety meetings
1. Explain that all applicants must attend at least one FAA-sponsored or FAA-sanctioned
aviation safety seminar, or an industry-conducted recurrent training program.
a. Attendance at an aviation safety seminar must be verified by a notation in the pilot’s
logbook or on another proficiency record.
i. This verification must be signed by an FAA safety program manager, another
FAA inspector, or an appointed aviation safety counselor involved in
conducting the seminar.

2. Attending a physiological training course that is conducted under the FAA-U.S. Air Force or
FAA-U.S. Navy training agreements at various military installations in the U.S. is also
acceptable for meeting the “safety meeting” requirement.
a. Pilots who complete a physiological training course will receive FAA Form 3150-1,
Physiological Training.
i. A completed FAA Form 3150-1 must be submitted to the local FAA safety
program manager as verification of the course’s completion.

E. Mountain flying course

1. Explain that successful completion of an FAA-sponsored or FAA-sanctioned mountain flying
course, including all required ground and flight training, may be substituted for the safety
meeting requirement described in item III.D. above.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 14 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training

F. Training substitution
1. Inform your students that completion of a training program or a flight instructor refresher
clinic that is conducted by an organization such as a flight school, an air carrier, or another
training facility, may be substituted for the requirements to complete a phase of the Wings
Program, provided that the minimums outlined in item III. on the previous page are met.
G. Emphasize to your students that involvement in an aircraft or ultralight vehicle accident does NOT
preclude participation in the Wings Program.

IV. Pilot Proficiency Awards Earned by Flight Instructors

A. In addition to completing phases of the Wings Program in the standard fashion as described in
item III. on the previous page, flight instructors can also qualify to complete phases of the
program based ontheir instructional activities.
B. Completion requirements for Phases I through III
1. As a CFI, you may earn the wings for Phases I through III by providing the required
instruction for completion of a phase of the Wings Program to three pilots (i.e., a minimum
of 9 hr. of instruction given).
2. To qualify for a Phase I wings award, you must document the completion of the training you
gave to at least three pilots and attend, or participate in, an aviation safety seminar or
clinic.
a. You may repeat these requirements for the Phase II and III awards.
b. Note that there is no requirement for 12 months to pass between the applications for
completion of Phases I, II, and III.

C. Completion requirements for Phases IV through XX

1. You may apply for a Phase IV award 12 months after the date of meeting the requirements
for the Phase III award.
a. After the completion of Phase III, twelve months must pass between the date of
completion of each additional phase and application for the award for the next
phase.
2. You may earn the appropriate award for each of Phases IV through XX by
a. Successfully completing an evaluation or a proficiency flight with a designated flight
instructor examiner or an FAA operations inspector.
b. Attending or participating in at least one FAA-sponsored or FAA-sanctioned aviation
safety seminar; completing an FAA-approved flight instructor refresher clinic; or
completing a physiological training course.
i. Attendance must be verified in your logbook or other proficiency record as
described in item III.D.1.a.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training 15

V. Awarding of the Pilot Proficiency Wings and Certificate

A. Endorsement verification
1. Explain to your students that, as they complete each step of the training (including attending
a safety meeting), their logbooks or other proficiency records must be endorsed by the
person(s) who gave the instruction.
2. The endorsement for completion of a phase of the Wings Program should read substantively
as follows:
Mr./Ms. , holder of pilot certificate # , has
satisfactorily completed the training requirements outlined in AC 61-91H, paragraph (state which).

Signature Date Printed Name CFI No. Exp. Date

B. The Pilot Proficiency Award certificate and the appropriate wings will be awarded after the pilot’s
logbook or other proficiency record is presented to the FAA safety program manager.

11.5 TRANSITION TRAINING

I. The General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA) has developed a Transition Training
Master Syllabus, which is an outline of the general items that GAMA suggests be included, as
appropriate, in a ground and flight training syllabus that is being developed for the purpose of
familiarizing an appropriately-rated pilot with a new airplane.
A. This lesson is based on the GAMA master syllabus.
1. We would like to thank GAMA for granting us permission to use our edited version of their
Transition Training Master Syllabus, GAMA Specification No. 5 (including Change 1).
2. The Transition Training Master Syllabus costs $12 (including tax, shipping, and handling).
To order your copy, contact
General Aviation Manufacturers Association
1400 K Street, NW
Suite 801
Washington, DC 20005
(202) 393-1500
www.generalaviation.org

II. The goal of transition training is to prevent accidents by ensuring that pilots have proper training in
the specific systems and operating characteristics of every airplane model they fly.
A. While it is not legally required for appropriately qualified pilots (i.e., those with proper
endorsements/ratings to fly complex/high-performance or multi-engine airplanes), it is strongly
recommended that transition training be conducted for each new aircraft that a pilot intends to fly.
B. Transition training is intended to concentrate on those areas in which the pilot might encounter
something unique to the airplane, whether in a normal situation or during an emergency
procedure or event.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 16 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training

C. Reviewing general aeronautical knowledge or skills that are the same for any airplane is NOT the
objective of a transition training program.
1. Of course, instruction in these areas is also highly beneficial.
2. It should therefore be accomplished through other, more-regular means, such as
participation in the Wings Program.

III. Applicability
A. Analysis of general aviation airplane accidents combined with the experience of airlines and the
military indicate that, whenever a pilot’s total “time-in-type” is low, transition training is very
beneficial.
B. The transition training described in GAMA’s master syllabus is applicable to pilots intending to
transition into the following general airplane types:
1. High-performance or complex single-piston-engine small airplanes (12,500 lb. or less)
2. Multi piston-engine small airplanes (12,500 lb. or less)
3. Single- and multi-engine turboprop-powered small airplanes (12,500 lb. or less)
C. The GAMA master syllabus is not intended for use in developing training programs or guides for
pilots intending to transition into airplanes for which 14 CFR requires type ratings; for
non-complex airplanes with engines of 200 hp or less; or for amateur-built experimental aircraft.

IV. The GAMA master syllabus is intended to be used as the basis for creation of a transition training
syllabus for a specific airplane.
A. As a flight instructor, you should be able to use the master syllabus as a guide for developing a
transition training syllabus for each of your flight school's aircraft, if you are unable to locate a
commercially-developed version.
1. Your syllabus can be very specific or may be a brief outline that refers to the Pilot’s
Operating Handbook or approved Airplane Flight Manual.
a. For older or modified airplanes, when information from the manufacturer or modifier
may be limited, you should use judgment in preparing a guide that meets the
requirements of the master syllabus.
2. Because the sequence of training may need to be altered to accommodate individual
progress or special circumstances, your transition training syllabus should be flexible.
a. If the prescribed sequence of training is changed, it is your responsibility to make sure
that all necessary training is accomplished.
3. Also, because complexity varies greatly from airplane to airplane, you may find it necessary
to expand your syllabus beyond the subject areas contained in the master syllabus.
B. You should realize that the master syllabus is a general document that is applicable to many
specific airplanes.
1. Accordingly, training items that do not apply to all specific airplanes are marked as such and
should be omitted from your airplane's transition training syllabus as appropriate.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training 17

C. Module 11.7, Transition Training -- Ground Training Syllabus, details each subject or maneuver
that should be accomplished (as applicable) in a transition training course.
1. Note that, while all of the flight portion of the training may be accomplished in an airplane,
experience has shown that the use of simulators and flight training devices often increases
the margin of safety for some maneuvers and may provide more productive training than
could be obtained in an airplane.
a. It is therefore recommended that maximum use be made of simulators and flight
training devices for maneuvers that are considered abnormal or emergency in
nature.

V. Certain maneuvers in the flight section are designated “IFR only.”

A. These maneuvers are intended to be performed only by pilots with an instrument rating.
1. They are included so that instrument-rated pilots may practice key IFR maneuvers in an
unfamiliar airplane under the supervision of an instructor.

VI. It is strongly recommended that you have a minimum of 5 hr. of flight time as pilot in command of the
specific airplane before attempting to conduct transition training in that airplane.
A. Flight instructors are also encouraged to complete a transition training program for each aircraft
model before giving training in that aircraft, if such a course is available.
B. Transition training applicable to instrument procedures should only be given by a CFII.
C. Multi-engine instruction may only be given by a instructor who holds a multi-engine rating on
his/her pilot and flight instructor certificates (i.e., an MEI).

VII. Upon the pilot’s successful completion of transition training, you should endorse the pilot’s logbook
with the following statement: “Transition Training for (aircraft model) IAW (in accordance with) cite
(author or publisher of the Transition Training guide) satisfactorily completed on (Date) in (aircraft,
simulator, or training device name and manufacturer).”
A. EXAMPLE: Transition training for Cessna T210, IAW Jones Transition Course satisfactorily
completed on March 23, 1998 using the Smith Hotstick training device.
B. If this is the airman's initial transition to a complex or high-performance airplane, the logbook must
also reflect the endorsement required by 14 CFR 61.31(e) or (f), as appropriate. The
recommended wording for this endorsement is contained in FAA Advisory Circular 61-65D.

11.6 TRANSITION TRAINING – OBJECTIVE AND STANDARDS

I. Objective
A. The objective of transition training is to obtain the skills, proficiency, and aeronautical knowledge
necessary for safe operation of a specific make and model of airplane.

II. Completion Standards

A. The pilot should demonstrate, through written and flight review, the knowledge and skill necessary
to safely operate the specific airplane.
B. Operations should be accomplished within the tolerances specified in the Practical Test Standards
appropriate to the grade of pilot certificate that the pilot holds.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 18 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training

III. Discussion of System Description and Limitations

A. Several training items require a discussion of the description and limitations aspects of an airplane
component or system. In every airplane system, there are limitations based on two factors:
1. The absolute capability of the equipment to perform a particular function
2. The individual pilot’s ability to use that equipment
B. Effective training and experience should enable safe operation of an airplane within its limitations.
1. Some airplane systems are more complex and require a higher level of skill and
interpretation.
a. Thus, pilots of aircraft equipped with such systems will require more-extensive training
in order to operate them effectively.
2. Pilot skills and knowledge also vary with a pilot’s total flight time, time-in-type, and recency
of training or experience.
a. Thus, in addition to being trained to recognize the limitations of aircraft systems, pilots
must also be trained to recognize their own limitations.

C. Throughout the ground school and flight curriculum, emphasis should be placed on operating the
aircraft within its and the pilot’s limitations.
1. Risk management and aeronautical decision-making (ADM) skills should be particularly
emphasized.
2. A discussion of limitations, as they apply to the pilot's experience level and with reference to
potential problem areas, may prevent many accidents.
3. A transition training syllabus should include a list of items that instructors should discuss with
pilots intending to transition into a new aircraft with regard to the limitations of various
systems, the flight characteristics of the specific airplane, and the way these items may
affect a particular pilot.

11.7 TRANSITION TRAINING – GROUND TRAINING SYLLABUS

I. Objective
A. The objective of the ground training syllabus is to obtain the necessary knowledge required for
safe operation of the specific airplane.

II. Completion Standards

A. The pilot should demonstrate, through written and oral review, the knowledge required to safely
operate the specific airplane, using the Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH) or approved Airplane
Flight Manual and airplane checklists.
B. All immediate-action emergency procedures must be committed to memory.
C. You should discuss each incorrect response with the pilot to ensure his/her complete
understanding of the related system.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training 19

III. General Course Requirements

A. Descriptions and limitations
1. Whenever the ground training syllabus specifies a description and discussion of an airplane
system or function, you should provide a general overview of the system or function and
identify its basic components.
2. The system’s limitations should be presented, as described in Section 2 of the POH, or the
FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual, with emphasis on pilot decision making and safe
operation of equipment.
B. Preflight inspection, service, and maintenance
1. Whenever the ground training outline specifies training on these subjects, you should
describe what a pilot can normally expect to encounter during a thorough preflight
inspection.
a. Such training is best accomplished while performing an actual preflight inspection on
the aircraft.
2. Transition training on service and maintenance should focus on routine service that can be
performed or supervised by the pilot.
a. It is not intended that the pilot perform any maintenance operation requiring an
appropriately certificated mechanic or repairman.
3. Emphasis should be placed on determining the aircraft’s airworthiness, including compliance
with the regulatory requirements relating to aircraft documents, placards, and operation
with inoperative equipment.

IV. GAMA’s Master Ground Training Outline

A. Airplane familiarization
1. Airplane overview
a. Location of major subsystems and their relationship to each other
b. Service limitations of the engine and other time-limited parts
c. Modifications to original airplane
i. A pilot should be told where to find information on modifications, if available.
ii. (S)he should be aware of the operational significance of modifications and
special equipment.
2. Use of safety equipment
a. Emergency exits
b. Seat operations
c. Seat belts and shoulder harnesses
d. Other
B. Controls
1. Description and limitations
2. Inspection, service, and maintenance
3. Flight controls
4. Flaps
5. Trim controls
6. Abnormal (if applicable) and emergency procedures
C. Flight instruments
1. Description and limitations
2. Inspection, service, and maintenance
3. Instrument power systems
4. Abnormal (if applicable) and emergency procedures

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
20 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training

D. Performance
1. Description and limitations
2. Takeoff
3. Cruise and leaning procedures (if applicable)
4. Landing
E. Powerplant/propellers
1. Description and limitations
2. Inspection, service, and maintenance
3. Before-takeoff checks
4. Powerplant controls -- engine fuel control, propeller control, induction system, engine ignition
system
5. Abnormal (if applicable) and emergency procedures
a. Engine securing -- flight and ground (including single-engine airplanes)
b. Engine failure before liftoff
c. Engine failure after liftoff
d. Airstart procedures
F. Electrical
1. Description and limitations
2. Inspection, service, and maintenance
3. Sources of electrical power
4. Battery starts
5. External power starts
6. Indicators
7. Lighting systems
8. Abnormal (if applicable) and emergency procedures
G. Airplane fuel system
1. Description and limitations
2. Inspection, service, and maintenance
3. Control system
4. Airframe-related components
5. Indicating system
a. Quantity indication
b. Warning system
6. Abnormal (if applicable) and emergency procedures
H. Landing gear system (fixed and retractable)
1. Description and limitations
2. Inspection, service, and maintenance
3. Indicating system (if applicable)
4. Normal operation (if applicable)
5. Abnormal (if applicable) and emergency procedures
I. Environmental
1. Description and limitations
2. Inspection, service, and maintenance
3. Normal operation of heating, ventilation, and cooling
4. Normal operation of pressurization (if applicable)
5. Abnormal (if applicable) and emergency procedures

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training 21

J. Oxygen (if applicable)

1. Description and limitations
2. Inspection, service, and maintenance
3. Normal operation
4. High-altitude physiology (turbocharged, pressurized, and turbine airplanes)
K. Ice protection (if applicable)
1. Description and limitations
2. Inspection, service, and maintenance
3. Normal operation
4. Abnormal (if applicable) and emergency procedures
L. Weight and balance
1. Description and limitations
2. Controllability, center of gravity, and stall speed
M. Pilot errors common to the specific airplane
1. Systems mismanagement
2. Decision making
3. Operating envelope
4. Other
N. Avionics/autopilot/weather detection equipment
1. Description and limitations
2. Inspection, service, and maintenance
3. Preflight procedures
4. Normal operation
5. Abnormal (if applicable) and emergency procedures

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 22 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training

11.8 TRANSITION TRAINING – FLIGHT TRAINING SYLLABUS

I. Objective
A. The objective of the flight training syllabus is to obtain the aeronautical skill and proficiency
necessary for safe operation of the specific airplane.

II. Completion Standards

A. The pilot should demonstrate the necessary aeronautical skill and experience required for the
specific airplane.
1. Operations should be accomplished within the tolerances specified in the Practical Test
Standards appropriate to the grade of pilot certificate that the pilot holds.
B. In addition, a pilot who holds an instrument rating should demonstrate proficiency in the instrument
maneuvers and procedures identified in the flight syllabus within the tolerances specified in the
Instrument Rating Practical Test Standards.

III. GAMA’s Master Flight Training Outline

A. Preflight planning
1. Weight and balance computation
2. Performance computation (takeoff, climb, engine-out considerations, cruise, descent,
landing, fuel control/fuel management)
B. Preflight inspection
C. Avionics and airplane modifications
NOTE: The instructor will use the available manufacturer’s or modification facility’s published
information to instruct the pilot on the safe operating procedures and potential problem areas.
1. Autopilot or wing leveler
2. Flight director
3. Severe weather detection equipment
4. Other avionics
5. Airframe modification
6. Powerplant modification
D. Starting engine
1. Battery starts
2. External power starts (may be discussion only)
E. Taxi procedures
F. Before-takeoff checks
1. VFR departure (not required if IFR departure accomplished)
2. IFR departure (required for an IFR endorsement)

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training 23

G. Normal operations
1. Normal takeoff
2. Other takeoff procedures approved by the manufacturer
3. Climb
4. Cruise
5. High-altitude flight for turbocharged and pressurized airplanes
a. 18,000 ft. MSL or higher (required for an IFR endorsement)
b. 17,500 ft. MSL (not required if IFR accomplished).
NOTE: Pilots who have previously flown as pilots in command above 18,000 ft. MSL are
not required to accomplish this maneuver; however, it is recommended.)
6. Descent and arrival procedures
a. VFR (not required if IFR accomplished)
b. IFR (required for an IFR endorsement)
7. IFR approaches (required for an IFR endorsement)
a. ILS
b. Nonprecision
8. Balked landing
a. Missed approach will meet balked landing requirement.
9. Missed approach (required for an IFR endorsement)
10. Holding (required for an IFR endorsement)
11. Normal landings
12. Other landing procedures approved by the manufacturer
H. Airwork (Refer to the Appropriate Practical Test Standards for description.)
1. Constant altitude turns
2. Stalls
a. Power on
b. Power off
3. Slow flight (all engines operating)
I. Abnormal (if applicable) and emergency procedures
NOTE: All abnormal and emergency procedures will be practiced in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations. Items applying to multiengine operations will be practiced in
accordance with the FAA Multiengine Practical Test Standard for the appropriate pilot certificate.

1. Engine securing -- multiengine airplane (to be accomplished at or above the minimum safe
altitude)
2. Simulated engine-out approach and landing -- visual reference
3. Simulated engine-out ILS approach -- multiengine only (required for an IFR endorsement)
4. Simulated engine-out nonprecision approach -- multiengine only (required for an IFR
endorsement)
5. Simulated engine failure after liftoff (multiengine only)
6. Simulated engine failure before liftoff (multiengine only)
7. Emergency gear extension (may be discussion only if actual gear extension requires the
need for subsequent maintenance)
8. Emergency descent (turbocharged or pressurized airplane or both)
9. No-flap landing
10. Use of crew oxygen (pressurized airplane)
11. Partial panel (required for an IFR endorsement)

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
24 Lesson 11: Recurrency and Transition Training

12. Recovery from unusual attitudes by instrument reference (must be accomplished by all
pilots, not just IFR)
13. 180° turn by reference to instruments and at least 3 min. of straight-and-level flight (not
required for pilot receiving IFR training)
14. Fire -- electrical or engine
15. Smoke removal
16. Operation of emergency exit (may be discussion if exit operation would require subsequent
maintenance or would damage the aircraft)
17. Simulated loss of pressurization
18. Any other emergency or abnormal procedure (that is recommended by the manufacturer and
that, in the judgment of the instructor, can be safely demonstrated or simulated)

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 1

GLEIM FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR REFRESHER COURSE

LESSON 12
AVOIDING MIDAIR COLLISIONS AND CONTROLLED
FLIGHT INTO TERRAIN (CFIT)
12.1 SEE-AND-BE-SEEN CONCEPT
I. Regulatory Responsibility
A. Explain to your students that 14 CFR 91.113, Right-of-Way Rules: Except Water Operations, sets
forth the see-and-be-seen concept.
1. This rule requires that each person operating an aircraft maintain vigilance for other traffic at
all times (weather conditions permitting), in flights conducted under both IFR and VFR.
B. 14 CFR 91.209, Aircraft Lights, establishes when aircraft lights must be used.
1. Inform your students that aircraft position (navigation) lights must be turned on anytime an
aircraft is operated on the ground or in flight during the period between sunset and sunrise.
2. Explain that aircraft equipped with an anticollision light system (rotating beacon and/or
strobe lights) are required to keep the lights on during all operations, both day and night.
a. However, the pilot in command may turn off the anticollision light system when (s)he
determines that the light output would constitute a hazard to safety during adverse
meteorological conditions or at any other time.
b. Tell your students that supplementary strobe lights should be turned off on the ground
if they adversely affect ground personnel or other pilots.

C. Emphasize to your students that, regardless of the type of aircraft being flown, all pilots must
maintain a constant lookout for other aircraft.

II. Inform your students that Operation Lights On is an FAA voluntary pilot safety program that is
designed to enhance the see-and-be-seen concept.
A. Under this program, pilots are encouraged to turn on their landing lights for takeoff.
B. Pilots are further encouraged to turn on their landing lights when operating below 10,000 ft. MSL,
day or night, especially when operating within 10 NM of any airport or in conditions of reduced
visibility, and in areas where flocks of birds may be expected, e.g., in coastal areas, in lake areas,
around refuse dumps, etc.
C. Emphasize to your students that, although turning on aircraft lights does enhance the
see-and-be-seen concept, they should not become complacent about keeping a sharp lookout for
other aircraft.
1. Point out that most midair collision (MAC) accidents and near midair collision (NMAC)
incidents occur during good day-VFR weather conditions.
a. Not all aircraft are equipped with lights, and some pilots may not have their lights
turned on.
b. Aircraft manufacturers’ recommendations for operation of landing lights and electrical
systems must also be observed even if they conflict with Operation Lights On.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 2 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT)

12.2 VISION
I. Explain to your students that, of the body senses, vision is the most important for safe flight. It is
therefore important for them to understand the eye’s construction and the effect of darkness on the
eye.
A. Two types of light-sensitive nerve endings called cones and rods are located at the back of the
eye, or retina. These special nerve endings transmit messages to the brain via the optic nerve.
RETINA

IRIS
AREA OF ROD
CONCENTRATION
FOVEA

PUPIL AREA OF CONE

CONCENTRATION OPTIC NERVE

AREA OF ROD
LENS CONCENTRATION

Figure12_1
Anatomy of the Eye

1. Explain that the cones are concentrated around the center of the retina and decrease in
number as the distance from the center increases.
a. Their function is to detect color, details, and distant objects.
b. Cones function both in daylight and in moonlight.
2. Tell your students that the rods are concentrated around the cones and increase in number
as the distance from the center of the retina increases.
a. Their function in daylight is to detect objects, particularly those in motion, out of the
corner of the eye (i.e., peripheral vision).
i. However, rods do not provide detailed or color images; they only indicate
shades of gray.
b. Rods function in daylight, in moonlight, and in very low light (darkness).

B. Inform your students that the fovea is a small, notched area of the retina that is located directly
behind the lens. This area contains cones only.
1. Explain that the fovea is the area of sharpest vision.
a. Thus, when looking directly at an object, the eye focuses the image mainly on the
fovea.
2. Point out that the fovea’s field of vision is a conical area that consists of only about 1° of the
entire visual field.
a. To demonstrate how small a 1° field is, take a quarter and tape it to a flat piece of
glass, such as a window. Have your student stand 4½ ft. from the mounted quarter
and close one eye. The area of his/her field of view covered by the quarter is a 1°
field.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT) 3

3. Explain that the normal field of vision for each eye is about 135° vertically and about 160°
horizontally, as shown below.

60˚

100˚ 60˚

75˚

TEMPORAL NASAL

Figure12_2
Field of Vision

a. The fovea’s vision is concentrated in the central 1° area of this field.

4. Inform your students that their visual acuity (detail) drops off rapidly outside of the fovea’s
field of vision.
a. EXAMPLE: Outside of a 10° cone (centered on the fovea cone) a pilot will see only
about one-tenth of what (s)he can see in the fovea cone.
i. Put in terms of its effect on collision avoidance, this fact means that an aircraft
that can be seen in the fovea cone when 5,000 ft. away must be as close as
500 ft. to be detected with peripheral vision.

