Eric O. Odada, Daniel O.

Olago, Kassim Kulindwa, Micheni Ntiba and Shem Wandiga

Mitigation of Environmental Problems in Lake

Victoria, East Africa: Causal Chain and Policy
Options Analyses
Lake Victoria is an international waterbody that offers the
riparian communities a large number of extremely important
environmental services. Over the past three decades or
so, the lake has come under increasing and considerable
pressure from a variety of interlinked human activities
such as overfishing, species introductions, industrial
pollution, eutrophication, and sedimentation. In this paper
we examine the root causes for overfishing and pollution
in Lake Victoria and give possible policy options that can
help remediate or mitigate the environmental degradation.

INTRODUCTION
The large lakes of the East African Rift Valley are unique
natural resources that are heavily utilized by their bordering
countries for transportation, water supply, fisheries, waste
disposal, recreation and tourism. The waters of Lake Victoria
and its shoreline are shared between 3 countries; Kenya
(6%), Uganda (43%), and Tanzania (51%) (Fig. 1).
Additionally, the catchment of the principal affluent river,
the Kagera, runs through the countries of Rwanda and
Burundi. The Nile river outflow is an extremely important
freshwater resource for the Nile Basin countries of Uganda,
Sudan, and Egypt.
The demographic and physical characteristics of Lake
Victoria basin are summarized in Table 1. The human popu-
lation in the lacustrine basins of the East African Rift Valley
lakes subregion is high (about 30 million people) (1), Figure 1. General features of the Lake Victoria basin.

Table 1. Demographic and biophysical characterization of the inlet drainage basins of Lake Victoria (4).
(Est. – estimated; Ave. – average).

River basin Countries Est. basin Ave. est. 2000 Est. total Ave. annual Ave. sediment Ave. % slope
sharing size (km2) pop. density pop. In 2000 rainfall (mm) transport capa-
basin (km-2) city index
Nzoia / Yala Kenya 15 143 221 (±154) 3 346 000 1306 0.14 2.3
Nyando Kenya 3517 174 (±127) 611 000 1360 0.30 5.0
Sondu Miriu Kenya 3583 220 (±148) 788 000 1415 0.14 2.3
Gucha Kenya 6612 224 (±183) 1 481 000 1300 0.16 2.0
Mara Kenya 13 915 46 (±56) 640 000 1040 0.15 2.0
Tanzania
Gurumeti Tanzania 12 290 21 (±26) 258 000 879 0.12 1.6
Mbalaget Tanzania 5702 37 (±22) 211 000 766 0.05 0.6
Duma / Simiyu Tanzania 9702 50 (±26) 485 000 804 0.06 0.5
Magoga / Muame Tanzania
Isonga Tanzania 5104 88 (±47) 449 000 842 0.05 0.4
Kagera Tanzania 8972 48 (±22) 430 000 897 0.04 0.3
Uganda 59 158 181 (±196) 10 711 000 1051 0.24 3.0
Rwanda
Burundi
Lake edge Kenya 40 682 133 (±175) 5 411 000 1077 0.21 1.4
Tanzania
Uganda

Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1–2, Feb. 2004 © Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2004 13
http://www.ambio.kva.se
growing rapidly, and heavily concentrated near the lakes (2). Waters Assessment (GIWA) transboundary diagnostic
The lake basin supports one of the densest and poorest rural analysis approach were: unsustainable exploitation of fisheries
populations in the world, with human population density in (overexploitation, excessive by-catch and discards, and
the Lake Victoria basin being well over 100 km-2 (2). It is thus destructive fishing practices), and pollution (microbiological,
the most heavily populated basin within the East African eutrophication, chemical and suspended solids). In this
Rift Valley Lakes subregion. It is multi-ethnic, comprising paper, we address the root causes of these problems—over-
communities from Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, and fishing and pollution—and suggest mitigating policy options.
Rwanda. The population of the region is expected to double
within the next two decades (3).
Lake Victoria is an “international water” that is
under considerable pressure from a variety of
interlinked human activities; it has undergone
enormous environmental changes within the
last 40 years or so. Overfishing, siltation from
the erosion of deforested watersheds, species
introductions, industrial pollution, eutrophication,
and climate change are all contributing to a
host of rapidly evolving changes in the lake (and
the other East African lakes) that seriously
threatens its ecosystem function and overall
diversity (5, 6). Today, nearly half of the lake
floor experiences prolonged anoxia (lack of
oxygen) spells for several months of the year
compared to 4 decades ago when anoxia was
sporadic and localized (7–10). Algal biomass
concentration is almost 5 times greater in the
surface waters today than reported in the 1960s
(11), which indicates higher rates of photosyn-
thesis. Also, the transparency values have de
creased to one third, and the silica concentration
has gone down to one tenth of what they were
about 40 years ago (5, 9, 12). These and other
related environmental changes, arising out of Figure 2. Causal chain analysis diagram for overfishing.
natural or anthropogenic causes, have signifi-
cantly impacted Lake Victoria’s fish populations. For
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS:
example, the extinction of several hundred species of
haplochromine cichlid fish in Lake Victoria, primarily as a THE ROOT CAUSES
result of the introduction of the Nile perch, remains a single Unsustainable Exploitation of Fisheries
most dramatic event of vertebrate species extinction attribu-
table to specific human activities (13). Overexploitation
The Lake Victoria basin (LVB) faces far more complex Two immediate causes were identified for overexploitation,
social, economic, political and technical barriers than other i.e. increased effort and technological change (Fig. 2).
Increased fishing effort and technological change:
transboundary lakes in the region (14). The environmental
Overexploitation is mainly due to increased fishing effort (55
degradation of LVB over the last 3 decades, due to
– 75%). As a result of increased total fishing effort, efficiency
unsustainable use of natural resources, massive algal
of fishing gear and extension of fishing grounds to maintain
blooms, waterborne diseases, water hyacinth infestation,
the yield, there has been a progressive decline in catch per
oxygen depletion, introduction of alien fish species, etc., has
unit effort (CPUE) and mean size of fish caught (16, 17). In
put the economically important fisheries sector at risk. It has all 3 countries, efforts in terms of boats and numbers of
been estimated that if the large export fishery for Nile perch fishermen have more than doubled in the past 10 years (18,
is lost, the riparian communities stand to lose USD 270 – 19). The number of fishermen in Lake Victoria increased
520 million in revenue (1). The alarm over the accelerated from about 84 000 in 1990/1991 to about 122 000 in 2000
degradation was the key driving force for the approval of the (19). With increased fishing pressure, predation, and com-
Lake Victoria GEF project in the mid-1990s, as the then petition among species, the multispecies fishery of Lake
largest GEF international waters project at USD 77 million Victoria fishery has changed to only 3 species: Nile perch
(14). At about the same time, the Lake Victoria Fisheries (Lates niloticus), the pelagic cyprinid-dagaa (Rastrioneobola
Organization (LVFO) was formed by Kenya, Uganda, and argentea Pellegrin), and the introduced tilapiine (Oreochromis
Tanzania under the Convention of Fisheries. The Lake niloticus L.) (Fig. 3). By 1998, total Nile perch catches were
Victoria 5-year GEF project was the first of several intended half those at the beginning of the decade despite increased
interventions over time (14). The transboundary nature of Lake effort, and catches of Rastrineobola argentea have also levelled
Victoria presents the main challenge to regional management off despite increased effort (20). The unrestricted access
of water and other aquatic resources. status of the lake and lack of enforcement of existing
The major concerns (issues) that emerged from the legislation are linked to increasing and crippling fishing
environmental assessment (15) using the Global International effort (21).

14 © Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2004 Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1–2, Feb. 2004
http://www.ambio.kva.se
 Overexploitation is also related to technological change important driver of exploitation of the fishery (21). Nile
(20–30%). Changes in the efficiency of fishing gears, perch is purchased and processed mainly by the large-scale
motorization of canoes and increase in total fishing effort to processors (21).
maintain production have contributed to the decline of the Nile The establishment of the Dutch Government sponsored
perch since the mid-1990s (21). Most of the region’s factories fish meal plant in Mwanza, Tanzania in the 1970s contributed
suffer from fish supply problems, attributed to low catches substantially to the decline of the haplochromines in the lake
and competition with other fish factories (22) and in order to since the factory targeted this fish group (21). Of the factories
stay operational, they drive fishermen to catch more fish. currently operating in the region, the majority commenced
Related sectors and activities: Increased effort has been operations after 1990, an indication of the region’s relatively
driven by a much greater demand for fish by recently recent entry into the global fish market (22). Fifteen out of
established fish processing factories that have a large capacity 25 factories surveyed in the region (22) have been obliged to
for processed products (23). Nile perch fisheries opened up close down at least once between 1997 and 1998 to carry out
greater employment opportunities, attracting more fishers modifications so as to comply with EU import regulations
(artisanal to large-scale), more fishing gear and vessels to (22). Many of the fish processed are small sized because
access the resource, and the establishment of fish filleting demand from export markets is fillets from small sized
factories (21). Dwindling fish stocks are necessitating increased individuals, which are less fatty and provide portion-sized
effort in order to maintain the same level of catch (24). fillets (21). The decline of fish catches over time has also
Technological change has come about mainly due to a necessitated a change in the technology used in fishing to
demand for higher fish catches to supply the fish processing using illegal degrading technologies in order to catch more
factories and consequently the huge export market. A number fish (23, 24).
Root causes for overexploitation of fisheries: The marketing
of fish processing plants have been constructed along the
of Lake Victoria’s fish was localized within the riparian
shores of the lake, 11 of which are licensed to operate in the
states during the pre-Nile perch era, but as most fish filleting
Uganda sector of the lake (25), 12 in Kenya and 12 in
factories were established in the 1990s, both the regional and
Tanzania (26). The large number of processing factories,
international trade expanded (21, 23, 24). The high demand
whose capacity is about 120 000 tonnes (t) versus the total
for processed fish products is, therefore, driven mainly by
landings for the lake being in the region of 210 000 t, is an the large export market for Nile perch fillets that emerged in
the early 1990s (23). Increasing human populations within
the lake basin, poor governance in the fishing industry, and
the unrestricted access status of the lake are secondary drivers.
The large export fishery for the Nile perch is estimated at
USD 270 to 520 million (14). Fishers annual incomes (per
capita) are estimated as follows: Kenyan, USD 3269,
Tanzanian, USD 2294, Uganda, USD 1157 (21). The Nile
perch is now sold not only to the traditional EU and Middle
Eastern countries, but also to Japan, Australia, and northern
and southern America (21). The price ranges for fish products
such as chilled fillets, frozen fillets, portions, head-on gutted
fish, head-off gutted fish and kosher products are from
USD 2 to 4.5 kg-1 (22). By-products from the factories are
numerous and include skins, off-cuts (chips), swim bladders
and carcasses (frames). Swim bladders are the most valuable
and are exported to the Far East (22).
The gap between the richest and poorest fishers in some
coastal areas is widening, and the gap between the benefits
obtained from the fishery by vessel owners and employed
fishermen is also widening (21). Due to high demand for
Nile perch, processors are providing loans to some fishers
who then repatriate the outlays through catches to the
companies (21, 22). The scarcity of fish has increased fish

Figure 3. Trends in landings (tonnes (t)) of the major commercial fish

species in the riparian countries of Lake Victoria (49). Figure 4. The percent contribution by weight of the 4 major fishing
gears to the Kenyan Lake Victoria catches (20).

Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1–2, Feb. 2004 © Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2004 15
http://www.ambio.kva.se
 Related sectors and activities: Most of the
Catch per unit effort for Nile Perch
region’s factories suffer from fish supply pro-
blems, attributed to low catches and competi-
tion with other fish factories (22). Due to the
(kg boat-1 day-1)

boom in the Nile perch export market, many

more people who were never fishermen moved
to cash in on the “lucrative” industry. This may
have pushed traditional fishermen to resort to
the use of destructive fishing methods to
sustain their level of livelihood and food requi-
rements. The use of poison, which led to a ban
on fishing and the sale of fish in March 1999
(26), was probably largely due to rent-seekers.
Figure 5. Trends in catch per unit effort for Nile perch in commercial fisheries of The remoteness of some of the landing sites
Lake Victoria (20, 21, 50). and the inadequate transportation infrastructure
impose severe constraints on the post harvest
prices at the landing sites (21). Thus, rich firms are able to sector of the Lake Victoria fishery (21). Handling facilities,
displace less-rich processors, some of whom have been forced ice plants, storage facilities, sanitary conditions (including
to close down. This has led to serious impacts in the fisheries boats with containers) are either lacking or inadequate at lan-
sector and has intensified existing conflicts between users (27). ding sites, contributing to poor fish quality (21).
Root causes for destructive fishing practices: The reduc-
Destructive fishing practices tion of taxes on all nets has resulted in more net purchases.
Destructive fishing practices and reduced capacity to meet The increase in population has resulted in increased demand
human needs: Destructive fishing practices are mainly due to for fish (particularly Tilapia) for local consumption. The
increased effort (55 – 75%). There has been a reduction in mesh unrestricted access status of the lake and lack of enforce-
size of nets used, and an increased proportion of immature fish ment of existing legislation is linked to increasing and cripp-
in the catches (21). Mesh sizes have progressively declined ling fishing effort (21). There is also a lack of awareness
over the past 10 years or so with 24% of the nets (24, 28) in among some of the fisherfolk on the mid- to long-term
Uganda now below the recommended mesh size of 5 inches, consequences of destructive fishing methods. The policy of
and now more recent beach surveys (L. Muhoozi, cited in free and unrestricted access to the Lake Victoria fisheries
21) suggest that this is now as high as 50%. In Kenya and appears to be a major loophole that was exploited by the
Tanzania, 3 and 18%, respectively, of the gillnets are below rent-seekers. With the near disappearance of many food-fish
the legal mesh size limits (21). Trends (1987 – 1997) in species (30) and signs of decline in L. niloticus (Othina and
percentage contribution by weight of the 4 major fishing Osewe-Odera, cited in ref. 30), a number of management
gears to the Kenya Lake Victoria catches show that mosquito measures were effected including a ban on beach seines and
seine and beach seine landings have increased despite a ban undersized mesh nets (< 127mm stretched mesh) in 1994,
on their use, while the gillnet and long-line contributions and a ban on trawlers in 1996 (30). Failure in monitoring and
have declined (Fig. 4) (20, 23, 24). Rent-seeking behavior enforcement of these bans is evident, e.g. the continued
probably accounts for up to 20% of the contribution to beach seineing in Kenyan waters despite its ban.
destructive fishing practices. Beach seines and trawls (10 of Overfishing and the use of damaging or illegal fishing
which were operating in Kenyan waters until recently) (M. gear is only in part a reflection of the failure of centralized
Njiru, cited in 21) are banned gears in the region. management strategies on the lake, and are symptomatic of
Reduced capacity to meet human needs can account for broader social, economic, and developmental dislocations
up to 40% of the destructive fishing practices (Figs 4, 5). (21) such as poverty, lack of employment, etc. Theft (of
As traditional fishing methods are now often considered fishing gears, vessels, etc.) and piracy are rampant on the
inadequate for landing a sufficient catch, fishermen increas- lake, and may become worse as the disparity in distribution
ingly resort to deploying illegal fishing gear such as cast of benefits from the fishery becomes more polarized (21).
nets, fish poison and weirs to improve their catches (26).
Some of the gears used to fish are a fallout from other sectors
such as the flower industry, where fine mesh nets that are
used to protect flowers from birds are now
being used in the fishing industry. In a 1999
LVRFP study of 1066 fishers in all 3 countries of
the lake, 33% of respondents linked declines in Table 2. Number of sewered and unsewered people in urban populations
(from 33).
the stock to the contravention of fishing regula-
tions, 32% felt this was due to excessive
fishing effort and 11% to pollution or the pre- Total population Urban Population (1000 people)
(1000 people) Sewered Unsewered Number of Towns
sence of water hyacinth (29). In most cases,
these reasons provided for catch declines indi- Kenya 10 200 390 630 18
cate a widespread acknowledgement amongst Uganda 5600 210 870 9
the lakes fishing communities that effort levels Tanzania 5200 27 340 4
Rwanda 5900 - 400 5
are excessive, that damaging fishing techniques - 140 4
Burundi 2800
are in use and that regulations are generally igno- Total 29 700 627 2380 40
red (21).