C. Explain that because the rods are distributed around the cones and do not lie directly behind the
pupils, off-center viewing (i.e., looking to one side of an object) is important during night flight.
1. During daylight, an object can be seen best by looking directly at it.
a. However, because the cones become less effective in progressively lower light levels,
a person may not be able to see an object by looking directly at it.
i. Because the cones are concentrated at the center of the visual field, a central
night blind spot develops when the cones stop working due to darkness.

2. Tell your students that at night, they will be able to see things more clearly and definitely by
looking to one side of them, rather than looking straight at them. Explain that mastering
this technique may require some practice. (See the bottom illustration below.)
a. Point out that the rods do not detect objects while the eyes are moving; they only work
during the pauses.
b. Accordingly, it is important to scan for traffic at night using small, regularly-spaced
intervals.
i. For more information about proper scanning techniques, see Module 12.3,
Visual Scanning.
Area of Best Day Vision

Figure12_3 Area of Best Night Vision

Visual Scanning

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 4 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT)

II. Emphasize to your students that adapting their eyes to darkness is an important aspect of night
vision.
A. When entering a dark area, the pupils of the eyes enlarge to receive as much of the available light
as possible.
B. Explain that while the pupils adjust quite rapidly to darkness, it will take approximately 5 to 10 min.
(with enough available light) for the cones to become moderately adjusted to the lower light level.
After this adjustment, the eyes become 100 times more sensitive than they were before entering
the dark area.
1. EXAMPLE: When you first step into a dark movie theater, you may be unable to see well
enough to comfortably search for a seat. After waiting by the door for a few minutes,
however, your eyes become sufficiently adjusted to the low light levels for you to find an
empty seat.
C. After about 30 min., the rods will be fully adjusted to darkness and become about 100,000 times
more sensitive to light than they were in the lighted area.
1. Explain that because the rods can still function in light of 1/5,000 the intensity at which the
cones cease to function, only rods are employed for night vision.
D. Emphasize that the rods need more time to adjust to darkness than the cones do to bright light.
The eyes become adapted to sunlight in 10 sec., whereas they need 30 min. to fully adjust to a
dark night.
1. Accordingly, teach your students to consider the adaptation process before and during night
flight.
a. First, the eyes should be allowed to adapt to the low level of light, and then they must
be kept adapted.
b. At night, pilots must avoid exposing their eyes to any bright light that may cause
temporary blindness, possibly resulting in serious consequences.
i. Temporary blindness may result in illusions or “after images” during the time that
the eyes are recovering from the bright light.

III. Inform your students that the eyes are the first part of the body to suffer from low oxygen levels at
altitude, because the capillaries in the eyes are very small and have a limited capacity to carry
oxygen.
A. Night vision may be adversely affected above 5,000 ft. MSL.
1. Therefore, encourage your students to fly at the lowest safe altitude and/or use oxygen at
night.

IV. Explain that good vision depends on a pilot’s physical condition. Fatigue, colds, vitamin deficiency,
alcohol, stimulants, smoking, and medication can seriously impair vision.
A. EXAMPLE: Studies show that smoking lowers the sensitivity of the eyes and reduces night vision
by approximately 20%.

V. Teach your students to avoid excessive illumination due to light reflected off the canopy, surfaces
inside the aircraft, clouds, water, snow, and desert terrain. Excessive light levels cause glare,
resulting in uncomfortable squinting, watering of the eyes, and even temporary blindness.
A. Emphasize that sunglasses intended for protection from glare should absorb at least 85% of visible
light (i.e., 15% transmittance) and all colors equally (i.e., neutral transmittance), with negligible
image distortion from refractive and prismatic errors.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT) 5

12.3 VISUAL SCANNING

I. Proper Visual Scanning Technique
A. Explain that while the eyes can observe an approximately 160°-wide arc of the horizon at one
glance (see illustration on page 3), only the fovea has the ability to send clear, sharply focused
messages to the brain.
1. All other visual information that is not processed directly through the fovea will be of less
detail.
a. EXAMPLE: An aircraft at a distance of 7 mi. that appears in sharp focus within the
fovea’s center of vision would have to be as close as 0.7 mi. in order to be
recognized if it were outside of the fovea’s vision.
2. Inform your students that, because the eyes can focus only on this narrow viewing area,
effective scanning is accomplished with a series of short, regularly spaced eye movements
that bring successive areas of the sky into the central visual field.
a. Each movement should not exceed 10°, and each area should be observed for at least
one second to enable detection.

B. Explain that peripheral vision is useful in spotting collision threats from other aircraft.
1. Each time a scan is stopped and the eyes are refocused, the peripheral vision takes on
more importance because it is through peripheral vision that movement is detected.
a. Apparent movement is almost always the first perception of a collision threat.
b. You must explain to your students, however, that if another aircraft appears to have no
relative motion, it is likely to be on a collision course.
i. If the other aircraft shows no lateral or vertical motion but appears to be
increasing in size, evasive action must be taken immediately.

2. Visual search at night depends almost entirely on peripheral vision.

a. In order to perceive a very dim lighted object in a certain direction, the pilot should not
look directly at the object, but should scan the area adjacent to it.
b. Short stops of a few seconds in each scan will help to detect the light and its
movement.

C. Impress upon your students that it is necessary to move their heads in order to search around
physical obstructions in the cockpit, such as door and window posts.
1. The doorpost can cover a considerable amount of sky, and a small head movement may
uncover an area that could be concealing an airplane.
2. Point out that the lack of brightness and color contrast in daytime and the presence of
conflicting ground lights at night also increase the difficulty of visually detecting other
aircraft.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 6 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT)

D. Emphasize that poor visual scanning unnecessarily increases the risks of a midair collision. You
and your students should be conversant with proper techniques, and practice them consistently.
1. Ensure early in your student’s training that (s)he does not fixate on the flight instruments, but
instead uses them to fine-tune the visual references.
E. Effective scanning also helps avoid “empty-field myopia.” This condition usually occurs when flying
above the clouds or in a haze layer that provides nothing specific to focus on outside the aircraft.
1. This causes the eyes to relax and seek a comfortable focal distance, which may range from
10 to 30 ft.
2. For the pilot, this means looking without seeing, which is dangerous.

II. Time-Sharing Technique

A. Studies show that the time a pilot spends on visual tasks inside the cabin should represent no
more than 1/4 to 1/3 of the scan time outside, or no more than 4 to 5 seconds on the instrument
panel for every 16 seconds outside.
B. Explain to your students that because the brain is already trained to process sight information that
is presented from left to right, they may find it easier to start scanning over the left shoulder and
proceed across the windshield to the right.
C. Pilots should realize that their eyes may require several seconds to refocus when switching views
between items in the cockpit and distant objects outside.
1. Eyes will also tire more quickly when forced to adjust to distances immediately after close-up
focus, as required for scanning the instrument panel.
2. Eye fatigue can be reduced by looking from the instrument panel to the left wing, then past
the wingtip to the center of the first scan quadrant, when beginning the exterior scan.
a. After having scanned from left to right, the eyes should be allowed to return to the
cabin along the right wing, from its tip inward.

D. Point out that studying maps, checklists, and manuals before flight, along with other proper
preflight planning (e.g., noting necessary radio frequencies) and organization of cockpit materials
can reduce the amount of time required to look at these items during flight, thus allowing more
scan time.

III. Proper Clearing Procedures

A. Prior to taxiing onto a runway or landing area in preparation for takeoff, teach your students to
scan the approach areas for possible landing traffic, executing appropriate clearing maneuvers to
provide a clear view of the approach areas.
B. During climbs and descents in flight conditions that permit visual detection of other traffic, teach
your students to execute gentle banks left and right at a frequency that permits continuous visual
scanning of the airspace ahead.
1. Alternatively, the nose may be briefly lowered to the horizon during climbs to clear the
airspace ahead.
C. Teach your students that sustained periods of straight-and-level flight in conditions that permit
visual detection of other traffic should be broken at intervals with appropriate clearing procedures
(e.g., momentarily raising each wing) to allow effective visual scanning.
D. Emphasize that entry into a traffic pattern while descending creates specific collision hazards and
should be avoided.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT) 7

E. You should also emphasize the need for sustained vigilance in the vicinity of VORs and airway
intersections due to the convergence of traffic.
F. Operators of pilot training programs should adopt the following practices:
1. Pilots undergoing flight instruction at all levels should be requested to verbalize clearing
procedures (call out, “clear,” “left,” “right,” “above,” or “below”) to instill and sustain the habit
of vigilance during maneuvering.
2. In a high-wing airplane, momentarily raise the wing in the direction of the intended turn and
look.
3. In a low-wing airplane, momentarily lower the wing in the direction of the intended turn and
look.
4. Appropriate clearing turns (i.e., a 180° turn or two 90° turns in opposite directions) should
precede the execution of all maneuvers, including chandelles, lazy eights, stalls, slow flight,
climbs, spins, and other combination maneuvers.
a. Teach your students to use clearing turns as an opportunity to re-orient themselves to
familiar landmarks and thereby remain inside the normal practice area when
practicing solo maneuvers.

IV. Relationship Between Aircraft Speed Differential and Collision Risk

A. Inform your students that the high performance capabilities of many airplanes (in both speed and
rates of climb/descent) result in high closure rates between two such airplanes, thereby limiting
the time available for detection, decision, and evasive action.
B. EXAMPLE: Two aircraft are approaching head-on, and visual detection is made at 3 NM.
1. If the aircraft are converging at a speed of 200 kt., each pilot has 54 sec. to react to avoid a
collision.
2. If the aircraft are converging at a speed of 300 kt., each pilot has 36 sec. to react to avoid a
collision.
C. Studies have shown that the minimum time required for a pilot to spot traffic, identify it as a
collision threat, react, and have the airplane respond is 12.5 sec.

V. Judgment Aspects of Collision Avoidance

A. Determining relative altitude: Teach your students to use the horizon as a reference point. If
another aircraft is above the horizon, it is probably on a higher flight path. If it appears to be
below the horizon, it is probably flying at a lower altitude.
B. Taking appropriate action: Your students must be familiar with the rules of right-of-way so that, if
an aircraft is on an obvious collision course, they can take the appropriate evasive action.
1. Emphasize, however, that your students must not assume that the other aircraft will yield to
them simply because they have the right-of-way in a particular situation.
a. The other pilot may not realize that your student has the right-of-way, or (s)he may not
see your student.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 8 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT)

C. Considering multiple threats: Explain that the decision to climb, descend, or turn is a matter of
personal judgment, but your students should anticipate that the other pilot may also be making a
quick maneuver. Teach your students to watch the other aircraft during the maneuver, but also to
resume scanning again immediately, as there may still be other aircraft in the area.
D. Collision course targets: Inform your students that any aircraft that appears to have no relative
motion and stays in one scan quadrant is likely to be on a collision course. Accordingly, if a target
shows no lateral or vertical motion, but appears to increase in size, evasive action should be
taken immediately.
E. Recognizing high hazard areas:
1. Explain that airways, VORs, and airport traffic areas are places where aircraft tend to
cluster.
2. Point out that most collisions occur on days when the weather is good because more aircraft
tend to be airborne under such conditions.
F. Cockpit management: Teach your students to study maps, checklists, and manuals before the
flight, along with performing other proper preflight planning procedures. Being organized ahead
of time allows the pilot to spend more time looking outside the cockpit.
G. Windshield conditions: Dirty or bug-smeared windshields can greatly reduce a pilot’s ability to
see other aircraft. Teach your students to keep a clean windshield.
H. Visibility conditions: Point out that smoke, haze, dust, rain, and flight into the sun can greatly
reduce a pilot’s ability to detect other aircraft.
I. Visual obstructions in the cockpit:
1. Teach your students to move their heads to see around blind spots caused by fixed aircraft
structures, such as door posts, wings, etc. Point out that it may even be necessary
occasionally to maneuver the airplane (e.g., lifting a wing) to maximize visibility.
2. Remind your students to check that curtains and other cockpit objects (e.g., maps that glare
on the windshield) are stowed during flight, and to keep the interior lights low at night so
that they can see out in the dark.
J. Lights on: Impress upon your students that, day or night, exterior lights can greatly increase the
visibility of any aircraft.
K. ATC support: ATC facilities often provide radar traffic advisories (i.e., flight following) on a
workload-permitting basis. Teach your students to use this support whenever possible.
1. Emphasize, however, that despite operating in a radar environment (i.e., where traffic is
separated by radar) vigilance is still required to avoid collisions. Radar does not relieve a
pilot of the responsibility to see and avoid other aircraft.

12.4 USE OF COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT AND AIR TRAFFIC ADVISORY SERVICES

I. Explain that it has been shown that one of the major factors contributing to the likelihood of NMAC
incidents in terminal areas that have an operating ATC system is the mix of known arriving and
departing traffic with unknown traffic.
A. The known aircraft are generally in radio contact with the controlling facility (local, approach, or
departure control), while the unknown aircraft are neither in two-way radio contact nor identified
by ATC at the time of the NMAC.
1. This situation precludes ATC from issuing traffic advisory information to either aircraft.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT) 9

II. Emphasize that before communication can be used effectively to assist in collision avoidance, a
pilots must know his/her location in order to give accurate position reports.
A. Teach your students to use landmarks or navigation aids to determine their position and range
more accurately. Do not allow them to guess.
B. Explain that at controlled airports, ATC can issue accurate traffic advisories to your students and to
other aircraft.
1. Inform your students that visual observation of aircraft by ATC in a nonradar terminal area is
limited by distance, depth perception, aircraft conspicuousness, and other normal visual
acuity problems.
2. Point out that it is possible that a controller may not see the aircraft to which (s)he is
providing traffic advisories.
a. In this situation, the controller’s advisories will be based solely on the accurate position
reporting of the pilots operating in the area.
3. When requesting radar traffic information services (i.e., flight following), accurate position
reporting will allow the controller to identify an aircraft on radar more quickly and to
determine whether services can be provided.
C. Explain that at airports without an operating control tower, pilots monitoring the CTAF will be made
aware of traffic on or near the airport by the pilots’ accurate reports of their positions and
intentions.
1. Emphasize, however, that radio communication is not required at airports without an
operating control tower, so your students must remain vigilant even when no traffic is
reported in the area.

III. Teach your students that radio contact should be initiated early enough not only to allow them to
work into the flow of traffic into an airport, but also to let others know of their intentions.
A. A pilot must establish radio contact with ATC and receive clearance prior to entering Class B
airspace.
B. A pilot should contact ATC at least 20 NM from the primary airport of Class C airspace, and at
least 10 NM from the primary airport of Class D airspace.
C. At an airport without an operating control tower (Class E or G airspace), a pilot should
communicate/monitor on the CTAF at least 10 NM out.
D. Teach your students that they should at least monitor the appropriate frequency if they overfly an
uncontrolled airport or fly above Class B, C, or D airspace (but not into Class A airspace).

IV. Explain that radar traffic information service advises a pilot of any radar target observed on the
controller’s radar display that may warrant his/her attention.
A. This service serves to alert a pilot to the presence of traffic so that (s)he can be on the lookout for it
and be in a better position to take appropriate action, if necessary.
B. Inform your students that radar services to VFR aircraft may be limited by factors such as the
limitation of radar, traffic volume, controller workload, and unknown traffic, and may prevent ATC
from providing traffic advisory information.
1. Emphasize that VFR traffic advisories are secondary to the controllers’ primary duties of
assuring the separation of IFR aircraft and issuing safety alerts.
C. Radar services should be requested and used when available to help pilots to see and avoid other
traffic by augmenting their own visual scanning, but should never be used as a substitute for
visual scanning.
1. Remind your students that this service does not relieve them of their responsibility to be
continually vigilant and to see and avoid other aircraft.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 10 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT)

D. Inform your students that information about radar traffic information service is found in the AIM and
the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD).
1. The AIM contains a section dealing with services available to pilots. This includes
a. Approach control facilities for VFR arriving aircraft
b. Traffic advisory practices at airports without operating control towers
c. Radar traffic information service
d. Radar assistance to VFR aircraft
e. Terminal radar programs for VFR aircraft
2. The A/FD contains a list of all public airports, showing the services available to pilots and the
appropriate communication frequencies.

12.5 SITUATIONAL AWARENESS AND THE CFI’S ROLE IN COLLISION AVOIDANCE

I. Teach your students that situational awareness (SA) is the accurate perception and understanding
of all the factors and conditions that affect a flight.
A. These factors include, but are not limited to
1. Weather
2. Fuel supply and fuel flow rate
3. Airspace
4. Traffic
5. Terrain
6. Pilot fatigue
B. In essence, situational awareness is a pilot’s knowledge of what is going on in and around his/her
airplane.

II. It is vital that you as the instructor maintain situational awareness at all times during training flights.
A. Many instructional activities, particularly instrument flying, can direct your attention as well as your
student’s attention inside the cockpit.
1. Allowing your attention to be directed away from navigating the airplane and looking for
other traffic for extended periods could cause you to enter restricted airspace without a
clearance or experience a mid-air collision.
B. One aid to maintaining situational awareness during VFR training flights is to use clearing turns as
an opportunity not only to look for traffic, but also to re-orient yourself to nearby landmarks.
1. If you see that the airplane is drifting toward the edge of your normal practice area, you can
direct your student to turn to a heading that will return you to the practice area.
2. Instruct your students to use this technique to maintain orientation and ensure collision
avoidance when they are flying solo.
3. From very early in their training, you must instruct your students to devote maximum
attention to maintaining SA and watching for traffic while conducting flight operations.
a. You should set the example by carefully observing all regulations and recognized
safety practices, since your students will consciously and subconsciously imitate your
flying habits.
4. Explain to your student that radar services for arriving and departing aircraft are available at
some airports, and encourage the use of these services, as well as the use of radar traffic
information service for flying between en route points.
a. Understand and explain the limitations of radar that may frequently limit or prevent the
issuance of radar advisories by ATC.
5. At airports with an operating control tower, notify ATC of a student’s first solo flight.
6. Place special training emphasis on the areas of concern mentioned in this lesson, in which
© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT) 11

improvements in pilot education, operating practices, procedures, and techniques are

needed to reduce midair conflicts.

12.6 CONTROLLED FLIGHT INTO TERRAIN - GENERAL

I. Controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) can be defined as an event in which a normally-functioning
aircraft is inadvertently flown into terrain, water, or obstacles, often without prior knowledge by the
crew.
A. Inform your students that due to the physical forces involved, the vast majority of CFIT accidents
are fatal to one or more of the aircraft’s occupants.
1. Point out that the element of surprise is also a factor in the lethality of CFIT accidents
because it prevents the crew from taking actions (such as reducing airspeed or modifying
the flight path) to minimize the impact forces.
2. Accordingly, you must aggressively emphasize avoidance of the scenarios that lead to CFIT
accidents.
B. Explain that, while CFIT accidents are typically associated with IFR operations in mountainous
areas, they can happen to aircraft operating under IFR or VFR, over all kinds of terrain, and at
any time of day or night.
1. Point out that while many factors can contribute to a CFIT accident, one causal factor
common to most such accidents is the crew’s loss of situational awareness.
a. You should therefore teach your students to devote maximum possible attention to
maintaining situational awareness during all phases of flight.
2. Emphasize that the risk of losing situational awareness is greatest in conditions of darkness
or reduced visibility and during times of high workload.
a. Without a clearly-discernible horizon, even large deviations from a desired heading,
attitude, altitude, or course may not be immediately obvious.
b. Under high-workload conditions, a pilot’s instrument scan can break down, allowing
such changes to go unnoticed and setting the stage for a CFIT event.
3. Point out, however, that times of low workload can also be hazardous because they can lead
to boredom and complacency at a time that the pilot should be monitoring the progress of
the flight and preparing for the upcoming phases.
a. Explain that complacency is an unsubstantiated sense of well-being or security that is
accompanied by unawareness of potential hazards.
b. Complacency can lead to a pilot’s loss of situational awareness by causing him/her to
monitor the progress of the flight inadequately due to the mistaken belief that “nothing
will go wrong because nothing has gone wrong.”
i. EXAMPLE: While navigating GPS-direct and using the autopilot during a long
cross-country flight, a pilot may have so little to do that (s)he regards the
airplane to be “flying itself.”
o With such an attitude, the pilot effectively becomes a passenger. If
immediate action becomes necessary, (s)he might not be mentally
prepared to take control of the airplane and successfully navigate it to a
safe outcome.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 12 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT)

4. Teach your students to maximize their situational awareness by always thinking ahead of
the airplane, and by using low-workload periods to plan ahead for high-workload periods.
a. Impress upon your students that a good pilot is always asking him/herself, “what
happens next?” This habit allows the pilot to anticipate what actions will be necessary
in the next several minutes and to perform as many of them ahead of time as
possible.
i. EXAMPLE: While still at cruising altitude and several minutes from the
destination airport, a pilot should know that it is time to obtain the ATIS
information, determine the approach in use, find and review the appropriate
approach chart and airport diagram, tune any anticipated frequencies, etc., all
without prompting from ATC.
b. Emphasize that, particularly for IFR flights, preparation for known periods of high
workload must be accomplished during times of low workload if all procedures are to
be satisfactorily performed in the time available.
i. EXAMPLE: If ATC or the ATIS advises a pilot to expect the ILS Runway 28
approach at the destination airport, (s)he can begin preparing for the approach
several minutes in advance by finding the approach chart, reviewing courses
and altitudes, tuning and identifying the navigation radios, etc.
o If the pilot waits to complete all steps necessary to perform the approach
until cleared for the approach by ATC, a successful outcome is unlikely.

II. Inform your students that the following are some phases of flight where the likelihood of a CFIT
event is increased:
A. Takeoff into conditions of low ceilings or visibility.
B. Takeoff over water or unlit terrain on a dark, moonless night, or under an overcast sky (i.e., a “dark
night” takeoff).
C. Single-pilot IFR operations.
D. VFR flight in marginal VFR or IFR conditions (i.e., scud running).
E. Continued VFR flight into IFR conditions.
F. Low-level maneuvering flight, regardless of weather conditions.
G. Night flight in mountainous areas.
H. Non-precision instrument approaches in a non-radar environment.
I. Visual approaches to an airport that is surrounded by water or unlit terrain on a dark, moonless
night, or under an overcast sky (i.e., “black hole” approaches).