16 © Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2004 Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1–2, Feb. 2004
http://www.ambio.kva.se
 Pollution
The following pollution issues; microbiological,
eutrophication, chemical, and suspended solids
were identified as being the most important. It
was noted that suspended solids are part and
parcel of the factors that contribute to micro-
biological, eutrophication and chemical pollu-
tion, and that their role is more important in
synergies with the other 3 issues rather than on
its own. Therefore, suspended solids is nested
within the other 3 issues.

Microbiological
Four immediate causes have been identified in
microbiological pollution, namely, municipal
untreated sewage, runoff, and storm water,
animal waste, and maritime transport waste
(Fig. 6). Of these immediate causes, the 2
most important are municipal untreated sewa-
ge, and runoff, and storm water.
Municipal untreated sewage, runoff, and
storm water: Direct discharge of municipal
untreated effluent into rivers and the lake
directly contribute to microbiological pollu-
tion. These have contributed to the degrada-
tion of river and lake-water quality for habitats
and drinking use (26, 31). The low standards
of health in the region are caused by a general
lack of awareness of good hygiene practices,
direct contamination of beach waters through
bathing and washing, and uncontrolled waste
disposal around the shore line (32). Reduction
of the biological oxygen demand (BOD) load
of such effluent can significantly reduce the
occurrence of waterborne diseases such as
typhoid and cholera which are common in the
region. Runoff and storm water collect a lot of
animal, plant, and human waste from point
and nonpoint sources and channel these to
rivers and the lake, creating an environment
that supports microbiological pathogens.
Harbor and bilge discharges compound the
microbiological pollution problem.
Related sectors and activities: There are 2
major sectors from which the municipal
untreated effluent is derived, i.e. agro-industry
and urbanization. Beer-brewing, pulp and
paper production, tanning, fish processing,
agro-processing and abattoirs discharge
raw/untreated waste to feeder rivers and lakes
(e.g. 26, 31). The number of people without
sewers in urban populations is high (Table 2),
and with an urban population growth over 5–
10% yr-1 in most of the larger towns (against
2–4% in most parts of the lake basin) (33), the
situation is likely to get worse. In rural areas
there are no sewers at all.
An assessment of BOD5 loading of Lake
Victoria (corrected for purification in treatment
plants, rivers and wetlands) shows that domestic
pollution accounts for most of the BOD load,
with the contribution of industry (mainly from
Figure 6. Causal chain analysis diagram for pollution.
breweries, sugar-cane factories and soap and

Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1–2, Feb. 2004 © Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2004 17
http://www.ambio.kva.se
oil factories) being relatively low (33). Kenya contributes a Kenya, Rwanda and Burundi (33). Some rivers, such as the
BOD load of 7510 t yr-1, Uganda contributes a BOD load of Sio, Nzoia, Yala, Sondu, Nando and Kuja in the LVB Kenya,
4540 t yr-1 while Tanzania contributes a BOD load of 3920 drain highly productive agricultural areas. The sediment load
t yr-1 (33). 75% of the BOD load from Uganda originates of the Nyando River, for example, has increased by 7.5 times
from Kampala, while in Kenya, 50% of the BOD load origi- during the last 16 years, with turbidity measured at 527 NTU
nates from Kisumu (33). Water hyacinth infestations have in the rainy season of 2001 (36).
also been reported to lower the water-quality in Kenya,
Uganda, and Tanzania (in terms of color, pH, turbidity of Table 3 Agricultural characteristics of Lake Victoria basin (33).
water) and to increase the treatment costs (particularly asso-
ciated with keeping the water intake points free of water hya- Catchment land area (1000 ha)
cinth) (34).
Cultivated Noncultivated Total
There are several sectors that contribute to microbiologi- Kenya 1470 3400 4870
cal pollution of runoff and storm water. These include wild- Uganda 1400 2100 3500
life, agriculture, urban, forestry and rural settlements sec- Tanzania 1500 5540 7040
tors. During the rainy seasons when runoff and storm water Rwanda 930 1130 2060
Burundi 670 640 1310
discharge are peaking, the incidences of water-related disea-
ses reach high levels. Total 5970 12 810 18 780
Root causes for microbiological pollution: The treatment
works in municipalities are either inadequate, using old
and obsolete technology, have ageing components, or have
simply ground to a halt. They have also not been able to
Habitat modification through vegetation clearance for
expand to keep pace with the increasingly larger popula-
infrastructure provision, agriculture, urban settlements and
tions. The municipal by-laws, such as those of Kisumu City,
plant harvesting for use as building materials, furniture crafting
did not predict the growth and type of industries existing and fuelwood, etc., enhances erosion and increases the
today, and so there is no capacity to manage the waste from suspended solids load in rivers. Enhanced erosion of the
these industries. Industries flout the by-laws and regulations lakeshore and river channels are directly contributing to
as there is no monitoring and enforcement mechanism. Poor increased suspended solids in the lake. Soaps and detergents
planning, maintenance, and inadequate investment in muni- that are being used within the basin are outdated or banned
cipality wastewater-treatment systems have contributed to the and are contributing to eutrophication. Analysis of nutrients
increased untreated effluent discharge. If the present treatment (N and P) in the rainy season of 2001 in the Nyando, Sondu,
plants in Kisumu performed optimally, the BOD loads could Nzoia, and Yala rivers indicates that continued addition of
be brought down by 50% (33). Water supply to both municipa- input of such high nutrient concentrations into the Winam
lities and villages is also affected by water hyacinth. In muni- Gulf will seriously affect aquatic systems and water-quality
cipalities, water hyacinth interferes with the water-intake (36). Nutrient loads to the lake are associated mainly with
points through blockage, which lowers the quantity of atmospheric deposition and land runoff, together accounting
water pumped (in Kisumu the water supply has dropped for about 90% of the phosphorus and 94% of the nitrogen
from 20 000 m3 to 10 000 m3 day-1) (34). This decline in water input into the lake (33).
supply invariably causes more people to look for alternative, Related sectors and activities: The change from small-scale
and often untreated, water sources. to large-scale industrial production, and change from small
Flooding is common in the region, particularly around to large farms, etc. have all contributed to enhanced effluent
the lakeshore, during the rainy season and its impact is discharge. The agricultural characteristics for the LVB as a
exacerbated by poor practices when carrying out activities whole are as shown in Table 3 below (33).
in the above sectors. Contamination of drinking water Human population increase, as well as increased rates of
results from poor sanitation, hygiene, and poor floodwater urbanization and agriculture in the region have increased the
management. For example, there were 14 275 cholera per capita demand for land (37), and hence more land is
admissions in Nyanza province, LVB, Kenya, alone between cleared to create the additional space required for these
June 1997 and March 1998, with 547 deaths reported (32). sectors, including wetlands (37, 38), leading to increased
One of the major risk factors identified for cholera among sediment deposition in the rivers and lake. There is, for
a sample of these patients was drinking water from Lake example, large-scale draining of the Yala Swamp (LVB -
Victoria or a stream (32). The period coincided with Kenya) to create land for agriculture and settlement (39).
widespread heavy rainfall that caused flooding across the Clearing of riparian vegetation has led to erosion and loss of
East and the Horn of Africa (35). the vegetation that acted as filters (40), while nutrient-rich
sediments from agricultural runoff and also low-lying, defo-
Eutrophication rested riparian zones and other areas surrounding the lake
Three immediate causes of eutrophication can be identified; contribute to eutrophication, and feed the carpets of water
i.e. enhanced effluent discharge, runoff and storm water, and hyacinth (41). The degree to which urban runoff and solid
enhanced discharge of solids. Enhanced effluent discharge wastes contribute to suspended solids load has not been
and runoff and storm water are the most important immediate assessed (26).
causes of eutrophication. Root causes for eutrophication: There has been a lack of
Enhanced effluent discharge, runoff and storm water: monitoring and enforcement of regulations. Those industries
Analyses of sediment cores from the lake show an increasing that have tried to install recycling facilities in urban areas
rate of sedimentation over the past 150 years (6, 36). There have not had support from the regulating authorities. The
are many densely cultivated areas in the LVB, especially in food and cash crops grown on wetlands require application