12.7 CATEGORIES OF CFIT ACCIDENTS

I. This module discusses three categories of CFIT accidents:
A.
B. Accidents
Accidents in good VFRVFRconditions.
C. Accidents in
in marginal conditions or developing IFR conditions.
IFR conditions.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT) 13

II. CFIT accidents in good VFR conditions are surprisingly well-represented among CFIT accidents.
Their causes include the following:
A. Night flight: Inform your students that there are many hazardous illusions associated with flight at
night. In addition to the obvious hazard of being unable to see darkened terrain or obstacles,
operations such as “dark night” takeoffs and “black hole” approaches are commonly associated
with CFIT accidents.
1. Dark night conditions occur when there is little or no lighting of darkened terrain by natural
or artificial sources. These conditions typically occur in remote areas and coastal regions
on moonless or overcast nights. They are most-hazardous during the period immediately
after takeoff.
a. Explain that during a dark night takeoff, outside visual reference may be lost when
the airplane’s nose is rotated to the climb attitude, blocking the runway lights from
view.
i. If good weather conditions exist at the time of the takeoff, the pilot may be
expecting to make an entirely visual departure.
ii. Thus, (s)he may not have the proper state of mind to devote his/her full attention
to the flight instruments in order to maintain control of the aircraft when visual
references are lost.
o Emphasize to your students that during a night departure, failure to devote
sufficient attention to the flight instruments to maintain straight flight and
a positive rate of climb may lead to loss of control and collision with
terrain or obstacles.

b. The somatogravic illusion is another factor in CFIT accidents during dark night
takeoffs.
i. This illusion creates the sensation of pitching up as an airplane accelerates.
o Point out to your students that most airplanes accelerate as they climb
shortly after takeoff (e.g., after gear and flaps are retracted).
ii. A pilot who is affected by this illusion will pitch the nose down in order to return
the airplane to what is perceived to be the correct climb attitude.
o In reality, the pilot will have reduced the pitch attitude below the attitude
for a normal climb, possibly stopping the climb or initiating a descent.
iii. Without outside references to reveal the airplane’s improper attitude, the pilot
may believe that (s)he is climbing normally when the airplane is climbing
inadequately to clear terrain ahead, maintaining level flight, or even
descending.
o Unless the airplane’s attitude is corrected using the flight instruments, the
pilot may continue maintaining the improper attitude until the airplane
impacts rising terrain or obstacles.

c. You must emphasize to your students that a dark night takeoff will require that they
devote full attention to maintaining aircraft control.
i. However, you must also point out that while use of the flight instruments may be
essential to controlling the airplane during a dark night takeoff, your students
must still look outside for other traffic if they are operating in visual conditions.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
14 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT)

2. A black hole approach is an approach that is made to a brightly-lit runway from over water
or other unlighted terrain where the runway lights are the only source of light between the
airplane and the runway. Explain that there are two specific hazards associated with black
hole approaches that cause them to be associated with CFIT accidents.
a. Spatial disorientation may result during an approach to a lighted runway that is
surrounded by darkened terrain, beyond which the horizon is not visible.
i. Inform your students that without peripheral cues to help a pilot maintain
orientation with the earth, (s)he may misinterpret the relationship between the
airplane’s attitude and the runway lights.
o In some cases, disorientation may be so severe that it causes the pilot to
allow the airplane to fly into terrain without ever realizing that a
dangerous attitude had been entered.
o Point out that this hazard is magnified when flying an airplane with a
constant-speed propeller, because even large changes in pitch attitude
will not be accompanied by changes in engine noise.
ii. EXAMPLE: In the image on the lower left, the pilot may interpret the airplane’s
attitude to be level as (s)he approaches a runway that is sloping upward and
angled across his/her flight path.
o When the horizon is revealed in the image on the lower right, however, it
becomes apparent that the airplane is actually in a nose-low right bank.

Figure12_4
Black Hole Approach - Example 1

Figure12_5
Black Hole Approach - Example 2

iii. Emphasize that spatial disorientation can be avoided at night by frequently

cross-checking the flight instruments against visual references to confirm the
airplane’s attitude.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT) 15

b. A long, straight-in approach to a lighted runway with darkened terrain before the
runway and bright city lights beyond it creates an illusion of being closer to the
runway than what is actually the case. Explain that the tendency is to fly a
lower-than-normal approach.
i. Several factors contribute to this illusion and contribute to a lower-than-normal
approach and an increased risk of CFIT:
o The human brain interprets brightly-lit objects to be closer than more
dimly-lit objects.
■ Explain that the presence of a darkened foreground against a
backdrop of a brightly-lit runway and bright city lights eliminates any
relative change of brightness with distance, causing the runway
and city to appear closer than they would in daylight.
■ Point out that this effect is magnified on very clear nights, where the
lack of a “hazing” effect as distance increases makes distant light
sources appear much closer than they actually are.
o When flying a long, straight-in approach to a lighted runway with a
darkened foreground, the tendency exhibited by pilots of all skill levels is
to fly an approach that causes the runway to maintain a constant visual
angle in the windshield.
■ Inform your students that such an approach does NOT result in a
straight glide path to the runway. Instead, it results in the airplane
following a curved path which, if allowed to continue for the
duration of the approach, will result in the airplane landing short of
the runway.
■ Point out, however, that this illusion usually disappears within 2-3
miles of the runway, making an actual landing short of the runway
unlikely.
■ Emphasize that true danger of this illusion is that the curved
approach path may intersect darkened high terrain while still
several miles out on the approach.
■ Because the foreground is not lit, the only warning of an impending
crash may be the sudden disappearance of the runway/city lights
as they are obscured by terrain.

THE PILOT SEEKS TO KEEP THE RUNWAY AT A

CONSTANT VISUAL ANGLE IN THE WINDSHIELD
DESIRED
GLIDEPATH

THE CURVED GLIDE PATH, RESULTING

FROM MAINTAINING A CONSTANT Figure12_6
VISUAL ANGLE IN THE WINDSHEILD, BLACK HOLE APPROACH Black Hole Approach -
WILL INTERSECT HIGH TERRAIN. (EXAGGERATED VIEW) Exaggerated View

ii. Impress on your students that they should avoid making long straight-in visual
approaches at night.
o It is safer to proceed inbound to the airport at a known safe altitude until
the airplane is within a few miles of the airport, at which point a descent
into the traffic pattern and a normal landing can be made.
o Advise your students to use all means at their disposal to ensure that a
proper glide path is followed if they must conduct a straight-in visual
approach at night, including visual and electronic glide slopes when

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
16 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT)

available.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT) 17

B. Inappropriate reliance on IFR procedures during VFR flight: Inform your students that
selectively employing IFR procedures while operating under VFR can lead to a CFIT accident. It
is not appropriate for a pilot to rely on an IFR procedure for any purpose unless (s)he is operating
under IFR.
1. Explain that there are many potential variables that can affect IFR procedures, including
departure procedures (DPs) and instrument approach procedures (IAPs).
a. Any one of these variables could create an unsafe situation for a pilot who is relying on
the procedure to provide terrain/obstacle clearance or to locate an airport. The
following examples illustrate this point:
i. A VFR pilot who relies on a DP to provide terrain clearance on a dark night may
not be aware of an unreliable NAVAID along the route if (s)he has not obtained
current NOTAMs from a flight service station or has not been informed by
ATC.
o Without these services that are available to pilots operating under IFR, a
VFR pilot will have no warning that a procedure (s) he has successfully
depended on in the past has become unsafe.
ii. A VFR pilot who elects to use a non-precision IAP to find an uncontrolled airport
on a hazy day may not bother to obtain a current local altimeter setting.
o If a strong pressure gradient exists between the pilot’s departure airport
and the destination airport, with lower pressure at the destination airport,
the pilot will descend below applicable minimum altitudes for various
segments of the approach, potentially putting him/herself dangerously
close to terrtain or obstacles.

b. Impress upon your students that they should only rely on IFR procedures when
operating under IFR after having received a complete briefing.
2. Explain to your instrument students that it is acceptable to practice IFR procedures while
operating under VFR as long as due attention is given to collision avoidance, and IFR
procedures are not depended upon for any critical navigation purpose.
a. Encourage your instrument-rated students to consider filing an IFR flight plan in order
to practice IFR procedures, as the practice will be safer and more realistic when in
contact with ATC.
i. As an alternative, you or your students can contact an appropriate ATC facility
to request VFR flight following during your practice flight.

C. Flight in the vicinity of difficult-to-see obstacles such as towers and tethered

balloons: Emphasize to your students that tall obstructions such as radio transmission towers
and tethered balloons are often difficult to see, even on a clear VFR day.
1. Point out that while many radio towers are lighted and painted with high-visibility
orange-and-white color bands, these structures are often stabilized with support wires that
are not marked.
a. The support wires extend outward from the main structure for some distance and are
nearly invisible.
i. Accordingly, it is essential that pilots operating in the vicinity of towers allow
sufficient lateral spacing to ensure that a collision with support wires will not
occur.
b. A related hazard is that such towers are often topped with a radio antenna that
extends above the tower’s main structure.
i. Like support wires, these antennas are not specially marked and are difficult to
see.
ii. You should therefore advise your students to avoid directly overflying towers

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
18 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT)

unless they are at a known safe altitude.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT) 19

2. Inform your students that the FAA operates several tethered radar balloons in the southern
United States as a means of increasing low-level radar coverage up to 200 NM offshore
and beyond the border with Mexico. The system’s primary function is to aid drug
interdiction missions by allowing early detection of inbound aircraft operating at low
altitudes.
a. Explain that these balloons, which operate at an altitude of 15,000 ft. MSL, are
tethered to the ground by unmarked cables that are almost impossible to see from
any significant distance.
i. In addition, the balloons themselves, while quite large, are not lighted or marked
and may be difficult to see at night or in conditions of reduced visibility.
b. Tethered balloons therefore present a significant hazard to flight for any aircraft
operating at or (especially) below their altitude.
i. Restricted areas have been designated for each radar balloon in order to alert
pilots of the hazard.
ii. If your airport is located in the vicinity of a tethered radar balloon, be sure to
point out the restricted area to your students and discuss the hazards with
them.
o Emphasize that the best procedure to avoid a collision with the cable is to
remain clear of the associated restricted area.

III. CFIT accidents in marginal VFR conditions or developing IFR conditions typically involve pilots
operating under VFR in conditions where VFR flight is inappropriate. Their causes include the
following:
A. Scud running: Remind your students that scud running is the hazardous and often illegal practice
of attempting to maintain visual contact with the terrain while instrument conditions exist by
operating dangerously close to the clouds and/or ground.
1. Pilots typically scud-run when
a. Low ceilings force them down in order to remain out of the cloud bases, and/or
b. Poor visibility makes the horizon and landmarks difficult to detect from a higher
altitude.
2. Explain that while the legal minimum VFR visibility and cloud clearance requirements vary
depending on airspace and altitude, the most common VFR weather minimums below
10,000 ft. are 3 SM visibility and a 1,000-ft. ceiling.
a. For the sake of this discussion, weather conditions below these minimums can be
regarded as IFR conditions.
3. Impress upon your students that scud running is extremely hazardous and should not be
regarded as a “normal” operation.
a. Emphasize that most situations that require scud running as an “abnormal” operation
(e.g., a VFR pilot trapped by rapidly-deteriorating weather) can be avoided by
obtaining a complete weather briefing before beginning a flight.
i. If the briefing indicates that beginning a VFR flight would be unwise, the flight
should be postponed or conducted under IFR (if possible).
ii. Under NO circumstances is it appropriate to depart on a flight with the intention
of scud running.

4. Point out that operating beneath low ceilings (i.e., below 1,000 ft. AGL) creates several
hazards.
a. The airplane may be beneath the height of nearby obstacles or terrain.
b. Even if the surface visibility is good, the pilot will not be able to see as far ahead of the

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
20 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT)

airplane due to the low altitude, allowing less time to see and avoid obstacles.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT) 21

c. Climbing to avoid an obstacle or rising terrain that appears suddenly may not be an
option if the airplane is operating close to the cloud bases.
i. Climbing will cause the airplane to enter the clouds, possibly leading to spatial
disorientation and loss of control.
ii. Even if the pilot were able to maintain control of the airplane after entering the
clouds, there would be no guarantee of terrain/obstruction avoidance because
(s)he would not be able to see where to go.

5. Operating close to the ground under low-visibility conditions exposes a pilot to most of the
hazards listed in item III.A.4., with the possible exception that climbing to avoid obstacles or
terrain may be an option.
a. However, point out that spatial disorientation and loss of control could still result due to
the loss of the natural horizon in the climb.

B. Continued VFR flight into IMC: Remind your students that continued VFR flight into IMC occurs
when a pilot presses on under VFR despite worsening weather conditions. Point out that scud
running is a common predecessor to VFR flight into IMC.
1. Inform your students that continued VFR flight into IMC is very hazardous to both
instrument-rated and non-instrument-rated pilots.
a. The hazards of VFR flight into IMC include spatial disorientation and loss of control,
loss of situational awareness, midair collision with an IFR aircraft, and collision with
unseen terrain or obstacles.
b. Emphasize that instrument-rated pilots are not immune to these hazards because they
will not be properly prepared to conduct an IFR flight.
i. Safely conducting an IFR flight requires the pilot to have filed an IFR flight plan.
The pilot must also be in contact with ATC, and should have the appropriate
charts.

IV. CFIT accidents in IFR conditions are the accidents that usually come to mind when discussing
controlled flight into terrain. These accidents typically involve flight inside clouds immediately
preceding the collision with terrain or obstacles. While CFIT accidents in IFR conditions can occur
during any phase of the flight, this discussion will focus on accidents occurring during the approach
phase. Their causes include the following:
A. Incorrectly-performed instrument approach procedures (IAPs): You must impress upon your
students that the nature of most IAPs, particularly the non-precision variety, makes them very
unforgiving of pilot oversights during the preparation for and execution of the approach.
1. Emphasize that a careful cross-check of the approach chart against the instrument
indications is absolutely necessary to alert the pilot to any error in his/her performance.
2. The following are some examples of errors in the performance of an IAP that could lead to a
CFIT accident:
a. Performing an approach with an incorrect altimeter setting could cause the pilot to
unintentionally descend below applicable minimum altitudes for the approach,
possibly resulting in a collision with terrain or obstacles.
i. EXAMPLE: If a controller informs a pilot that the altimeter setting at his/her
destination airport is “three zero one one (30.11" Hg),” but the pilot
misunderstands the controller and thinks that (s)he hears “three zero four one
(30.41" Hg),” his/her altimeter will indicate approximately 300 ft. higher than the
airplane’s actual altitude if the erroneous setting is used.
o Therefore, if the pilot conducts the approach with an altimeter setting of
30.41" Hg, his/her airplane will be approximately 300 ft. lower than the
indicated altitude at all times.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
22 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT)

ii. Point out that it is possible to cross check the altimeter indications against the
appropriate reference altitude for an on-glide slope indication at the outer
marker for most ILS approaches.
o Some ILS approaches and most non-precision approaches, however,
have NO way to verify the altimeter’s indications.
o Therefore, while it is not common practice to read back all altimeter
settings provided by ATC, you may wish to suggest that your students
read back any altimeter settings provided when anticipating an
instrument approach and nearing the terminal area.

b. Misreading or misunderstanding IAP charts can lead to hazardous errors such as

descending to the wrong altitude, descending to a lower altitude prior to reaching the
appropriate fix, setting the wrong radial or approach course into the OBS, tracking the
wrong NDB bearing, or incorrectly defining an intersection.
i. You must emphasize the importance of carefully verifying each item on an IAP
before performing the procedure. Rushed preparations for an approach,
particularly a non-precision approach, invite mistakes.
o EXAMPLE: The final approach fix for a localizer approach to Runway 27
is the intersection of the localizer and the 001 radial of a VOR that is
almost due south of the airport. A pilot might misread the approach chart
and set the 010 radial into the OBS as the cross-radial used to identify
the intersection.
■ As a result, the pilot will begin descent to the MDA too early,possibly
resulting in a CFIT accident.

RESULT OF MISREADING AN INSTRUMENT APPROACH CHART

TRUE ERRONEOUS FAF IF

FAF WRONG RADIAL IS USED

270°

PROPER RADIAL
RADIAL
SELECTED
BY MISTAKE
R001

R010

TRUE
FAF ERRONEOUS FAF

4000'
MAP
HIGH
TERRAIN
MDA = 1,700' Figure12_7
Instrument Approach Error

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT) 23

ii. Ensure that your students have an adequate working knowledge of IAP charts
by quizzing them on several different types of approaches in your area.
o Beginning at a specific altitude and a specific location on the chart, create
different scenarios and ask your students to explain everything that
would take place during the approach from the airplane’s initial location
through the completion of the missed approach procedure.
o Such quizzing is the best way to identify and correct misconceptions that
your students may have regarding the “what, where, when, how, and
why” of performing an instrument approach.

c. Misreading or misunderstanding instrument indications can cause a pilot to

maintain the wrong altitude, turn to the wrong heading, make improper corrections to
track a bearing or radial, etc.
i. You must ensure that your students fully understand the indications of each
flight instrument in order to avoid a CFIT event involving instrument
misinterpretation.
ii. The following flight instruments are particularly prone to misinterpretation, so
your student’s knowledge of them should be carefully evaluated during training:
o The magnetic compass can be misinterpreted due to magnetic dip
errors, compass card oscillation in turbulence, and the “backwards”
relationship between actual headings and headings indicated on the
compass.
o The three-pointer altimeter can easily be misinterpreted by hundreds or
thousands of feet if a pilot glances quickly at the instrument.
o The VOR instrument can be misinterpreted or misused in several ways,
including using an OBS setting that yields reverse sensing; not being
aware of reverse sensing during a back course approach; and
misunderstanding the relationship between the CDI, the OBS selection,
the airplane's heading, and the TO/FROM indicator.
o The horizontal situation indicator (HSI) can be misused by failing to use
a proper OBS setting for ILS, localizer, and back-course approaches,
possibly leading to reverse sensing. The instrument is also prone to
misinterpretation by pilots who are not familiar with its use.
o The ADF instrument can be confusing to pilots who are inexperienced
with the ADF or who are not current with its use. Pilots frequently
misinterpret their aircraft’s location relative to the desired bearing, their
orientation relative to the station, and the relationship between the
aircraft’s heading and its location relative to the NDB.

d. Failure to monitor navigation instruments for indications of failure or loss of

signal could result in a CFIT accident if the failure or signal loss occurs at a critical
phase of the approach.
i. Point out that the cockpit displays of VOR and ILS/localizer receivers fail with an
“on-course” indication; i.e., with the course deviation indicator and glide slope
needles centered.
o Typically, the only indication that a loss-of-signal has occurred is the
presence of one or two small flags on the face of the instrument.
■ These flags are usually orange or red in color, but the loss-of-signal
indication may be as subtle as the disappearance of a normal
TO/FROM indication.
o Explain that a pilot’s failure to notice the appearance of VOR/ILS warning
flags after becoming established on a segment of the approach means
that (s)he might think that the airplane is “staying right on course” when
all navigation guidance has been lost.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
24 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT)

ii. If an NDB stops providing a reliable signal, the ADF needle will simply remain in
the last position in which a usable signal was received.
o ADFs do not display flags to warn the pilot of unreliable instrument
indications.
■ The only way to ensure that an ADF’s indications are reliable is to
continually monitor the station identification over the speaker or
headset.
o Point out that if an ADF receiver failure or loss-of-signal occurs after the
pilot has become established on a segment of the approach, (s)he may
not realize that the instrument is no longer reliable because the ADF
needle will not move from the “on-course” indication as the result of a
failure.
■ As a result, the pilot may continue the approach with no navigation
guidance at all, possibly waiting for an instrument indication that will
never come (e.g., station passage) before taking further action
(e.g., executing a missed approach procedure).

e. Improper operation of navigation equipment or audio panels can cause a pilot to

believe that the navigation facility on which an approach is based has been tuned and
is ready for use when it is not.
i. Explain that many newer navigation receivers have two frequency displays one
for the “active” or “in use” frequency, and one for a “standby” or “next up”
frequency. A button is used to “flip-flop” back and forth between the standby
and active frequencies.
o Inform your students that frequency changes for this type of receiver are
typically made by using knobs to change the digits of the standby
frequency, and then using the flip-flop button to move the new frequency
into the active display.
o If a pilot simply tunes the new frequency in the standby display without
moving it to the active frequency display, the navigation receiver will not
be tuned to the desired facility.
■ Instead, it will be tuned to the previously-selected facility. If this
facility is no longer within reception range, the pilot should detect
the problem when no usable information appears on the navigation
display. If, however, the facility IS still in range, the pilot may
attempt to conduct the approach relative to the wrong facility,
possibly leading to a CFIT event.

ii. Another source of potential confusion is the presence of multiple VOR receivers
in most IFR-certified aircraft.
o A pilot may have properly tuned and identified a station on the No. 1 VOR
receiver, but attempt to navigate using the No. 2 VOR display.
■ Unless the No. 2 VOR receiver is tuned to the same station as the
No. 1 receiver, the pilot will not be able to navigate relative to the
proper facility.
o You must ensure that your students understand which VOR display
corresponds to each receiver.
iii. Many pilots do not take the time necessary to FULLY understand the functions
of the communication radios, navigation radios, and audio panel of their
airplanes.
o Confusion about the operation of any of these critical devices could lead to
a CFIT accident.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT) 25

B. Effects of fatigue and distractions on pilot performance: Remind your students that
instrument flying is an activity that requires a pilot’s complete attention in order to minimize risks
and maximize safety.
1. Many CFIT accidents have been shown to be the result of operational errors on the part of
the crew, mostly of the type discussed in item d. on page 20 that occurred as a result of
fatigue or distractions.
2. Impress upon your students that safely conducting an instrument approach requires that the
pilot maintain a rapid cross-check of the flight instruments, both against one another and
against the approach chart.
a. A rapid cross-check of the instruments against one another is essential in order to
maintain precise control of the airplane when close to terrain.
b. A rapid cross-check of the instruments against the approach chart is essential in order
to detect discrepancies in the pilot’s performance of the approach procedure.
3. Fatigue and distractions can significantly impede a pilot’s ability to cross-check all of the
items that are required to safely conduct an instrument approach.
a. Emphasize, therefore, that your students should not attempt to operate under IFR
unless they are confident that they can operate at “one hundred percent.”

C. Non-stabilized approaches: Inform your students that CFIT accidents sometimes occur when a
pilot who is conducting a non-precision approach allows the airplane to develop a very high sink
rate while close to the ground.
1. Explain that pilots typically allow high sink rates to develop because a lack of planning
causes them to run out of room in which to lose altitude at a reasonable rate.
a. As a result, the descent becomes rushed as the pilot attempts to lose hundreds or
thousands of feet in a relatively short distance.
b. The pilot must use a high rate of descent to reach the target altitude in the space
available.
2. Emphasize that establishing a stabilized approach is not a practice that is reserved for ILS
approaches. The use of a stabilized approach is recommended whenever possible.
a. A stabilized approach is an approach that is conducted at a constant airspeed and
along a constant glide path.
i. Such an approach offers greater control by requiring minimal power and attitude
changes in order to establish and recover from the descent.
ii. A stabilized approach also requires a minimal rate of descent to descend from
the initial altitude to the target altitude or runway.
b. Explain that, to use a stabilized approach while conducting a non-precision instrument
approach, some simple calculations are required in order to determine the necessary
rate of descent.
i. EXAMPLE: If the distance between the final approach fix and the missed
approach point is 6 NM and the airplane’s ground speed is 120 kt., the airplane
will cover the distance in 3 min.
o However, because the design of most non-precision approach procedures
places the missed approach point near the approach end of the runway,
it is desirable to reach the MDA 1-2 NM prior to the missed approach
point in order to allow sufficient room to complete the descent to a
landing.
■ Accordingly, reduce the distance in which to complete the descent
from 6 NM to 4 NM. At a ground speed of 120 kt., the airplane will
cover this distance in 2 min.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
26 Lesson 12: Avoiding Midair Collisions and Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT)

o If the airplane must descend from 1,500 ft. MSL to 500 ft. MSL (a change
of 1,000 ft.) in 2 min., a descent rate of 500 fpm is required in order to
reach the target altitude at a point that would allow sufficient room to
continue the descent from the MDA to a normal landing.

c. Tell your students that some pilots like to use a “minute-to-live” rule when performing
non-precision approaches, in which the airplane’s rate of descent is never allowed to
exceed its height above the terrain.
i. EXAMPLE: Passing through 1,000 ft. AGL, the maximum permissible descent
rate is no more than 1,000 fpm; passing through 800 ft. AGL, the maximum
permissible descent rate is no more than 800 fpm, etc.
ii. Adherence to such a rule will prevent the development of an unrecoverable sink
rate near the ground.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 1

GLEIM FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR REFRESHER COURSE

LESSON 13
FLIGHT INFORMATION PUBLICATIONS 2
13.1 FAA ADVISORY CIRCULAR (AC)
I. The FAA issues advisory circulars (ACs) to provide a systematic method of distributing
nonregulatory information that is of interest to the aviation public.
A. Advise your students that, unless incorporated into a regulation by reference, the contents of an
AC are not binding (i.e., they are only advisory in nature).
B. Explain that an AC is issued to provide guidance and information in its designated subject area or
to show a method acceptable to the FAA for complying with a related regulation.