18 © Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2004 Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1–2, Feb. 2004
http://www.ambio.kva.se
of fertilizers and pesticides (37). Unsustainable land-use generally absent, but in Kenya a majority of factories operate
practices lead to increased soil erosion and nutrient land a treatment plant (33). Some recent studies have shown that
runoff (33). The high atmospheric nutrient loads are attributed fish in Lake Victoria contain varying levels of organochlorine
to forest burning, and increased dust due to soil erosion (42). pesticide residues (44), reflecting the transport of agrochemical
Sand harvesting activity is mainly performed 5–10 km away residues from farms within the catchment, through rivers
from the lake, particularly in Winam and Ahero Divisions, to the lake. Only a few industries are connected to an
LVB, Kenya, but some sand harvesting is undertaken right urban sewage system (33). Growth in industries has taken
on the shores of the lake (37). place against a backdrop of no infrastructure development
An important source of income, papyrus, is harvested for for disposal of effluents. The currently existing sewage
thatching houses and the making of mats, baskets, furniture infrastructure has not been expanded or improved for
(chairs), fishing floats, rafts, etc., while both shrubs and decades. However, some of the industries are being allowed
papyrus are used for wood fuel (37). There are farms, roads, to establish their operations in areas that have been designated
fishing camps and housing developments close to or on the as “non-industrial”, so they lack the infrastructure to handle
wetlands (37). Soil erosion in the wetlands is generally their waste products. There is no enforcement of existing
connected with cultivation, but specifically to poor farming regulations regarding chemicals use and their disposal, and
practices (37). the current legislations are out-dated and in need of revision.
Lack of monitoring and poor scientific knowledge has led to
Chemical pollution the use of inappropriate or obsolete technologies to the
The identified immediate causes for chemical pollution are: detriment of the environment. The governments of the 3
enhanced effluent discharge; enhanced discharge of solids; riparian countries have not taken deliberate actions to put in
runoff and storm water; and atmospheric deposition. The capital resources to meet the economic development needs
latter is currently the least important but, in terms of supply of the region.
of nutrients such as N and P, it may become increasingly
important as land-use in the basin and outside cumulatively
reduces the vegetation cover, thus increasing the atmospheric POLICY OPTIONS
load of fine particulate matter. We evaluated the relative likelihood of success of the policy
Enhanced effluent and solids discharge: Increasing options using the following criteria: effectiveness, efficiency,
volumes of chemical effluent discharges go directly into the equity, political feasibility and implementation capacity.
rivers and lake. Leachates from mining tailings that are close The policy options in the LVB were additionally evaluated
to the rivers or lakeshore, industrial wastes such as barley waste within the context of the policies that guide the recently
and chemicals are dumped into the lake in an uncontrolled re-established East African Community (EAC) (45, 46). The
manner. There is also disposal of expired pesticides, medical Lake Victoria Development Programme (LVDP) has already
waste, petrol station wastes, bunkering wastes, etc. Some established and operationalized National Focal Points in the
companies have stockpiles of banned substances such as DDT. Partner States’ ministries responsible for Lake Victoria
Related sectors and activities: Most industry is located development. These ministries include the Ministry of
in the large towns bordering the lake; Kampala and Jinja Environment and Natural Resources in Kenya, the Ministry
in Uganda, Mwanza and Musoma in Tanzania, and Kisumu in of Water and Livestock Development in Tanzania and the
Kenya, with the exception of the large sugar factories in Kenya Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Uganda. The other achievements
located at some distance from the lake (33). Small-scale are in terms of studies conducted for facilitating the basis for
mining is increasing in parts of the Tanzanian catchments, objective decisions on environmental and natural resources
leading to contamination of the waterways by mercury. Very management in implementation of the Treaty. The East
few industries have adopted clean technologies. For example, African Community therefore offers a good prospect for the
Panpaper Limited in Kenya (discharging into Nzoia River) success of the policies that have been proposed here in that
could use an extra processing step of scrubbing technology it provides a conducive environment for Kenya, Uganda, and
to reduce SO2 and produce sulfuric acid (added value product). Tanzania to work together towards common goals.
Used chlorine has been dumped into the lake killing many
aquatic organisms. In Uganda, expired chemicals as well as Overexploitation of Fisheries
drugs and partially-treated domestic sewage from the Quota for fishing
Kampala area are dumped into public waterways, finally This has a high probability of success in the medium-term (5
ending up in Lake Victoria (43). years). There should be involvement of stakeholders (fishers
The use of agrochemicals is increasing in the lake basin in co-management), with change of attitude from government-
where there are large-scale farms of coffee, tea, cotton, rice driven to community-driven management and ownership of
maize, sugar, and tobacco (26). Much of Ugandan industrial the process. The process should be initiated in areas where
effluents drain through wetlands before reaching the lake the environment favors self-regulation and sustainability. A
water (33). The urban and peri-urban growth is rapid and conducive environment for the success of the instruments
largely unplanned; many buildings are erected without that need to be put in place (revision of by-laws; scientific
authorization, runoff rates are increased due to lack of basis for decision-making; education and training; financial
storm-water drainage to handle urban runoff, and municipal and technological assistance; etc.) should be created. This
authorities poorly manage waste disposal. Most of the poorly measure should be able to control the number of entrants and
disposed of urban wastes are then washed into watercourses efforts to a sustainable level at minimum cost.
and eventually reach the lake.
Root causes for chemical pollution: In Tanzania and Quota for processing
Uganda, industrial wastewater treatment facilities are This should go along the same lines as the quotas for

Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1–2, Feb. 2004 © Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2004 19
http://www.ambio.kva.se
fisheries. It holds the highest possibility of controlling the stocks. This policy option is now achievable since most of
amount of fish landed due to restricting the main market. the owners of the processing plants have realized that the
Resistance is expected from both sellers and buyers of fish, but availability of small-size fish for their factories is becoming
with the dwindling stock of fish and reduced supply, in terms a problem.
of both quantity and quality, it is expected that awareness
creation properly publicized will avoid this obstacle. Provision of credit to artisan fishers
Lack of capital to buy the recommended fishing gear hampers
Review of the rules and regulations and existing policies compliance by small-scale fishers. Having being dispossessed
In order for co-management to succeed, an environment that of their illegal gear, they cannot afford to buy new legal
is conducive should be provided. This will include recognition fishing gear. Provision of credit to these fisherfolk will
of property rights and entitlements. The review of policies, facilitate compliance of restrictions and regulations by
rules and regulations are already being worked out under enabling them to purchase the required gear, which does not
EAC. This, however, should be carried out in conjunction endanger the sustainability of the fishery. With the experience
with effective enforcement. The policy option will have a high gained by numerous NGOs in credit provision to small-scale
probability of success if well implemented in a participatory entrepreneurs, this policy option has a high probability of
manner with stakeholders in the fishing communities along success. It has the double advantage of alleviating poverty
the lake shores, as has already begun under co-management among the fishing communities while at the same time
through Beach Management Units (BMUs). facilitating sustainable utilization of fisheries resources.

Civic education and awareness Pollution Policy Options

It is important to increase public participation in order to Accreditation of analytical laboratories for standards
enhance effective decision-making and compliance by enforcement
self-regulation. There is political will at the regional level, as In order to facilitate water-quality standards enforcement
demonstrated by the EAC treaty document and implementation conveniently and relatively cheaply, accreditation of regional
of the intended objectives so far. This option will lead to more and national water-quality laboratories is essential.
popular participation of the communities in the environmental, Implementation of this policy option will go a long way in
economic, and development issues that affect their livelihoods. reducing health costs and increase labor productivity. Under
It would also be more inclusive in terms of sharing accruing the EAC, programs are already underway to address this
costs and benefits. situation.

Destructive Fishing Practices Liberalization of waste disposal activities to involve the

private sector and communities
Strengthening monitoring and enforcement of restrictions
Private sector participation in waste disposal activities is
and rule of law
obviously important in order to fill the void left by the
Monitoring and enforcement of regulations and restrictions
public institutions which have failed to render these services.
puts the risk factor for contraventions high so as to encourage
The feasibility and effectiveness of this policy option is that
compliance. The effectiveness of this policy is high, especially
it is a business venture with the capability of generating
considering the EAC initiative’s political will and intention
income. There are, for example, environmental and sanitation
towards strengthening capacity for the management of Lake
companies in Dar es Salaam and other towns that are carrying
Victoria. The move towards co-management should be out the enterprise profitably. In some places there are
supported because it involves communities in effective established community youth groups that engage in waste
management at a lower cost hence making it possible to collection and disposal from residential areas.
achieve the monitoring and enforcement goal.
Revise regulations in urban planning that have not taken
Provide civic education and awareness, empower and involve into account environmental issues and improve monitoring
more communities in management and enforcement
The general lack of awareness of both the status of the fishery Current urban-planning regulations and plans are outdated.
and the adverse impacts of destructive fishing practices on Town-planning services have not taken into account the
the fishery may be a contributing factor to the irresponsible increasing populations which have far outstripped projections
behavior. The people’s lack of awareness and ignorance of made in the 1960s and 1970s. Lack of monitoring and
their rights and obligations in bringing about a conducive enforcement of building and new settlement developments
environment for a sustainable fishery may also undermine have resulted in urban centers evolving haphazardly with
their effective participation in the management of their natural poor sanitation and lack of essential services. However, the
resources and fisheries in particular. Empowering the capacity to undertake the revision and corrective measures
community in both these and other forms of awareness exists within relevant land offices in EAC partner states.
would go a long way towards effective management and
consequently sustainable utilization of fisheries resources. Improve natural resource management, farming practice through
training, governance and technologies in agriculture
Imposition of size restrictions on fish-processing factories Training of farmers around the lake to practice clean production and
Fish-processing factories place the highest demand on Nile to avoid bad farming practices, which result in pollution of the lake,
perch, and prefer small-size fish, which they export to is essential. Poor farming practices are mainly due to lack of educa-
foreign markets. Therefore, by discouraging the purchase of tion and awareness. The implementation capacity of this policy
small-size fish, the effect will be to facilitate growth of fish option exists within partner states and the political and technical fea-
to full size where reproduction will take place to replenish sibility is manifested by the existence of LVEMP.

20 © Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2004 Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1–2, Feb. 2004
http://www.ambio.kva.se
Stronger vetting of technologies that are being promoted by Enforce compliance to international conventions, e.g.
the national and international agencies RAMSAR, CITES, and the Biological Diversity Convention
Many factories are using old, obsolete and/or inappropriate of Agenda 21
technologies that do not adequately reduce the pollutant load All the partner states have ratified many international
in effluents before discharge to rivers and the lake. In some conventions including the ones mentioned above. However,
cases, prohibited chemicals such as DDT are used. Clean not all the ratified conventions are implemented as desired.
technologies should be promoted alongside better economic The result of such a state of affairs is to exacerbate environ-
incentives, and stronger vetting of prohibited chemicals will mental degradation and biodiversity decline among others
reduce the risk of the adverse effects of pollution on human with disastrous effects. With proper awareness, mobilization
health and the environment. and commitment, popular participation seems to be one way
of facilitating the objectives through putting pressure on
Strengthen enforcement of regulations requiring effluent relevant authorities.
treatment in municipalities and industries
While rules and regulations on waste disposal exist in all 3 Strengthening of capacity of National Environmental
countries, their enforcement is seriously lacking. In the Protection authorities in order to be more effective
industrial ordinance of Tanzania, the factory inspector For all its existence to date, the National Environmental
requires all processing plants to have waste-treatment facilities Management Council (NEMC) of Tanzania has been a
from their factories. However, few industries have “working” “toothless dog” in that it did not have legal backing to enable
treatment plants or ponds for that matter. Wastewater and it to execute the mandate of an effective environmental
solid waste is left to spread to streams and residential areas protection agency, as we know it. With the work on the
where they affect the health of inhabitants living in the Institutional and Legal Framework for Environmental
vicinity of these areas or those who use contaminated water Management in Tanzania nearing completion with the
from streams and rivers. In other places, the disposal of formulation of the environmental framework law, NEMC
industrial and municipal effluent results in huge economic will have executive powers to monitor and enforce rules and
losses to the economy through destruction of tourist attractions regulations pertaining to environmental management and
such as coral reefs. With the enactment of environmental protection. Such institutions have already been established in
policies and frame law in all the 3 partner states, and Uganda (NEMA) and Kenya (NEMA).
establishment of environmental protection agencies, this
policy option has a high probability of succeeding.
CONCLUSIONS
Incorporate all stakeholders in drafting of regulations and in A comprehensive assessment of the environmental and
monitoring and enforcing agreed upon regulations socioeconomic issues affecting Lake Victoria Basin was
Participatory approaches have been found to be effective in carried out following the methodology outlined by the
implementation of policies and decisions, which require the GIWA project (47). This assessment identified overfishing
input of the community and where the communities in turn and pollution as the issues of greatest concern (48). The root
stand to benefit from the process. This is because involvement causes of these environmental problems are many, reflecting
of the beneficiaries inculcates a sense of responsibility and the complexity of issues affecting Lake Victoria.
ownership among others. Because the cost of implementation The underlying causes for overexploitation of fisheries
and the benefit accrues to them, they become effective include: high demand for fish and fish products in export
partners ensuring proper and successful implementation. markets, and improvements in fish handling capacities and
This policy option has a high probability of success. It technologies used in the fisheries sector. Other causes are
provides high dividends in terms of high success rates, as related to lack of sufficient controls through regulations
has been experienced across the region in several project and legislation. For example, lack of fishing quotas and
implementations. the unrestricted access status of the lake has abetted high
fish harvesting rates and high influx of fishermen that
Integration of institutional framework, regulations and laws threatens the sustainability of the fisheries resource. There
at two levels: National and regional is a general lack of compliance to and enforcement of
In order to have a consistent and smooth policy implementation
for the management of the lake, harmonization of policies,
regulations and laws is vital. This work is underway within
the auspices of EAC for fisheries, environment and natural
resources management.

Legal and economic empowerment of institutions

Given that conflicts occur between people from the partner
states over shared resources (e.g. between fishermen), the
current practice is such that country rules and regulations
and institutions are used to solve these transboundary types of
problems. In order to avoid complaints from parties in
conflict, an impartial institution is recommended to take care
of such occurrences. This will foster harmonious coexistence
among inhabitants of the 3 states sharing the same resources
through reduction of transboundary conflicts. Multifunctional sewage treatment ponds at Webuye Pan Paper
Industry. Photo: O. On’gan’a.

Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1–2, Feb. 2004 © Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2004 21
http://www.ambio.kva.se
regulations and legislation governing the industry that is References and Notes
partly due to corruption, as well as weak regional integration 1. World Bank 1996. Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda: Lake Victoria Environmental
Management Project. GEF Documentation Report No. 15541 – ARF.
of legal, institutional, and implementing mechanisms. There 2. Cohen, A.S., Kaufman, L. and Ogutu-Ohwayo, R. 1996. Anthropogenic threats,
is a notable lack of involvement of stakeholders in decision- impacts and conservation strategies in the African Great, Lakes: A review. In: The
Limnology, Climatology and Paleoclimatology of the East African Lakes. Johnson, T.C.
making processes, and a low level of civic education and and Odada, E. (eds). Gordon and Breach, Toronto, pp. 575-624.
3. World Bank 1999. Country Profiles (Burundi, D.R. Congo, Tanzania, Zambia).
awareness at all levels on the consequences of unregulated (http://www.worldbank.org.html.extdr/offrep/afr)
fishing and use of destructive fishing methods. The lack of 4. Shepherd, K., Walsh, M., Mugo, F., Ong, C., Hansen, T.S., Swallow, B., Awiti, A., Hai,
M., Nyantika, D., Ombao, D., Grunder, M., Mbote, F. and Mungai, D. 2000. Improved
cross-sectoral harmonization of legislation in closely related Land Management in the Lake Victoria Basin: Linking Land and Lake, Research and
Extension, Catchment and Lake Basin. Final Technical Report, Startup Phase, July
industries can lead, for example, to unjustified disjunctions 1999 to June 2000, Working Paper Series, Working Paper 2000-2. International Centre
in the requirements for the minimum operating standards. for Research in Agroforestry and Kenya Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development, Soil and Water Conservation Branch, National Soil and Water
The factors contributing to the pollution of the lake and Conservation Programme, Nairobi, Kenya.
5. Hecky, R.E. and Bugenyi, F.W.B. 1992. Hydrology and chemistry of the African
influent rivers include: poor urban planning against the great lakes and water-quality issues: Problems and solutions. Mitt. Int. Ver. Theor.
backdrop of population and industrial growth, the use of old, Angew. Limnol. 23, 45-54.
6. Verschuren, D., Johnson, T.C., Kling, H.J., Edgington, D.N. Leavitt, P.R., Brown, E.T.,
dilapidated and inappropriate technologies, poor maintenance Talbot, M.R. and Hecky, R.E. 2002. History and timing of human impact on Lake
Victoria, East Africa. Proc. Roy. Soc. London B. 269, 289-294.
of treatment plants, lack of waste treatment and disposal 7. Talling, J.F. 1965. The photosynthetic in East African Lakes. Int. Rev. Hydrobiol. 50, 1-32.
mechanisms, poor sanitation infrastructure, poor agricul- 8. Talling, J.F. 1966. The annual cycle of stratification and phytoplankton growth in Lake
Victoria. Int. Rev. ges. Hydrobiol. Hydrogr. 51, 545-621.
tural/land-use practices, and inappropriate use and disposal 9. Hecky, R.E. 1993. The eutrophication of Lake Victoria. Proc. Int. Ass. Theor. Appl.
of chemicals such as pesticides, fertilizers, and industrial Limnol. 25, 39 –48.
10. Hecky, R.E., Bugenyi, F.W.B., Ochumba, P.O. B., Talling, J.F., Mugidde, R., Gophen,
wastes. Currently, there are poor standards for industrial M. and Kaufman, L. 1994. Deoxygenation of the hypolimnion of Lake Victoria.
Limnol. Oceanogr. 39, 1476-1481.
operations, and there are no incentives to encourage the 11. Mugidde, R. 1993. The increase in phytoplankton productivity and biomass in Lake
industries to engage clean technologies. In addition to this, Victoria (Uganda). Int. Ass. Theor. Appl. Limnol. Proc. 25, 846-849.
12. Lehman, J.T. 1996. Pelagic food webs of the East African Great Lakes. In: The
the governments have failed to provide services such as Limnology, Climatology and Paleoclimatology of the East African Lakes. Johnson, T.C.
and Odada, E. (eds). Gordon and Breach, Toronto, pp. 281-301.
sewage treatment and waste disposal in both urban and rural 13. Johnson, T.C., Scholz, C.A., Talbot. M. R., Kelts, K., Ricketts, R.D., Ngobi, G.,
areas. There is a lack of monitoring and enforcement of Beuning, K. R.M., Ssemanda, I. and McGill, J.W. 1996. Late Pleistocene desiccation
of Lake Victoria and rapid evolution of cichlid fishes. Science 273, 109 – 1093.
existing regulations and legislation, and, in most sectors, 14. Duda, A. 2002. Restoring and protecting the African Great Lake Basin ecosystems –
lessons from the North American Great Lakes and the GEF. In: The East African Great
lack of resources and will on the part of the governments to Lakes: Limnology, Palaeolimnology and Biodiversity. Odada E.O. and Olago D.O.
mitigate the environmental problems. (eds). Advances in Global Change Research, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 537-556.
15. Odada, E.O., Olago, D.O., Bugenyi, F., Kulindwa, K., Karimumuryango, J., West, K.,
On the policy option part, we observe that in several Ntiba, M., Wandiga, S., Aloo-Obudho, P. and Achola, P. 2003. Environmental assessment
of East African Rift Valley lakes. Aquat. Sci. 65, 254-271.