II. Point out to your students that ACs are issued using a numbered system of general subject matter
areas that correspond to the subject areas in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14
CFR).
A. The general subject numbers and the subject areas are as follows:

00-- General
10-- Procedural Rules
20-- Aircraft
60-- Airmen
70-- Airspace
90-- Air Traffic and General Operating Rules
120-- Air Carriers, Air Travel Clubs, and Operators for Compensation or Hire: Certification and
Operations
140-- Schools and Other Certificated Agencies
150-- Airport Noise Compatibility Planning
170-- Navigational Facilities
180-- Administrative Regulations
190-- Withholding Security Information
210-- Flight Information (NOTE: This series is about aeronautical charts and does not relate to
a part of the regulations.)

III. ACs are frequently revised by the FAA. As an instructor, it is important for you to be aware of the
most current ACs that affect your flight training activities.
A. The FAA provides a free list of all current ACs called the Advisory Circular Checklist, AC 00-2.
Use the order form on page 2 to request a copy.
B. If no price is listed after the AC, it is free.
C. If a price is listed after the AC description, the AC is sold by the Superintendent of Documents,
U.S. Government Printing Office. When “(Sub.)” is included with the price, the AC is available on
a subscription basis only. This means that supplements or changes to the basic document will be
sent to you at no additional charge until the subscription expires.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
2 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2

ORDER BLANK [Free Publications] DATE ___ / ___ / ___

For Faster Service Use a Self-Addressed Mailing Label When
Not Using This Blank. Please Print Or Type All Information

Mail to: U.S. Department of Transportation

Subsequent Distribution Office, SVC-121.23
Ardmore East Business Center
3341 Q 75th Avenue
Landover, MD 20785
Help Line: FAX REQUEST TO 301-386-5395 DOT Warehouse
301-322-4961

NUMBER TITLE QUANTITY

SVC-121.23
Request Filled By: Date ___ / ___ / ___

1. Out of Stock [reorder in days]* * 3. Canceled, no replacement

2. Being revised 4. Canceled by ___________ [enclosed]

5. Other:

* * IF YOU DO NOT RECEIVE DESIRED PUBLICATION(S) AFTER YOUR SECOND

REQUEST PLEASE CALL FAA'S TOLL-FREE CONSUMER HOTLINE: 1-800-FAA-SURE.
TO COMPLETE ORDER: Enter Name and Address DO NOT DETACH.
NAME

STREET ADDRESS

CITY STATE ZIP CODE

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2 3

13.2 AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION MANUAL (AIM)

I. The Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) provides pilots with a vast amount of basic flight
information and explanations of ATC procedures that are used in the U.S. National Airspace
System (NAS).
A. Explain to your students that this information is vital to their understanding of the structure and
operation of the ATC system and their role within it.

II. Your students should be aware that the AIM is also a reference that contains items of general
interest to all pilots.
A. These items include
1. Health and medical facts
2. Factors affecting flight safety
3. Pilot/controller glossary of terms used in the ATC system
4. Information on safety, accident, and hazard reporting
B. Accordingly, your students should familiarize themselves with the contents of the AIM during their
training, both for the purpose of initially learning the material and for later use of the documentas
a reference book.
III. Explain that the AIM has a comprehensive and useful index to help your students find topics of
interest.
IV. Your students should be aware that, like most FAA publications, the AIM is updated periodically.
The AIM is published as a basic manual every 24 months, with page changes issued approximately
every 170 days by the FAA.
A. A basic manual with scheduled page changes for an indeterminate period is available from the
Government Printing Office at (202) 512-1806 for $74. MasterCard, VISA, and Discover are
accepted.

V. AIM Chapters and Section Titles

A. CHAPTER 1. NAVIGATION AIDS
Section 1. Air Navigation Radio Aids
Section 2. Radar Services and Procedures
B. CHAPTER 2. AERONAUTICAL LIGHTING AND OTHER AIRPORT VISUAL AIDS
Section 1. Airport Lighting Aids
Section 2. Air Navigation and Outstanding Lighting
Section 3. Airport Marking Aids and Signs
C. CHAPTER 3. AIRSPACE
Section 1. General
Section 2. Controlled Airspace
Section 3. Class G Airspace
Section 4. Special Use Airspace
Section 5. Other Airspace Areas
D. CHAPTER 4. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
Section 1. Services Available to Pilots
Section 2. Radio Communications Phraseology and Techniques
Section 3. Airport Operations
Section 4. ATC Clearances/Separations

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 4 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2

E. CHAPTER 5. AIR TRAFFIC PROCEDURES

Section 1. Preflight
Section 2. Departure Procedures
Section 3. En Route Procedures
Section 4. Arrival Procedures
Section 5. Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities
Section 6. National Security and Interception Procedures
F. CHAPTER 6. EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
Section 1. General
Section 2. Emergency Services Available to Pilots
Section 3. Distress and Urgency Procedures
Section 4. Two-Way Radio Communications Failure
G. CHAPTER 7. SAFETY OF FLIGHT
Section 1. Meteorology
Section 2. Altimeter Setting Procedures
Section 3. Wake Turbulence
Section 4. Bird Hazards and Flight over National Refuges, Parks, and Forests
Section 5. Potential Flight Hazards
Section 6. Safety, Accident, and Hazard Reports
H. CHAPTER 8. MEDICAL FACTS FOR PILOTS
Section 1. Fitness for Flight
I. CHAPTER 9. AERONAUTICAL CHARTS AND RELATED PUBLICATIONS
Section 1. Types of Charts Available
J. APPENDICES
Appendix 1. Bird Strike Incident/Ingestion Report
Appendix 2. Volcanic Activity Reporting Form (VAR)
K. PILOT/CONTROLLER GLOSSARY
L. INDEX

13.3 NOTICE TO AIRMEN (NOTAM) SYSTEM

I. The National Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) System disseminates time-critical aeronautical information
that either is of a temporary nature or is not sufficiently known in advance to permit publication on
aeronautical charts or in other operational publications.
A. Emphasize to your students that NOTAM information is aeronautical information that could affect
their decision to make a flight.

II. Explain that NOTAM information is classified into three categories.

A. NOTAM (D), or distant NOTAM, includes information such as airport or primary runway closures;
changes in the status of navigational aids, ILSs, and radar service availability; and other
information essential to planned en route, terminal, or landing operations.
1. This information is disseminated for all navigational facilities that are part of the National
Airspace System (NAS), public-use airports, seaplane bases, and heliports listed in the
Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD).
2. The complete file of all NOTAM (D) information is maintained in a computer database at the
Weather Message Switching Center (WMSC), located in Atlanta, Georgia.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2 5

3. Explain that NOTAM (D) information is distributed to air traffic facilities, primarily flight
service stations (FSSs), automatically via Service A (weather) communications systems.
a. Your students should know that NOTAM (D) information is obtained from a standard
pilot briefing, and that these NOTAMs are available to the briefer for the proposed
route.
b. Direct User Access Terminal System (DUATS) vendors will also provide NOTAM (D)
information that is available from the WMSC.
4. EXAMPLE: TLH 04/009 TLH 9-27 CLSD TIL 07182359 means that this NOTAM is part of
the Tallahassee Regional (TLH) NOTAM file and is the ninth NOTAM of the fourth month.
The NOTAM states that TLH runway 9-27 is closed until July 18 (0718) at 2359Z.
5. Tell your students that NOTAM (D) information will remain available from the WMSC for the
duration of its validity or until it is published.
a. Once published, the NOTAM is deleted from the computer database.

B. NOTAM (L), or local NOTAM, includes information such as taxiway closures, personnel and
equipment near or crossing runways, airport rotating beacon outages, and airport lighting that
does not affect instrument approach procedure (IAP) criteria (e.g., VASI).
1. Explain to your students that the information contained in these NOTAMs is not generally
considered critical to long-distance flight planning; e.g., few pilots would cancel a
cross-country flight due to an inoperative airport beacon.
2. Accordingly, a separate file of local NOTAMs is maintained at each FSS for only the facilities
in its area.
a. NOTAM (L) information for other FSS areas must be specifically requested directly
from the FSS that has responsibility for the airport concerned.
b. Since NOTAM (L) information is only distributed locally, it is not available at other
FSSs via the weather communication system.
3. Direct User Access Terminal System (DUATS) vendors are not required to provide NOTAM
(L) information.
C. A Flight Data Center (FDC) NOTAM is regulatory in nature and includes information such as
amendments to published IAPs and other current aeronautical charts.
1. FDC NOTAMs are also used to advertise temporary flight restrictions caused by natural
disasters, large-scale public events, or other phenomena that may generate a congestion
of air traffic over a site.
a. Emphasize to your students that temporary flight restrictions in the vicinity of
potentially vulnerable sites have become common following the terrorist acts of
September 11, 2001. These flight restrictions frequently appear with little advance
notice.
b. Accordingly, it is essential that pilots obtain a preflight briefing prior to every flight.
2. Explain to your students that FSSs are responsible for maintaining a file of current,
unpublished FDC NOTAMs concerning conditions within 400 NM of their facilities.
a. Explain that FDC information that concerns conditions beyond 400 NM from the FSS
or that is already published will be provided only when requested.
3. DUATS vendors will provide FDC NOTAMs only upon site-specific requests using a location
identifier.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 6 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2

III. The Notices to Airmen Publication (NTAP) is issued every 28 days and is an integral part of the
NOTAM System. Once a NOTAM is published in the NTAP, the NOTAM is not provided during
pilot weather briefings unless specifically requested.
A. Explain that the NTAP consists of two sections.
1. The first section contains NOTAMs (D) that are expected to remain in effect for an extended
period and FDC NOTAMs that are current at the time of publication.
a. Occasionally, some NOTAMs (L) and other unique information are included in this
section when they will contribute to flight safety.
2. The second section contains special notices that either are too long to be integrated into the
first section or that concern a wide or unspecified geographic area.
B. Inform your students that the number of the latest FDC NOTAM included in the NTAP is noted on
the first page to assist them in updating the listing with any FDC NOTAMs that may have been
issued between the cut-off date and the date the publication is received.
1. All information contained in the NTAP will be carried until the information expires, is
canceled, or, in the case of permanent conditions, is published in other publications
(e.g.,A/FD, aeronautical charts, etc.).
C. All new NOTAMs entered, excluding FDC NOTAMs, will be published only if the information is
expected to remain in effect for at least 7 days after the effective date of the NTAP.

IV. NOTAM information is not available from a Supplemental Weather Service Location (SWSL).
A. An SWSL is an airport facility staffed with contract personnel who take weather observations and
provide current local weather to pilots via telephone or radio.
B. An SWSL is not a flight service station (FSS).

V. The NTAP is available through subscription from the Government Printing Office at a cost of $208
per year.

13.4 THE FAA’S FLIGHT INFORMATION PUBLICATION POLICY

I. The following is, in essence, the statement issued by the FAA Administrator and published in the
December 10, 1964 issue of the Federal Register, concerning the FAA policy pertaining to the kind
of information that will be published as NOTAMs and in the AIM.
A. It is a pilot’s inherent responsibility to be alert at all times for, and in anticipation of, all
circumstances, situations, and conditions affecting the safe operation of the aircraft.
1. For example, a pilot should expect to find air traffic at any time or place.
2. At or near both civil and military airports and in the vicinity of known training areas, a pilot
should expect concentrated air traffic and understand that concentrations of air traffic are
not limited to these places.
B. It is the general practice of the FAA to advertise by NOTAM or other flight information publications
any information it may deem appropriate; information that the agency may make available to
pilots from time to time is solely for the purpose of assisting them in executing their regulatory
responsibilities.
1. Such information serves the aviation community as a whole and not pilots individually.
C. The fact that the FAA under one particular situation or another may or may not furnish information
does not serve as a precedent of the FAA’s responsibility to the aviation community; neither does
it give assurance that other information of the same or a similar nature will be advertised, nor
does it guarantee that any and all information known to the agency will be advertised.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2 7

D. The AIM, while not regulatory, provides information that reflects examples of operating techniques
and procedures that may be requirements in other federal publications or regulations.
1. It is made available solely to assist pilots in executing their responsibilities required by other
publications.

II. Consistent with the above, the policy of the FAA shall be to furnish information only when, in the
opinion of the FAA, a unique situation should be advertised and not to furnish routine information
such as concentrations of air traffic, either civil or military.
A. The AIM will not contain informative items concerning everyday circumstances that pilots should,
either by good practices or regulation, expect to encounter or avoid.

13.5 AIRPORT/FACILITY DIRECTORY (A/FD)

I. The Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) is a Civil Flight Information Publication published by the National
Aeronautical Charting Office (NACO), a division of the FAA.
A. Your students should be aware that this directory is issued in seven volumes, each covering a
specific geographic area of the conterminous U.S. (including Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin
Islands), as shown below.

ME
NORTHEAST
VT
NH
MA
WA NY
RI
MT ND MN
CT
NORTHWEST WI MI NJ
OR PA
SD EAST CENTRAL DE
ID
NORTH CENTRAL OH MD
WY
IN WV VA
NE IA IL
NV
KY NC
UT MO
CO
KS
CA SOUTHWEST TN SC
SOUTHEAST
OK AR GA
AZ AL
NM
MS
SOUTH CENTRAL
LA FL
TX
Including Puerto Rico
and the Virgin Islands

Figure13_2
AFD Areas

B. Inform your students that each volume of the AF/D is reissued in its entirety every 56 days.
C. Explain that each volume is indexed alphabetically by state, airport, navigational aid, and ATC
facility for the area of coverage.
1. All pertinent information concerning each entry is included.
D. Subscriptions to the publication are for sale by the
FAA Distribution Division
AVN-530
National Aeronautical Charting Office
Riverdale, MD 20737-1199
Telephone: (800) 638-8972

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 8 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2

II. Emphasize to your students that use of the A/FD is a vital part of cross-country flight planning, and
that a copy should be aboard the airplane during the flight.
A. Explain that simply having an appropriate VFR sectional chart is insufficient for cross-country flight
planning because the A/FD shows data that cannot be readily depicted in graphic form; e.g.,
airport hours of operations, types of fuel available, runway lengths, etc.
B. All pertinent information regarding airports, seaplane bases, and heliports open to the public; FSS
contact information; communication frequencies; etc., is contained in this directory.
1. The A/FD also contains National Weather Service telephone numbers listed alphabetically
by state.
2. The Aeronautical Chart Bulletin section contains a listing of major changes (e.g., new
frequencies, obstructions, etc.) to each sectional, VFR terminal area, and helicopter route
chart within each chart cycle.

III. Table of Contents of the A/FD

1. Abbreviations
2. Legend, Airport/Facility Directory
3. Airport/Facility Directory
4. Heliports
5. Seaplane Bases
6. Notices
7. FAA and National Weather Service Telephone Numbers
8. Air Route Traffic Control Centers
9. Flight Service Station Communication Frequencies
10. FSDO (Flight Standards District Office) Addresses/Telephone Numbers
11. Preferred IFR Routes
12. VOR Receiver Check
13. Parachute Jumping Areas
14. Aeronautical Chart Bulletin
15. Tower En Route Control (TEC)
16. National Weather Service (NWS) Upper Air Observing Stations
17. En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS)

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2 9

IV. VOR Checkpoints

A. Explain to your students that VOR checkpoints are one means of checking VOR receiver
accuracy.
1. Using a VOR test facility (VOT) or performing a VOR cross-check are the other approved
methods.
B. VOR receiver checkpoints are listed in a separate section of the A/FD as the excerpt below
illustrates. They include
1. Facility (airport) name
2. Frequency and identification
3. Type of checkpoint: identified as ground (G) or airborne (A)
a. Includes altitude if an airborne checkpoint
4. Checkpoint's magnetic direction from the VOR (i.e., radial)
5. Checkpoint's distance from the VOR in nautical miles (NM)
6. Checkpoint description
C. Example listing

KENTUCKY
VOR RECEIVER CHECKPOINTS
Type Azimuth
Checkpt. from Dist.
Gnd. Fac. from Fac.
Facility Name (Arpt Name) Freq/Ident AB/ALT Mag N.M. Checkpoint Description

Bowling Green-Warren Co........................... 117.9/BWG G 023 2.2 On twy in front of Admin

Bldg.
Central City (Muhlenberg Co)........................ 109.8/CCT A/2500 149 11.0 Over intersection of rwy 23
and central taxiway
Cincinnati (Greater Cincinnati)...................... 117.3/CVG G 045 2.5 On twy m E of twy B
Clarksville (Campbell AAF)........................... 110.6/CKV G 298 5 On end of old rwy 36 near
Maltese Cross
Clarksville (Hopkinsville-Christian Co)............. 110.6/CKV A/2000 345 13.5 Over hangar
Cunningham (Barkley)................................. 113.6/CNG G 043 4.6 Intersection of taxiways
and west corner of ramp
London (London-Corbin Arpt-Magee Fld)......... 116.1/LOZ G 034 3.8 On parking ramp taxiway
entry

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 10 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2

13.6 VFR NAVIGATION CHARTS

I. The National Aeronautical Charting Office (NACO), which is part of the FAA, publishes and sells civil
aeronautical charts of the United States and its territories and possessions. Summarize the types
of charts most commonly used under VFR for your students, including
A. Sectional charts. The scale is 1:500,000 (1 in. = 6.86 NM).
1. Explain that this chart is normally used for VFR navigation.
B. VFR terminal area charts. The scale is 1:250,000 (1 in. = 3.43 NM).
1. Explain that VFR terminal area charts are published for use in Class B areas. The
information found on these charts is similar to that found on sectional charts, but is
presented in greater detail due to the larger scale. The greater detail assists pilots in
navigating in and around Class B airspace areas.
2. Most of the sectional and VFR terminal area charts are revised semiannually.
C. World aeronautical charts. The scale is 1:1,000,000 (1 in. = 13.7 NM).
1. Explain that these charts are very similar to sectional charts except they cover larger areas
so they have a smaller scale.
2. These charts are generally revised annually.

II. Explain that sectional and VFR terminal area charts are designed for visual navigation by slow- and
medium-speed aircraft.
A. The topographical information featured on these charts portrays surface elevation levels and a
great number of visual checkpoints that can be used for VFR flight.
1. Checkpoints include populated places, lakes, rivers, roads, railroads, and other distinctive
landmarks.
2. Emphasize to your students that some items shown on VFR charts may not accurately
depict reality due to various factors.
a. EXAMPLE: The boundaries of lakes, rivers, and other bodies of water can vary
significantly from what is shown on the chart due to drought, heavy rain, erosion, etc.

B. Point out that the information shown on sectional charts includes visual and radio aids to
navigation, airports, controlled airspace, restricted areas, obstructions, and related data.
C. On the back of selected VFR terminal area charts is a Charted VFR Flyway Planning Chart. The
scale is the same as the terminal area chart.
1. Explain that flyway planning charts depict flight paths and altitudes recommended for use to
bypass high traffic areas.
a. Ground references are provided as a guide for visual orientation.
2. Flyway planning charts are designed for use in conjunction with terminal area and sectional
charts and are not to be used for navigation.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2 11

III. Each rectangle on the U.S. map (shown below) is an area covered by one sectional chart. A
magenta square indicates a VFR terminal area chart.
°
Figure13_4 48
Sectional Charts - US
Eastern 69°
AX
LIF
°
Pacific Standard 44
125 Standard
Central HA 61
°
49° ° Mountain Standard 77°
Standard AL
117
° RE
85° NT Atlantic
109° 93° MO
SEA 101° ON Standard
TTL H UR
E
44° GREA L AKE
30'
FALL T RK
S BILLINGS BAY YO
TWIN CITIES GREEN NE
W
40
°

KLA
M IT
FAL ATH SALT DE TRO
LS LAK O
CITY E CHICAG
40°
CHEYENNE
OMAHA TON
NG
SHI
FRA SAN AT I WA 36°
NCIS CI NN 72°
UIS CIN
36°
C O LAS V
EGA ST. LO
S KANSAS
DENVER
WICHITA CITY
TTE
RLO
L CHA
ANG OS 32°
ELE N TA 75°
S ATLA
32° HIS
122 PHOEN ALBUQUERQU DALLAS- MEMP
° IX E
FT. WORTH
E
31°1 VILL
SON
5'
116°
JACK 28°
N NEW S
HOUSTO AN
SAN ORLE
EL PASO
ANTONIO 85°
28° 91° MI
109° MIA 24°
77°

BROWNSVILLE
83°

24°
Terminal Area Chart 103° 97°

Sectional and VFR Terminal Area Charts for the Conterminous U.S.

171°30'
157° 141°
72°
72°
CAPE
LISBURNE
68° POINT 132°
BARROW 68°

64° NOME FAIRBANKS DAWSON

64°

ANCHORAGE
BETHEL
Anchorage WHITEHORSE
50°40' MCGRATH 60°
53°
SEWARD
WE 56°
16 ST 56°
9°E ER
N JUNEAU
ALE KODIAK
ISL UTIA 141°
17 AN N DUTCH 151°30'
8° DS COLD BAY
HARBOR 52°
KETCHIKAN
173 155° 130°
° 51° 52°
164° 139°

VFR Terminal Area Chart Indicates annual revision

Figure13_5
Sectional Charts - Alaska

Sectional and VFR Terminal Area Charts for Alaska

IV. Explain that world aeronautical charts (WACs) are designed to provide a standard series of
aeronautical charts, covering land areas of the world, at a size and scale convenient for navigation
by moderate-speed aircraft.
A. Topographic information includes cities and towns, principal roads, railroads, distinctive landmarks,
drainage, and relief.
1. Relief is shown by spot elevations, contours, and gradient tints.
B. Aeronautical information includes visual and radio aids to navigation, airports, airways, restricted
areas, obstructions, and other pertinent data.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 12 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2

V. Emphasize that obsolete charts must be discarded and replaced by new editions. This is important
because revisions in aeronautical information occur constantly.
A. These revisions include changes in radio frequencies, new obstructions, temporary or permanent
closing of certain runways and airports, and other temporary or permanent hazards to flight.
B. Point out, however, that even current charts may have outdated information, so it is important to
refer to the Aeronautical Chart Bulletin section of the AF/D, in addition to obtaining any FDC
NOTAMs from an FSS briefer.

VI. Inform your students that VFR aeronautical charts are available from the National Aeronautical
Charting Office on an individual or subscription basis. For information contact:

FAA Distribution Division

AVN-530
National Aeronautical Charting Office
Riverdale, MD 20737-1199
Telephone: (800) 638-8972 (from within U.S.)

A. Charts are also available at most FBOs and pilot supply stores.

13.7 AIRSPACE CLASSIFICATIONS AND CHART DEPICTIONS

I. Ensure that your students understand the following information about airspace depiction on VFR
charts:
A.
B. Class
Class A
B airspace
airspace:is not shown.
1. The lateral limits of Class B airspace are depicted by heavy blue lines on a sectional or
terminal area chart.
a. Explain that the vertical limits (i.e., floor and ceiling) of each sector of a Class B
airspace area are shown in hundreds of feet MSL, separated by a horizontal line (see
item A.2.c. below).
2. The boundaries of a 30-NM radius from the primary Class B airport, within which an
altitude-reporting transponder (Mode C) is required regardless of aircraft altitude, is
depicted for each Class B area by a thin magenta circle.
a. Explain to your students that this "Mode C veil" is not technically a type of airspace.
b. Rather, it is simply a ring on the chart that indicates the area within 30 NM of the
primary Class B airport, and thus where a Mode C transponder is required.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2 13

3. Class B airspace is shown on the chart as in the example below.

a. Class B vertical limits in this example are
i. From the surface (SFC) to 10,000 ft. MSL (100) in the inner circle
ii. From 3,000 ft. MSL (30) to 10,000 ft. MSL in the middle circle
iii. From 5,000 ft. MSL (50) to 10,000 ft. MSL in the outer circle
CLASS B AIRSPACE
On sectional charts, Class B
airspace boundaries are
depicted by heavy blue lines.

Figure 13_6
Class B Airspace

b. Emphasize to your students that they may be within the lateral boundaries of Class B
airspace while still remaining clear of the airspace by being below the floor of that
particular airspace sector.
C. Class C airspace:
1. The lateral limits of Class C airspace are depicted by solid magenta lines on sectional and
some terminal area charts.
a. The vertical limits of each sector are shown in hundreds of feet MSL.
2. Class C airspace is shown on the chart as in the example below.
a. Class C airspace vertical limits in the example extend
i. From the surface (SFC) to 4,500 ft. MSL (45) in the surface area
ii. From 1,700 ft. MSL (17) to 4,500 ft. MSL in the shelf area
b. Remind your students that they may be within the lateral boundaries of Class C
airspace while still remaining clear of the airspace by being below the floor or above
the ceiling of that particular airspace sector.

c. The dashed magenta line in the example above shows an area of Class E airspace
extending upward from the surface to the overlying Class C airspace.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
14 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2

D. Class D airspace
1. The lateral limits of Class D airspace are depicted by dashed blue lines on a sectional or
terminal area chart.
a. The ceiling is shown within the circle in hundreds of feet MSL.
2. Class D airspace is shown on the chart as in the example below.
a. The ceilings of Class D airspace in the examples are 2,600 ft. MSL.
b. Again, remind your students that they may be within the lateral boundaries of Class D
airspace while still remaining clear of the airspace by being above the ceiling.
c. On sectional charts, a dashed magenta line (see right side of the example below)
illustrates an area of Class E airspace extending upward from the surface.

E. Class E airspace
1. A dashed magenta line around an airport indicates Class E airspace extending upward from
the surface to the base of the overlying airspace (often Class A airspace).

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2 15

2. A light magenta-shaded line indicates Class E airspace extending upward from 700 ft. AGL
to the base of the overlying airspace.

3. The symbol shown below indicates Class E airspace extending upward from the indicated
altitude to the base of the overlying airspace. On sectional charts, it is illustrated in blue.

F. Class G airspace
1. Explain to your students that Class G airspace is not indicated by special chart symbols.
Rather, Class G airspace is understood to exist in those areas that are not shown by chart
symbols to be other airspace classes.
2. For example, Class G airspace that extends upward to the floor of Class E airspace
beginning at 14,500 ft. MSL is indirectly depicted by the distinct side of a light blue-shaded
line on a sectional or terminal area chart, as shown below.
a. Note that Class E airspace begins at 1,200 ft. AGL or higher on the fuzzy side of the
blue line.

3. Class G airspace that underlies Class B, C, D, or E airspace is implied -- it is not directly

indicated on the chart.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 16 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2

13.8 IFR NAVIGATION CHARTS

I. IFR Enroute Low Altitude Charts
A. Explain that enroute low altitude charts provide aeronautical information for navigation under IFR
conditions below 18,000 ft. MSL. There are 28 charts that cover the conterminous U.S. These
charts are revised every 56 days.
1. IFR low altitude enroute charts depict airways, controlled airspace boundaries, NAVAIDs,
airports, minimum operating altitudes, airway distances, reporting points, special-use
airspace, and military training routes.
B. Tell your students that the scale of IFR enroute low altitude charts varies from 1 inch = 5 NM to 1
inch = 20 NM, and that they will need a special IFR plotter because VFR plotters do not have
appropriate scales for IFR charts.
C. IFR Area Charts supplement low altitude enroute charts by depicting congested terminal areas at a
large scale.

II. IFR Enroute High Altitude Charts

A. Explain that enroute high altitude charts are designed for navigation at or above 18,000 ft. MSL.
There are 6 charts that cover the conterminous U.S. These charts are revised every 56 days.
1. IFR high altitude enroute charts depict jet routes, NAVAIDs, selected airports, and reporting
points.
B. Inform your students that, like the low altitude charts, IFR high altitude enroute charts use more
than one scale.

III. U.S. Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP)

A. TPPs are used for navigation in terminal areas. TPPs are published in 20 loose-leaf or bound
volumes that cover the conterminous U.S., Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands.
B. Explain that the TPPs include the following types of charts:
1. Instrument Approach Procedure (IAP) charts
a. These charts portray the aeronautical data that is required to execute instrument
approaches to airports, including the IAP, related navigation data, communications
information, and an airport sketch.
2. Instrument Departure Procedure (DP) charts
a. These charts are designed to expedite clearance delivery and to facilitate transition
between takeoff and enroute operations.
b. Departure routing clearance information is presented in graphic and textual form.
3. Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) charts
a. These charts are designed to expedite ATC arrival procedures and to facilitate
transition between enroute and instrument approach operations.
b. STARs depict preplanned IFR ATC arrival procedures in graphic and textual form.
c. Point out to your students that each STAR procedure may serve multiple airports in a
given area.
4. Airport Diagrams
a. These full-page diagrams of the airport layout depict runways, taxiways, and ramp
areas.
b. Airport diagrams are designed to assist in the movement of ground traffic at locations
with complex runway/taxiway configurations.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2 17

C. Inform your students that IFR aeronautical charts are available from the National Aeronautical
Charting Office (NACO) on an individual or subscription basis, as well as most FBOs and pilot
shops.
1. Contact information for the NACO is listed in Module 13.6, item F.

IV. Impress on your students that it is absolutely critical to discard obsolete IFR charts and replace them
with new editions.
A. The presence of a new obstacle or a relocated NAVAID could make the use of old charts for IFR
operations potentially deadly.
B. Remind your students, however, that even current charts may contain outdated information, so it is
important to refer to the Aeronautical Chart Bulletin section of the AF/D, in addition to obtaining
any FDC NOTAMs from an FSS briefer.

13.9 IFR CHART SYMBOLS

I. Ensure that your instrument students are familiar with the following IFR chart symbols (NACO charts
only):
A. IFR Enroute Low Altitude charts
1. Airports, seaplane bases, and heliports are depicted on low altitude en route charts using
the following standard symbols:

Figure13_13
Airport Symbols

a. Explain that airports shown in blue or green have a published IAP, while those shown
in brown do not.
b. The distinction between blue and green airports is only of interest to military pilots.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
18 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2

2. The following information is contained in the airport information block:

Figure13_14
Airport Name Key

3. NAVAIDs, their frequencies, and associated information are shown using the following
symbols:

Figure13_15
Chart NAVAID Symbols

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2 19

4. Victor airways, airway segments, and other route structure information is shown with the
following symbols:

Figure13_16
Chart Symbols

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
20 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2

5. Use a local IFR low altitude en route chart to quiz your students on their understanding of
the chart symbols.
a. One good way to test a student’s broad understanding of chart symbols and
regulations is to use scenarios, rather than asking direct questions.
a. EXAMPLE (see figure below): Instead of asking, “What is the minimum crossing
altitude (MCA) at Roseburg VOR/DME (RBG),” ask, “If you experience a loss of radio
communications while traveling southeast bound on V121 between North Bend
VORTAC (OTH) and Roseburg VOR/DME (RBG) at your last assigned altitude of
5,000 ft., at what minimum altitude should you cross RBG if the next fix along your
assigned route is KOLER intersection?”
i. ANSWER: 5,000 ft.
ii. This kind of question tests your student's knowledge of chart symbols,
regulations, and lost communications procedures simultaneously, and a correct
response indicates a thorough understanding of each subject.

Figure13_17
En Route Chart Segment

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2 21

B. Instrument Approach Procedure (IAP) charts.

NOTE: This discussion focuses only on some of the more-critical IAP chart symbols; additional symbols
can be found in the U.S. Terminal Procedures Publication legend.

1. IAP charts consist of 5 sections:

a. The briefing section lists critical information about the approach procedure, including
the navigation and communication frequencies, final approach course heading,
runway length, airport elevation, and missed approach procedure.
i. EXAMPLE:

Figure13_18
IAP Briefing Section

b. The planview consists of an overhead view of the entire IAP, including feeder routes,
initial approach fixes, the procedure track, the missed approach track, and some
minimum altitudes.
i. Below are some of the important planview symbols:
165˚ RADIO AIDS TO NAVIGATION
Procedure Track
345˚
110.1 Underline indicates No Voice transmitted on this
Procedure Turn frequency
Missed Approach
(Type degree and point VOR VOR/DME TACAN VORTAC
Visual Flight Path of turn optional)
NDB NDB/DME WAYPOINT

3100 NoPT 5.6 NM to GS Intcpt WAYPOINT

FLYOVER
MAP WP COLLOCATED
045˚ WAYPOINT
WITH NAVAID
(14.2 to LOM)
Minimum Altitude
LOM (compass locator at Outer Marker)
2000
155˚ Marker Beacon
Feeder Route (15.1)Mileage
Penetrates Special Use Airspace

Localizer (LOC/LDA) Course

HOLDING PATTERNS
SDF Course
In lieu of Arrival Missed
Procedure Turn Approach
Primary Nav Aid Secondary
270˚ 360˚ 360˚ with INS data Nav Aid

090˚ 180˚ 180˚ LIMA

LMM
114.5 LIM
LIMA
Chan 92
248 NT
S12 00.80'
MINIMUM SAFE ALTITUDE (MSA) W77 07.00'

A CRW 25 NM
MS
180˚

Facility
Identifier 1500 2200

090˚ 270˚

4500 2500
360˚

(ARROWS ON DISTANCE CIRCLE IDENTIFY SECTORS)

Figure13_19
IAP Chart Symbols

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
22 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2

c. The profile view consists of a side view of the IAP, including any required course
reversal, the final approach fix (FAF), the missed approach point (MAP), and all
minimum altitudes except the minimum descent altitude (MDA) or decision
altitude/height (DA/H).
i. Below are some of the important profile view symbols:

PROFILE SYMBOLS ALTITUDES

Final Approach Fix (FAF) Mandatory Altitude

(for non-precision approaches) 5500

2500 Minimum Altitude

Glide Slope/Glide Path Intercept
Altitude and Final Approach Fix Maximum Altitude
for precision approaches. Unless 4300
otherwise indicated the non-precision
2400 final approach altitude is to be 3000 Recommended Altitude
maintained until the next fix.

Visual Descent Point (VDP)

Visual Flight Path

320˚
Remain within LOM
2400 10 NM Glide Slope Altitude
125˚ at Outer Marker/FAF
˚
Teardrop Turn 307 FAF (non-precision approaches)
Procedure Turn
2156 ILS
2400 Glide Slope Missed Approach Point
127˚
Glide Slope GS 3.00˚
Threshold Crossing Height 2400 Missed Approach Track
TCH 100
Glide Slope Intercept Altitude Airport Profiles
(Primary)
(Secondary)

DESCENT FROM HOLDING PATTERN

VOR VOR
127˚ 1600 127˚ 1600
307˚ 307˚
7˚ 7˚ 12 MAP WPT
30 30 Final Approach 7˚
Angle for Vertical
Path Computers
1300 (RNAV Descent) 3.02˚

Figure13_20
IAP Profile View

d. The minimums section lists the MDA or DA/H and visibility or runway visual range
(RVR) requirements for straight-in and circling approaches applicable to each aircraft
category.
i. Below is an explanation of the contents of the minimums section:

Figure13_21
IAP Landing Minima

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 13: Flight Information Publications 2 23

e. The airport diagram depicts the layout of runways and taxiways, runway distance
information, runway lighting information, and nearby obstacles.
i. EXAMPLE:

Figure13_22
IAP Airport Diagram

2. You must impress upon your instrument students the importance of having immediate
familiarity with IAP chart symbols.
a. Explain that this familiarity is critical because the information contained in IAP charts is
used to ensure clearance from terrain, obstructions, and conflicting traffic.
b. Even momentary confusion about the meaning of an IAP chart symbol while operating
under IFR could prove fatal.
3. As with IFR low altitude en route charts, use a local IAP chart to quiz your students on their
understanding of chart symbols.
a. Again, scenario-based questions are better than direct questions for evaluating the
student's understanding of IAPs.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 1

GLEIM FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR REFRESHER COURSE

LESSON 14
THE FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION
14.1 GENERAL
I. Explain to your students early in their training that the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
regulates how you train your students and how they will fly on their own at the completion of their
training.
A. Therefore, it is important for your students to have a good understanding of the FAA’s mission and
how that mission affects their flying activities.
1. Your students need to know what to expect from the FAA.
2. With this knowledge, they will be able to deal with the FAA from a position of understanding
and confidence, rather than fear and avoidance.

II. The FAA’s role is to promote safe flight by establishing rules and providing services for the benefit of
ALL PILOTS.
A. Impress upon your students that the FAA is the cornerstone of the best, easiest-to-use,
least-expensive, and most-accessible aviation environment in the world. Our system has been
established for the benefit of pilots, and pilots need to support it.
1. EXAMPLE: Pilots frequently encounter other pilots, and even flight instructors, complaining
about the FAA and its regulations.
a. Remind your students that our system is not perfect, but it is the best aviation
regulatory system in the world.
b. Encourage your students to help make the system better by
i. Recognizing it as the best in the world.
ii. Supporting the FAA’s efforts to promote safe flight.
iii. Contributing to the development and maintenance of the system by joining and
supporting organizations such as AOPA and EAA, which function as liaisons
between the pilot population and the FAA.

14.2 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE FAA

I. For your students to understand and appreciate the modern FAA, they should know a little about the
organization’s history and how it became the super agency (i.e., an agency that writes and enforces
its own regulations) that it is today.
A. To put things into perspective, point out that the Wright brothers first flew a powered airplane on 17
December, 1903. At that time, there was no FAA or other governmental involvement in aviation,
and there were no rules that had to be followed.
1. There were also no aeronautical charts, aircraft airworthiness standards, flight training
standards, or other enhancements to flight safety that are now the responsibility of the
FAA.
B. In 1918, the U.S. Post Office Department took over the operation of a new air mail system that
was being operated by the Army, and implemented the first civilian aviation regulations in order to
improve aviation safety and reliability.
1. Mail pilots had to meet specified minimum training and flight hour requirements, and Postal
aircraft were frequently inspected for airworthiness.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 2 Lesson 14: The Federal Aviation Administration

C. In 1926, the Aeronautics Branch was created as a division of the Department of Commerce. This
entity was followed in 1938 by the Civil Aeronautics Authority (CAA), which was created when
President Roosevelt signed the Civil Aeronautics Act into law.
1. The CAA became increasingly involved in control tower operations, airway development,
pilot licensing, and air traffic control during its existence.
D. In 1958, the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) was created when President Eisenhower signed the
Federal Aviation Act of 1958 into law.
1. This independent agency grew into the FAA that we know today.
E. The Department of Transportation (DOT) was created by the Department of Transportation Act of
1966, and the FAA was incorporated into this organization and re-named the Federal Aviation
Administration.
1. The DOT Act also created, within the DOT, a five-member National Transportation Safety
Board (NTSB), which later became a totally independent agency of the Federal government
reporting directly to Congress.
a. While the NTSB is not a part of the FAA, the Board works with the FAA to conduct
aircraft accident investigations. The NTSB is in charge of the investigations.

14.3 FAA ORGANIZATION

I. GENERAL: Explain that the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is the agency of the U.S.
government that has primary responsibility for the safety of civil aviation.
A. The FAA’s major functions include:
1. Regulating civil aviation in order to promote safety and fulfill the requirements of national
defense
2. Encouraging the development of air commerce and civil aeronautics
3. Developing and operating a common system of air traffic control and navigation for both civil
and military aircraft
4. Conducting research and development with respect to the National Airspace System and
civil aeronautics
5. Developing and implementing programs designed to control aircraft noise and other
environmental effects of civil aviation.
B. Inform your students that the FAA has three major levels of organization:
1. The national headquarters in Washington, D.C.
2. Nine geographic regions
3. Many local offices.
II. FAA National Headquarters: The FAA is headed by an Administrator, who is assisted by a Deputy
Administrator. The Administrator, who must be a civilian and a U.S. citizen, is appointed by the
President and confirmed by the Senate.
A. On most matters, the Administrator reports to the Secretary of the Department of Transportation,
who reports to the President.
B. Reporting to the Administrator are
1. Nine Assistant Administrators, who direct the line-of-business organizations that carry out
the agency’s principle functions;
2. The Chief Counsel, who supports the FAA’s mission by furnishing timely and responsive
legal services; and

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 14: The Federal Aviation Administration 3

3. Five Associate Administrators, who are responsible for other key programs.
C. Tell your students that it is unlikely that they will ever have to deal personally with the FAA at the
National Headquarters level.

Organizational Chart: FAA Headquarters

FAA Deputy
Administrator Administrator

Assistant Chief Associate

Administrators Counsel Administrators

Policy, Planning and Air Traffic Research and Regulation and

International Aviation Services Acquisitions Certification

Government and Air Traffic Acquisitions Accident

Industry Affairs Investigation
Airway Facilities Air Traffic
Systems
Public Affairs Air Traffic System Development Aircraft
Requirements Certification
Aviation Aerospace
System Capacity
Research Medicine
Civil Rights
Independent
Operational Communications, Flight Standards
Test and Navigation and
Human Resources Evaluation Surveillance
Management Rulemaking
Runway Safety Systems

Terminal System
Financial Services Business Architecture and
Service Investment
Analysis
System Safety
William J. Hughes
Technical Center

Information Services Office of Business

Management

Region/Center
Operations Commercial Space
Airports
Transportation
Alaskan

Central Licensing and

Airport Safety
Planning and
Eastern
Programming
Space Systems
Great Lakes Development
Airport Safety
New England and Standards Systems
Engineering
Northwest Mountain and Training

Southwest

Southern
Figure14_1
West Pacific FAA Organizational Chart

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 4 Lesson 14: The Federal Aviation Administration

III. Geographic regions: The FAA’s field organization includes nine geographic regions and two major
centers, the Mike Monroney Aeronautical Center and the William J. Hughes Technical Center. The
geographic regions are shown on the map below.

Alaska
Region
William J. Hughes Technical Center
New England
Region

Northwest Great Lakes Eastern

Mountain Region Region
Region

Western Central
Pacific Region
Region
Southern
Region

Southwest
Region

FAA Aeronautical Center

Figure14_2
FAA Regional Chart

A. Each region is headed up by a Regional Administrator and has a headquarters, various field
offices, and other facilities. The Regional Administrators and their staffs are responsible for the
following items within their regions:
1. Air Traffic Control (ATC) services
2. Aviation security
3. Inspections, certification, and surveillance
4. Facilities and maintenance
5. Airports
6. Airman medical certification
7. Legal matters
B. A typical region provides the following main service facilities:
1. Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC)
2. Air Traffic Control Towers (ATCT)
3. Automated Flight Service Stations (AFSS)
4. Flight Standards District Offices (FSDO)
IV. Local: Each FAA region has several local offices with various functions.
A. A region will typically have several FSDOs, each with its own manager and support staff.
1. Inform your students that, except for obtaining routine AFSS briefings, the Flight Standards
District Office (FSDO) is the local FAA office that they are most likely to deal with.
B. The FSDO Office Manager has an Operations Section Supervisor and an Airworthiness Section
Supervisor reporting to him/her.
1. The Section Supervisors have several supervisors under them, and each of these
supervisors is in charge of several inspectors.
2. Some FSDOs also have an Aviation Safety Program Manager.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 14: The Federal Aviation Administration 5

C. The following are some of the services and functions of a typical FSDO:
1. Overseeing programs that include airman certification, inspections, and surveillance of
general aviation ground and flight operations.
2. Providing a multitude of safety programs and seminars designed to help your students to be
safer pilots. Aviation safety counselors are assigned to each FSDO.
3. Maintaining a current list of Part 141 flight schools and designated pilot examiners.
4. Offering high altitude pressure chamber training for general aviation pilots who are
interested in experiencing the symptoms of hypoxia firsthand in a safe, controlled
environment.
5. Overseeing the FAA’s Wings program, designed to recognize general aviation pilots who
demonstrate a commitment to continuing safety education.
6. Providing opportunities for your students to visit local air traffic control facilities to “plug in”
with an air traffic controller in order to see the real world of ATC and gain a better
understanding of how to work within the system.
a. This program has been reinstated after a brief hiatus following the terrorist acts of
September 11, 2001.
7. Maintaining excellent websites that provide a complete listing of the individual services and
programs offered by the FSDO, as well as links to other FAA sites.
D. Explain that the location of the nearest FSDO can be obtained at the following website:
www.faa.gov/avr/afs/fsdo/index.cfm
1. Links are provided to each FSDO’s individual website.
a. These sites usually include the FSDO’s address, contact information, driving
directions, and information about scheduling an appointment.
b. Inform your students that many FSDOs now require visitors to make an appointment
prior to their arrival due to increased security measures that have been put into effect
following the terrorist acts of September 11, 2001.

E. As an instructor, it is critical that you deal with all FAA personnel, including those assigned to your
FSDO, with the utmost courtesy and professionalism, and that you train your students to do
likewise.
1. Remember that an adversarial or belligerent approach, even if you think an inspector is
wrong, is almost always counterproductive.
2. In order for you and your students to establish a professional relationship with FSDO
personnel, it is helpful to know the titles and duties of the inspectors with whom you will be
dealing.
a. Aviation Safety Inspector (ASI): This title is given to all FAA inspectors.
i. An ASI with an operations (OPS) specialty deals primarily with flight operations
issues and pilots.
ii. An ASI with an airworthiness (AW) (i.e., maintenance) specialty deals primarily
with aircraft maintenance issues and mechanics.
iii. Note that some ASIs are dual-qualified.
b. Principal Operations Inspector (POI): POIs are responsible for conducting
operational surveillance, ensuring regulatory compliance, and enforcing air carrier
and general aviation flight operations.
i. Note that each Part 141 (i.e., FAA-approved) flight school is assigned a POI to
monitor the school’s operations.
ii. If you or your student have an unresolved safety issue with a Part 141 flight
school, a call to the school’s POI may be beneficial in resolving the issue.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 6 Lesson 14: The Federal Aviation Administration

V. Emphasize to your students that the entire structure of the FAA exists for one primary purpose: to
improve aviation safety.
A. Impress upon your students that the FAA employs thousands of people and spends billions of
dollars in a concentrated effort to keep them safe.
B. Help your students learn to appreciate what the FAA provides with their tax dollars. Pilots should
support the FAA’s efforts at every opportunity.
1. Some instructors set just the right tone when discussing the FAA with their students by
referring to it as the “Friendly Aviation Association.”
2. Point out that in any large bureaucratic organization like the FAA, there will inevitably be a
few individuals with poor people skills, negative attitudes, and rude personalities.
a. Emphasize, however, that the vast majority of FAA personnel are extremely dedicated
and highly qualified professionals who have a genuine interest in aviation and in
promoting flight safety.