cases, more than one policy ought to be taken up at once in 16. Ligtvoet, W. and Mkumbo, O.C. 1991. A pilot sampling survey for monitoring the
order to obtain the desired impact. This is true with quotas artisanal Nile perch Lates niloticus fishery in the southern Lake Victoria (East Africa).
In: Catch Effort Sampling Strategies: Their Application in Fresh Water Fisheries
for fishing and processing. Also, the successful implementation Management. A.G. Cowx (ed.). Fishing News Books, pp. 349-360.
17. Mkumbo, O.C. and Cowx, I.G. 1999. Catch trends from Lake Victoria – Tanzanian
of these policy options will not be achieved without involving, waters. In: Report on Fourth FIDAWOG Workshop held at Kisumu, 16-20 August 1999.
in a participatory manner, the communities living on the I.G. Cowx and D. Tweddle (eds). LVFRP/TECH/99/07, The Lake Victoria Fisheries
Research Project Technical Document No. 7, pp. 99-107.
lakeshores who are involved in fishing as a source of their 18. Namisi, P.W. 2000. Socioeconomic Implications of the Fish Export Trade on the Fishers
and Fisheries of Lake Victoria in Uganda. MSc Thesis, National University of Ireland,
subsistence livelihood and income generation. Capacity Cork, Ireland. Published as: Namisi, P.W. 2001. Socioeconomic implications of the fish
building in terms of civic education and leadership and export trade on the fishers and fisheries of Lake Victoria in Uganda. LVFRP Technical
Document No. 14. LVFRP/TECH/01/14. Jinja, Socioeconomic Data Working Group of
management skills will enhance this empowerment. the Lake Victoria Fisheries Research Project.
19. Asila, A.A. 2001. Working document for Lake Victoria fishereis management decisions.
Knowledge gaps are identified as being lack of information Document prepared for Lake Victoria Research Project (LVFRP), March 2001,
on quantitative estimates of benefits and costs (in both Jinja, 30 pp.
20. Othina, A. 1999. The status of the artisanal fishery of Lake Victoria, Kenya. In: Lake
physical and monetary terms) of the Lake Victoria water and Victoria Fisheries Research Project Phase II: Part 1 - Report on Third FIDAWOG
Workshop held at the Triangle Hotel, Jinja, 29 March to 1 April 1999. D. Tweddle and
fisheries resources. The EAC has identified natural resource I.G. Cowx (eds). LVFRP/TECH/99/06, Technical Document No. 6, pp. 73-78.
valuation and accounting as very important aspects in 21. Bwathondi, P.O.J., Ogutu-Ohwayo, R. and Ogari, J. 2001. Lake Victoria Fisheries
Management Plan. LVFRP/TECH/01/16, Technical Document No. 16, 64 pp. Edited
planning and development. It is important to know the by I.G. Cowx and K. Crean.
22. SEDAWOG 1999. Marketing Study. LVFRP/TECH/99/02, The Lake Victoria Fisheries
economic, social and environmental values of these natural Research Project Technical Document No. 2, Jinja, Uganda.
resources in order to allocate them efficiently and equitably 23. Abila, R.O. 2002. The Development of the Lake Victoria Fishery: A Boon or Bane for
Food Security? Working document for Lake Victoria fisheries management decisions.
for the present and future generations. Lake Victoria Fisheries Research Project, March 2001, Jinja, Uganda, 30 pp.
24. Kulindwa, K.A. 2001. The Contribution of Lake Victoria Fisheries to the Tanzanian
Immediate further studies/actions are required on the Economy. Report Submtted to: The Vice President’s Office, Lake Victoria
following wider aspects: water-quality assessment; sociocul- Environmental Management Project (LVEMP), Dar es Salaam.
25. Odongkara, O.K. and Okaronon, J.O. 1999. Impact of economic reforms on the per-
tural issues (holistic rather than focusing within the fisheries formance of fish processing firms and the fisheries resource. In: Capacity Building for
Integrating Environmental Considerations in Development Planning and Decision-
sector, encompassing also health, agriculture, education, etc. Making with Particular Reference to the Fishing Industry in Uganda. Bahiigwa G.
within the entire lake basin); resource inventory, mapping (ed.). Economic Policy Research Centre, Makerere University Campus, Kampala,
Uganda, pp. 8-26.
and use (including mapping of critical resources); assessment 26. Ntiba, M.J., Kudoja, W.M. and Mukasa, C.T. 2001. Management issues in the Lake
Victoria watershed. Lakes Reservoirs: Res. Mgmt 6, 211-216.
and harmonization of legal and institutional status of 27. Yongo, E.O. 2000. Poor Fisheries, Poor Fisherfolk: Sustaining the Fisheries of Lake
National Acts, regional and international Treaties and Victoria for Future Use. MSc. Thesis, University of Hull, Hull, UK. 114 pp.
28. LVFO 2000. The Results of the First Regional Fisheries Frame Survey on Lake
Conventions; the biology and ecology of the Nile perch and Victoria. Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization Publication. Jinja, Uganda.
29. SEDAWOG 2000. Fisheries co-management options at Kiumba beach: a participatory
other fishes. pilot study. LVFRP/TECH/00/08, The Lake Victoria Fisheries Research Project
Technical Document No. 6, Jinja, Uganda.
30. Mkumbo, O.C. 1999. Recent trends in the distribution patterns and catch rates from
trawl surveys in Lake Victoria, Tanzania. In: Lake Victoria Fisheries Research Project
Phase II: Part 1 - Report on Third FIDAWOG Workshop held at the Triangle Hotel,
Jinja, 29 March to 1 April 1999. Tweddle D. and Cowx I.G. (eds). LVFRP/TECH/99/06,
Technical Document No. 6, pp. 18-29.
31. Wandiga, S. and Onyari, J. 1987. The concentration of heavy metals: Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn,
Cd and Pb in sediments and fish from the Winam Gulf of Lake Victoria and fish bought
in Mombasa town markets. Kenya J. Sci. 8, 5-18.
32. Karanja, D.M.S. 2002. Health and diseases: a case study of Lake Victoria basin. In:
The Lake Victoria Training Project, Annual Report 2002. Pan-African START Secretariat,
Nairobi.

22 © Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2004 Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1–2, Feb. 2004
http://www.ambio.kva.se
33. Scheren, P.A.G.M., Zanting, H.A. and Lemmens, A.M.C. 2000. Estimation of
water pollution sources in Lake Victoria, East Africa: Application and elaboration
of the rapid assessment methodology. J. Environ. Mgmt 58, 235-248. Eric O. Odada holds a PhD degree in geochemistry
34. Mailu, A.M. 2001. Preliminary assessment of the social, economic and environmental from Imperial College, London University. He is a
impacts of water hyacinth in the Lake Victoria basin and the status of control. In:
Biological and Integrated Control of Water Hyacinth, Eichornia crassipes. Julien, Director of the Pan African START Secretariat (PASS)
M.H. and Hill, M.P. (eds). ACIAR Proc. 102, 130-139. and a Professor of Geology at the University of
35. Conway, D. 2002. Extreme rainfall events and lake level changes in East Africa:
recent events and historical precedents. In: The East African Great Lakes: Nairobi. His research interests include sedimentary
Limnology, Palaeolimnology and Biodiversity. Odada, E.O. and Olago, D.O. (eds). processes in large lakes and oceans and the deri-
Advances in Global Change Research, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 63-92. vation of palaeoclimate records from lake sediments.
36. Swallow, B., Walsh, M., Nyantika, D., Muriithi, S., Noordin, Q., Ong, C.,
Shepherd, K., Place, F., Awiti, A., Hai, M., Ochieng, O., Cohen, M., Mugo, F., His address: Pan-African START Secretariat (PASS),
Oyasi, S., Omuto, C., Cohen, L. and Okono. A. 2002. Improved Land Management Department of Geology, University of Nairobi, P. O.
in the Lake Victoria Basin. Annual Technical Report July 2001 to June 2002.
World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Natural Resource Problems, Priorities and Box 30197, Nairobi, Kenya.
Policies Programme, Working Paper Series, Working Paper 2002-2. World [email protected]
Agroforestry Centre and National Agricultural and Livestock Extension
Programme of the Kenya Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development,
Nairobi, Kenya. Daniel O. Olago is Programme Officer of Pan African
37. Kairu, J.K. 2001. Wetland-use and impact on Lake Victoria, Kenya region. Lakes START Secretariat and senior lecturer in geology,
Reservoirs: Res. Mgmt 6, 117-125.
38. Gichuki, N.N., 2003. Review of wetland research activities in Lake Victoria basin, University of Nairobi, specialising in quaternary
Kenya: Analysis and Synthesis Report. SIDA/Inter-University Council for East science and geolimnology. His research interests
Africa. Kampala, Uganda. 39 pp.
39. Grabowsky and Poort B.V. and African Development and Economic Consultants include palaeoenvironment and palaeoclimate and
Ltd., 1987. Yala Swamp Reclamation and Development Project. Inception Report. their implications and relevance to the present and
Ministry of Energy and Regional Development, Government of Kenya and Ministry
of Foreign Affairs, Government of the Netherlands, Nairobi (unpubl.). future; human impact on the environment; and the
40. Lowe-McConnell, R. 1994. The changing ecosystem of Lake Victoria, East Africa. physical and chemical dynamics of lacustrine
Freshwater Forum, 4, 76-89.
41. Wilson, E., Sutherland, J. and Ekola, A. 1999. Scientists discover previously systems. His address: Pan-African START Secretariat
unknown source of pollution that is killing the world’s second largest (PASS), Department of Geology, University of
freshwater lake. (http://www.futureharvest.org/news/11051999.shtml) Nairobi, P. O. Box 30197, Nairobi, Kenya.
42. Bootsma, H.A., and Hecky, R.E. 1993. Conservation of the African Great
Lakes: a limnological perspective. Conserv. Biol. 7, 644-656. [email protected]
43. Kiremire, B.T., 1997. The Status of Chemicals in Uganda and a Survey of
Disposal Methods. February 1997, Lake View Hotel, Mbarara, Uganda.
44. Mitema, E.S. and Gitau, F.K. 1990. Organochlorine residues in fish from Lake Kassim Athumani Ally Kulindwa is a senior research
Victoria, Kenya. Afr. J. Ecol. 28, 234-239. fellow and lecturer in economics at the Economic
45. East African Community 2001. Treaty for the Establishment of the East African
Community. EAC, Arusha, Tanzania. Research Bureau, University of Dar es Salaam. His
46. In a wider political context the East African Community is playing an important teaching and research interests include natural
role by providing a basis for harmonisation of legislation, and uniformity of resources and environmental economics as related
standards. Through such efforts databases are being developed and dissemination
of information is continuing. Integrated programmes to address regional issues, to sustainable development issues. He is currently
such as Human Resource Development, GIS water resource mapping, and a board member of the Centre for Environmental
regional Fisheries Management Plan, have been initiated. Private sector processors
of fish are employing internationally accepted standards on quality and sanitation: Economics and Policy in Africa (CEEPA) at the
QC, SSOP under HACCP are very much uniform allowing traceability of fish University of Pretoria. His address: Economic
handling and origin. Water-quality standards have already been streamlined and
harmonized. In the commercial private processing sector, the 3 national Fish Research Bureau, University of Dar es Salaam
Processing Associations are considering non-governmental led interventions for Campus, P. O. Box 35096, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
sustainable management of the fishery. Some issues, on the other hand, remain
unresolved. Because of problems in mobilisation and [email protected]
empowerment it means that community responses to issues remain low and, more
or less, unfocussed. Part of the reason for this is the lack of ownership of natural Micheni Ntiba studied at the University of Nairobi
resources, linguistic and education barriers to mass media, difficulties in cross
border trade and an imbalance in the ownership of the means of production. where he graduated with a BSc in botany and zoology
Additionally, where resolutions and decisions have been made, the speed of in 1984, and a MSc in hydrobiology in 1987. He
implementation is very slow.
47. GIWA Methodology Stage I: Scaling and Scoping. Guidance to the proceeded to the University of East Anglia, United
Methodology and its Use. 10th July 2001. Kingdom, to study for a PhD in fisheries science
http://www.giwa.net/methodology/RevScalScop_Meth_10July2001.PDF
48. Odada, E.O., Olago, D.O., Kulindwa, K., Ntiba, M., Bugenyi, F., and graduated in 1990. He then taught marine and
Karimumuryango, J., West, K., Aloo-Obudho, P., Wandiga, S., Yongo, E., Asila, A., fisheries science in the Department of Zoology,
Abila, R., Karanja, D., Ochola, P., Gichuki, N., Okidi, C., Opondo, M., Wamukoya, University of Nairobi where he currently an associ-
G. and Onganga, O. 2003. GIWA Scaling and Scoping, Causal Chain Analysis and
Policy Options Analysis Report, Sub-region 47, East African Rift Valley Lakes. ate professor of zoology. His research interests are
GIWA Project Office, Kalmar, Sweden. in the changing states of aquatic ecosystems and
49. Knaap, van der M., Ntiba, M.J. and Cowx, I.G. 2002. Key elements of fisheries
management on Lake Victoria. Aquat. Ecosyst. Health Mgmt 5, 245–254 the sustainability of the living natural resources in
50. Okaronon, J.O. 1999. The fish stocks of Lake Victoria (Uganda). In: Tweddle, D. them. His address: Department of Zoology,
and Cowx, I.G. (eds). Lake Victoria Fisheries Research Project Phase II: Part 1 –
Report on Third FIDAWOG Workshop held at the Triangle Hotel, Jinja, 29 March University of Nairobi, P. O. Box 30197, Nairobi,
to 1 April 1999. LVFRP/TECH/99/06, Technical Document No. 6, pp. 30–37. Kenya.
Okidi, C.O. 1980. Legal policy regime of Lake Victoria and Nile basins. Indian
J. Int. Law 20, 395–447. [email protected]
51. We thank the GIWA Project Office in Kalmar, Sweden for facilitating the
assessment of the East African Rift Valley Lakes and for providing guidance in the Shem O. Wandiga is professor of chemistry at the
use of the GIWA methodology. We also thank the participants of the GIWA
workshop on Causal Chain Analysis and Policy Options Analysis for their lively Department of Chemistry, University of Nairobi. His
and inciseful inputs. We would also like to thank all the experts whom we consulted research interests lie in studying sources and sinks
and who provided invaluable information from their own personal experiences
of biogenic gases; persistent organochlorine pesti-
cides in the tropics; trace metals concentration in
various environmental media; and complexes of
Group VB metals with sulfur and oxygen binding
ligands. He is the author of several papers in these
areas. He has a PhD from the Case Western Reserve
University, USA. His address: Department of
Chemistry, University of Nairobi, P. O. Box 30197,
Nairobi, Kenya.
[email protected]

Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1–2, Feb. 2004 © Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2004 23
http://www.ambio.kva.se