14.4 FAA RULEMAKING

I. Administrative Law. The United States government relies on the process of administrative
regulation to regulate highly technical and specialized areas such as aviation.
A. The federal government establishes agencies (e.g., the FAA) that have special purposes (e.g.,
regulation of aviation).
1. Agencies write, publish, and enforce federal regulations, which are rules that carry the
force of law.
2. As an agency, the FAA is empowered to control the actions of individual pilots and aviation
organizations (e.g., a flight school or an aircraft manufacturer) by writing and enforcing
regulations.
B. Remind your students that the primary, underlying purpose of all of the regulations developed and
enforced by the FAA is to promote aviation safety.
1. EXAMPLE: Your students may wonder why they are required to notify the FAA of a change
to their permanent mailing address within 30 days of the change (Sec. 61.60), and why
they are prohibited from exercising the privileges of their pilot certificate if they fail to do so.
2. Inform your students that the FAA needs to be able to contact all pilots by mail in order to
send them safety information, request amplifying information on pilot certification
applications or medical certificates, and send notices about possible enforcement actions
being considered.
C. Explain that two of the basic assumptions of our system of administrative regulation are that the
FAA has expert knowledge of all facets of aviation, and that the agency engages in continuous
supervision of those it regulates.
1. At the local level of the FAA, this means that each Aviation Safety Inspector (ASI) must be
an expert in his/her field (i.e., operations or airworthiness) and that each FSDO must
establish and maintain a continuing inspection program within its district.
a. Because no FSDO has enough staff to do all the work that is required, the FAA
frequently uses non-FAA experts to assist with specific tasks.
i. EXAMPLE: Each FSDO conducts practical tests without charge to the
applicant.
ii. In most districts, however, the FSDO is only able to conduct a small percentage
of practical tests due to limited staffing and high demand.
o These tests are usually reserved for initial flight instructor certification.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 14: The Federal Aviation Administration 7

iii. In order to accomplish most of the practical tests within each district, FSDOs
designate examiners by carefully selecting highly experienced applicants from
a pool of candidates.
iv. These designated pilot examiners (DPEs) are not FAA employees and are not
compensated for their work by the FAA.
o For this reason, DPEs (unlike ASIs) are allowed to be compensated by
individual applicants.
v. DPEs are very carefully trained and are periodically checked by the FAA.
o They are considered to be representatives of the FAA administrator when
they are performing their duties.

D. Another basic assumption of our system of administrative regulation is that those who are being
regulated (i.e., you and your students) have the right and obligation to participate directly in the
regulatory process. Accordingly, teach your students that they are encouraged to carefully study
proposed rules and offer comments to the FAA.
1. Remind your students that they have many rights in our system of government, and that
these rights are protected by the laws that control the FAA’s actions in rulemaking.
2. Inform your students that
a. They can propose an entirely new rule on their own and expect that their proposal will
be taken seriously; they are not limited to simply giving their response to an FAA
proposal.
b. They can initiate a proposal for an existing rule to be eliminated or modified.
c. They can recommend changes to new rules proposed by the FAA or others.
i. Their comments will be carefully documented and will become part of the master
file, or “docket” for each new proposed rule.
ii. All comments become part of the public record.

II. Code of Federal Regulations and the Federal Register. Explain that a fundamental requirement
of any agency’s rulemaking process is that those who are being regulated must be notified of
existing and proposed rules.
A. To notify those being regulated of existing rules, the government publishes all of the existing rules
that have been created by agencies in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), which is divided
into 50 subject areas called Titles. The CFR is updated annually.
1. The federal aviation regulations are contained in Title 14, Aeronautics and Space.
a. Title 14 is divided into five volumes, of which the first three comprise Chapter I.
i. Chapter I is assigned to the FAA.
ii. The fourth volume is assigned to the Secretary of Transportation, and the fifth
volume is assigned to NASA.
b. CFR Chapters are then divided into Parts, each of which typically addresses just one
main subject (e.g., Part 141 - Flight Schools).
c. Parts are further divided into sections with paragraphs and subparagraphs.
i. EXAMPLE: The federal aviation regulation that addresses the responsibility and
authority of the pilot in command during an in-flight emergency is located in
Title 14 of the CFR, Chapter 1, Part 91, Section 91.3, paragraph (b), and is
cited as 14 CFR 91.3 (b).
ii. Note that frequently in publications that are only about aviation, regulations will
be cited using just the section and paragraphs for convenience (e.g., Sec. 91.3
(b)).

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
8 Lesson 14: The Federal Aviation Administration

d. Explain to your students that in the past, the abbreviation “FAR” was widely used in
official publications to mean “Federal Aviation Regulation,” but that this abbreviation
has recently fallen into disuse. Officially, the abbreviation “FAR” means “Federal
Acquisition Regulations.”
i. Instead of referring to a regulation as FAR 61.60, it should be referred to as 14
CFR 61.60.
ii. Point out that there are still many official aviation publications that refer to FARs,
and it will probably take a few more years for this abbreviation to work its way
out of the system as revisions are made.
e. Show your students that all current aviation regulations can be found online at
http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/cfrhtml_00/Title_14/14tab_00.html.
i. Chapter 1 of Title 14 is also available as three bound volumes from the
Government Printing Office (GPO) for $147.
o A cheaper alternative for obtaining a hard copy of the regulations is to
purchase a commercially produced FAR/AIM, which includes only the
most frequently-used Parts of 14 CFR.

B. Inform your students that proposed and newly established regulations are published in the Federal
Register.
1. Explain that the Federal Register Act requires the President and agencies such as the FAA
to publish executive orders and rules in a publication called the Federal Register.
a. The Federal Register is published every day the U.S. Congress is in session, and
provides a consistent method of notifying the public of new and proposed rules.
2. Show the Federal Register to your students by going to the Federal Register website at
http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara
a. Explain to them that this site is where they may receive official notification of FAA
proposed and final rules. The Federal Register website also provides access to the
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).
b. Although data about new and proposed rules is included on many aviation websites,
only the U.S. government’s Federal Register website should be regarded as official
notification of final and proposed rules.
i. The government cannot control the content of non-government websites, which
may contain errors or omissions.

3. The Federal Register is also published as a paper document that is available from the
Government Printing Office by subscription.
C. Explain that new regulations that are published in the Federal Register must be encoded into the
CFR through the following process:
1. The FAA submits new regulations to the Office of the Federal Register.
2. The new regulations are published in the Federal Register so that they are available for
public inspection.
3. All FAA regulations that have been published in the Federal Register are then encoded into
the Code of Federal Regulations.
D. When FAA rules and proposed rules are published in the Federal Register, two very important
legal actions are accomplished:
1. You and your students are officially notified of the regulation.
2. You and your students have a complete and correct copy of the regulation.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 14: The Federal Aviation Administration 9

14.5 FAA CERTIFICATES

I. One way that the FAA carries out its safety responsibilities is by issuing certificates to indicate that
individuals and organizations are qualified to exercise certain privileges. These certificates fall into
several categories:
A. Airman Certificates (e.g., a Private Pilot Certificate or a Flight Instructor Certificate)
1. Ratings are added to airman certificates to denote specific authorizations (e.g., airplane--
single-engine land or instrument-airplane).
B. Medical Certificates (e.g., First-, Second-, or Third-Class)
C. Aircraft Certificates (e.g., an Airworthiness Certificate or a Type Certificate)
D. Operating Certificates (e.g., an Air Carrier Certificate)
E. Air Agency Certificates (e.g., a Part 141 Flight School Certificate)
F. Airport Operating Certificates
G. Representative of Administrator Certificates (e.g., Designated Pilot Examiner Certificate)

II. Emphasize to your students that, while functionally similar, the FAA issues certificates rather than
licenses.
A. A license grants permission, while a certificate states that certain requirements have been met,
thereby authorizing certain privileges.
B. As an instructor, you should always use correct terminology when discussing pilot certificates.

III. Tell your students that any certificate that is issued by the FAA, including a combined Student Pilot
Certificate and Medical Certificate, remains the property of the FAA.
A. Explain that any certificate may be suspended or revoked by the FAA with due process.
1. Suspension is a temporary measure; the FAA retains the certificate and then returns it to the
holder after a specified period has elapsed (e.g., 90 days).
2. Revocation is permanent; the certificate will not be returned, though in some cases an
application for retesting and reinstatement can be made after a specified period (e.g., 1
year).
B. Point out that some airman certificates expire and must be renewed (e.g., student pilot and flight
instructor certificates), but most have no expiration date.
C. Explain that a certificate demonstrates that the holder has been authorized by the FAA to exercise
the privileges of that certificate.
1. Therefore, the certificate must be carried when the holder is exercising those privileges.

14.6 ADVISORY CIRCULARS

I. Explain that the primary method that the FAA uses to provide non-mandatory advisory information to
pilots is via Advisory Circulars (ACs).
II. The FAA will issue an Advisory Circular to provide guidance and information about a designated
subject area or to show a method acceptable to the FAA Administrator for complying with a federal
aviation regulation.
A. Many ACs are free, but some are only available for a modest fee. A complete list of ACs can be
found in the Advisory Circular Checklist (AC 00-2), which is available online
at http://www.faa.gov/aba/html_policies/acc00_2.html.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 10 Lesson 14: The Federal Aviation Administration

B. An AC may be just a page or two, or it may be an entire book or manual, such as the Pilot’s
Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (AC 61-23C).
C. Tell your students that the content of ACs is generally not binding, except in rare instances when it
is referred to by a regulation. However, FAA inspectors often rely on ACs to help establish
compliance with a particular regulation.

14.7 SERVICE BULLETINS AND AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVES

I. Inform your students that Service Bulletins are published by aviation manufacturers (e.g., Lycoming
or Cessna). They are used to advise owners of manufacturer recommendations that specific
issues with the manufacturers’ products should be resolved, and to alert owners to new
Airworthiness Directives that are published by the FAA.
II. Service Bulletins are generated when a number of problem reports are received from mechanics in
the field.
A. Compliance with Service Bulletins is not normally mandatory for Part 91 aircraft operators.
B. A manufacturer can, however, designate a Service Bulletin as “mandatory” if the bulletin refers to
an Airworthiness Directive (AD), or if the manufacturer wants to emphasize the bulletin’s
importance.

III. Explain that when the FAA is made aware of dangerous conditions or potential conditions involving
an aircraft or an aircraft component, it notifies all concerned by issuing an Airworthiness Directive
(AD).
A. The FAA may have been made aware of the dangerous condition by the manufacturer involved, by
reports from the field, or as a result of an accident investigation that revealed an unsafe aircraft
component.
B. Emphasize to your students that compliance with an AD is mandatory, regardless of the type of
flight operations being conducted.
1. Remind your students that in order for an airplane’s airworthiness certificate to remain valid,
all required maintenance must be accomplished.
a. Because ADs are mandatory, they are required maintenance and must therefore be
complied with in order to maintain a valid airworthiness certificate.

C. If the circumstances related to an AD are not considered to be an emergency, the FAA may make
a proposed AD available for public comment by publishing a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking
(NPRM) in the Federal Register.
1. This process allows those who will be impacted by the proposed AD to study its contents
and comments, and make their own comments.
2. Owners groups such as the Cessna Pilots Association, with over 14,000 members, have
been instrumental in modifying proposed ADs in order to reduce the negative impact on
aircraft owners while still achieving the desired safety outcome of the AD.
D. Emergency ADs (i.e., those that immediately address life-threatening situations) are issued without
prior notice and are effective immediately.
1. An AD is published in the Federal Register as a final rule and becomes effective at that time;
owners are notified by telegram.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 14: The Federal Aviation Administration 11

14.8 ENFORCEMENT
I. Emphasize to your students that one of the FAA’s goals is to encourage 100% voluntary compliance
with the safety standards (i.e., regulations) that it has established.
A. Because of this goal, the majority of the FAA’s enforcement efforts are directed toward educating
the aviation community about the standards set forth in the regulations and providing
recommendations about how to ensure compliance with those standards (e.g., ACs).
1. Explain that the FAA understands that it is very important for those who are being regulated
to have a clear understanding of the regulations that control their actions.
2. To help achieve this goal, a summary is available for each federal aviation regulation. This
summary explains the FAA’s reason for having the regulation (i.e., its spirit and intent).
3. Summaries are included in the files for all new regulations going through the rulemaking
process, and are always available to the public.
a. Summaries of all regulations are also available in the Preamble to each CFR part.
4. Whenever possible, use the information contained in these summaries to explain the
reasoning behind complex regulations to your students.

II. Inform your students that internal FAA orders (i.e., rules) require that enforcement actions be taken
only after the FAA’s efforts to obtain voluntary compliance have failed.
A. FAA orders also require that enforcement actions not only be consistent and fair, but also that they
be perceived as consistent and fair by those being regulated.
1. EXAMPLE: According to this requirement, if one pilot is subjected to a civil penalty for a
certain violation (e.g., entering Class B airspace without a clearance), all pilots who violate
the same regulation under the same circumstances should receive the same civil penalty.
2. The FAA understands that faith and confidence in the system will be lost if violators are not
treated consistently and fairly.
B. Before beginning an enforcement action, the FAA will carefully consider the alleged violator’s
explanation of the situation and examine any extenuating circumstances.
1. Explain that the conditions surrounding an alleged violation are sometimes unusual, and the
FAA will take any unusual conditions into consideration.

III. Inform your students that alleged violators must be provided with due process, as required by the
5th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution.
A. Explain that due process includes the following provisions:
1. The alleged violator may be represented by an attorney.
a. Inform your students that many aviation law experts strongly recommend that anyone
who believes that (s)he might be subject to an FAA enforcement action should
contact an aviation attorney.
i. Having access to expert advice is important, even for a seemingly trivial matter
or one to which the pilot freely admits his/her guilt.
b. Tell your students that they should consider enrolling in a legal services plan such as
that offered by the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA).
i. The AOPA Legal Services Plan provides personal legal counsel and
representation in FAA enforcement cases, aircraft accident matters, U.S.
Customs enforcement matters, and in connection with drug and alcohol testing
and federal tax issues.
o Among the benefits of the plan is a free half-hour consultation about any
aviation legal matter with one of the 600 Plan attorneys nationwide.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 12 Lesson 14: The Federal Aviation Administration

ii. The cost for the plan (as of December, 2002) is $26 per year for Student,
Recreational, and Private pilots, $52 per year for flight instructors, and $99 per
year for pilots acting as ATPs.
o Encourage your students to call AOPA at (800) 872-2672 or to access the
Member’s Section of the AOPA website at http://www.aopa.org in order
to receive details of this plan.

c. You should also encourage your students to consider carrying personal liability
insurance to cover their flight activities.
i. Ensure that your students have a clear understanding of their personal liability
exposure during their flying. Point out that while most flight schools have
liability insurance to cover themselves in the event of a mishap, few provide
coverage for their students or certificated renters.
o EXAMPLE: If a Private Pilot rents an airplane from an FBO or a flight
school, and is then involved in a mishap that destroys the airplane, the
flight school’s insurance provider will pay the flight school for the loss of
the airplane, minus the deductible.
o However, the insurance provider might then sue the pilot or his/her estate
to recover the company’s loss, and the flight school might sue to recover
the amount of the deductible.

d. Many pilots, especially student pilots, are unaware of the risk they are taking by flying
without insurance or legal protection; it is your responsibility to provide them with the
information they need to make an informed decision to protect themselves.
2. The FAA must prove its case before a judge.
a. The judge can be an NTSB Administrative Law Judge or a Transportation Department
Administrative Law Judge.
3. The alleged violator may cross-examine any witness who testifies against him/her.
4. The alleged violator may present evidence on his/her own behalf.
5. The alleged violator may appeal the judge’s decision.

IV. Explain that the steps taken during a typical FAA enforcement action are as follows:
A. The FAA becomes aware of an event that may constitute a violation of federal aviation
regulations.
B. A Letter of Investigation is sent to the alleged violator.
1. Depending on the circumstances and the alleged violator’s response (or lack of response),
the matter may be dropped, the alleged violator may be reexamined (i.e., a practical test or
flight check may be required), a Warning Notice or Letter of Correction (Administrative
Action) may be sent to the alleged violator, remedial training may be offered, or
enforcement may occur.
2. Explain that enforcement generally consists of either a Certificate Action or a Civil Penalty.
a. A Certificate Action means that the pilot’s certificate is suspended for a period of time
or permanently revoked.
i. Usually, the FAA tends to use a Certificate Action in cases where the violator
does not earn his/her living by flying.
ii. EXAMPLE: In a typical general aviation certificate action, a pilot’s certificate
might be suspended for 60 or 90 days due to the pilot’s failure to remain clear
of Class C airspace when instructed by ATC to do so, if the violation did not
cause an accident.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 14: The Federal Aviation Administration 13

b. A Civil Penalty consists of a monetary fine.

i. Generally, the FAA tends to use Civil Penalties in cases where the violator
earns his/her living by flying (e.g., an airline pilot or flight instructor).
ii. In these cases, even a short certificate suspension could result in loss of the
pilot’s job.
c. In rare, extreme cases (e.g., an airline pilot flying a scheduled trip while under the
influence of alcohol), the violator can expect a large civil penalty, a permanent
revocation of his/her pilot certificate, and a prison term.

C. Following several intermediate steps in the enforcement process (e.g., informal conferences),
during which the case against the alleged violator may be dropped or a settlement may be
reached (e.g., the pilot admits that (s)he made a mistake and agrees to receive remedial training),
the FAA’s case against the alleged violator is heard before a Transportation Department Law
Judge.
1. If the alleged violator is found guilty, (s)he may appeal to the NTSB, which is responsible for
hearing appeals of FAA enforcement actions.
a. The alleged violator may appeal the ruling of the NTSB Administrative Law Judge to
the full NTSB, whose ruling may then be appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals.
i. Ultimately, the alleged violator may appeal his/her case to the U.S. Supreme
Court, though as a practical matter, this almost never happens.

V. Explain that the FAA understands that occasional errors are made by pilots that might result in a
violation of a regulation (e.g., inadvertently allowing the airplane to deviate from its assigned
altitude). Because the goal of the FAA is to enhance aviation safety through voluntary compliance,
and not the prosecution of pilots, a program called the Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS)
was created in 1975.
A. This program is designed to encourage pilots, air traffic controllers, and others (e.g., mechanics
and cabin crew) to voluntarily submit reports of operational incidents that highlight potential safety
problems, including incidents created by human error.
B. The reports are sent to NASA, where they are analyzed and forwarded to the FAA without the
submitter’s identification.
C. Under most circumstances, the FAA is prohibited from using the reports for enforcement actions
(e.g., a Certificate Action or Civil Penalty) except in cases of criminal acts or accidents.
1. The following conditions must be met for the FAA to withhold enforcement action:
a. The violation was inadvertent, not intentional.
b. The violation did not involve a criminal act.
c. The pilot has not committed a prior violation within the preceding five years.
d. The pilot can prove that (s)he properly filed the report within 10 days after the date of
the violation.
i. This proof is furnished by the identification strip that is removed from the top of
the report form and returned to the pilot when it is received by NASA.
ii. Emphasize to your students that they must not lose the identification strip if they
file an ASRS report.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
14 Lesson 14: The Federal Aviation Administration

D. Tell your students that, even though no enforcement action will be taken when a timely report is
submitted and other criteria are met, a violation may still be assessed (i.e., only the penalty is
withheld).
1. EXAMPLE: A pilot is assigned an altitude of 5,000 ft. While the pilot is distracted by
programming his/her GPS receiver, (s)he allows the aircraft to climb 500 ft.
2. The air traffic controller notices that the aircraft is not maintaining its assigned altitude and
alerts the pilot, who promptly returns to 5,000 ft.
3. No accident resulted and no separation standards were compromised, but a clear violation
of 14 CFR 91.123, compliance with ATC clearances and instructions, has occurred, and the
FAA is aware of the violation.
4. The pilot submits an ASRS report to NASA within 10 days, explaining the circumstances of
the altitude deviation, and how (s)he was distracted by operating a complex piece of
equipment.
a. This data is combined with other similar data and is ultimately used to document a
need for simplified GPS controls, thereby increasing aviation safety.

E. Inform your students that full details of this joint FAA and NASA program are available on the
ASRS website at http://asrs.arc.nasa.gov/.
1. Point out that copies of the ASRS reporting form, commonly referred to as a “NASA Form,”
may be downloaded from this site.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 1

GLEIM FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR REFRESHER COURSE

LESSON 15
GPS TRAINING
15.1 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) OVERVIEW
I. Inform your students that GPS is a satellite-based radio navigation system operated by the
Department of Defense (DOD).
A. Explain that the system provides highly accurate position information to an unlimited number of
users worldwide.
B. GPS is unaffected by weather and utilizes a common grid reference system based on the
earth-fixed coordinate system.

II. GPS was originally built for military use in the 1970s. In the 1980s the technology was adapted for
public use. GPS equipment accurate to within about 300 feet was readily available for civilians by
the early 1990s. The inaccuracy was a result of Selective Availability (SA), a deliberate distortion of
the signal intended to prevent civilian equipment from being used in a military attack.
A. In May 2000, SA was eliminated as an incentive to increase civilian and commercial use of GPS
throughout the world. As a result, civilian GPS, now accurate to within 40 feet or better, has
become a global utility.
1. After the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, there was speculation in the aviation
industry about a return to SA. However, within a week of the attacks, the Interagency GPS
Executive Board (IGEB, the agency that regulates the GPS system) definitively announced
that the United States has no intent to ever reactivate SA.

III. Explain to your students that GPS operation is based on the concept of ranging and triangulation
from a group of satellites in space that act as precise reference points.
A. A GPS receiver measures its distance from a particular satellite by using the travel time of a radio
signal transmitted from that satellite.
1. Each satellite transmits a specific code, called a coarse in/acquisition (CA) code, which
contains information on the satellite's position, the GPS system time, and the health and
accuracy of the transmitted data.
2. By knowing the speed at which the signal travels (approximately 186,000 miles per second)
and the exact broadcast time, the GPS receiver can compute the distance traveled by the
signal based on the arrival time.
a. The distance derived from this method of computing distance is called a
pseudo-range because it is not a direct measurement of distance; it is a
measurement based on time.
i. Explain that a pseudo-range is subject to several error sources, including
ionospheric and tropospheric delays and multipath interference caused by
signal reflection.

B. The GPS receiver then matches the CA code obtained from the satellite to a code in the receiver's
database.
1. This step is used to determine which of the 24 GPS satellites sent the signal.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 2 Lesson 15: GPS Training

C. Point out that in addition to knowing the distance to a satellite, the GPS receiver needs to know
that satellite's exact location in space to derive position information. This location is known as the
satellite's ephemeris.
1. Each satellite transmits information about its exact orbital location.
2. The GPS receiver uses this information to precisely establish the location of the satellite
relative to the earth's surface.
D. Teach your students that the GPS receiver mathematically determines its position by triangulation
using the calculated pseudo-range and position information supplied by the satellites.
1. Explain that the GPS receiver needs at least four satellites to yield a three-dimensional
position (latitude, longitude, and altitude).
2. The GPS receiver computes navigational values such as distance and bearing to a
waypoint, ground speed, etc., by referencing the aircraft's computed position and position
trend over time to a database built into the receiver.

IV. Inform your students that the GPS constellation of 24 satellites is designed so that a minimum of five
are always observable by a user anywhere on earth.
A. The receiver requires data from a minimum of four satellites above the mask angle (the lowest
angle above the horizon at which a satellite can be used) to determine its position.

V. Explain that a GPS receiver verifies the integrity (usability) of the signals that it receives from the
GPS constellation via receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM). This system can
determine if a satellite is providing corrupted information.
A. At least one additional satellite must be in view for the receiver to perform the RAIM function;
alternatively, the GPS can use information from an altimeter in place of an extra satellite to
provide RAIM.
1. Thus, the GPS receiver requires a minimum of five satellites in view, or four satellites and a
barometric altimeter (baro-aiding) to detect an integrity anomaly.
B. Baro-aiding is a method of augmenting the GPS integrity solution by using a nonsatellite input
source.
1. Emphasize to your students that GPS-derived altitude should not be relied upon to
determine the aircraft's altitude since the vertical error can be quite large.
2. To ensure that baro-aiding is available, the current altimeter setting must be entered into the
receiver as described in the GPS's Pilot Guide.
C. For receivers capable of doing so, RAIM requires six satellites in view (or five satellites with
baro-aiding) to isolate the corrupt satellite signal and remove it from the navigation solution.

VI. Point out that while RAIM error messages vary somewhat between receivers, there are generally
two types.
A. One type indicates that there are not enough satellites available to provide RAIM capability.
B. The other type indicates that the RAIM system has detected a potential error that exceeds the limit
for the current phase of flight.
C. Impress upon your instrument students that without RAIM capability or adequate signal integrity, a
pilot has no assurance of the accuracy of the GPS position for IFR navigation. Thus, the aircraft's
position must be monitored with other NAVAIDs.

VII. For additional information on GPS, see AIM Para 1-1-21, Global Positioning System (GPS), at
http://www.faa.gov/ATpubs/AIM/chap1toc.htm and the FAA's GPS website at
http://gps.faa.gov/GPSbasics/index.htm.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 15: GPS Training 3

15.2 VFR USE OF GPS

I. GPS navigation has become a great asset to VFR pilots, providing increased navigation capability
and enhanced situational awareness.
A. Explain to your students, however, that while GPS offers many benefits to a VFR pilot, a pilot must
thoroughly learn to use the unit available to him/her in order to ensure that (s)he does not try to
exceed the capabilities of his/her GPS receiver.
1. VFR pilots may use any type of GPS receiver, whether panel-mounted (with either an IFR or
VFR installation) or hand-held.

II. Discuss the following items regarding VFR use of GPS with your students.
A. Emphasize that a VFR pilot should never rely solely on one system of navigation.
1. GPS navigation must be used with other forms of navigation such as VORs, pilotage, and
dead reckoning.
B. Advise your students to check the GPS's Pilot's Guide to see if the unit has receiver autonomous
integrity monitoring (RAIM) capability.
1. Without RAIM capability, there will not be any alert to deteriorating navigation capability, and
an undetected navigation error could occur.
C. Remind your students to check the currency of the database regularly.
1. If the database has expired, the database should be updated as suggested by the
manufacturer.
2. If an update of an expired database is not possible, it is prudent to disregard any moving
map display of airspace for critical navigation decisions (such as flying around a restricted
area or Class B airspace segment).
a. Limits of airspace areas and named waypoints may have been added, deleted, or
modified since the database was last updated.

D. Teach your students to plan a flight carefully before taking off.

1. If your student desires to navigate to user-defined waypoints entered using latitude-
longitude coordinates, advise him/her to enter the waypoints into the GPS database before
flight, not during the flight.
2. The flight path should also be verified on a current sectional chart to ensure that it follows
the desired route.
E. Impress upon your students that they must minimize head-down time (working the GPS) and
always maintain a sharp lookout for traffic, terrain, and obstacles.
1. Explain that one way for your students to minimize head-down time is to become very
familiar with the GPS receiver's operation.

15.3 GPS TRAINING OVERVIEW

I. The National Air Transportation Association (NATA) has printed a GPS instructor guide, which was
developed by Transport Canada.
A. While this guide was originally intended for use in Canada, it is still very useful to any pilot in
developing a training syllabus for a specific make and model of GPS.
1. This guide can be thought of as a master syllabus.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 4 Lesson 15: GPS Training

B. We have edited the format and length of the material and changed references from Canadian
regulations to U.S. regulations for the following discussion.

II. The intent of this master syllabus is to provide you with a general outline of the items that should be
covered in ground and flight training on the use of GPS.
A. From this master syllabus, you can then develop a training syllabus for a specific make and
model(s) of GPS.
B. Your training syllabus can be very specific and detailed, or it can be a concise outline that refers to
the GPS's Pilot's Guide that comes with the unit from the manufacturer.
C. Although the master syllabus is written for IFR procedures, it can be adapted to a VFR training
syllabus.

III. Inform your students that GPS receivers require more pilot attention than traditional VOR or ADF
receivers, particularly during the approach phase. GPS receivers are essentially navigation
management computers with many features, modes, and controls.
A. Before flying a stand-alone approach in instrument conditions, a pilot must be completely familiar
with GPS fundamentals, system operation, and the approach procedure to be flown.
B. Explain that general aviation pilots are not required to complete an approved training program, nor
is there any special logbook endorsement to qualify them to conduct GPS stand-alone
approaches.
1. However, it is strongly recommended that pilots take advantage of GPS receiver simulation
modes, commercially available training, and every opportunity to fly practice GPS
approaches in visual conditions.
2. Pilots are also encouraged to develop and adopt standard GPS operating procedures for the
en route, approach, and missed approach phases of flight.

15.4 ORGANIZING THE TRAINING

I. A combination of classroom instruction and hands-on training works best in teaching students how to
operate a GPS receiver.
A. It is recommended that you demonstrate the receiver and its capabilities during an introductory
flight in order to help give your students an appreciation of the level of skill required to operate the
receiver efficiently and safely.
B. The use of a GPS simulator (i.e., computer software that simulates the functions and interface of
the receiver for training purposes) or the actual receiver in a simulation or "take-home mode" is
highly recommended.
1. Time spent in the classroom will pay dividends in the air.

II. Try hard not to overwhelm your students with too many facts and figures about the GPS system in
general.
A. Teach them the basics and instill in them the desire to learn more about the system on their own.
B. Typically, once a student is proficient in conducting basic GPS operations, (s)he will have a strong
desire to learn the advanced functions of the receiver as well, instead of just using the receiver as
a "direct-to box."

III. Throughout the training, you should stress that only approaches retrieved from a current database
are approved for IFR operations.
A. You must discourage students from inventing their own approaches, and do not demonstrate how
to create or fly a user-invented approach at any time.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 15: GPS Training 5

IV. The next eight modules can be used as master lesson plan outlines for developing a GPS training
syllabus that addresses the following key subjects:
A. Preflight preparation
B. Departure procedures
C. En route procedures
D. Holding procedures
E. Approach procedures
F. Missed approach procedures
G. Flying to an alternate airport
H. System malfunctions

15.5 PREFLIGHT PREPARATION

I. Objective. The objective of the preflight preparation lesson is to facilitate student learning of the
following:
A. The background knowledge necessary to operate the GPS receiver in all phases of flight
B. The interface between the GPS receiver and other cockpit instruments
II. Motivation
A. A good overall understanding of GPS will pique the interest of students and enhance their learning
experience.
1. A secondary aim is to motivate the students to learn more about the system on their own.
B. The manner in which the GPS integrates with other cockpit instruments is critical to the safe and
efficient operation of the aircraft.

III. Essential Background Knowledge. Prior to teaching students about preflight preparation, you
should explain the following:
A. The general principles of GPS operation, including:
1. An overview of the system, including the number of satellites, a general description of the
orbits, and the area of coverage;
2. An overview of the general principles of how the receiver determines its position;
3. An overview of receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM);
4. An insight into other applications; and
5. An overview of similar systems that have been put into service by other nations.
B. The advantages of GPS, including its accuracy.
C. The limitations and possible errors of the system, including database errors and interference from
VHF emissions.
D. The basic components of a GPS installation:
1. Sensor/navigation computer
2. Database
3. Antenna
E. The function of the various modes of the GPS receiver.
F. The GPS interface with the CDI/RMI/HSI, if equipped.
G. The GPS interface with the autopilot/flight director, if equipped.
H. The GPS interface with other flight management systems, if equipped.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
6 Lesson 15: GPS Training

I. The terms and conditions of the approval to use GPS in the U.S. and other countries.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 15: GPS Training 7

IV. Advice to Instructors

A. Most GPS manufacturers publish a Pilot's Guide that contains the essential background knowledge
and system configuration information to satisfy the requirement of this task.
1. An additional reference is the AIM.
B. Remember that students do not have to master all of the navigational and other functions of the
GPS receiver in order to operate it competently.
1. Ensure that students have a thorough knowledge of the functions required to use the GPS
receiver for flight in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), and encourage them to
learn the other functions as desired or necessary.
C. Use a GPS simulator or the simulation mode of the receiver to demonstrate the various modes and
functions of the receiver prior to starting instruction in the aircraft, if possible.
D. Use the aircraft itself on battery power or with a ground power unit (GPU) if a simulator is not
available.
E. Review the Pilot's Operating Handbook (POH) or flight manual supplement for a description of the
receiver installation and any restrictions.
F. Take the student to the aircraft and point out the various components of the installation, including
the receiver, the antenna, and, if equipped, the various annunciators, the CDI, RMI, or HSI and
the autopilot/flight director.

V. Instruction and Student Practice

A. Demonstrate how to turn the GPS receiver on and the general functions of each of the modes.
Allow ample time for the student to experiment with the receiver before beginning the actual
operational instruction.

VI. Completion Standards

A. The student shall be able to describe:
1. GPS in general terms;
2. The major components of the GPS installation and any restrictions contained in the POH or
flight manual supplement;
3. The phases of flight for which the equipment is approved; and
4. The terms and conditions of the approval to use the equipment in the U.S.

15.6 DEPARTURE PROCEDURES

I. Objective
A. The objective of the departure procedure lesson is to facilitate student learning of the following
procedures:
1. Initializing the GPS receiver
2. Creating a flight plan in the GPS from the point of departure to the destination
3. Taking off and flying the aircraft to the first en route waypoint
II. Motivation
A. Preparation for departure is the foundation of a safe and effective flight.
B. Pilots must be able to initialize and verify the functioning of the GPS receiver and accurately
program it while ensuring that the essential duties of operating the aircraft are conducted safely.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 8 Lesson 15: GPS Training

III. Essential Background Knowledge. Prior to teaching students how to perform departure
procedures, you should explain the following:
A. How to turn on the GPS receiver
B. Operation of the GPS receiver controls
C. Completion of the receiver initialization with pilot inputs, if required
D. The function of the flight plan (FPL) mode of the GPS receiver
E. Creation of a flight plan in the GPS
F. Confirmation of RAIM availability for the approach at destination
G. Modification of the flight plan by deleting or inserting waypoints
H. Creation of user-defined waypoints
I. Addition of an instrument departure procedure (DP) to the flight plan
1. Note that not all receivers have the capability of adding a DP.
J. Airspace advisories and alerts
K. The importance of flying the aircraft at all times and of not fixating on the GPS operation
IV. Advice to Instructors
A. Because this phase tends to be time consuming, the student should spend as much time as
possible in the classroom learning the programming functions of the GPS receiver.
B. Ensure that students do NOT get so involved in learning to use the GPS receiver that they forget to
fly the aircraft. This advisory applies to all phases of the flight.
C. Using the GPS, especially in the early stages of the learning curve, tends to draw pilot and
instructor attention into the cockpit. Be careful, and remember to watch vigilantly for other
aircraft.
D. You should instruct your students to cross-check GPS positions with other navigational
equipment. Databases have been known to be wrong.

V. Flight Training and Student Practice

A. Have the student operate the GPS receiver as much as possible.
1. The student will be slow at first and will make mistakes. Resist speeding up the process by
jumping in to help.
2. Allow the student to make mistakes, and give him/her the time to figure out where (s)he went
wrong, within reason.
B. Emphasize the need to be accurate when information, especially waypoint coordinates, are
entered into the receiver.
1. Because input errors are the largest single source of system errors, instruct the student to
double-check all information as it is entered.

VI. Completion Standards

A. The student shall be able to
1. Turn on and operate the GPS receiver
2. Monitor and verify the receiver self-test and initialization
3. Verify that the data displayed on the receiver self-test page is the same as the data
displayed on the aircraft instruments interfaced with the receiver, if applicable
4. Verify that the external annunciators, if any, illuminate as designed
5. Verify that the database is current
6. Complete the receiver initialization with pilot inputs, if required
7. Create a flight plan in the GPS receiver

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 15: GPS Training 9

8. Modify the flight plan, including inserting and deleting waypoints

9. Create user-defined waypoints
10. Retrieve airport information from the database, if the receiver has this function
11. Add a DP to the flight plan, if the point of departure has one
12. Take off and fly the DP or ATC clearance to intercept the track to the first waypoint en route
13. Maintain a track to the first waypoint en route within 1/2-scale deflection of the CDI
14. Maintain assigned altitudes within 100 ft.
15. Understand the function of the message page and take appropriate action

15.7 EN ROUTE PROCEDURES

I. Objective
A. The objective of the en route procedures lesson is to facilitate student learning of procedures used
to navigate from the point of departure to the destination using GPS.

II. Motivation
A. The introduction of GPS has revolutionized how pilots navigate en route.
B. It is essential that students acquire and maintain a high standard of operating skill for this phase of
flight.

III. Essential Background Knowledge. Prior to teaching students how to perform en route
procedures, you should explain the following:
A. The functions of the navigation (NAV) mode of the GPS receiver
B. The moving map display screen symbology, if applicable
C. The CDI sensitivity parameters in NAV mode
D. The "direct TO" function of the GPS
E. Retrieval of information about the nearest suitable airport to the route of flight
F. The addition of Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs) to the flight plan
IV. Advice to Instructors
A. Take care not to become so involved in demonstrating the functions and explaining the features of
the GPS that your collision avoidance procedures are compromised.
B. If no airport with a STAR is near the training area, you should use a GPS simulator or the
simulation mode of the receiver to teach your students how to input STAR information.
C. Sometime during the lesson, give the student a simulated emergency that requires him/her to
divert to the nearest suitable airport.
1. Ensure that the student first takes care of the emergency situation and THEN programs the
GPS.
2. Do not allow the student to be so concerned with programming the GPS that aircraft safety
becomes a secondary consideration.

V. Flight Training and Student Practice

A. The student should fly the aircraft to several waypoints en route so that (s)he can practice normal
en route navigation techniques, including determining fuel flows, making position reports, and
calculating ETAs.
1. Flying at least three legs of 10-15 minutes each will be sufficient for this practice.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 10 Lesson 15: GPS Training

B. Ensure that the student practices going direct to a waypoint and adding a STAR to the flight plan.

VI. Completion Standards

A. The student shall be able to
1. Navigate from the point of departure to the destination, using GPS for guidance
2. Describe the CDI sensitivity parameters in NAV mode
3. Intercept a track to a waypoint
4. Maintain a track within 1/2 deflection of the CDI
5. Maintain assigned altitudes within 100 ft.
6. Delete or add waypoints to the flight plan
7. Create user-defined waypoints
8. Program the receiver and fly "direct to" a waypoint
9. Divert to the nearest suitable airport in the event of an emergency
10. Retrieve airport information from the GPS database
11. Add a STAR to the flight plan

15.8 HOLDING PROCEDURES

I. Objective
A. The objective of the holding procedures lesson is to facilitate student learning of procedures used
to program a hold into the GPS receiver, if the unit is capable, and to execute holding procedures
using GPS. Additionally, students will be able to program and fly a route from a holding pattern.

II. Motivation
A. The ability to execute a hold is essential for all pilots operating under IFR.

III. Essential Background Knowledge. Prior to teaching students how to perform holding procedures,
you should explain the following:
A. The various types of holds the student may encounter when flying IFR
B. The addition of a hold to the flight plan in the GPS receiver, if the unit is capable
C. Programming and flying a route from a holding pattern.
IV. Advice to Instructors
A. Initiate each holding pattern by either giving the student a simulated holding clearance or asking
ATC to issue one.
B. Ensure that the student is able to configure the GPS for holding and to perform a holding
procedure at a VOR, an NDB, an intersection, and a GPS waypoint.
C. If the hold entry is executed on autopilot, question the student to ensure that (s)he has correctly
anticipated the pattern entry required for each hold, as well as how to perform the entry.
D. Ensure that the student can enter a route to fly when leaving a holding pattern.

V. Flight Training and Student Practice

A. Ensure that the student practices at least one of each type of hold, if practicable.
B. The direction of entry should be varied so that the student can practice the recommended pattern
entry procedures found in the AIM.
C. Ensure that the student practices programming and flying a route from a holding pattern.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 15: GPS Training 11

VI. Completion Standards

A. The student shall be able to
1. Add a hold to the flight plan in flight
2. Activate a hold
3. Execute a holding procedure using GPS
4. Take prompt corrective action if the aircraft does not perform as anticipated during an
autopilot-flown hold entry
5. Program and fly a route from a holding pattern

15.9 APPROACH PROCEDURES

I. Objective
A. The objective of the approach procedures lesson is to facilitate student learning of procedures
used to retrieve and arm an approach procedure from the GPS database and to execute an
approach using GPS.

II. Motivation
A. In the future, all IFR terminal navigation will likely be conducted using GPS as the primary
navigation aid.
1. Pilots wishing to fly in this environment will need a thorough understanding of the system, its
limitations, and its use in the approach environment.

III. Essential Background Knowledge. Prior to teaching students how to perform approach
procedures, you should explain the following:
A. The transition from the en route phase to the approach phase using GPS for guidance
B. The requirement that approaches be retrieved from a current database rather than being created
by the pilot's manual input of individual waypoints
C. The addition of approaches to the flight plan
D. The way to arm approaches
E. The change or deletion of an approach once it has been added to the flight plan
F. The various sensitivity parameters of the CDI during approaches and the way to confirm that they
have changed at the appropriate time
G. The requirement for Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) availability
H. The cockpit indications, if any, and the actions to take if RAIM failure occurs during the approach,
both before and after the final approach waypoint (FAWP)
I. Verification of approach waypoints
J. The performance of GPS approaches

IV. Advice to Instructors

A. The transition from en route procedures to a GPS approach should be conducted exactly the same
as for traditional navigation aids.
1. You should emphasize the importance of planning the approach in a methodical and
deliberate manner so that the student can anticipate and react smoothly to ATC
instructions.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 12 Lesson 15: GPS Training

B. Emphasize that making correct inputs into the GPS receiver is especially critical during
approaches. In some cases, an incorrect entry can cause the receiver to leave the approach
mode.

V. Flight Training and Student Practice

A. The student should practice GPS stand-alone and overlay approaches until (s)he can demonstrate
to the instructor that (s)he can perform the approaches safely and effectively.

VI. Completion Standards

A. The student shall be able to
1. Transition from the en route phase to the approach phase, including performance of
before-landing and approach checks, briefings, management of approach aids, and
adherence to ATC clearances
2. Add approaches to the flight plan from the GPS database
3. Change or delete an approach that has been added to the flight plan
4. Arm approaches
5. Describe the various sensitivity parameters of the CDI during approaches
6. Identify and take the appropriate action for a RAIM failure indication
7. Verify approach waypoints against the approach chart
8. Select and verify cockpit navigation sources
9. Select and verify the automatic flight control guidance source switches, if equipped
10. Establish the aircraft on the required track
11. Maintain the track within 1/2 deflection of the CDI
12. Maintain published or assigned altitudes within 100 ft. prior to the FAWP and within +100 ft.,
0 ft. after the FAWP
13. Identify waypoint passage
14. Execute approaches to minima using GPS for guidance

15.10 MISSED APPROACH PROCEDURES

I. Objective
A. The objective of the missed approach procedures lesson is to facilitate student learning of
procedures used to retrieve and arm the missed approach procedures from the GPS database
and how to execute the missed approach using GPS.

II. Motivation
A. Pilots flying under IFR must be prepared to execute a missed approach on all approaches.

III. Essential Background Knowledge. Prior to teaching students how to perform missed approach
procedures, you should explain the following:
A. How to activate a missed approach
B. How to execute a missed approach
IV. Advice to Instructors
A. Missed approach procedures should be practiced frequently to ensure that the student can perform
them efficiently and safely.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 15: GPS Training 13

B. Making a transition from the landing configuration to the go-around, completing after-takeoff
aircraft checks, conducting frequency shifts for radio calls, and activating the GPS missed
approach procedures are activities that draw pilot attention into the cockpit during this critical
regime of flight.
1. Extreme care must therefore be taken to ensure that a proper lookout is maintained for other
traffic.

V. Flight Training and Student Practice

A. The student should execute a missed approach on the majority of approaches.
1. However, while it is assumed that the student knows how to land the aircraft, the transition
from instrument to outside references is challenging and must be occasionally practiced.

VI. Completion Standards

A. The student shall be able to
1. Activate the missed approach
2. Execute the missed approach procedure, including performance of the after-takeoff
checklist, management of navigation aids, and adherence to ATC clearances
3. Establish the aircraft on the missed approach track
4. Maintain the track within 1/2 deflection of the CDI
5. Maintain published or cleared vertical navigation minima within 100 ft.
6. Identify waypoint passage
7. Execute missed approaches using GPS for guidance

15.11 FLYING TO AN ALTERNATE AIRPORT

I. Objective
A. The objective of this lesson on flying to an alternate airport is to facilitate student learning of
procedures used to add the routing to an alternate airport to the flight plan (either in flight or prior
to departure), and to execute a diversion to an alternate airport using GPS.
B. Inform your students that while diverting to an alternate airport using GPS is the focus of this
portion of the GPS training, all available NAVAIDs should be used for diversion in order to be
prepared if the receiver fails or satellite signals are lost.

II. Motivation
A. Pilots must always be prepared to proceed to an alternate airport when operating an aircraft under
IFR.

III. Essential Background Knowledge. Prior to teaching students about diversion to alternate airports
using GPS, you should explain the following:
A. The addition of alternate routing to the flight plan either on the ground prior to departure or in flight
B. The way to change flight plans to enable flying to the alternate, for those receivers that will not
permit an alternate to be added to the flight plan
C. The requirement that conventional NAVAIDS be available for a diversion to an alternate if the GPS
fails or signals are lost

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 14 Lesson 15: GPS Training

IV. Advice to Instructors

A. Impress upon the student that (s)he must be prepared to divert to an alternate airport at any time,
irrespective of the weather.

V. Flight Training and Student Practice

A. Ensure that the student practices setting course to an alternate at least once during training.

VI. Completion Standards

A. The student shall be able to
1. Add the routing to an alternate airport to the flight plan either in flight or prior to departure
2. Execute a diversion to an alternate airport using GPS for guidance

15.12 SYSTEM MALFUNCTIONS

I. Objective
A. The objective of the system malfunctions lesson is to facilitate student learning of procedures used
to recognize a system malfunction and to take appropriate action in the event of a system
malfunction.

II. Motivation
A. It is extremely important that pilots who are operating database-dependent navigation equipment
be aware that they must be vigilant and monitor the information and guidance that are being
provided by their aircraft's navigation systems.
B. Anomalies have been detected that are a result of software problems or a result of the way
procedures and information have been encoded into the database of some GPS equipment.
1. These anomalies may not be apparent to the user until such time as the aircraft departs from
its expected route or path of flight.

III. Essential Background Knowledge. Prior to teaching students about system malfunctions, you
should explain the following:
A. Verification of database waypoints
1. The verification method to be used is determined at your discretion, provided it is effective.
2. Separate waypoint verifications should be carried out for en route and terminal procedures.
B. The review of the RAIM check and the appropriate actions
C. The appropriate action for a GPS receiver power failure

IV. Advice to Instructors

A. GPS receiver performance is typically so accurate that it may lead students to develop a false
sense of security.
1. Ensure that each student regularly cross-checks the system with conventional navigation
aids, and occasionally give him/her a simulated GPS failure to ensure that (s)he can
smoothly transition to traditional navigation methods.
B. The student should diligently monitor the performance of his/her equipment and verify the accuracy
of each selected waypoint using current data from charts prior to using his/her equipment for IFR
navigation.
1. If there are any discrepancies between the information in the database and the charts, the
student must ensure that (s)he follows the chart procedure.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 15: GPS Training 15

V. Flight Training and Student Practice

A. Some systems have malfunction reports embedded in their databases; if so, have the student
retrieve a report and record the information provided.

VI. Completion Standards

A. The student shall be able to recognize a system malfunction, and take appropriate action.

15.13 GPS MANUFACTURERS

I. The following is an alphabetical list of most of the major GPS manufacturers (for both panel-
mounted and hand-held units) and their websites:

Allied Signal (Bendix/King) Narco Avionics, Inc.

http://www.bendixking.com http://www.narco-avionics.com

Arnav Systems, Inc. Northstar Technologies

http://www.arnav.com http://www.northstarcmc.com

Garmin International Trimble Navigation

http://www.garmin.com http://www.trimble.com

Lowrance Electronics UPS Aviation Technologies (Apollo)

http://www.lowrance.com http://www.upsat.com

Magellan Systems Corp.

http://www.magellangps.com

A. Contact the manufacturers for information about their products.

1. Some manufacturers offer free GPS simulators that are representative of their products and
can be downloaded from their website.
B. We do NOT endorse any manufacturer.
C. Please contact [email protected] additions, deletions, and corrections.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 1

GLEIM FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR REFRESHER COURSE

LESSON 16
INTERNET RESOURCES
16.1 INTRODUCTION
I. This lesson describes several valuable resources for students, pilots, and flight instructors that are
available via the Internet.
A. The information contained in this lesson may be useful to you as an instructor in several ways:
1. Some resources can improve your performance as an instructor by expanding your
knowledge of the applicable subject areas. Expanded knowledge will deepen your
understanding of these subjects and increase the effectiveness of your instruction.
2. Other resources are appropriate for current or prospective students who are in the process
of choosing the path that their flight training will take. These resources can help answer
questions about careers vs. personal flying, flight training options, etc.
3. Still other resources are useful to certificated pilots (including flight instructors) as aids in
carrying out responsibilities as pilot-in-command and as a means of obtaining employment.

II. The next eight modules summarize the contents of web sites relevant to the following topics:
A. Resources for the student pilot
B. Weather resources
C. Safety resources
D. FAA resources
E. Aviation organizations
F. Commercial aviation companies
G. Aviation employment opportunities
H. Flight simulator manufacturer

16.2 RESOURCES FOR THE STUDENT PILOT

I. Several Internet sites provide excellent information for prospective and active student pilots.
A. These sites are designed to familiarize prospective students with flying and flight training, and to
provide useful forums and training tips for students who are in the process of pursuing a
certificate or rating.
B. Identify these sites to your current and prospective students and encourage students to visit them.

II. Student Pilot (http://www.studentpilot.com)

A. This site offers a variety of information to student pilots, including numerous links to various
government and industry web sites.
B. An interactive forum allows students to post questions, comments, or suggestions about flying.
C. A training aids section includes
1. Flight training logbooks that describe the training experiences of several pilots who recently
obtained a certificate or rating, including the experiences of one Air Force pilot.
2. A virtual flight school that explains everything from preflighting and ground reference
maneuvers to weather report analysis.
3. An FAA test preparation program that allows students to prepare for the private pilot and
instrument rating knowledge tests.
D. A reference section includes

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 2 Lesson 16: Internet Resources

1. A directory of several aviation sites

2. A listing of organizations that can assist students during training and help with obtaining
financial aid
3. An aviation events calendar
4. An aviation medical examiner (AME) search engine
E. An articles section includes various articles on aviation-related subjects such as safety, medical
issues, and news releases.

III. Student Pilot Network (http://www.ufly.com)

A. The Student Pilot Network is designed to help aspiring pilots make wise training decisions.
B. A flight school database provides a detailed profile of participating schools in a standardized and
searchable format.
1. Prospective students may search this database for a school by location or by use of an
advanced search.
a. The advanced search allows students to locate a school offering specific programs or
features, such as a professional pilot program or financial assistance.
2. The standardized format allows for easy comparison among schools.
3. A feature allows a flight school that is not listed in the database to be added by a
representative of the company.
C. A discussion forum is available for students and pilots to exchange information and experiences.
D. Learn-to-fly articles cover a wide variety of topics, including
1. Selection of a flight school
2. Pilot career options
3. Financial assistance
4. Employment opportunities
5. Military vs. civilian flying
E. A pilot interview section allows students to learn how other pilots obtained their certificates and
jobs.
F. An online store offers a variety of merchandise, from training materials to fun items like gifts and
toys.
G. Information on recreational, professional, and military training is available, including a search
engine that can be used to find the answers to frequently asked questions.
H. The goal of the Student Pilot Network is to provide accurate and timely information about learning
to fly and continuing to pursue aviation after the training stage.

IV. Be-A-Pilot (http://www.beapilot.com)

A. Be-A-Pilot is an industry-sponsored marketing program designed to inspire people to "Stop
dreaming, start flying."
1. Be-A-Pilot offers a $49 introductory flight that can be redeemed at a participating flight
school.
a. Participating flight schools can be located with a searchable database.
2. The goal of this program is to encourage people to realize their dreams of flying by taking an
introductory flight and beginning flying lessons.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 16: Internet Resources 3

B. The Be-A-Pilot web site is an excellent resource for prospective students who are looking for
information about learning to fly.
1. The site contains information on learning to fly and the steps to take to begin. It offers
articles covering a variety of subjects, from what can be done with a pilot certificate to how
much of an investment is required to obtain one.
C. Aviation links are also provided to connect prospective students to other sites of interest.

16.3 WEATHER RESOURCES

I. Many sites on the Internet provide excellent information about current and forecast weather
conditions.
A. Due to the vast number of sites available, this discussion is limited to six of the major sites.
B. Identify these sites to your students as an aid in flight planning.
1. Inform your students that, in most cases, these sites are not considered "official" sources of
weather information; accordingly, it may still be necessary to obtain an official briefing from
a flight service specialist before beginning a flight.

II. Aviation Weather Center (http://www.aviationweather.gov)

A. The National Weather Service (NWS) Aviation Weather Center (AWC) products page provides a
wealth of weather information to pilots.
B. Aviation products include
1. AIRMETs, convective SIGMETs, domestic SIGMETs, and international SIGMETs
2. Aviation area forecasts
3. NWS and world area forecast system fax products (charts)
4. Low-level and high-level significant weather progs
5. Terminal aerodrome forecasts (TAF)
6. TWEB route forecasts
7. International flight folder documentation programs
8. Winds aloft forecasts
9. Wind/temperature plots
10. Alaska aviation weather
11. Various satellite images, including infrared (IR), visible, and water vapor
12. A national weather radar composite with precipitation tops
a. Radar observation text reports are also available.
C. Experimental forecast products include
1. Convection forecasts
2. Mountain wave forecast
3. Neural net icing forecast
D. Other interesting products include
1. North American Weather Cameras (Weathernet - University of Michigan) provides access to
over 800 weather cameras across North America.
2. An aviation weather calculator converts units of measurement and allows users determine
values such as wind chill factor and heat index.
3. An AWC Product Overlays feature allows users to display multiple graphical weather
products of their choosing (e.g., radar images, satellite images, AIRMETs, etc.) on a single
U.S. map.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 4 Lesson 16: Internet Resources

III. Aviation Digital Data Service (http://adds.aviationweather.gov)

A. This website matches interactive meteorological software with a thorough package of pre- created
weather products for use by pilots and meteorologists. The interactive software displays
information contained in standard weather products in innovative and helpful formats.
1. New items are summarized in chronological order on a separate page to ease
familiarization.
2. The site offers users online help, tip sheets, and feedback pages.
B. Weather products include
1. PIREPs
2. AIRMETs, SIGMETs, and convective SIGMETs
3. METARs
4. TAFs
5. Satellite images
6. Radar images
7. Winds and temperatures aloft
8. IFR conditions
9. Icing
10. Turbulence
11. Convective activity
IV. Direct User Access Terminal System (DUATS)
A. DUATS is an FAA-funded, computer-based information system that enables certificated pilots
(including student pilots) to obtain weather briefings and to file flight plans via the Internet, without
the need to contact a Flight Service Station.
1. Pilots who are required to have a medical certificate to exercise all of their pilot privileges
(i.e., pilots who do not have glider or balloon ratings) must also have a current medical
certificate to use DUATS.
B. Currently, the FAA offers DUATS service through two private contractors: Data Transformation
Corporation (DTC) and DynCorp.
1. You can access DUATS through DTC and DynCorp on the Internet.
a. DTC website is http://www.duat.com
b. DynCorp website is http://www.duats.com

C. DUATS gives users full access to all aviation-related National Weather Service (NWS) products,
including graphical weather maps.
1. Additionally, DUATS offers flight planning features including
a. Filing and closing a flight plan
b. Constructing and printing a flight (nav) log using your own route, VOR, RNAV, and/or
airway routing

V. Flight Brief (http://www.flightbrief.com)

A. This website is a subscription page, meaning that you must be a member to access the weather
information.
B. Flight Brief offers the following:
1. Satellite images
2. National radar images
3. Winds aloft
4. Weather depiction charts
5. Ceiling heights and surface visibilities
6. Current and forecast temperatures

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 16: Internet Resources 5

7. Surface analysis charts

8. Precipitation information
9. Severe weather alerts
10. Lightning tracking information
C. A section called AVCAST contains the identical text briefing used by Flight Service Stations and
the U.S. military.

VI. The Weather Channel (http://www.weather.com)

A. This website offers the same information as seen on the Weather Channel, which may or may not
be available from your local cable company.
B. The website offers a special aviation section, which includes
1. Location of the main North American jet stream for the current and up to 5 days in advance
2. Surface, low, mid, and upper wind speeds and directions
3. A national airport overview of IFR/MVFR conditions
VII. Aviation Weather (http://www.aviationweather.com)
A. This website provides pilots with a variety of aviation weather services.
B. Some of the services and weather information offered include
1. Convective, domestic, and international SIGMETs
2. METARs
3. TAFs
4. Winds aloft forecasts
5. Area forecasts
6. Mountain wave information
7. Aviation icing maps
8. Alaska weather
9. TWEB routes
C. A database of current conditions at several airports within each state is offered on the main page.
1. Selecting a state brings up a list of airports within that state.
2. The user can click on the desired airport to see the current conditions.
D. There is a section for converting and decoding weather symbols and units of time, temperature,
and wind velocity.
E. Keys for decoding AIRMETs, SIGMETs, convective SIGMETs, international SIGMETs, TAFs, and
winds aloft plots are also provided.

16.4 SAFETY RESOURCES

I. There are many safety-related web sites on the Internet that pilots can use to enhance the safety of
their operations. Most of these sites are based on reports or descriptions of hazardous or
potentially hazardous aviation occurrences.
A. By learning from the experiences of others, pilots can lower their own risk of being involved in an
accident.

II. Aviation Safety Reporting System (http://asrs.arc.nasa.gov)

A. This is the website for the Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS). ASRS was established in
1975 by the FAA and is administered by NASA.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 6 Lesson 16: Internet Resources

B. The ASRS collects, analyzes, and responds to voluntarily submitted aviation safety incident reports
with the goal of reducing the likelihood of aviation accidents.
1. Pilots who submit reports of incidents may receive limited immunity from an enforcement
action related to the incident on the grounds that the pilot is helping to educate the FAA and
the flying public to potential hazards by sharing his/her experiences as described in his/her
own words.
C. The site offers a database of selected ASRS reports organized by incident category (e.g., in-flight
weather encounters), and links to a larger database of all ASRS reports that can be searched by
location, aircraft type, etc.
D. Users can view the current issue and past issues of Callback, which is a monthly safety bulletin
containing excerpts from ASRS incident reports that are accompanied by supporting
commentary.
1. Inform your students that reading Callback is one method of learning from others in order to
improve the human performance aspect of flying.
E. Pilots can also obtain the ASRS reporting form from the website. This form can be filled out and
sent to NASA via U.S. mail.

III. FAA Office of System Safety (http://www.asy.faa.gov/)

A. In 1995, FAA Administrator David Hinson challenged the industry to "Zero Accidents" and
proposed a new and innovative approach to aviation safety, an approach that is proactive rather
than reactive.
1. To support this effort, he created the Office of System Safety. Its primary function is to
develop and implement improved tools and processes to facilitate more effective use of
safety data, both inside and outside the FAA.
B. Safety data available through the Office of System Safety web site include the following:
1. Users can access databases such as NTSB aviation accident/incident data, FAA ASRS
incident data, and near midair collision system data.
2. Additionally, users can view the NTSB's safety recommendations to the FAA with the FAA
responses, along with the Bureau of Transportation Statistics (BTS) and Airline Traffic
Statistics.
C. The publications section contains several safety products, including materials related to
1. Airport markings
2. Summer weather information
3. New aviation weather formats: METAR/TAF
4. Winter weather information
D. A link is provided to the National Aviation Data Safety Analysis Center (NASDAC) website, where
users can access various searchable aviation databases.
E. The Office of System Safety web site also reflects the FAA's participation in the Global Aviation
Information Network (GAIN). GAIN's purpose is to promote and facilitate the voluntary collection
and sharing of safety information by and among users in the international aviation community for
the purpose of improving safety.
1. A link is provided to the GAIN website.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 16: Internet Resources 7

IV. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) (http://www.ntsb.gov)

A. This site offers information about the history and function of the NTSB, as well as databases of
aviation, marine, highway, and railroad incident/accident reports.
1. Incident/accident report databases can be searched using a case-specific query that
incorporates data such as the accident date and location, aircraft type, aircraft registration
number, etc.
2. The databases can also be viewed according to the month and year in which the
incident/accident occurred. The reports begin on January 1, 1962.

V. Aviation Safety Network (http://www.aviation-safety.net/)

A. This website offers a detailed database of incidents/accidents from around the world. Whenever
possible, information obtained from accident reports (prepared by the NTSB or a foreign agency)
and photographs are included.
B. The site has several sections, including
1. Database (brief descriptions of aviation incidents/accidents)
2. Accident reports (official findings)
3. Safety issues (incidents/accidents organized according to causal factors)
4. Statistics
5. Useful links to other web sites
6. Accident specials (detailed analyses of famous accidents)
7. CVR (cockpit voice recorders)/FDR (flight data recorders)
8. Forum (an area for users to voice opinions)
VI. The Aviation Safety Institute (http://www.aero-farm.com/asi/asi.htm/)
A. This website provides information about accidents and incidents in aviation. The focus is on
incidents rather than accidents.
1. The Aviation Safety Institute seeks to improve safety by learning from operational incidents
that, but for one or more missing elements, might have become accidents.
2. This organization takes the investigation of incidents a step further than the NTSB.

VII. Global Aviation Information Network (GAIN) (http://www.gainweb.org/index.html)

A. GAIN is a voluntary worldwide infrastructure, privately owned and operated, created to collect,
analyze, and disseminate aviation safety information.
B. The organization collects safety data from pilots, controllers, and other aviation-related employees,
and then informs the public of the problems and possible solutions.
C. The GAIN website describes the organization's history, mission, and findings.
1. The site is much like a privately-owned FAA or NTSB site.

16.5 FAA RESOURCES

I. The FAA makes a great deal of useful information available to the public via the Internet.
A. Identify the following sites to your students as official sources of information concerning a variety of
topics.

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 8 Lesson 16: Internet Resources

II. FAA Aviation Support and Regulation (http://www1.faa.gov/RegulatoryAdvisory/).

A. This web site provides over 115 links to information that is useful to the aviation community.
B. The links are separated in the following 12 categories:
1. Access points
2. Primarily for pilots
3. Primarily for mechanics
4. Primarily for aircraft owners
5. The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations
6. Pilot certification
a. Under this category is a link to Part 61 and 141 frequently asked questions (FAQ) site.
i. This FAQ site provides detailed answers to commonly asked questions about
Part 61 and 141 flight privileges and requirements.
b.
This category provides numerous other links that are valuable to a CFI, such as the
knowledge test question banks and the practical tests.
7. Tutorials, periodicals, and FAQs
This category provides links to items such as the current on-line AIM and the Designee
a.
Update Newsletter.
8. Guidance, reference, advisory
a.
Links to items such as the index of FAA Advisory Circulars, knowledge test guides,
and the National Runway Safety Program.
9. FAA organizations
a.This category provides links to locate FAA offices or web sites in a particular area,
such as a Flight Standards District Office (FSDO).
10. FAA designations
11. FAA initiatives and programs in the news
12. Aviation forms
III. FAA Office of Aviation Medicine (http://www.cami.jccbi.gov)
A. This site is an excellent resource for aeromedical information.
B. An aviation medical examiner (AME) search directory is also available at this site.
IV. Orlando FSDO Web Site (www2.faa.gov/fsdo/orl)
A. The Orlando FSDO web site is typical of many FSDO websites. It has a variety of useful features
and information, including
1. Links to many other FAA and industry web sites
2. Information about scheduling initial CFI check rides, including a list of common deficiencies
found in initial CFI applicants
a. The Orlando FSDO is one of many that participates in the FAA's CFI Special
Emphasis Program (CFI/ESP). The ultimate goal of the program is to drastically
reduce the number of accidents and incidents occurring during flight training
activities.
b. For more information on the CFI Special Emphasis Program, visit:
http://www2.faa.gov/fsdo/orl/findings.cfm
3. Information about how to obtain a U.S. pilot certificate based on a foreign certificate/license
4. A list of designated examiners in the district
5. Flight advisories for transient pilots, covering concerns unique to central Florida (e.g.,
restricted airspace around Kennedy Space Center)
6. Information for the general public, such as instructions on how to report low-flying aircraft
B. Additionally, the Orlando FSDO is a registration site for the FAA Safety Center and Production
Studio located at the Lakeland Linder Regional Airport in Lakeland, FL.
© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 16: Internet Resources 9

1. Throughout the year, the FAA Safety Center is host to numerous safety seminars
encompassing all aspects of aviation. Industry, organizations, and individuals are
encouraged to attend and participate in as many safety seminars as possible. Nearly all
seminars are free of charge and walk-ins are gladly welcomed, space permitting.
2. To view a schedule of the various seminars offered, as well as to process an online
registration form, visit: http://www1.faa.gov/fsdo/orl/register/register.cfm.
3. For an overview of the Lakeland FAA Safety Center and Production studio, including a
virtual "Photo-Tour", visit: http://www.faaproductionstudios.com/.

16.6 AVIATION ORGANIZATIONS ON THE INTERNET

I. Many outstanding aviation-related organizations have sites on the Internet.
A. While we have selected only a few for this lesson, you and your students are encouraged to fully
explore the range of aviation organizations accessible via the Internet.

II. Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA) (http://www.aopa.org)

A. The Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association, a not-for-profit organization dedicated to promoting
general aviation, was incorporated on May 15, 1939. From the start, AOPA has worked to keep
general aviation fun, safe, and affordable.
1. AOPA conveys important information about general aviation-related issues to pilots and the
general public alike; this information is available to anyone who accesses AOPA's site.
a. Additionally, AOPA offers flight training information to prospective student pilots, a CFI
directory to assist prospective students in finding a flight instructor, and numerous
other pages to encourage the growth of aviation.
2. A special "members only" section provides information that is tailored to pilots and AOPA
members, such as aviation weather, flight planning tools, an airport directory, and a
member forum.
a. Users must be members of AOPA in order to access this section of the site.
3. The AOPA Project Pilot Instructor Program has been established to reach out to CFIs and
their students. By supporting CFIs and providing materials, the AOPA Project
Pilot Instructor Program assists CFIs and their students through the flight training process.

III. The Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA) (http://www.eaa.org)

A. The EAA is a growing and diverse organization of members with a wide range of aviation interests
and backgrounds. The organization focuses on people, offering the opportunity to make new
aviation friends and form relationships while encouraging the sharing of information, stories, and
enthusiasm.
B. Programs and benefits include
1. Publications. EAA publishes magazines for each of its three divisions (the Vintage Aircraft
Division, the International Aerobatics Club (IAC), and the Warbirds of America), each
focusing on a specific type of aircraft or activity.
2. Education and competition. EAA's annual AirVenture air show in Oshkosh, WI, features
more than 500 educational forums, workshops, and seminars presented by the top names
in aviation. AirVenture also includes competition judging for the best aircraft in a variety of
different categories, from design and restoration to actual construction.
3. Dedication to the future. The EAA Aviation Foundation was established in 1962 and is
dedicated to the education, history, and development of sport aviation.
4. Young Eagles Program. One of the foundation's most important efforts is the Young Eagles
Program, created to give a free flight experience to young people, primarily ages 8 through
© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 10 Lesson 16: Internet Resources

17.
5. Youth scholarships. The foundation, which cosponsors AirVenture, also administers an
extensive scholarship program for young people interested in aviation-related careers.

IV. National Association of Flight Instructors (NAFI) (http://www.nafinet.org)

A. NAFI is an affiliate of the EAA that is dedicated to "raising and maintaining the professional
standing of the flight instructor in the aviation community."
B. NAFI offers the opportunity for flight instructors to apply for "Master CFI" industry accreditation,
which gives them visibility and credibility as quality instructors. Master CFI accreditation
encourages participation and leadership in all aspects of aviation education and communication
development.
C. The NAFI website contains information that is useful to CFIs and their students.
1. For example, NAFI members can be included in a searchable CFI directory that can be used
by prospective students to find an instructor.

V. The Ninety-Nines, Inc. (http://www.ninety-nines.org)

A. The Ninety-Nines is an international organization of licensed women pilots from 35 countries. The
organization was founded in 1929 by 99 licensed women pilots.
B. Today, Ninety-Nines are
1. Professional pilots for airlines, industry, and government
2. Pilots who teach and pilots who fly for pleasure
3. Pilots who are technicians and mechanics
VI. Women in Aviation International (http://www.wiai.org)
A. Women in Aviation International (WAI) is dedicated to the encouragement and advancement of
women in all aviation career fields and interests.
B. WAI offers educational outreach programs to educators, aviation industry members, and young
people.
C. The WAI website contains information on aviation events, news, education, and careers.
1. An online shop is also available.

16.7 COMMERCIAL AVIATION COMPANIES

I. Numerous commercial aviation websites offer a variety of services to pilots and aviation enthusiasts,
including news, forums, searchable databases, image libraries, and online shopping.
A. We have listed just a few of the many sites available.

II. AVweb (http://www.avweb.com)

A. AVweb is an Internet aviation magazine and news service.
B. Various pages include topics on aeromedical factors, aviation law, databases, insurance, and
many more.

III. Landings (http://www.landings.com)

A. Landings is a website that provides a variety of services and information sources to pilots.
B. This website has many searchable databases that aid the general aviation pilot. Some of these
databases include
1. Aviation designated examiners database
2. Certificated A&P and medical examiners databases
© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
 Lesson 16: Internet Resources 11

3. Approximate airport distance database

C. This site offers forums where a pilot can ask "real" questions and get "real" answers from true
professionals. Some of the forums include
1. Maintenance
2. Medicine
3. Aviation law
4. Aerobatics/soaring
IV. Sporty's (www.sportys.com)
A. This website offers
1. Information and resources for individuals interested in taking flight lessons
2. Products ranging from pilot training and reference materials to unique items that show your
love for flying

16.8 AVIATION EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES

I. We have listed two of the many websites that exist for the purpose of finding employment or
advertising job openings in the aviation industry.
II. The Flight Instructor's Homepage (http://www.ilsapproach.com/)
A. This site has information for commercial pilots and flight instructors who are seeking employment.
B. There is an active message board where all interested pilots can share their ideas about the
current and future aviation employment climate.
C. This site includes a list of links to other aviation websites whose contents range from weather
information to image libraries.

III. Aviation Employment (http://www.aviationemployment.com)

A. This website is an online job search engine specializing in aerospace and aviation jobs. Job
search categories include
1. Aerospace/aviation engineering
2. Aviation/maintenance and technical jobs
3. Management/executive aviation jobs
4. Miscellaneous aviation jobs
5. Pilot jobs

16.9 FLIGHT SIMULATOR MANUFACTURERS

I. Flight simulators, flight training devices, and personal computer-based aviation training devices
(PCATDs) have become increasingly common flight training tools, especially at larger flight
schools.
A. We have listed the websites for two of the most popular general aviation simulator manufacturers.

II. Frasca International (http://www.frasca.com)

A. The Frasca website provides information about flight simulator upgrades, new models, and FAA
requirements, as well as other information services.
B. The site also offers a customer list so users can see which schools and aviation companies are
using Frasca simulators.

III. Elite Simulation Solutions (http://www.flyelite.com)

A. Elite Simulation Solutions produces aerodynamically and visually accurate PCATD software for all

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.
12 Lesson 16: Internet Resources

levels of flight training, from beginning instrument students to ATPs.

B. Some of the aircraft simulators offered include
1. Cessna 172R/H2P
2. Piper Archer III
3. Piper Arrow IV
4. Cessna 182S
5. Mooney M20J
6. Bonanza A36
7. King Air B200
8. MD-81

© 2003 Gleim Publications, Inc. and Gleim Internet, Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited.