AP Physics 2:

Algebra-Based
COURSE AND EXAM DESCRIPTION

Effective
Fall 2020

AP COURSE AND EXAM DESCRIPTIONS ARE UPDATED PERIODICALLY

Please visit AP Central (apcentral.collegeboard.org) to determine whether
a more recent course and exam description is available.
About College Board
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The organization also serves the education community through research and
advocacy on behalf of students, educators, and schools.

For further information, visit collegeboard.org.

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College Board strongly encourages educators to make equitable access a guiding
principle for their AP programs by giving all willing and academically prepared
students the opportunity to participate in AP. We encourage the elimination
of barriers that restrict access to AP for students from ethnic, racial, and
socioeconomic groups that have been traditionally underserved. Schools should
make every effort to ensure their AP classes reflect the diversity of their student
population. College Board also believes that all students should have access
to academically challenging coursework before they enroll in AP classes, which
can prepare them for AP success. It is only through a commitment to equitable
preparation and access that true equity and excellence can be achieved.

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 Contents
v Acknowledgments
1 About AP
4 AP Resources and Supports
6 Instructional Model
7 About the AP Physics 2 Course
7 College Course Equivalent
7 Prerequisites
7 Laboratory Requirement

COURSE FRAMEWORK
11 Introduction
13 Course Framework Components
15 Science Practices
17 Course Content
20 Course at a Glance
23 Unit Guides
25 Using the Unit Guides
29 UNIT 1: Fluids
45 UNIT 2: Thermodynamics
71 UNIT 3: Electric Force, Field, and Potential
103 UNIT 4: Electric Circuits
119 UNIT 5: Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction
137 UNIT 6: Geometric and Physical Optics
153 UNIT 7: Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics

LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS
181 Lab Experiments
183 How to Set Up a Lab Program

INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES
187 Selecting and Using Course Materials
188 Guided Inquiry in AP Physics 2
190 Instructional Strategies
199 Developing the Science Practices

EXAM INFORMATION
213 Exam Overview
218 Sample Exam Questions
 SCORING GUIDELINES
227 Question 1: Experimental Design
230 Question 2: Short Answer

APPENDIX
235 Table of Information: Equations
 Acknowledgments

College Board would like to acknowledge the following committee

members, consultants, and reviewers for their assistance with and
commitment to the development of this course. All individuals and their
affiliations were current at the time of contribution.
Larry Cain, Davidson College, Davidson, NC
Andrew Elby, University of Maryland, College Park, MD
Eugenia Etkina, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ
John Frensley, Prosper High School, Prosper, TX
Dolores Gende, Shorecrest Preparatory School, St. Petersburg, FL
Nick Giordano, Auburn University, Auburn, AL
Robert Morse, St. Albans School, Washington, DC
Deborah Roudebush, Oakton High School, Vienna, VA
Gay Stewart, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV
James VanderWeide, Hudsonville High School, Hudsonville, MI
Connie Wells, Rockhurst University, Kansas City, MO

College Board Staff

Ryan Feuer, Developmental Editor, AP Curricular Publications
Amy Johnson, Director, AP Instructional Design and
PD Resource Development
Trinna Johnson, Director, AP Curriculum and Content Development
David Jones, Director, AP Curriculum and Content Development
Karen Lionberger, Senior Director, AP Science and Math
Claire Lorenz, Senior Director, AP Instructional Design and
PD Resource Development
Daniel McDonough, Senior Director, AP Content Integration
Allison Milverton, Director, AP Curricular Publications
Tanya Sharpe, Senior Director, AP Physics Content Development

SPECIAL THANKS John R. Williamson and John Eggebrecht

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About AP

College Board’s Advanced Placement® Program (AP®) and students with free formative assessments—
enables willing and academically prepared students Personal Progress Checks—that teachers can assign
to pursue college-level studies—with the opportunity throughout the year to measure student progress
to earn college credit, advanced placement, or as they acquire content knowledge and develop
both—while still in high school. Through AP courses science practices.
in 38 subjects, each culminating in a challenging
exam, students learn to think critically, construct solid Enrolling Students:
arguments, and see many sides of an issue—skills
that prepare them for college and beyond. Taking Equity and Access
AP courses demonstrates to college admission officers College Board strongly encourages educators to
that students have sought the most challenging make equitable access a guiding principle for their
curriculum available to them, and research indicates AP programs by giving all willing and academically
that students who score a 3 or higher on an AP Exam prepared students the opportunity to participate
typically experience greater academic success in in AP. We encourage the elimination of barriers
college and are more likely to earn a college degree that restrict access to AP for students from ethnic,
than non-AP students. Each AP teacher’s syllabus racial, and socioeconomic groups that have been
is evaluated and approved by faculty from some of traditionally underserved. College Board also believes
the nation’s leading colleges and universities, and that all students should have access to academically
AP Exams are developed and scored by college faculty challenging coursework before they enroll in AP classes,
and experienced AP teachers. Most four-year colleges which can prepare them for AP success. It is only
and universities in the United States grant credit, through a commitment to equitable preparation and
advanced placement, or both on the basis of successful access that true equity and excellence can be achieved.
AP Exam scores; more than 3,300 institutions worldwide
annually receive AP scores. Offering AP Courses:
The AP Course Audit
AP Course Development The AP Program unequivocally supports the principle
In an ongoing effort to maintain alignment with best that each school implements its own curriculum
practices in college-level learning, AP courses and that will enable students to develop the content
exams emphasize challenging, research-based understandings and science practices described in the
curricula aligned with higher education expectations. course framework.

Individual teachers are responsible for designing their While the unit sequence represented in this publication
own curriculum for AP courses, selecting appropriate is optional, the AP Program does have a short list of
college-level readings, assignments, and resources. curricular and resource requirements that must be
This course and exam description presents the fulfilled before a school can label a course “Advanced
content and science practices that are the focus of Placement” or “AP.” Schools wishing to offer AP courses
the corresponding college course and that appear must participate in the AP Course Audit, a process
on the AP Exam. It also organizes the content and through which AP teachers’ course materials are
science practices into a series of units that represent reviewed by college faculty. The AP Course Audit
a sequence found in widely adopted college textbooks was created to provide teachers and administrators
and that many AP teachers have told us they follow in with clear guidelines on curricular and resource
order to focus their instruction. The intention of this requirements for AP courses and to help colleges and
publication is to respect teachers’ time and expertise universities validate courses marked “AP” on students’
by providing a roadmap that they can modify and adapt transcripts. This process ensures that AP teachers’
to their local priorities and preferences. Moreover, by courses meet or exceed the curricular and resource
organizing the AP course content and science practices expectations that college and secondary school faculty
into units, the AP Program is able to provide teachers have established for college-level courses.

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The AP Course Audit form is submitted by the questions and through-course performance
AP teacher and the school principal (or designated assessments, as applicable, are scored by thousands
administrator) to confirm awareness and understanding of college faculty and expert AP teachers. Most are
of the curricular and resource requirements. A syllabus scored at the annual AP Reading, while a small portion
or course outline, detailing how course requirements is scored online. All AP Readers are thoroughly trained,
are met, is submitted by the AP teacher for review by and their work is monitored throughout the Reading
college faculty. for fairness and consistency. In each subject, a highly
respected college faculty member serves as Chief
Please visit collegeboard.org/apcourseaudit for more
Faculty Consultant and, with the help of AP Readers
information to support the preparation and submission
in leadership positions, maintains the accuracy of
of materials for the AP Course Audit.
the scoring standards. Scores on the free-response
questions and performance assessments are weighted
How the AP Program and combined with the results of the computer-scored
Is Developed multiple-choice questions, and this raw score is
converted into a composite AP score on a 1–5 scale.
The scope of content for an AP course and exam is
derived from an analysis of hundreds of syllabi and AP Exams are not norm-referenced or graded on a curve.
course offerings of colleges and universities. Using Instead, they are criterion-referenced, which means that
this research and data, a committee of college faculty every student who meets the criteria for an AP score of
and expert AP teachers work within the scope of 2, 3, 4, or 5 will receive that score, no matter how many
the corresponding college course to articulate what students that is. The criteria for the number of points
students should know and be able to do upon the students must earn on the AP Exam to receive scores
completion of the AP course. The resulting course of 3, 4, or 5—the scores that research consistently
framework is the heart of this course and exam validates for credit and placement purposes—include:
description and serves as a blueprint of the content and
§§ The number of points successful college students
science practices that can appear on an AP Exam.
earn when their professors administer AP Exam
The AP Test Development Committees are responsible questions to them.
for developing each AP Exam, ensuring the exam §§ The number of points researchers have found
questions are aligned to the course framework. The to be predictive that an AP student will succeed
AP Exam development process is a multiyear endeavor; when placed into a subsequent, higher-level
all AP Exams undergo extensive review, revision, college course.
piloting, and analysis to ensure that questions are
§§ Achievement-level descriptions formulated by
accurate, fair, and valid and that there is an appropriate
college faculty who review each AP Exam question.
spread of difficulty across the questions.

Committee members are selected to represent a variety Using and Interpreting AP Scores
of perspectives and institutions (public and private,
The extensive work done by college faculty and
small and large schools and colleges) and a range of
AP teachers in the development of the course and
gender, racial/ethnic, and regional groups. A list of each
exam and throughout the scoring process ensures
subject’s current AP Test Development Committee
that AP Exam scores accurately represent students’
members is available on apcentral.collegeboard.org.
achievement in the equivalent college course. Frequent
Throughout AP course and exam development, and regular research studies establish the validity of
College Board gathers feedback from various AP scores as follows:
stakeholders in both secondary schools and higher
education institutions. This feedback is carefully Credit College Grade
considered to ensure that AP courses and exams are AP Score Recommendation Equivalent
able to provide students with a college-level learning
5 Extremely well qualified A
experience and the opportunity to demonstrate their
qualifications for advanced placement or college credit. 4 Well qualified A-, B+, B

How AP Exams Are Scored 3 Qualified B-, C+, C

The exam scoring process, like the course and exam Possibly qualified n/a
2
development process, relies on the expertise of both
AP teachers and college faculty. While multiple-choice 1 No recommendation n/a
questions are scored by machine, the free-response

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While colleges and universities are responsible for teach or score because of their experience at the
setting their own credit and placement policies, most AP Reading.
private colleges and universities award credit and/ §§ Gain in-depth understanding of AP Exam and
or advanced placement for AP scores of 3 or higher. AP scoring standards: AP Readers gain exposure
Additionally, most states in the U.S. have adopted to the quality and depth of the responses from the
statewide credit policies that ensure college credit for entire pool of AP Exam takers and thus are better
scores of 3 or higher at public colleges and universities. able to assess their students’ work in the classroom.
To confirm a specific college’s AP credit/placement
§§ Receive compensation: AP Readers are
policy, a search engine is available at apstudent.org
compensated for their work during the Reading.
/creditpolicies
Expenses, lodging, and meals are covered for
readers who travel.
BECOMING AN AP READER
Each June, thousands of AP teachers and college §§ Score from home: AP Readers have online
faculty members from around the world gather for distributed scoring opportunities for certain
seven days in multiple locations to evaluate and subjects. Check collegeboard.org/apreading
score the free-response sections of the AP Exams. for details.
Ninety-eight percent of surveyed educators who took §§ Earn Continuing Education Units (CEUs):
part in the AP Reading say it was a positive experience. AP Readers earn professional development hours
and CEUs that can be applied to PD requirements
There are many reasons to consider becoming an
by states, districts, and schools.
AP Reader, including opportunities to:

§§ Bring positive changes to the classroom: How to Apply

Surveys show that the vast majority of returning Visit collegeboard.org/apreading for eligibility
AP Readers—both high school and college requirements and to start the application process.
educators—make improvements to the way they

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 AP Resources
and Supports

By completing a simple activation process at the start of the school year, teachers and
students receive access to a robust set of classroom resources.

AP Classroom
AP Classroom is a dedicated online platform designed to support teachers and students
throughout their AP experience. The platform provides a variety of powerful resources and
tools to provide yearlong support to teachers and enable students to receive meaningful
feedback on their progress.

UNIT GUIDES
Appearing in this publication and on AP Classroom, these planning guides outline all required
course content and science practices, organized into commonly taught units. Each unit guide
suggests sequence and pacing of content, scaffolds science practice instruction across
units, organizes content into topics, and provides tips on taking the AP Exam.

PERSONAL PROGRESS CHECKS

Formative AP questions for every unit provide feedback to students on the areas where they
need to focus. Available online, Personal Progress Checks measure knowledge and science
practices through multiple-choice questions with rationales to explain correct and incorrect
answers, as well as free-response questions with scoring information. Because the Personal
Progress Checks are formative, the results of these assessments cannot be used to evaluate
teacher effectiveness or assign letter grades to students, and any such misuses are grounds
for losing school authorization to offer AP courses.*

PROGRESS DASHBOARD
This dashboard allows teachers to review class and individual student progress throughout
the year. Teachers can view class trends and see where students struggle with content and
science practices that will be assessed on the AP Exam. Students can view their own progress
over time to improve their performance before the AP Exam.

AP QUESTION BANK
This online library of real AP Exam questions provides teachers with secure questions to
use in their classrooms. Teachers can find questions indexed by course topics and science
practices, create customized tests, and assign them online or on paper. These tests enable
students to practice and get feedback on each question.

*To report misuses, please call, 877-274-6474 (International: +1-212-632-1781).

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Digital Activation
In order to teach an AP class and make sure students are registered to take the AP Exam,
teachers must first complete the digital activation process. Digital activation gives students
and teachers access to resources and gathers students’ exam registration information online,
eliminating most of the answer sheet bubbling that has added to testing time and fatigue.

AP teachers and students begin by signing in to My AP and completing a simple activation

process at the start of the school year, which provides access to all AP resources, including
AP Classroom.

To complete digital activation:

§§ Teachers and students sign in to, or create, their College Board accounts.
§§ Teachers confirm that they have added the course they teach to their AP Course Audit
account and have had it approved by their school’s administrator.
§§ Teachers or AP coordinators, depending on who the school has decided is responsible,
set up class sections so students can access AP resources and have exams ordered on
their behalf.
§§ Students join class sections with a join code provided by their teacher or AP coordinator.
§§ Students will be asked for additional registration information upon joining their first class
section, which eliminates the need for extensive answer sheet bubbling on exam day.
While the digital activation process takes a short time for teachers, students, and
AP coordinators to complete, overall it helps save time and provides the following
additional benefits:

§§ Access to AP resources and supports: Teachers have access to resources specifically

designed to support instruction and provide feedback to students throughout the school
year as soon as activation is complete.
§§ Streamlined exam ordering: AP coordinators can create exam orders from the same
online class rosters that enable students to access resources. The coordinator reviews,
updates, and submits this information as the school’s exam order in the fall.
§§ Student registration labels: For each student included in an exam order, schools will
receive a set of personalized AP ID registration labels, which replaces the AP student
pack. The AP ID connects student’s exam materials with the registration information they
provided during digital activation, eliminating the need for pre-administration sessions and
reducing time spent bubbling on exam day.
§§ Targeted Instructional Planning Reports: AP teachers will get Instructional Planning
Reports (IPRs) that include data on each of their class sections automatically rather than
relying on special codes optionally bubbled in on exam day.

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 Instructional
Model

Integrating AP resources throughout the course can help students develop the course
science practices and conceptual understandings. The instructional model outlined below
shows possible ways to incorporate AP resources into the classroom.

Plan
Teachers may consider the following approaches as they plan their instruction before
teaching each unit.

§§ Review the overview at the start of each unit guide to identify essential questions,
conceptual understandings, and science practices for each unit.
§§ Use the Unit at a Glance table to identify related topics that build toward a common
understanding, and then plan appropriate pacing for students.
§§ Identify useful strategies in the Instructional Approaches section to help teach the
concepts and science practices.

Teach
When teaching, supporting resources can be used to build students’ conceptual
understanding and mastery of science practices.

§§ Use the topic pages in the unit guides to identify the required content.
§§ Integrate the content with a science practice, considering any appropriate scaffolding.
§§ Employ any of the instructional strategies previously identified.
§§ Use the available resources on the topic pages to bring a variety of assets into
the classroom.

Assess
Teachers can measure student understanding of the content and science practices covered
in the unit and provide actionable feedback to students.

§§ At the end of each unit, use AP Classroom to assign students the online Personal Progress
Checks as homework or as an in-class task.
§§ Provide question-level feedback to students through answer rationales; provide unit- and
science practice-level feedback using the progress dashboard.
§§ Create additional practice opportunities using the AP Question Bank and assign them
through AP Classroom.

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About the
AP Physics 2 Course

AP Physics 2 is an algebra-based, introductory college-level physics course. Students

cultivate their understanding of physics through inquiry-based investigations as they explore
these topics: fluids; thermodynamics; electrical force, field, and potential; electric circuits;
magnetism and electromagnetic induction; geometric and physical optics; and quantum,
atomic, and nuclear physics.

College Course Equivalent

AP Physics 2 is a full-year course that is the equivalent of a second-semester introductory
college course in algebra-based physics.

Prerequisites
Students should have completed AP Physics 1 or a comparable introductory physics course
and should have taken or be concurrently taking pre-calculus or an equivalent course.

Laboratory Requirement
This course requires that twenty-five percent of instructional time will be spent in
hands-on laboratory work, with an emphasis on inquiry-based investigations that provide
students with opportunities to demonstrate foundational physics principles and apply the
science practices.

Inquiry-based laboratory experiences support the AP Physics 2 course and AP Course

Audit curricular requirements by providing opportunities for students to engage in the seven
science practices as they design plans for experiments, make predictions, collect and analyze
data, apply mathematical routines, develop explanations, and communicate about their work.

Colleges may require students to present their laboratory materials from AP science courses
before granting college credit for laboratory work, so students should be encouraged to retain
their laboratory notebooks, reports, and other materials.

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AP PHYSICS 2

Course
Framework
Introduction

The AP Physics 2 course outlined in this framework reflects a commitment

to what physics teachers, professors, and researchers have agreed is the
main goal of a college-level physics survey course: to help students develop
a deep understanding of the foundational principles that shape classical
mechanics and modern physics. By confronting complex physical situations
or scenarios, the course is designed to enable students to develop the ability
to reason about physical phenomena using important science practices, such
as explaining relationships, applying and justifying the use of mathematical
routines, designing experiments, analyzing data, and making connections
across multiple topics within the course.
To foster this deeper level of learning, the AP Physics 2 course defines concepts, skills, and understandings
required by representative colleges and universities for granting college credit and placement. Students will
practice reasoning skills used by physicists by discussing and debating, with peers, the physical phenomena
investigated in class, as well as by designing and conducting inquiry-based laboratory investigations to solve
problems through first-hand observations, data collection, analysis, and interpretation.

This document is not a complete curriculum. Teachers create their own local curriculum by selecting, for each
concept, content that enables students to explore the course learning objectives and meets state or local
requirements. The result is a course that prepares students for college credit and placement.

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Course Framework
Components

Overview
This course framework provides a clear and detailed description of the course
requirements necessary for student success. The framework specifies what
students must know, be able to do, and understand to qualify for college credit
or placement.

The course framework includes

two essential components:
1   SCIENCE PRACTICES
The science practices are central to the study and practice of physics.
Students should develop and apply the described practices on a regular
basis over the span of the course.

2   COURSE CONTENT
The course content is organized into commonly taught units of study that
provide a suggested sequence for the course and detail required content
and conceptual understandings that colleges and universities typically
expect students to master to qualify for college credit and/or placement.
This content is grounded in big ideas, which are cross-cutting concepts
that build conceptual understanding and spiral throughout the course.

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 1 AP PHYSICS 2

Science
Practices
The table that follows presents the science practices that students should develop
during the AP Physics 2 course. These practices form the basis of many tasks on
the AP Physics 2 Exam.

The unit guides that follow embed and spiral these practices throughout the
course, providing teachers with one way to integrate the practices into the course
content with sufficient repetition to prepare students to transfer those practices
when taking the AP Physics 2 Exam.

More detailed information about teaching the science practices can be found in the
Instructional Approaches section of this publication.

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 AP PHYSICS 2

Science Practices
Practice 1 Practice 2 Practice 3 Practice 4 Practice 5 Practice 6 Practice 7

Modeling  1 Mathematical Scientific Experimental Data Analysis  5 Argumentation  6 Making

The student can use Routines  2 Questioning  3 Methods  4 The student can perform The student can work with Connections  7
representations and models The student can use The student can engage in The student can plan data analysis and evaluation scientific explanations The student is able to connect
to communicate scientific mathematics appropriately. scientific questioning to and implement data of evidence. and theories. and relate knowledge across
phenomena and solve extend thinking or to guide collection strategies in various scales, concepts,
scientific problems. investigations within the relation to a particular and representations in and
context of the AP course (not scientific question. across domains.
assessed on the AP Exam).

1.1   The student can 2.1   The student can 3.1   The student 4.1   The student can 5.1   The student can 6.1   The student can 7.1   The student can

AP Physics 2: Algebra-Based Course and Exam Description

create representations and justify the selection of a can pose scientific justify the selection of analyze data to identify justify claims with connect phenomena and
models of natural or man- mathematical routine to questions. the kind of data needed patterns or relationships. evidence. models across spatial
made phenomena and solve problems. to answer a particular and temporal scales.
systems in the domain. 3.2   The student scientific question. 5.2   The student can 6.2   The student can
2.2   The student can can refine scientific refine observations and construct explanations 7.2   The student can
1.2   The student can apply mathematical questions. 4.2   The student measurements based on of phenomena based connect concepts in
describe representations routines to quantities can design a plan for data analysis. on evidence produced and across domain(s) to
and models of natural or that describe natural 3.3   The student can collecting data to answer through scientific generalize or extrapolate
man-made phenomena phenomena. evaluate scientific a particular scientific 5.3   The student can practices. in and/or across
and systems in the domain. questions. question. evaluate the evidence enduring understandings
2.3   The student can provided by data sets in 6.3   The student and/or big ideas.
4.3
1.3   The student can
estimate numerically   The student can relation to a particular can articulate the
refine representations and
quantities that describe collect data to answer scientific question. reasons that scientific
models of natural or man-
natural phenomena. a particular scientific explanations and
made phenomena and
question. theories are refined
systems in the domain.
or replaced.
1.4
4.4   The student can
 The student can
use representations evaluate sources of data 6.4   The student

and models to analyze to answer a particular can make claims and

situations or solve scientific question. predictions about natural
problems qualitatively phenomena based
and quantitatively. on scientific theories
and models.
1.5   The student can re-
express key elements of 6.5   The student can
natural phenomena across evaluate alternative
multiple representations in scientific explanations.
the domain.

© 2020 College Board

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Course Framework V.1 | 16
 2 AP PHYSICS 2

Course
Content
Based on the Understanding by Design® (Wiggins and McTighe) model, this course
framework provides a clear and detailed description of the course requirements
necessary for student success. The framework specifies what students must know,
be able to do, and understand, with a focus on seven big ideas that encompass
core principles, theories, and processes of the discipline. The framework also
encourages instruction that prepares students to make connections across
domains through a broader way of thinking about the physical world.

Big Ideas
The big ideas serve as the foundation of the course and allow students to create
meaningful connections among concepts. They are often abstract concepts or
themes that become threads that run throughout the course. Revisiting the big
ideas and applying them in a variety of contexts allows students to develop deeper
conceptual understanding. Below are the big ideas of the course and a brief
description of each.

BIG IDEA 1: SYSTEMS (SYS)

Objects and systems have properties such as mass and charge. Systems
may have internal structure.

BIG IDEA 2: FIELDS (FLD)

Fields existing in space can be used to explain interactions.

BIG IDEA 3: FORCE INTERACTIONS (INT)

The interactions of an object with other objects can be described by forces.

BIG IDEA 4: CHANGE (CHA)

Interactions between systems can result in changes in those systems.

BIG IDEA 5: CONSERVATION (CON)

Changes that occur as a result of interactions are constrained by
conservation laws.

continued on next page

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 BIG IDEA 6: WAVES (WAV)
Waves can transfer energy and momentum from one location to another
without the permanent transfer of mass and serve as a mathematical model
for the description of other phenomena.

BIG IDEA 7: PROBABILITY (PRO)

The mathematics of probability can be used to describe the behavior of
complex systems and to interpret the behavior of quantum mechanical systems.

UNITS the Personal Progress Checks. The suggested class

The course content is organized into commonly periods are based on a schedule in which the class
taught units. The units have been arranged in a logical meets five days a week for 45 minutes each day. While
sequence frequently found in many college courses these recommendations have been made to aid in
and textbooks. planning, teachers are free to adjust the pacing based
on the needs of their students, alternate schedules (e.g.,
The seven units in AP Physics 2, and their relevant
block scheduling), or their school’s academic calendar.
weightings on the multiple-choice section of the
AP Exam, are listed below. TOPICS
Pacing recommendations at the unit level and on the Each unit is divided into teachable segments
Course at Glance provide suggestions for how teachers called topics. Visit the topic pages (starting on page 36)
can teach the required course content and administer to see all required content contained in each topic.

Exam Weighting for the Multiple-Choice Section of the AP Exam

Units Exam Weighting

Unit 1: Fluids 10–12%

Unit 2: Thermodynamics 12–18%

Unit 3: Electric Force, Field, and Potential 18–22%

Unit 4: Electric Circuits 10–14%

Unit 5: Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction 10–12%

Unit 6: Geometric and Physical Optics 12–14%

Unit 7: Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics 10–12%

AP Physics 2: Algebra-Based Course and Exam Description Course Framework V.1 | 18

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© 2020 College Board
 Spiraling the Big Ideas
The following table shows how the big ideas spiral across units:

Big Ideas Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Unit 6 Unit 7

Fluids Thermodynamics Electric Force, Electric Circuits Magnetism and Geometric and Quantum,
Field, and Potential Electromagnetic Physical Optics Atomic, and
Induction Nuclear Physics

1-Systems
SYS

2-Fields

AP Physics 2: Algebra-Based Course and Exam Description

FLD

3-Force
Interactions
INT

4-Change
CHA

5-Conservation
CON

6-Waves
WAV

7-Probability
PRO

© 2020 College Board

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Course Framework V.1 | 19
Course at
a Glance
UNIT UNIT
Fluids Thermodynamics
1 2
~14–17 Class
Periods 10–12% AP Exam
Weighting ~15–20 Class
Periods 12–18% AP Exam
Weighting

SYS 1.1 Fluid Systems SYS 2.1 Thermodynamic

Plan 1 1 Systems
7 7
The Course at a Glance provides
a useful visual organization SYS 1.2 Density PRO 2.2 Pressure, Thermal
of the AP Physics 2 curricular 4 Equilibrium, and the
components, including
6
+ Ideal Gas Law
the following: INT 1.3 Fluids: Pressure and
§§ Sequence of units, along + Forces INT 2.3 Thermodynamics and
with approximate weighting + Forces
and suggested pacing. INT 1.4 Fluidsand Free-Body
Please note, pacing is based + Diagrams INT 2.4 Thermodynamics and
on 45-minute class periods,
+ Free-Body Diagrams
meeting five days each week INT 1.5 Buoyancy
for a full academic year. INT
6 2.5 Thermodynamics and
§§ Progression of topics within 6 Contact Forces
each unit. CON 1.6 Conservation of
2 Energy in Fluid Flow
§§ Spiraling of the big ideas 6
CHA 2.6 Heatand Energy
and science practices 6 Transfer
across units. CON 1.7 Conservation of Mass
2 Flow Rate in Fluids CON 2.7 InternalEnergy and
Teach 7

+ Energy Transfer
SCIENCE PRACTICES
Science practices spiral throughout the course.
CON 2.8 Thermodynamics and
1 Modeling 4 Experimental Elastic Collisions:
2 Mathematical
Methods
+ Conservation of
Routines 5 Data Analysis
Momentum

3 Scientific 6 Argumentation
Questioning CON 2.9 Thermodynamics and
7 Making
Inelastic Collisions:
Connections
+ Conservation of
+ Indicates 3 or more science pratices for a Momentum
given topic. The individual topic page will
show all the science practices.
SYS 2.10 Thermal Conductivity
BIG IDEAS 4
Big ideas spiral across topics and units. 5

SYS 1-Systems CON 5-Conservation CON 2.11 Probability,

Thermal
FLD 2-Fields WAV 6-Waves 6 Equilibrium, and
7-Probability
7 Entropy
INT 3-Force PRO
Interactions

CHA 4-Change

Assess
Assign the Personal Progress
Checks—either as homework
or in class—for each unit. Each Personal Progress Check 1 Personal Progress Check 2
Personal Progress Check contains Multiple-choice: ~40 questions Multiple-choice: ~60 questions
Free-response: 2 questions Free-response: 2 questions
formative multiple-choice and §§ Experimental Design §§ Quantitative/Qualitative Translation
free-response questions. The §§ Paragraph Argument Short Answer §§ Short Answer
feedback from these checks
shows students the areas where
they need to focus.
V.1 | 20
© 2020 College Board
 UNIT
Electric Force, UNIT UNIT
Magnetism and
Field, and Electric Circuits Electromagnetic
3 Potential 4 5 Induction

~23–25 Class
Periods 18–22% AP Exam
Weighting ~14–16 Class
Periods 10–14% AP Exam
Weighting ~13–15 Class
Periods 10–12% AP Exam
Weighting

SYS 3.1 Electric Systems SYS 4.1 Definition and SYS 5.1 Magnetic Systems
1 6 Conservation of 1
7 7
7 Electric Charge
SYS 3.2 Electric Charge SYS SYS 5.2 Magnetic Permeability
4.2 Resistivity and
6
Resistance and Magnetic Dipole
7 4 Moment

CON 3.3 Conservation of FLD 5.3 Vector and Scalar Fields

CHA 4.3 Resistanceand
+ Electric Charge
+ Capacitance
Aa

FLD 5.4 Monopole and

Dipole Fields
CHA 3.4 Charge Distribution— CON
+
4.4 Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule
Friction, Conduction,
+ and Induction + FLD 5.5 Magnetic Fields and
1 Forces
CON 2
4.5 Kirchhoff’sJunction
SYS 3.5 Electric Permittivity Rule and the INT 5.6 Magnetic Forces
+ Conservation of
INT 3.6 Introduction to Electric Charge +
+ Electric Forces
INT 5.7 Forces Review
INT 3.7 ElectricForces and +
+ Free-Body Diagrams
CHA 5.8 Magnetic Flux
INT 3.8 Describing +
+ Electric Force

INT 3.9 Gravitationaland

7 Electromagnetic Forces

FLD 3.10 Vector and Scalar

Fields

FLD 3.11 Electric Charges and

+ Fields

FLD 3.12 Isolinesand

+ Electric Fields

CON 3.13 Conservation of

+ Electric Energy

Personal Progress Check 3 Personal Progress Check 4 Personal Progress Check 5

Multiple-choice: ~75 questions Multiple-choice: ~40 questions Multiple-choice: ~35 questions
Free-response: 2 questions Free-response: 2 questions Free-response: 2 questions
§§ Experimental Design §§ Quantitative/Qualitative Translation §§ Experimental Design
§§ Paragraph Argument Short Answer §§ Short Answer §§ Paragraph Argument Short Answer

V.1 | 21
© 2020 College Board
 Quantum,
UNIT Geometric and UNIT
Atomic, and
6 Physical Optics 7 Nuclear Physics

~15–18 Class
Periods 12–14% AP Exam
Weighting ~13–15 Class
Periods 10–12% AP Exam
Weighting

WAV 6.1 Waves SYS 7.1 Systemsand

+ INT
1
Fundamental Forces

7
WAV 6.2 Electromagnetic Waves
+ 7.2 Radioactive Decay
CON

+
WAV 6.3 Periodic Waves
1
CON 7.3 Energy in Modern
Physics (Energy in
WAV 6.4 Refraction,
Reflection,
+ Radioactive Decay and
E = mc 2)
+ and Absorption
SYS 7.4 Mass–Energy
WAV 6.5 Images from Lenses CHA Equivalence
+ and Mirrors
+
WAV 6.6 Interference and SYS 7.5 Properties of Waves
+ Diffraction WAV and Particles
+
WAV 7.6 Photoelectric Effect
6
7

PRO 7.7 Wave Functions and

1 Probability
6

Personal Progress Check 6 Personal Progress Check 7

Multiple-choice: ~50 questions Multiple-choice: ~55 questions
Free-response: 2 questions Free-response: 2 questions
§§ Experimental Design §§ Quantitative/Qualitative Translation
§§ Short Answer §§ Paragraph Argument Short Answer

V.1 | 22
© 2020 College Board
 AP PHYSICS 2

Unit
Guides
Introduction
Designed with input from the community of AP Physics 2 educators, the
unit guides offer teachers helpful guidance in building students’ science
practices and knowledge. The suggested sequence was identified through
a thorough analysis of the syllabi of highly effective AP teachers and the
organization of typical college textbooks.

This unit structure respects new AP teachers’ time by providing one

possible sequence they can adopt or modify rather than having to build
from scratch. An additional benefit is that these units enable the AP
Program to provide interested teachers with formative assessments—the
Personal Progress Checks—that they can assign their students at the end
of each unit to gauge progress toward success on the AP Exam. However,
experienced AP teachers who are satisfied with their current course
organization and exam results should feel no pressure to adopt these units,
which comprise an optional sequence for this course.

AP Physics 2: Algebra-Based Course and Exam Description Course Framework V.1 | 23

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© 2020 College Board
THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK.
Using the Unit Guides

UNIT OPENERS
UNIT Unit Overview contextualizes and situates the key content of
1 10–12 ~14–17 CLASS PERIODS
%
  AP EXAM WEIGHTING

the unit within the scope of the course. It also describes specific
aspects of the science practices that are appropriate to focus on
Fluids in that unit.

Big ideas serve as the foundation of the course and develop

understanding as they spiral throughout the course. The
Unit Overview
BIG IDEA 1
Systems
In Unit 1, students will consider how a fluid’s internal structure and interactions define its
macroscopic characteristics and how these interactions can be studied if they can’t be seen.
essential questions are thought-provoking questions that
motivate students and inspire inquiry.
SYS
§ How are the visible Woven through this unit are essential AP Physics 2 principles, including an emphasis on
properties of materials representations and models and connecting related knowledge between fundamental ideas.
determined by parts Unit 1 utilizes familiar force and energy representations (free-body diagrams and energy
that can’t be seen? bar charts) to describe static and dynamic fluids. As in AP Physics 1, being able to identify

Preparing for the AP Exam provides helpful tips and common

and describe the relationships between physical quantities—and use these relationships as
BIG IDEA 3 evidence to justify claims—is a critical skill when answering scientific questions. Students will
Force Interactions INT once again be encouraged to sharpen their understanding of mathematics and the laws of
§ Why do some objects
float and others sink?
physics by being asked to reason with equations to describe a phenomenon.

Although its content is unique, Unit 1 presents thematic threads that weave throughout
student misunderstandings identified from prior exam data.
the course, including the interactions between systems and the conservation of
BIG IDEA 5
fundamental quantities.
Conservation CON
§ How can a hydraulic
system be modified to Preparing for the AP Exam
do more work?
The AP Physics 2 Exam has an experimental design question in the free-response section.
§ Is it possible for energy Students must be able to justify their selection of the data needed to answer the question and
or mass to be created then design a plan to collect this data.
or destroyed in systems
involving fluids? Students often struggle with knowing where to start when answering an experimental design
question, even if they have previously performed the experiment in class. Use scaffolding
to help students determine the appropriate data to answer a scientific question and to help
students who struggle with this task. Students should first be asked to identify the necessary
data to determine a physical quantity and then dive more deeply into procedural writing. While
this type of scaffolding might seem too basic for AP Physics 2 students, remember that there
is a difference between academically knowing the answer to a question and being able to
write a clear, concise laboratory procedure on the AP Physics 2 Exam.

AP Physics 2: Algebra-Based Course and Exam Description Course Framework V.1 | 31

The Unit at a Glance table shows the topics, related enduring

UNIT understandings, and science practices. The “class periods”
3 Electric Force, Field, and Potential
column has been left blank so that teachers can customize the
UNIT AT A GLANCE (cont’d) time they spend on each topic.

The science practices for each topic link content in that topic to
Understanding

Class Periods
Enduring

Topic Science Practices

1.4 The student can use representations and models

~23–25 CLASS PERIODS
specific AP Physics 2 science practices. The questions on the
3.12 Isolines and
Electric Fields to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively. Personal Progress Checks are based on these links.
2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to
quantities that describe natural phenomena.

Available resources might help teachers address a particular

2.E

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

topic in their classroom.
domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

3.13 Conservation of 1.4 The student can use representations and models
Electric Energy to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.

2.1 The student can justify the selection of a

mathematical routine to solve problems.

2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to

5.B

quantities that describe natural phenomena.

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.*

Go to AP Classroom to assign the Personal Progress Check for Unit 3.

Review the results in class to identify and address any student misunderstandings.

*Indicates a science practice not assessed with its paired topic on this unit’s Personal Progress Check.

UNIT 3 AVAILABLE RESOURCES:

§ Classroom Resources > Electrostatics
§ Classroom Resources > Graphical Analysis
§ Classroom Resources > The Capacitor as a Bridge from Electrostatics to Circuits

78 | Course Framework V.1 AP Physics 2: Algebra-Based Course and Exam Description

AP Physics 2: Algebra-Based Course and Exam Description Course Framework V.1 | 25

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© 2020 College Board
Using the Unit Guides
UNIT OPENERS

The Sample Instructional Activities page includes optional

UNIT activities that can help tie together the content and science
Fluids
1
practices of a particular topic.
SAMPLE INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
The sample activities on this page are optional and are offered to provide possible ways to
incorporate instructional approaches into the classroom. Teachers do not need to use these
activities or instructional approaches and are free to alter or edit them. The examples below
were developed in partnership with teachers from the AP community to share ways that they
approach teaching some of the topics in this unit. Please refer to the Instructional Approaches
section beginning on p. 185 for more examples of activities and strategies.

Activity Topic Sample Activity

1 1.3 Construct an Argument

Search “pressure versus height graph” online and download a graph of air pressure as
a function of elevation. Have students explain why the slope decreases with elevation
(air gets less dense) and use the slope of the graph at one point to estimate the density
of air at that elevation.

2 1.5 Desktop Experiment

Obtain an irregularly-shaped metal object for each group (small, inexpensive statues are
a possibility). Give each group a spring scale and access to a deep sink. Have students
use buoyancy principles to calculate the volume and density of the object.

3 1.5 Graph and Switch

Have a student use a rope to raise an object 2 m from the bottom of a 3 m deep pool.
Graph (with numerical scales) tension versus height of the bottom of the object above
the floor of the pool for 0–4 m. Have another student determine the mass, volume, and
density of the object. The shape of the graph from 1 to 3 m also determines whether the
shape is a cube, sphere, or a cone pointing up or down.

4 1.6 Bar Chart

Students draw Bernoulli bar charts for two or more points in a flowing fluid situation.
(Bars are for pressure,  gy , and 1 ρ v 2.) Examples: water leaking out of a hole in a
2
container, water shooting out of a squirt gun, and drinking from a straw.

5 1.6 Desktop Experiment

Obtain a syringe (no needle) or squirt gun for each group. Have each group fill it with water
and squirt the water horizontally. Each group (or person) is to determine how much pressure
(for the squirt gun) or force (for the syringe) they exerted to make the water come out.

Unit Planning Notes

Use the space below to plan your approach to the unit.

AP Physics 2: Algebra-Based Course and Exam Description Course Framework V.1 | 35

TOPIC PAGES
UNIT
Enduring understandings are the long-term takeaways related
1 Fluids

to the big ideas that leave a lasting impression on students.

TOPIC 1.3
Students build and earn these understandings over time by
SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling
1.1
The student can create
representations and models
Fluids: Pressure exploring and applying course content throughout the year.
of natural or man-made
phenomena and systems in
the domain.
and Forces
1.4
The student can use
Learning objectives provide clear and detailed articulation of
what students should know and be able to do in order to progress
representations and models
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively. Required Course Content
Argumentation toward the enduring understandings. Each learning objective is
designed to help teachers integrate science practices [SP] with
6.1
The student can justify
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
claims with evidence.

specific content and to provide them with clear information on how

3.A
6.2
The student can construct All forces share certain common characteristics when considered by observers in
explanations of phenomena inertial reference frames.

students will be expected to demonstrate their knowledge and

based on evidence
produced through scientific
practices.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

skills on the AP Physics 2 Exam. These learning objectives fully

6.4
3.A.2.1 3.A.2
The student can make
claims and predictions Represent forces in diagrams Forces are described by vectors.
about natural phenomena or mathematically using

define what will be assessed on the exam. Questions that do not

a. Forces are detected by their influence on
based on scientific theories appropriately labeled vectors the motion of an object.
and models. with magnitude, direction,
b. Forces have magnitude and direction.
and units during the analysis

correspond to one or more learning objectives will not appear on

Making Connections of a situation. [SP 1.1] BOUNDARY STATEMENT:
7.2 AP Physics 2 has learning objectives under
The student can connect

the exam.
Enduring Understanding 3.A that focus
concepts in and across
on electric and magnetic forces and other
domain(s) to generalize or
extrapolate in and/or across forces arising in the context of interactions
enduring understandings introduced in Physics 2, rather than the

Essential knowledge statements describe the knowledge

and/or big ideas. mechanical systems introduced in Physics 1.

required to perform the learning objective.

continued on next page

Boundary statements provide guidance to teachers regarding

the content boundaries of the AP Physics 1 and 2 courses.
These statements help articulate the contextual differences of
how the same big ideas and enduring understandings are applied
38 | Course Framework V.1 AP Physics 2: Algebra-Based Course and Exam Description
in each course. Boundary statements appear at the end of
essential knowledge statements where appropriate.

AP Physics 2: Algebra-Based Course and Exam Description Course Framework V.1 | 26

Return to Table of Contents
© 2020 College Board
REQUIRED COURSE CONTENT LABELING SYSTEM

BIG IDEA 1 ENDURING ESSENTIAL LEARNING

Systems UNDERSTANDING KNOWLEDGE OBJECTIVE
SYS 1.E 1.E.1 1.E.1.1
Materials have many Matter has a property Predict the densities, differences in
macroscopic properties called density. densities, or changes in densities
that result from the Relevant Equation: under different conditions for natural
arrangement and phenomena and design an investigation
interactions of the atoms m to verify the prediction. [SP 4.2, 6.4]
and molecules that make
ρ=
V
up the material.

Note: Labels are used to distinguish each unique element of the required course content and are used throughout this course and exam
description. Additionally, they are used in the AP Question Bank and other resources found in AP Classroom. Big ideas are labeled by
number, with “1“ referring to SYS, “2“ referring to FLD, “3“ referring to INT, “4“ referring to CHA, “5“ referring to CON, “6“ referring to WAV,
and “7“ referring to PRO. Enduring understandings are labeled sequentially according to the big idea that they are related to. Essential
knowledge statements are labeled to correspond with the enduring understanding they relate to. Finally, learning objectives are labeled to
correspond with the essential knowledge statement they relate to.

AP Physics 2: Algebra-Based Course and Exam Description Course Framework V.1 | 27

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© 2020 College Board
THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK.
 AP PHYSICS 2

UNIT 1
Fluids

10–12%
AP EXAM WEIGHTING

~14–17
CLASS PERIODS

AP Physics 2: Algebra-Based Course and Exam Description Course Framework V.1 | 29

Return to Table of Contents
© 2020 College Board
 Remember to go to AP Classroom
to assign students the online
Personal Progress Check for
this unit.
Whether assigned as homework or
completed in class, the Personal
Progress Check provides each
student with immediate feedback
related to this unit’s topics and
science practices.

Personal Progress Check 1

Multiple-choice: ~40 questions
Free-response: 2 questions
§§ Experimental Design
§§ Paragraph Argument Short
Answer

AP Physics 2: Algebra-Based Course and Exam Description Course Framework V.1 | 30

Return to Table of Contents
© 2020 College Board
 UNIT

1 10–12%  AP EXAM WEIGHTING ~14–17 CLASS PERIODS

Fluids

Unit Overview
BIG IDEA 1 In Unit 1, students will consider how a fluid’s internal structure and interactions define its
Systems  SYS macroscopic characteristics and how these interactions can be studied if they can’t be seen.
§§ How are the visible Woven through this unit are essential AP Physics 2 principles, including an emphasis on
properties of materials representations and models and connecting related knowledge between fundamental ideas.
determined by parts Unit 1 utilizes familiar force and energy representations (free-body diagrams and energy
that can’t be seen? bar charts) to describe static and dynamic fluids. As in AP Physics 1, being able to identify
and describe the relationships between physical quantities—and use these relationships as
BIG IDEA 3 evidence to justify claims—is a critical skill when answering scientific questions. Students will
Force Interactions  INT once again be encouraged to sharpen their understanding of mathematics and the laws of
§§ Why do some objects physics by being asked to reason with equations to describe a phenomenon.
float and others sink?
Although its content is unique, Unit 1 presents thematic threads that weave throughout
the course, including the interactions between systems and the conservation of
BIG IDEA 5
fundamental quantities.
Conservation  CON
§§ How can a hydraulic
system be modified to Preparing for the AP Exam
do more work?
The AP Physics 2 Exam has an experimental design question in the free-response section.
§§ Is it possible for energy Students must be able to justify their selection of the data needed to answer the question and
or mass to be created then design a plan to collect this data.
or destroyed in systems
involving fluids? Students often struggle with knowing where to start when answering an experimental design
question, even if they have previously performed the experiment in class. Use scaffolding
to help students determine the appropriate data to answer a scientific question and to help
students who struggle with this task. Students should first be asked to identify the necessary
data to determine a physical quantity and then dive more deeply into procedural writing. While
this type of scaffolding might seem too basic for AP Physics 2 students, remember that there
is a difference between academically knowing the answer to a question and being able to
write a clear, concise laboratory procedure on the AP Physics 2 Exam.

AP Physics 2: Algebra-Based Course and Exam Description Course Framework V.1 | 31

Return to Table of Contents
© 2020 College Board
 UNIT

1 Fluids

UNIT AT A GLANCE
Understanding
Enduring

Class Periods
Topic Science Practices ~14–17 CLASS PERIODS

1.1  Fluid Systems 1.1 The student can create representations and
models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.

1.4 The student can use representations and models

1.A

to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively

and quantitatively.*

7.1 The student can connect phenomena and

models across spatial and temporal scales.*

1.2  Density 4.1 The student can justify the selection of

the kind of data needed to answer a particular
scientific question.

4.2 The student can design a plan for collecting data

1.E

to answer a particular scientific question.

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.

Fluids: Pressure
1.3  1.1 The student can create representations and
and Forces models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.

1.4 The student can use representations and models

to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.

6.1 The student can justify claims with evidence.*

6.2 The student can construct explanations of

3.A

phenomena based on evidence produced through

scientific practices.

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

*Indicates a science practice not assessed with its paired topic on this unit’s Personal Progress Check.

continued on next page

AP Physics 2: Algebra-Based Course and Exam Description Course Framework V.1 | 32

Return to Table of Contents
© 2020 College Board
 UNIT
Fluids
1
UNIT AT A GLANCE (cont’d)
Understanding
Enduring

Class Periods
Topic Science Practices ~14–17 CLASS PERIODS

Fluids and
1.4  1.1 The student can create representations and
Free-Body Diagrams models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.
1.4 The student can use representations and models
to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.
1.5 The student can re-express key elements of
natural phenomena across multiple representations
in the domain.
3.B

2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to

quantities that describe natural phenomena.
6.4 The student can make claims and predictions
about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.
7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across
domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

1.5  Buoyancy 6.1 The student can justify claims with evidence.
6.2 The student can construct explanations of
3.C

phenomena based on evidence produced through

scientific practices.

Conservation of
1.6  2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to
Energy in Fluid Flow quantities that describe natural phenomena.
5.B

6.2 The student can construct explanations of

phenomena based on evidence produced through
scientific practices.

Conservation of
1.7  2.1 The student can justify the selection of a
Mass Flow Rate in Fluids mathematical routine to solve problems.
2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to
quantities that describe natural phenomena.
5.F

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

Go to AP Classroom to assign the Personal Progress Check for Unit 1.

Review the results in class to identify and address any student misunderstandings.

*Indicates a science practice not assessed with its paired topic on this unit’s Personal Progress Check.

continued on next page

AP Physics 2: Algebra-Based Course and Exam Description Course Framework V.1 | 33

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© 2020 College Board
 UNIT

1 Fluids

UNIT AT A GLANCE (cont’d)

UNIT 1 AVAILABLE RESOURCES:
§§ Classroom Resources > AP Physics 1 and 2 Inquiry-Based Lab Investigations: A Teacher’s Manual
§§ Classroom Resources > AP Physics Featured Question: Raft with Hanging Weights
§§ Classroom Resources > Conservation Concepts
§§ Classroom Resources > Critical Thinking Questions in Physics
§§ Classroom Resources > Inquiry Instruction in the AP Science Classroom: An Approach to Teaching and Learning

AP Physics 2: Algebra-Based Course and Exam Description Course Framework V.1 | 34

Return to Table of Contents
© 2020 College Board
 UNIT
Fluids
1
SAMPLE INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
The sample activities on this page are optional and are offered to provide possible ways to
incorporate instructional approaches into the classroom. Teachers do not need to use these
activities or instructional approaches and are free to alter or edit them. The examples below
were developed in partnership with teachers from the AP community to share ways that they
approach teaching some of the topics in this unit. Please refer to the Instructional Approaches
section beginning on p. 185 for more examples of activities and strategies.

Activity Topic Sample Activity

1 1.3 Construct an Argument

Search “pressure versus height graph” online and download a graph of air pressure as
a function of elevation. Have students explain why the slope decreases with elevation
(air gets less dense) and use the slope of the graph at one point to estimate the density
of air at that elevation.

2 1.5 Desktop Experiment

Obtain an irregularly-shaped metal object for each group (small, inexpensive statues are
a possibility). Give each group a spring scale and access to a deep sink. Have students
use buoyancy principles to calculate the volume and density of the object.

3 1.5 Graph and Switch

Have a student use a rope to raise an object 2 m from the bottom of a 3 m deep pool.
Graph (with numerical scales) tension versus height of the bottom of the object above
the floor of the pool for 0–4 m. Have another student determine the mass, volume, and
density of the object. The shape of the graph from 1 to 3 m also determines whether the
shape is a cube, sphere, or a cone pointing up or down.

4 1.6 Bar Chart

Students draw Bernoulli bar charts for two or more points in a flowing fluid situation.
(Bars are for pressure,  gy , and 1 ρ v 2.) Examples: water leaking out of a hole in a
2
container, water shooting out of a squirt gun, and drinking from a straw.

5 1.6 Desktop Experiment

Obtain a syringe (no needle) or squirt gun for each group. Have each group fill it with water
and squirt the water horizontally. Each group (or person) is to determine how much pressure
(for the squirt gun) or force (for the syringe) they exerted to make the water come out.

Unit Planning Notes

Use the space below to plan your approach to the unit.

AP Physics 2: Algebra-Based Course and Exam Description Course Framework V.1 | 35

Return to Table of Contents
© 2020 College Board
 UNIT

1 Fluids

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling
TOPIC 1.1
1.1
The student can create
representations and models
Fluid Systems
of natural or man-made
phenomena and systems in
the domain.
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively. Required Course Content
Making Connections
7.1
The student can connect
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
phenomena and models
across spatial and 1.A
temporal scales. The internal structure of a system determines many properties of the system.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.A.5.2 1.A.5
Construct representations Systems have properties determined by the
of how the properties of properties and interactions of their constituent
a system are determined atomic and molecular substructures. In
by the interactions of its AP Physics, when the properties of the
constituent substructures. constituent parts are not important in modeling
[SP 1.1, 1.4, 7.1] the behavior of the macroscopic system, the
system itself may be referred to as an object.

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 UNIT
Fluids
1
TOPIC 1.2 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Experimental

Density
Methods
4.1
The student can justify
the selection of the
kind of data needed
to answer a particular
scientific question.
4.2
The student can design
a plan for collecting data
to answer a particular
Required Course Content scientific question.

Argumentation
6.4
The student can make
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
claims and predictions
1.E about natural phenomena
Materials have many macroscopic properties that result from the arrangement and based on scientific theories
interactions of the atoms and molecules that make up the material. and models.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.E.1.1 1.E.1
Predict the densities, Matter has a property called density.
differences in densities, or Relevant Equation:
changes in densities under m
different conditions for natural ρ=
V
phenomena and design an
investigation to verify the
prediction. [SP 4.2, 6.4]
1.E.1.2
Select from experimental
data the information
necessary to determine the
density of an object and/or
compare densities of several
objects. [SP 4.1, 6.4]

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 UNIT

1 Fluids

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling
TOPIC 1.3
1.1
The student can create
representations and models
Fluids: Pressure
of natural or man-made
phenomena and systems in
the domain.
and Forces
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively. Required Course Content
Argumentation
6.1
The student can justify
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
claims with evidence.
3.A
6.2
The student can construct All forces share certain common characteristics when considered by observers in
explanations of phenomena inertial reference frames.
based on evidence
produced through scientific
practices.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
6.4
3.A.2.1 3.A.2
The student can make
claims and predictions Represent forces in diagrams Forces are described by vectors.
about natural phenomena or mathematically using a. Forces are detected by their influence on
based on scientific theories appropriately labeled vectors the motion of an object.
and models. with magnitude, direction,
b. Forces have magnitude and direction.
and units during the analysis
Making Connections of a situation. [SP 1.1] BOUNDARY STATEMENT:
7.2 AP Physics 2 has learning objectives under
The student can connect Enduring Understanding 3.A that focus
concepts in and across
on electric and magnetic forces and other
domain(s) to generalize or
extrapolate in and/or across forces arising in the context of interactions
enduring understandings introduced in Physics 2, rather than the
and/or big ideas. mechanical systems introduced in Physics 1.

continued on next page

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 UNIT
Fluids
1
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
3.A.3.2 3.A.3
Construct an explanation for A force exerted on an object is always due to the
why an object cannot exert a interaction of that object with another object.
force on itself. [SP 6.1] a. An object cannot exert a force on itself.
3.A.3.3 b. Even though an object is at rest, there
Describe a force as an may be forces exerted on that object by
interaction between two other objects.
objects and identify both c. The acceleration of an object, but not
objects for any force. [SP 1.4]necessarily its velocity, is always in the
Required Course Content direction
3.A.3.4
object by
of the net force exerted on the
other objects.
Make claims about the force
on an object due to the Relevant Equation:
presence of other objects  
with the same properties: 
a=
F Fnet
= 
mass, electric charge. m m
[SP 6.1, 6.4]

3.A.4.1 3.A.4
Construct explanations of If one object exerts a force on a second object,
physical situations involving the second object always exerts a force of
the interaction of bodies equal magnitude on the first object in the
using Newton’s third law opposite direction.
and the representation of
action-reaction pairs of
forces. [SP 1.4, 6.2]
3.A.4.2
Make claims and predictions
about the action-reaction
pairs of forces when
two objects interact
using Newton’s third law.
[SP 6.4, 7.2]
3.A.4.3
Analyze situations involving
interactions among several
objects by using free-body
diagrams that include the
application of Newton’s third
law to identify forces. [SP 1.4]

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 UNIT

1 Fluids

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling
TOPIC 1.4
1.1
The student can create
representations and models
Fluids and Free-Body
of natural or man-made
phenomena and systems in
the domain.
Diagrams
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively. Required Course Content
1.5
The student can re-
express key elements of
natural phenomena across
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
multiple representations in
the domain. 3.B
Classically, the acceleration of an
 object interacting with other objects can be
Mathematical
Routines predicted by using a =
  F .= Fnet
2.2
m m
The student can apply
mathematical routines to
quantities that describe LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
natural phenomena.
3.B.1.3 3.B.1
Argumentation Re-express a free-body If an object of interest interacts with several
6.4 diagram representation into a other objects, the net force is the vector sum
The student can make
mathematical representation of the individual forces.
claims and predictions and solve the mathematical Relevant Equation:
about natural phenomena representation for the  
based on scientific theories acceleration of the object.   F Fnet
a= =
and models. [SP 1.5, 2.2] m m
3.B.1.4
Making Connections
Predict the motion of an BOUNDARY STATEMENT:
7.2
object subject to forces AP Physics 2 contains learning objectives
The student can connect exerted by several objects under Enduring Understanding 3.B that focus
concepts in and across
using an application of on electric and magnetic forces and other
domain(s) to generalize or
Newton’s second law in a forces arising in the context of interactions
extrapolate in and/or across
enduring understandings
variety of physical situations. introduced in Physics 2, rather than the
and/or big ideas. [SP 6.4, 7.2] mechanical systems introduced in Physics 1.

continued on next page

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 UNIT
Fluids
1
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
3.B.2.1 3.B.2
Create and use free-body Free-body diagrams are useful tools for
diagrams to analyze physical visualizing forces being exerted on a single
situations to solve problems object and writing the equations that represent
with motion qualitatively a physical situation.
and quantitatively. a. An object can be drawn as if it were
[SP 1.1, 1.4, 2.2] extracted from its environment and the
interactions with the environment identified.
b. A force exerted on an object can be
represented as an arrow whose length
represents the magnitude of the force
and whose direction shows the direction
of the force.
c. A coordinate system with one axis parallel
to the direction of the acceleration simplifies
the translation from the free-body diagram
to the algebraic representation.

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 UNIT

1 Fluids

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Argumentation
TOPIC 1.5
6.1
The student can justify
claims with evidence.
Buoyancy
6.2
The student can
construct explanations
of phenomena based on
evidence produced through
scientific practices.

Required Course Content

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
3.C
At the macroscopic level, forces can be categorized as either long-range
(action-at-a-distance) forces or contact forces.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.C.4.1 3.C.4
Make claims about various Contact forces result from the interaction of
contact forces between one object touching another object, and they
objects based on the arise from interatomic electric forces. These
microscopic cause of those forces include tension, friction, normal, spring
forces. [SP 6.1] (Physics 1), and buoyant (Physics 2).
3.C.4.2 Relevant Equations:
Explain contact forces Fb = ρVg
(tension, friction, normal,
F
buoyant, spring) as arising P=
from interatomic electric A
forces and that they therefore
have certain directions.
[SP 6.2]

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 UNIT
Fluids
1
TOPIC 1.6 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Mathematical

Conservation of
Routines
2.2
The student can apply

Energy in Fluid Flow mathematical routines to

quantities that describe
natural phenomena.

Argumentation
6.2
The student can
construct explanations
Required Course Content of phenomena based on
evidence produced through
scientific practices.

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
5.B
The energy of a system is conserved.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

5.B.10.1 5.B.10
Make calculations related to a Bernoulli’s equation describes the
moving fluid using Bernoulli’s conservation of energy in fluid flow. The
equation. [SP 2.2] absolute pressure (P) equals atmospheric
5.B.10.2
pressure (P0) plus the gauge pressure (ρgh).
Make calculations related to a Relevant Equations:
moving fluid using Bernoulli’s
P1 + ρ gy1 + 1 ρν 12 = P2 + ρ gy2 + 1 ρν 22
equation and/or the 2 2
relationship between force F
and pressure. [SP 2.2] P=
A
5.B.10.3
A1ν 1 = A2ν 2
Make calculations related to a
moving fluid using Bernoulli’s P = P0 + ρ gh
equation and the continuity
equation. [SP 2.2]
5.B.10.4
Construct an explanation
of Bernoulli’s equation in
terms of the conservation of
energy. [SP 6.2]

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 UNIT

1 Fluids

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Mathematical
TOPIC 1.7
Conservation of
Routines
2.1
The student can justify the
selection of a mathematical
routine to solve problems.
2.2
Mass Flow Rate in Fluids
The student can apply
mathematical routines to
quantities that describe
natural phenomena.

Making Connections Required Course Content

7.2
The student can connect
concepts in and across
domain(s) to generalize or
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
extrapolate in and/or across
enduring understandings 5.F
and/or big ideas. Classically, the mass of a system is conserved.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

5.F.1.1 5.F.1
Make calculations of The continuity equation describes conservation
quantities related to flow of mass flow rate in fluids. Examples include
of a fluid, using mass volume rate of flow and mass flow rate.
conservation principles Relevant Equation:
(the continuity equation). A1ν 1 = A2ν 2
[SP 2.1, 2.2, 7.2]

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 AP PHYSICS 2

UNIT 2
Thermodynamics

12–18%
AP EXAM WEIGHTING

~15–20
CLASS PERIODS

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 Remember to go to AP Classroom
to assign students the online
Personal Progress Check for
this unit.
Whether assigned as homework or
completed in class, the Personal
Progress Check provides each
student with immediate feedback
related to this unit’s topics and
science practices.

Personal Progress Check 2

Multiple-choice: ~60 questions
Free-response: 2 questions
§§ Quantitative/Qualitative
Translation
§§ Short Answer

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 UNIT

2 12–18%  AP EXAM WEIGHTING ~15–20 CLASS PERIODS

Thermodynamics

Unit Overview
BIG IDEA 1 In Unit 2, students will continue to investigate what they cannot see by examining heat,
Systems  SYS temperature, and thermal energy in practical contexts such as heat engines, heat pumps, and
§§ How is the temperature refrigerators. The focus of this unit is the study of relationships and change, so it’s important
of a substance related that students can discuss—in addition to calculate—what happens when a physical scenario
to the energy and changes, such as the consequences of adding heat to, or removing heat from, a system.
movement of its atoms Throughout this unit, students will use representations and models (PV diagrams, energy
and molecules? bar charts, or free-body diagrams) to construct evidence-based explanations and help
§§ How can we best them make predictions and justify claims about new phenomena. These representations
measure what we and models will also help students develop connections and transfer their learning across
cannot see? disciplinary boundaries so that they are able to link, synthesize, and apply ideas they have
learned across the sciences and mathematics.
BIG IDEA 5 Unit 2 also acquaints students with the second law of thermodynamics, entropy, and how the
Conservation  CON
behavior of complex systems can be modeled with the mathematics of probability. This will be
§§ How does the direction explored further in Unit 7 to help support and explain the concepts of modern physics.
in which a heat engine
does work determine
whether it is used
Preparing for the AP Exam
as a refrigerator or a The AP Physics 2 Exam requires students to be able to re-express key elements of
heat pump? natural phenomena across multiple representations in the domain. This skill appears in
§§ How and why should we the Quantitative/Qualitative Translation (QQT), a type of long, free-response question that
conserve energy? requires students to use both words and mathematics to describe and analyze a situation. A
§§ When is it beneficial to QQT might ask students to work with multiple representations or evaluate another student’s
remove energy from representations. Representations might include equations, narrative descriptions, graphs,
a system? diagrams, and data tables.

Students who have primarily been exposed to numerical problem solving often struggle with
BIG IDEA 7 QQTs, because these questions require them to have a more conceptual understanding of
Probability  PRO
both content and representations. Providing opportunities for students to translate between
§§ How does probability different representations (including equations, diagrams, graphs, and written descriptions)
help explain entropy? will help students perform better on a QQT.
§§ Can energy remain
constant even in a
closed system?

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 UNIT

2 Thermodynamics

UNIT AT A GLANCE
Understanding

Class Periods
Enduring

Topic Science Practices ~15–20 CLASS PERIODS

Thermodynamic Systems
2.1  1.1 The student can create representations and
models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.*
1.4 The student can use representations and models
1.A

to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively

and quantitatively.*
7.1 The student can connect phenomena and
models across spatial and temporal scales.*

Pressure, Thermal
2.2  1.4 The student can use representations and models
Equilibrium, and the Ideal to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
Gas Law and quantitatively.
2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to
quantities that describe natural phenomena.
3.2 The student can refine scientific questions.
4.2 The student can design a plan for collecting data
to answer a particular scientific question.
5.1 The student can analyze data to identify patterns
7.A

or relationships.
6.4 The student can make claims and predictions
about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.
7.1 The student can connect phenomena and
models across spatial and temporal scales.*
7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across
domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

*Indicates a science practice not assessed with its paired topic on this unit’s Personal Progress Check.
continued on next page

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 UNIT
Thermodynamics
2
UNIT AT A GLANCE (cont’d)
Understanding

Class Periods
Enduring

Topic Science Practices ~15–20 CLASS PERIODS

Thermodynamics
2.3  1.1 The student can create representations and
and Forces models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.*
1.4 The student can use representations and models
to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.
6.1 The student can justify claims with evidence.*
6.2 The student can construct explanations of
3.A

phenomena based on evidence produced through

scientific practices.*
6.4 The student can make claims and predictions
about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.
7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across
domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

Thermodynamics and
2.4  1.1 The student can create representations and
Free-Body Diagrams models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.
1.4 The student can use representations and models
to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.
1.5 The student can re-express key elements of
natural phenomena across multiple representations
in the domain.
3.B

2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to

quantities that describe natural phenomena.
6.4 The student can make claims and predictions
about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.
7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across
domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.*

Thermodynamics
2.5  6.1 The student can justify claims with evidence.*
and Contact Forces 6.2 The student can construct explanations of
3.C

phenomena based on evidence produced through

scientific practices.*

*Indicates a science practice not assessed with its paired topic on this unit’s Personal Progress Check.
continued on next page

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 UNIT

2 Thermodynamics

UNIT AT A GLANCE (cont’d)

Understanding

Class Periods
Enduring

Topic Science Practices ~15–20 CLASS PERIODS

Heat and Energy Transfer

2.6  6.4 The student can make claims and predictions
4.C

about natural phenomena based on scientific

theories and models.

Internal Energy and Energy

2.7  1.1 The student can create representations and
Transfer models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.
1.2 The student can describe representations and
models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.
1.4 The student can use representations and models
to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.
2.1 The student can justify the selection of a
mathematical routine to solve problems.
2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to
5.B

quantities that describe natural phenomena.

4.2 The student can design a plan for collecting data
to answer a particular scientific question.
5.1 The student can analyze data to identify patterns
or relationships.
6.4 The student can make claims and predictions
about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.
7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across
domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.*

Thermodynamics and
2.8  2.1 The student can justify the selection of a
Elastic Collisions: mathematical routine to solve problems.*
Conservation 2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to
of Momentum
quantities that describe natural phenomena.
6.4 The student can make claims and predictions
5.D

about natural phenomena based on scientific

theories and models.
7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across
domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.*

*Indicates a science practice not assessed with its paired topic on this unit’s Personal Progress Check.
continued on next page

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 UNIT
Thermodynamics
2
UNIT AT A GLANCE (cont’d)
Understanding

Class Periods
Enduring

Topic Science Practices ~15–20 CLASS PERIODS

Thermodynamics and
2.9  2.1 The student can justify the selection of a
Inelastic Collisions: mathematical routine to solve problems.*
Conservation 2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to
of Momentum
quantities that describe natural phenomena.
6.4 The student can make claims and predictions
5.D

about natural phenomena based on scientific

theories and models.
7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across
domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

Thermal Conductivity
2.10  4.1 The student can justify the selection of the kind of
data needed to answer a particular scientific question.*
4.2 The student can design a plan for collecting data
1.E

to answer a particular scientific question.

5.1 The student can analyze data to identify patterns
or relationships.

Probability, Thermal
2.11  6.2 The student can construct explanations of
Equilibrium, and Entropy phenomena based on evidence produced through
scientific practices.
7.B

7.1 The student can connect phenomena and

models across spatial and temporal scales.

Go to AP Classroom to assign the Personal Progress Check for Unit 2.

Review the results in class to identify and address any student misunderstandings.

*Indicates a science practice not assessed with its paired topic on this unit’s Personal Progress Check.

UNIT 2 AVAILABLE RESOURCES:

§§ Classroom Resources > AP Physics 1 and 2 Inquiry-Based Lab Investigations: A Teacher’s Manual
§§ Classroom Resources > Graphical Analysis
§§ Classroom Resources > Multiple Representations of Knowledge: Mechanics and Energy
§§ Classroom Resources > Teaching Strategies for Limited Class Time

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 UNIT

1
2 Thermodynamics

SAMPLE INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES

The sample activities on this page are optional and are offered to provide possible ways to
incorporate instructional approaches into the classroom. Teachers do not need to use these
activities or instructional approaches and are free to alter or edit them. The examples below
were developed in partnership with teachers from the AP community to share ways that they
approach teaching some of the topics in this unit. Please refer to the Instructional Approaches
section beginning on p. 185 for more examples of activities and strategies.

Activity Topic Sample Activity

1 2.2 Desktop Experiment

Give each group a 10 mL syringe with a Luer-Lok tip and a Luer-Lok cap. Instruct students
to set the syringe to 10 mL, cap the end, turn the syringe vertical, and stack books on top.
Students then calculate the absolute pressure of the books plus atmosphere, and make a
pressure versus volume graph.

2 2.6 Discussion Groups

Each group is to come up with a way to demonstrate each of the eight thermodynamic
processes (isobaric, isochoric, isothermal, and adiabatic, each in both possible directions)
using cheap-to-obtain/common school or household items. Example: For adiabatic
compression, cap a syringe and push on the plunger really hard (see “fire syringe” for more
on this example).

3 2.6 Graph and Switch

Student A describes a three-step cyclical thermodynamic process (e.g., “isochoric heating,
isothermal expansion, isobaric cooling”) and Students B, C, and D make a PV, PT, and
VT diagram (respectively) of the cycle.

4 2.7 Construct an Argument/Concept-Oriented Demonstration

Look up “Contigo Autospout Addison Water Bottle” on Amazon and show it to students.
Explain that a person takes this partially filled water bottle up to the top of a mountain,
opens it, and gets sprayed in the face with water. Explain why and whether more water
would spray out if there is more or less water in the bottle (answer: less). Discuss what
would happen if the bottle is taken out of the refrigerator, opened, and the person
gets sprayed.

5 2.11 Changing Representations

Show students a single thermodynamic process on a PV/PT/VT diagram and a
molecular-velocity distribution graph for the “initial” state. Have students draw the
distribution for the “final” state or explain why it is the same graph (if it is).

Unit Planning Notes

Use the space below to plan your approach to the unit.

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 UNIT
Thermodynamics
2
TOPIC 2.1 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling

Thermodynamic 1.1
The student can create
representations and models

Systems of natural or man-made

phenomena and systems in
the domain.
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
Required Course Content and quantitatively.

Making Connections
7.1
The student can connect
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
phenomena and models
1.A across spatial and
The internal structure of a system determines many properties of the system. temporal scales.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.A.5.2 1.A.5
Construct representations Systems have properties determined by the
of how the properties of properties and interactions of their constituent
a system are determined atomic and molecular substructures. In
by the interactions of its AP Physics, when the properties of the
constituent substructures. constituent parts are not important in modeling
[SP 1.1, 1.4, 7.1] the behavior of the macroscopic system, the
system itself may be referred to as an object.

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2 Thermodynamics

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling
TOPIC 2.2
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
Pressure, Thermal
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.
Equilibrium, and
Mathematical
Routines
the Ideal Gas Law
2.2
The student can apply
mathematical routines to Required Course Content
quantities that describe
natural phenomena.

Scientific
Questioning ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
3.2 7.A
The student can refine The properties of an ideal gas can be explained in terms of a small number of
scientific questions. macroscopic variables, including temperature and pressure.
Experimental
Methods
4.2
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
The student can design 7.A.1.1 7.A.1
a plan for collecting data Make claims about how the The pressure of a system determines the
to answer a particular pressure of an ideal gas force that the system exerts on the walls of
scientific question. is connected to the force its container and is a measure of the average
exerted by molecules on the change in the momentum or impulse of the
Data Analysis
walls of the container and molecules colliding with the walls of the
5.1 how changes in pressure container. The pressure also exists inside the
The student can analyze affect the thermal equilibrium system itself, not just at the walls of the container.
data to identify patterns of the system. [SP 6.4, 7.2]
or relationships.
Relevant Equations:
7.A.1.2 F
Argumentation
P=
Treating a gas molecule A
as an object (i.e., ignoring its  
6.4 Δp = F Δt
internal structure), analyze
The student can make
claims and predictions qualitatively the collisions
about natural phenomena with a container wall and
based on scientific theories determine the cause of
and models. pressure, and at thermal
equilibrium, quantitatively
calculate the pressure, force,
or area for a thermodynamic
problem given two of the
variables. [SP 1.4, 2.2]

continued on next page

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 UNIT
Thermodynamics
2
SCIENCE PRACTICES

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE Making Connections

7.1
7.A.2.1 7.A.2
The student can connect
Qualitatively connect the The temperature of a system characterizes the
phenomena and models
average of all kinetic energies average kinetic energy of its molecules. across spatial and
of molecules in a system a. The average kinetic energy of the system temporal scales.
to the temperature of the is an average of the many different speeds 7.2
system. [SP 7.1] of the molecules in the system that can be The student can connect
7.A.2.2 described by a distribution curve. concepts in and across
Connect the statistical b. The root mean square speed corresponding domain(s) to generalize or
distribution of microscopic extrapolate in and/or across
to the average kinetic energy for a specific
kinetic energies of enduring understandings
gas at a given temperature can be obtained
and/or big ideas.
molecules to the from this distribution.
macroscopic temperature Relevant Equation:
of the system and relate
this to thermodynamic
3
K = kBT
processes. [SP 7.1] 2

7.A.3.1 7.A.3
Extrapolate from pressure In an ideal gas, the macroscopic (average)
and temperature or volume pressure (P), temperature (T), and volume (V)
and temperature data are related by the ideal gas law PV = nRT.
to make the prediction Relevant Equation:
that there is a temperature
PV = nRT = NkBT
at which the pressure
or volume extrapolates
to zero. [SP 6.4, 7.2]
7.A.3.2
Design a plan for collecting
data to determine the
relationships between
pressure, volume, and
temperature, and/or the
amount of an ideal gas; and
to refine a scientific question
proposing an incorrect
relationship between the
variables. [SP 3.2, 4.2]
7.A.3.3
Analyze graphical
representations of
macroscopic variables for an
ideal gas to determine the
relationships between these
variables and to ultimately
determine the ideal gas
law PV = nRT. [SP 5.1]

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2 Thermodynamics

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling
TOPIC 2.3
1.1
The student can create
representations and models
Thermodynamics
of natural or man-made
phenomena and systems in
the domain.
and Forces
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively. Required Course Content
Argumentation
6.1
The student can justify ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
claims with evidence.
3.A
6.2
All forces share certain common characteristics when considered by observers in
The student can
inertial reference frames.
construct explanations
of phenomena based on
evidence produced through
scientific practices. LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
6.4 3.A.2.1 3.A.2
The student can make Represent forces in diagrams Forces are described by vectors.
claims and predictions or mathematically using
about natural phenomena a. Forces are detected by their influence on
appropriately labeled vectors the motion of an object.
based on scientific theories
with magnitude, direction,
and models. b. Forces have magnitude and direction.
and units during the analysis
Making Connections of a situation. [SP 1.1] BOUNDARY STATEMENT:
7.2 AP Physics 2 has learning objectives under
The student can connect Enduring Understanding 3.A that focus
concepts in and across on electric and magnetic forces and other
domain(s) to generalize or forces arising in the context of interactions
extrapolate in and/or across introduced in Physics 2, rather than the
enduring understandings
mechanical systems introduced in Physics 1.
and/or big ideas.

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 UNIT
Thermodynamics
2
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
3.A.3.2 3.A.3
Construct an explanation for A force exerted on an object is always due to the
why an object cannot exert a interaction of that object with another object.
force on itself. [SP 6.1] a. An object cannot exert a force on itself.
3.A.3.3 b. Even though an object is at rest, there
Describe a force as an may be forces exerted on that object by
interaction between two other objects.
objects and identify both c. The acceleration of an object, but not
objects for any force. [SP 1.4] necessarily its velocity, is always in the
3.A.3.4 direction of the net force exerted on the
Make claims about the force object by other objects.
on an object due to the Relevant Equation:
presence of other objects  
with the same properties:   F Fnet
a= =
mass, electric charge. m m
[SP 6.1, 6.4]

3.A.4.1 3.A.4
Construct explanations of If one object exerts a force on a second object,
physical situations involving the second object always exerts a force of
the interaction of bodies equal magnitude on the first object in the
using Newton’s third law opposite direction.
and the representation
of action-reaction pairs of
forces. [SP 1.4, 6.2]
3.A.4.2
Make claims and predictions
about the action-reaction pairs
of forces when two objects
interact using Newton’s third
law. [SP 6.4, 7.2]
3.A.4.3
Analyze situations involving
interactions among several
objects by using free-body
diagrams that include the
application of Newton’s third
law to identify forces. [SP 1.4]

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2 Thermodynamics

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling
TOPIC 2.4
1.1
The student can create
representations and models
Thermodynamics and
of natural or man-made
phenomena and systems in
the domain.
Free-Body Diagrams
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively. Required Course Content
1.5
The student can re-
express key elements of
natural phenomena across
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
multiple representations
in the domain. 3.B
Classically, the acceleration of an object interacting with other objects can be
Mathematical
Routines predicted by using a =
 F .
2.2
m
The student can apply
mathematical routines to
quantities that describe LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
natural phenomena.
3.B.1.3 3.B.1
Argumentation Re-express a free-body If an object of interest interacts with several
6.4
diagram representation into a other objects, the net force is the vector sum
mathematical representation of the individual forces.
The student can make
and solve the mathematical Relevant Equation:
claims and predictions
about natural phenomena representation for the  
based on scientific theories acceleration of the object.   F Fnet
a= = 
and models. [SP 1.5, 2.2] m m
3.B.1.4
Making Connections
Predict the motion of an BOUNDARY STATEMENT:
7.2
object subject to forces AP Physics 2 contains learning objectives
The student can connect exerted by several objects under Enduring Understanding 3.B that focus
concepts in and across using an application on electric and magnetic forces and other
domain(s) to generalize or
of Newton’s second law forces arising in the context of interactions
extrapolate in and/or across
in a variety of physical introduced in Physics 2, rather than the
enduring understandings
situations. [SP 6.4, 7.2] mechanical systems introduced in Physics 1.
and/or big ideas.

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Thermodynamics
2
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
3.B.2.1 3.B.2
Create and use free-body Free-body diagrams are useful tools for
diagrams to analyze physical visualizing forces being exerted on a single
situations to solve problems object and writing the equations that
with motion qualitatively represent a physical situation.
and quantitatively. [SP 1.1, a. An object can be drawn as if it were
1.4, 2.2] extracted from its environment and the
interactions with the environment identified.
b. A force exerted on an object can be
represented as an arrow whose length
represents the magnitude of the force
and whose direction shows the direction
of the force.
c. A coordinate system with one axis parallel
to the direction of the acceleration simplifies
the translation from the free-body diagram
to the algebraic representation.

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2 Thermodynamics

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Argumentation
TOPIC 2.5
6.1
The student can justify Thermodynamics
and Contact Forces
claims with evidence.
6.2
The student can
construct explanations
of phenomena based on
evidence produced through
scientific practices.

Required Course Content

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
3.C
At the macroscopic level, forces can be categorized as either long-range
(action-at-a-distance) forces or contact forces.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.C.4.1 3.C.4
Make claims about various Contact forces result from the interaction of
contact forces between one object touching another object, and they
objects based on the arise from interatomic electric forces. These
microscopic cause of those forces include tension, friction, normal, spring
forces. [SP 6.1] (Physics 1), and buoyant (Physics 2).
3.C.4.2 Relevant Equations:
Explain contact forces Fb = ρVg
(tension, friction, normal,
F
buoyant, spring) as arising P=
from interatomic electric A
forces and that they
therefore have certain
directions. [SP 6.2]

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Thermodynamics
2
TOPIC 2.6 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Argumentation

Heat and Energy 6.4

The student can make

Transfer
claims and predictions
about natural phenomena
based on scientific theories
and models.

Required Course Content

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
4.C
Interactions with other objects or systems can change the total energy of a system.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

4.C.3.1 4.C.3
Make predictions about Energy is transferred spontaneously from
the direction of energy a higher-temperature system to a lower-
transfer due to temperature temperature system. The process through
differences based on which energy is transferred between systems
interactions at the at different temperatures is called heat.
microscopic level. [SP 6.4] a. Conduction, convection, and radiation are
mechanisms for this energy transfer.
b. At a microscopic scale, the mechanism of
conduction is the transfer of kinetic energy
between particles.
c. During average collisions between
molecules, kinetic energy is transferred
from faster molecules to slower molecules.

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2 Thermodynamics

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling
TOPIC 2.7
1.1
The student can create
representations and models
Internal Energy and
of natural or man-made
phenomena and systems in
the domain.
Energy Transfer
1.2
The student can describe
representations and models
of natural or man-made
phenomena and systems in
the domain. Required Course Content
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
to analyze situations or
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively. 5.B
The energy of a system is conserved.
Mathematical
Routines
2.1
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
The student can justify the
selection of a mathematical 5.B.2.1 5.B.2
routine to solve problems. Calculate the expected A system with internal structure can have
2.2 behavior of a system using internal energy, and changes in a system’s
The student can apply the object model (i.e., by internal structure can result in changes in
mathematical routines to ignoring changes in internal internal energy. [Physics 1 includes mass-spring
quantities that describe structure) to analyze a oscillators and simple pendulums. Physics 2
natural phenomena. situation. Then, when the includes charged objects in electric fields and
model fails, justify the use examining changes in internal energy with
Experimental of conservation of energy changes in configuration.]
Methods principles to calculate Relevant Equation:
4.2 the change in internal
ΔU E = qΔV
The student can design energy due to changes in
a plan for collecting data internal structure because
to answer a particular the object is actually a BOUNDARY STATEMENT:
scientific question. system. [SP 1.4, 2.1] Conservation principles apply in the context
of the appropriate Physics 1 and Physics 2
Data Analysis
courses. Work, potential energy, and kinetic
5.1 energy concepts are related to mechanical
The student can analyze systems in Physics 1 and electric, magnetic,
data to identify patterns
thermal, and atomic and elementary particle
or relationships.
systems in Physics 2.

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Thermodynamics
2
SCIENCE PRACTICES

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE Argumentation

5.B.4.1 5.B.4 6.4

The student can make
Describe and make The internal energy of a system includes
claims and predictions
predictions about the kinetic energy of the objects that make
about natural phenomena
the internal energy of up the system and the potential energy of the
based on scientific theories
systems. [SP 6.4, 7.2] configuration of the objects that make up and models.
5.B.4.2
the system.
a. Since energy is constant in a closed system, Making Connections
Calculate changes in kinetic
energy and potential energy changes in a system’s potential energy 7.2
of a system using information can result in changes to the system’s The student can connect
from representations of that kinetic energy. concepts in and across
system. [SP 1.4, 2.1, 2.2] b. The changes in potential and kinetic energies domain(s) to generalize or
extrapolate in and/or across
in a system may be further constrained by
enduring understandings
the construction of the system. and/or big ideas.

5.B.5.4 5.B.5
Make claims about the Energy can be transferred by an external
interaction between a system force exerted on an object or system that
and its environment in which moves the object or system through a
the environment exerts a distance; this energy transfer is called work.
force on the system, thus Energy transfer in mechanical or electrical
doing work on the system systems may occur at different rates. Power is
and changing the energy of defined as the rate of energy transfer into, out
the system (kinetic energy of, or within a system. [A piston filled with gas
plus potential energy). getting compressed or expanded is treated
[SP 6.4, 7.2] in Physics 2 as a part of thermodynamics.]
5.B.5.5
The work done on a system is defined as
Predict and calculate the W = −P ΔV
energy transfer to (i.e., the for constant pressure or an average pressure.
work done on) an object or Relevant Equations:
system from information
about a force exerted on the ΔE = W = Fd cosθ
object or system through a ΔE
P=
distance. [SP 2.2, 6.4] Δt
5.B.5.6
Design an experiment and
analyze graphical data
in which interpretations
of the area under a
pressure-volume curve are
needed to determine the
work done on or by the object
or system. [SP 4.2, 5.1]

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2 Thermodynamics

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

5.B.6.1 5.B.6
Describe the models Energy can be transferred by thermal processes
that represent processes involving differences in temperature; this process
by which energy can be of transfer is called heat.
transferred between a system
and its environment because
of differences in temperature:
conduction, convection, and
radiation. [SP 1.2]

5.B.7.1 5.B.7
Predict qualitative changes The first law of thermodynamics is a specific
in the internal energy of a case of the law of conservation of energy
thermodynamic system involving the internal energy of a system and
involving transfer of energy the possible transfer of energy through work
due to heat or work done, and/or heat. Examples include PV diagrams—
and justify those predictions isovolumetric processes, isothermal
in terms of conservation processes, isobaric processes, and adiabatic
of energy principles. processes. No calculations of thermal energy
[SP 6.4, 7.2] or internal energy from temperature change
5.B.7.2
are required; in this course, examples of
these relationships are qualitative and/or
Create a plot of pressure
semiquantitative.
versus volume for a
thermodynamic process from Relevant Equations:
given data. [SP 1.1] W = −P ΔV
5.B.7.3 ΔU = Q + W
Make calculations of internal
energy changes, heat, or
work, based on conservation
of energy principles (i.e., the
first law of thermodynamics),
using a plot of pressure
versus volume for a
thermodynamic process.
[SP 1.1, 1.4, 2.2]

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Thermodynamics
2
TOPIC 2.8 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Mathematical

Thermodynamics and
Routines
2.1
The student can justify the

Elastic Collisions: selection of a mathematical

routine to solve problems.

Conservation of
2.2
The student can apply
mathematical routines to

Momentum
quantities that describe
natural phenomena.

Argumentation
6.4
The student can make
Required Course Content claims and predictions
about natural phenomena
based on scientific theories
and models.
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
Making Connections
5.D
7.2
The linear momentum of a system is conserved. The student can connect
concepts in and across
domain(s) to generalize or
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE extrapolate in and/or across
enduring understandings
5.D.1.6 5.D.1 and/or big ideas.
Make predictions of the In a collision between objects, linear
dynamical properties of momentum is conserved. In an elastic collision,
a system undergoing a kinetic energy is the same before and after.
collision by application of the a. In a closed system, the linear momentum is
principle of linear momentum constant throughout the collision.
conservation and the
b. In a closed system, the kinetic energy after
principle of the conservation
of energy in situations in an elastic collision is the same as the kinetic
which an elastic collision may energy before the collision.
also be assumed. [SP 6.4] Relevant Equations:
 
5.D.1.7 p = mv
Classify a given collision 1
situation as elastic or K = mv 2
2
inelastic, justify the selection
of conservation of linear
momentum and restoration
of kinetic energy as the
appropriate principles for
analyzing an elastic collision,
solve for missing variables,
and calculate their values.
[SP 2.1, 2.2]

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2 Thermodynamics

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

5.D.1.6
BOUNDARY STATEMENT:
Make predictions of the
Physics 1 includes a quantitative and
dynamical properties of
a system undergoing a qualitative treatment of conservation of
collision by application of the momentum in one dimension and a
principle of linear momentum semiquantitative treatment of conservation
conservation and the of momentum in two dimensions. Test items
principle of the conservation involving solution of simultaneous equations
of energy in situations in are not included on either the Physics 1 or
which an elastic collision may Physics 2 exams, but items testing whether
also be assumed. [SP 6.4] students can set up the equations properly
5.D.1.7 and can reason about how changing a
Classify a given collision given mass, speed, or angle would affect
situation as elastic or other quantities are included. Physics 1
inelastic, justify the selection includes only conceptual understanding of
of conservation of linear center-of-mass motion of a system without
momentum and restoration the need for calculation of center of mass.
of kinetic energy as the Physics 2 includes full qualitative and
appropriate principles for quantitative two-dimensional treatment of
analyzing an elastic collision, conservation of momentum and velocity of
solve for missing variables,
the center of mass of the system. Physics
and calculate their values.
1 addresses Enduring Understanding 5.D
[SP 2.1, 2.2]
with topics in the context of mechanical
systems. Physics 2 does so with content that
involves interactions arising in the context of
topics such as nuclear decay, other nuclear
reactions, and interactions of subatomic
particles with each other and with photons.

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 UNIT
Thermodynamics
2
TOPIC 2.9 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Mathematical

Thermodynamics and
Routines
2.1
The student can justify the

Inelastic Collisions: selection of a mathematical

routine to solve problems.

Conservation of
2.2
The student can apply
mathematical routines to

Momentum
quantities that describe
natural phenomena.

Argumentation
6.4
The student can make
Required Course Content claims and predictions
about natural phenomena
based on scientific theories
and models.
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
Making Connections
5.D
7.2
The linear momentum of a system is conserved. The student can connect
concepts in and across
domain(s) to generalize or
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE extrapolate in and/or across
enduring understandings
5.D.2.5 5.D.2 and/or big ideas.
Classify a given collision In a collision between objects, linear momentum
situation as elastic or is conserved. In an inelastic collision, kinetic
inelastic, justify the energy is not the same before and after
selection of conservation the collision.
of linear momentum as the a. In a closed system, the linear momentum is
appropriate solution method constant throughout the collision.
for an inelastic collision,
b. In a closed system, the kinetic energy after
recognize that there is a
common final velocity for an inelastic collision is different from the
the colliding objects in kinetic energy before the collision.
the totally inelastic case, Relevant Equations:
 
solve for missing variables, p = mv
and calculate their values.
[SP 2.1, 2.2]
1
K = mv2
5.D.2.6
2
Apply the conservation of
linear momentum to a closed
system of objects involved
in an inelastic collision to
predict the change in kinetic
energy. [SP 6.4, 7.2]

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2 Thermodynamics

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Experimental
TOPIC 2.10
Thermal Conductivity
Methods
4.1
The student can justify
the selection of the
kind of data needed
to answer a particular
scientific question.
4.2
The student can design
a plan for collecting data
to answer a particular
scientific question. Required Course Content
Data Analysis
5.1
The student can analyze
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
data to identify patterns or
relationships. 1.E
Materials have many macroscopic properties that result from the arrangement and
interactions of the atoms and molecules that make up the material.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.E.3.1 1.E.3
Design an experiment, Matter has a property called thermal
and analyze data from it to conductivity. Thermal conductivity is the
examine thermal conductivity. measure of a material’s ability to transfer
[SP 4.1, 4.2, 5.1] thermal energy.
Relevant Equation:
Q kA ΔT
=
Δt L

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Thermodynamics
2
TOPIC 2.11 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Argumentation

Probability, 6.2
The student can

Thermal Equilibrium,
construct explanations
of phenomena based on
evidence produced through
scientific practices.

and Entropy 7.1

Making Connections

The student can connect

phenomena and models
Required Course Content across spatial and
temporal scales.

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
7.B
The tendency of isolated systems to move toward states with higher disorder is
described by probability.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

7.B.1.1 7.B.1
Construct an explanation, The approach to thermal equilibrium is a
based on atomic-scale probability process.
interactions and probability, a. The amount of thermal energy needed to
of how a system approaches change the temperature of an object
thermal equilibrium when depends both on the mass of the object
energy is transferred to
and on the temperature change.
it or from it in a thermal
process. [SP 6.2] b. The details of the energy transfer depend
on interactions at the molecular level.
c. Since higher-momentum particles will be
involved in more collisions, energy is most
likely to be transferred from higher to lower
energy particles. The most likely state after
many collisions is that both objects have
the same temperature.

continued on next page

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2 Thermodynamics

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

7.B.2.1 7.B.2
Connect qualitatively The second law of thermodynamics describes
the second law of the change in entropy for reversible and
thermodynamics in terms irreversible processes. Only a qualitative
of the state function treatment is considered in this course.
called entropy and how a. Entropy, like temperature, pressure, and
it (entropy) behaves in internal energy, is a state function, the value
reversible and irreversible of which depends only on the configuration of
processes. [SP 7.1] the system at a particular instant and not on
how the system arrived at that configuration.
b. Entropy can be described as a measure
of the disorder of a system, or of the
unavailability of some system energy to
do work.
c. The entropy of a closed system never
decreases (i.e., it can stay the same
or increase).
d. The total entropy of the universe is always
increasing.

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 AP PHYSICS 2

UNIT 3
Electric Force,
Field, and
Potential

18–22%
AP EXAM WEIGHTING

~23–25
CLASS PERIODS

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 Remember to go to AP Classroom
to assign students the online
Personal Progress Check for
this unit.
Whether assigned as homework or
completed in class, the Personal
Progress Check provides each
student with immediate feedback
related to this unit’s topics and
science practices.

Personal Progress Check 3

Multiple-choice: ~75 questions
Free-response: 2 questions
§§ Experimental Design
§§ Paragraph Argument Short
Answer

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 UNIT

3 18–22%  AP EXAM WEIGHTING ~23–25 CLASS PERIODS

Electric Force, Field,

and Potential

Unit Overview
BIG IDEA 2 Unit 3 begins the study of electromagnetic phenomena at a fundamental level, introducing
Fields  FLD students to the concepts of electric charge, electric force, and electric field and potential.
§§ How are topographical Despite the shift from examining fluids and gases to examining charged particles, the
maps connected to the foundation of this unit continues to focus on relationships, change, and developing the
ideas of electric field science practice of making connections between scales, concepts, and representations.
and potential? For instance, students will use the concept of equipotential lines to visualize the electric field
§§ If our five senses cannot
and make connections between the isolines on topographic maps for gravitational fields and
detect an electric equipotential lines for the electric field. This unit will also help students better understand that
field, how can we know interactions between systems result in changes within those systems—allowing students to
it’s there? further apply energy conservation principles in later units.

§§ Would you get lost Students are encouraged to apply what they know when learning about fields (gravitational
in an electric field and electric), how fields interact, and the complex concepts of static and dynamic electricity.
without a map? Why This will help students better understand energy conservation principles, as well as develop
are some maps better the science practice of data analysis. Data analysis is essential in identifying patterns and
than others? relationships between variables and helps students become better prepared to engage in and
craft scientific arguments that describe a mechanism through which a phenomenon occurs.
BIG IDEA 3
Force Interactions  INT
Preparing for the AP Exam
§§ How do electrical
charges behave in an During the exam, students will be asked to write a paragraph to demonstrate their ability to
electric field? communicate their understanding of a physical situation in a reasoned, expository analysis.
A student’s analysis of the situation should be coherent, organized, and sequential. It should
BIG IDEA 5 draw from evidence, cite physical principles, and clearly present the student’s thinking.
Conservation  CON A paragraph-long response will earn points for correct physics principles. However, full credit
§§ Why do charges move? may not be earned if the response contains any of the following: principles not presented in a
§§ What parallels can be logical order, lengthy digressions within an argument, or a lack of linking prose between
drawn between electric equations or diagrams.
charge and energy?

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3 Electric Force, Field, and Potential

UNIT AT A GLANCE
Understanding

Class Periods
Enduring

Topic Science Practices ~23–25 CLASS PERIODS

3.1  Electric Systems 1.1 The student can create representations and
models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.*

1.4 The student can use representations and models

1.A

to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively

and quantitatively.*

7.1 The student can connect phenomena and

models across spatial and temporal scales.*

3.2  Electric Charge 6.2 The student can construct explanations of

phenomena based on evidence produced through
scientific practices.

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
1.B

theories and models.

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

Conservation of
3.3  4.1 The student can justify the selection of
Electric Charge the kind of data needed to answer a particular
scientific question.

4.2 The student can design a plan for collecting data

to answer a particular scientific question.*
5.C

5.1 The student can analyze data to identify patterns

or relationships.

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.

*Indicates a science practice not assessed with its paired topic on this unit’s Personal Progress Check.

continued on next page

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Electric Force, Field, and Potential
3
UNIT AT A GLANCE (cont’d)
Understanding

Class Periods
Enduring

Topic Science Practices ~23–25 CLASS PERIODS

Charge Distribution:
3.4  1.1 The student can create representations and
Friction, Conduction, models of natural or man-made phenomena and
and Induction systems in the domain.

1.4 The student can use representations and models

to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.

3.2 The student can refine scientific questions.

4.1 The student can justify the selection of

the kind of data needed to answer a particular
scientific question.

4.2 The student can design a plan for collecting data

to answer a particular scientific question.
4.E

5.1 The student can analyze data to identify patterns

or relationships.

5.3 The student can evaluate the evidence

provided by data sets in relation to a particular
scientific question.

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

Electric Permittivity
3.5  N/A
1.E

continued on next page

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3 Electric Force, Field, and Potential

UNIT AT A GLANCE (cont’d)

Understanding

Class Periods
Enduring

Topic Science Practices ~23–25 CLASS PERIODS

Introduction to
3.6  1.1 The student can create representations and
Electric Forces models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.

1.4 The student can use representations and models

to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.

6.1 The student can justify claims with evidence.*

6.2 The student can construct explanations of

3.A

phenomena based on evidence produced through

scientific practices.

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.*

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.*

3.7 Electric Forces and 1.1 The student can create representations and
Free-Body Diagrams models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.

1.4 The student can use representations and models

to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.

1.5 The student can re-express key elements of

natural phenomena across multiple representations
in the domain.*
3.B

2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to

quantities that describe natural phenomena.

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.*

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.*

*Indicates a science practice not assessed with its paired topic on this unit’s Personal Progress Check.

continued on next page

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Electric Force, Field, and Potential
3
UNIT AT A GLANCE (cont’d)
Understanding

Class Periods
Enduring

Topic Science Practices ~23–25 CLASS PERIODS

Describing Electric Force

3.8  2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to
quantities that describe natural phenomena.

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
3.C

theories and models.

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

Gravitational and
3.9  7.1 The student can connect phenomena and
3.G

Electromagnetic Forces models across spatial and temporal scales.

Vector and Scalar Fields

3.10  N/A
2.A

Electric Charges
3.11  1.1 The student can create representations and
and Fields models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.

1.4 The student can use representations and models

to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.

2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to

quantities that describe natural phenomena.

6.2 The student can construct explanations of

2.C

phenomena based on evidence produced through

scientific practices.

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.

7.1 The student can connect phenomena and

models across spatial and temporal scales.*

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

*Indicates a science practice not assessed with its paired topic on this unit’s Personal Progress Check.

continued on next page

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3 Electric Force, Field, and Potential

UNIT AT A GLANCE (cont’d)

Understanding

Class Periods
Enduring

Topic Science Practices ~23–25 CLASS PERIODS

Isolines and
3.12  1.4 The student can use representations and models
Electric Fields to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.

2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to

quantities that describe natural phenomena.
2.E

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

Conservation of
3.13  1.4 The student can use representations and models
Electric Energy to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.

2.1 The student can justify the selection of a

mathematical routine to solve problems.

2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to

quantities that describe natural phenomena.
5.B

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.*

Go to AP Classroom to assign the Personal Progress Check for Unit 3.

Review the results in class to identify and address any student misunderstandings.

*Indicates a science practice not assessed with its paired topic on this unit’s Personal Progress Check.

UNIT 3 AVAILABLE RESOURCES:

§§ Classroom Resources > Electrostatics
§§ Classroom Resources > Graphical Analysis
§§ Classroom Resources > The Capacitor as a Bridge from Electrostatics to Circuits

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Electric Force, Field, and Potential
3
SAMPLE INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
The sample activities on this page are optional and are offered to provide possible ways to
incorporate instructional approaches into the classroom. Teachers do not need to use these
activities or instructional approaches and are free to alter or edit them. The examples below
were developed in partnership with teachers from the AP community to share ways that they
approach teaching some of the topics in this unit. Please refer to the Instructional Approaches
section beginning on p. 185 for more examples of activities and strategies.

Activity Topic Sample Activity

1 3.6 Identify Subtasks

Students are shown three known charges at known positions on a line and asked to find
the net force on each charge. Students describe in words what the subtasks are and come
up with a procedure for finding the net force on each charge.

2 3.7 Conflicting Contentions

Show a diagram with two charged spheres hanging from strings anchored to the same
point in the ceiling, with the string for sphere A making a greater angle from the vertical.
One student thinks this is because A has less charge so it is pushed on harder by B, but
another student thinks it is because A has less mass and is pulled down less by gravity.
Which student is right? Explain with free-body diagrams.

3 3.8 Desktop Experiment

A spark occurs when the E-field between two conductors is 3 × 106 V/m. Obtain a Van de
Graaf generator and find the distance from the ball that a grounded rod must be held
to make a spark. Have students use E = V/d to get the potential of the sphere, and use
V = kq/r2 with the radius of the sphere to get the charge of the sphere.

4 3.9 Friends Without Pens

Have students consider a proton P and an alpha particle A released from rest near each
other. Relate the electric and gravitational forces of P→A and A→P. Rank these four forces,
and justify the ranking. How does the acceleration/momentum/kinetic energy of P compare
to A (four times as much, same, four times)? How does the acceleration and velocity of P or
A change as they move apart?

5 3.11 Changing Representations

3.12 Given an arrangement of two or three charges (of various signs and either same or
different magnitude), students sketch E-field vector diagrams and potential isolines for the
arrangement. Students can use PhET: Charges and Fields to check their diagrams.

Unit Planning Notes

Use the space below to plan your approach to the unit.

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3 Electric Force, Field, and Potential

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling
TOPIC 3.1
1.1
The student can create
representations and models
Electric Systems
of natural or man-made
phenomena and systems in
the domain.
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively. Required Course Content
Making Connections
7.1
The student can connect
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
phenomena and models
across spatial and 1.A
temporal scales. The internal structure of a system determines many properties of the system.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.A.5.2 1.A.5
Construct representations Systems have properties determined by the
of how the properties of properties and interactions of their constituent
a system are determined atomic and molecular substructures. In
by the interactions of its AP Physics, when the properties of the
constituent substructures. constituent parts are not important in modeling
[SP 1.1, 1.4, 7.1] the behavior of the macroscopic system, the
system itself may be referred to as an object.

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Electric Force, Field, and Potential
3
TOPIC 3.2 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Argumentation

Electric Charge 6.2

The student can
construct explanations
of phenomena based on
evidence produced through
scientific practices.
6.4
The student can make
claims and predictions
about natural phenomena
based on scientific theories
Required Course Content and models.

Making Connections
7.2
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING The student can connect
concepts in and across
1.B
domain(s) to generalize or
Electric charge is a property of an object or system that affects its interactions with extrapolate in and/or across
other objects or systems containing charge. enduring understandings
and/or big ideas.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.B.1.1 1.B.1
Make claims about natural Electric charge is conserved. The net charge of
phenomena based on a system is equal to the sum of the charges of
conservation of electric all the objects in the system.
charge. [SP 6.4] a. An electrical current is a movement of
1.B.1.2 charge through a conductor.
Make predictions, using the b. A circuit is a closed loop of electrical current.
conservation of electric Relevant Equation:
charge, about the sign and ΔQ
relative quantity of net charge I=
of objects or systems after Δt
various charging processes,
including conservation of BOUNDARY STATEMENT:
charge in simple circuits. Full coverage of electrostatics occurs
[SP 6.4, 7.2] in Physics 2. A basic introduction to the
concepts that there are positive and negative
charges, and the electrostatic attraction and
repulsion between these charges, is included
in Physics 1 as well.

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3 Electric Force, Field, and Potential

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.B.2.1 1.B.2
Construct an explanation There are only two kinds of electric charge.
of the two charge model of Neutral objects or systems contain equal
electric charge based on quantities of positive and negative charge, with
evidence produced through the exception of some fundamental particles
scientific practices. [SP 6.2] that have no electric charge.
1.B.2.2 a. Like-charged objects and systems
Make a qualitative prediction repel, and unlike-charged objects and
about the distribution of systems attract.
positive and negative electric b. Charged objects or systems may attract
charges within neutral systems neutral systems by changing the distribution
as they undergo various of charge in the neutral system.
processes. [SP 6.4, 7.2]
1.B.2.3
Challenge claims that
polarization of electric charge
or separation of charge must
result in a net charge on the
object. [SP 6.1]

1.B.3.1 1.B.3
Construct an explanation The smallest observed unit of charge that can
that challenges the claim be isolated is the electron charge, also known
that an electric charge as the elementary charge.
smaller than the elementary a. The magnitude of the elementary charge is
charge has been isolated. equal to 1.6 × 10−19 coulombs.
[SP 1.5, 6.1, 7.2]
b. Electrons have a negative elementary
charge; protons have a positive elementary
charge of equal magnitude, although the
mass of a proton is much larger than the
mass of an electron.

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Electric Force, Field, and Potential
3
TOPIC 3.3 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Experimental

Conservation of
Methods
4.1
The student can justify

Electric Charge the selection of the

kind of data needed
to answer a particular
scientific question.
4.2
The student can design
a plan for collecting data
to answer a particular
Required Course Content scientific question.

Data Analysis
5.1
The student can analyze
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
data to identify patterns
5.C or relationships.
The electric charge of a system is conserved.
Argumentation
6.4

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE The student can make

claims and predictions
5.C.2.1 5.C.2 about natural phenomena
Predict electric charges on The exchange of electric charges among based on scientific theories
objects within a system by a set of objects in a system conserves and models.
application of the principle of electric charge.
charge conservation within a a. Charging by conduction between objects in
system. [SP 6.4] a system conserves the electric charge of
5.C.2.2 the entire system.
Design a plan to collect data b. Charge separation in a neutral system can
on the electrical charging of be induced by an external charged object
objects and electric charge placed close to the neutral system.
induction on neutral objects c. Grounding involves the transfer of excess
and qualitatively analyze that charge to another larger system (e.g., Earth).
data. [SP 4.2, 5.1]
5.C.2.3
Justify the selection of data
relevant to an investigation
of the electrical charging of
objects and electric charge
induction on neutral objects.
[SP 4.1]

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3 Electric Force, Field, and Potential

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling
TOPIC 3.4
1.1
The student can create
representations and models
Charge Distribution:
of natural or man-made
phenomena and systems in
the domain.
Friction, Conduction,
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
and Induction
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively. Required Course Content
Scientific
Questioning
3.2
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
The student can refine
scientific questions. 4.E
The electric and magnetic properties of a system can change in response to the
Experimental presence of, or changes in, other objects or systems.
Methods
4.1
The student can justify
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
the selection of the
kind of data needed 4.E.3.1 4.E.3
to answer a particular Make predictions about The charge distribution in a system can
scientific question. the redistribution of charge be altered by the effects of electric forces
4.2 during charging by friction, produced by a charged object.
The student can design conduction, and induction. a. Charging can take place by friction or
a plan for collecting data [SP 6.4] by contact.
to answer a particular
scientific question.
4.E.3.2 b. An induced charge separation can cause a
Make predictions about neutral object to become polarized.
Data Analysis the redistribution of charge c. Charging by induction can occur when a
5.1 caused by the electric polarizing conducting object is touched
The student can analyze
field due to other systems, by another.
data to identify patterns resulting in charged or
d. In solid conductors, some electrons are
or relationships. polarized objects. [SP 6.4, 7.2]
mobile. When no current flows, mobile
5.3 4.E.3.3 charges are in static equilibrium, excess
The student can Construct a representation of charge resides at the surface, and the
evaluate the evidence the distribution of fixed and interior field is zero. In solid insulators,
provided by data sets in mobile charge in insulators and excess (“fixed”) charge may reside in the
relation to a particular conductors. [SP 1.1, 1.4, 6.4] interior as well as at the surface.
scientific question.
4.E.3.4
Construct a representation of
the distribution of fixed and
mobile charge in insulators
and conductors that
predicts charge distribution
in processes involving
induction or conduction.
[SP 1.1, 1.4, 6.4]

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Electric Force, Field, and Potential
3
SCIENCE PRACTICES

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE Argumentation

4.E.3.5 4.E.3 6.4

The student can make
Plan and/or analyze the The charge distribution in a system can
claims and predictions
results of experiments be altered by the effects of electric forces
about natural phenomena
in which electric-charge produced by a charged object.
based on scientific theories
rearrangement occurs by a. Charging can take place by friction or and models.
electrostatic induction, by contact.
or be able to refine a Making Connections
b. An induced charge separation can cause a
scientific question relating
to such an experiment by neutral object to become polarized. 7.2

c. Charging by induction can occur when a The student can connect

identifying anomalies in
concepts in and across
a data set or procedure. polarizing conducting object is touched
domain(s) to generalize or
[SP 3.2, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 5.3] by another. extrapolate in and/or across
d. In solid conductors, some electrons are enduring understandings
mobile. When no current flows, mobile and/or big ideas.
charges are in static equilibrium, excess
charge resides at the surface, and the
interior field is zero. In solid insulators,
excess (“fixed”) charge may reside in the
interior as well as at the surface.

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3 Electric Force, Field, and Potential

TOPIC 3.5
Electric Permittivity

Required Course Content

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
1.E
Materials have many macroscopic properties that result from the arrangement and
interactions of the atoms and molecules that make up the material.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

[While there is no specific 1.E.4
learning objective for Matter has a property called electric permittivity.
it, EK 1.E.4 serves as a
a. Free space has a constant value of the
foundation for other learning
objectives in the course.] permittivity that appears in physical
relationships.
b. The permittivity of matter has a value
different from that of free space.

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Electric Force, Field, and Potential
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TOPIC 3.6 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling

Introduction to 1.1
The student can create
representations and models

Electric Forces of natural or man-made

phenomena and systems in
the domain.
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
Required Course Content and quantitatively.

Argumentation
6.1
The student can justify
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
claims with evidence.
3.A
6.2
All forces share certain common characteristics when considered by observers in The student can
inertial reference frames. construct explanations
of phenomena based on
evidence produced through
scientific practices.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
6.4
3.A.2.1 3.A.2
The student can make
Represent forces in diagrams Forces are described by vectors. claims and predictions
or mathematically using a. Forces are detected by their influence on about natural phenomena
appropriately labeled vectors the motion of an object. based on scientific theories
with magnitude, direction, and models.
b. Forces have magnitude and direction.
and units during the analysis
of a situation. [SP 1.1] Making Connections
BOUNDARY STATEMENT:
AP Physics 2 has learning objectives under 7.2

Enduring Understanding 3.A that focus The student can connect

concepts in and across
on electric and magnetic forces and other
domain(s) to generalize or
forces arising in the context of interactions extrapolate in and/or across
introduced in Physics 2 rather than the enduring understandings
mechanical systems introduced in Physics 1. and/or big ideas.

3.A.3.2 3.A.3
Construct an explanation for A force exerted on an object is always due to the
why an object cannot exert a interaction of that object with another object.
force on itself. [SP 6.1] a. An object cannot exert a force on itself.
3.A.3.3 b. Even though an object is at rest, there
Describe a force as an may be forces exerted on that object by
interaction between other objects.
two objects and identify both c. The acceleration of an object, but not
objects for any force. [SP 1.4] necessarily its velocity, is always in the
direction of the net force exerted on the
object by other objects.

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3 Electric Force, Field, and Potential

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.A.3.4 Relevant Equation:
 
Make claims about the force   F Fnet
on an object due to the a= =
presence of other objects
m m
with the same properties:
mass, electric charge.
[SP 6.1, 6.4]

3.A.4.1 3.A.4
Construct explanations of If one object exerts a force on a second object,
physical situations involving the second object always exerts a force of
the interaction of bodies equal magnitude on the first object in the
using Newton’s third law opposite direction.
and the representation of
action-reaction pairs of
forces. [SP 1.4, 6.2]
3.A.4.2
Make claims and predictions
about the action-reaction
pairs of forces when
two objects interact
using Newton’s third law.
[SP 6.4, 7.2]
3.A.4.3
Analyze situations involving
interactions among several
objects by using free-body
diagrams that include the
application of Newton’s third
law to identify forces. [SP 1.4]

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Electric Force, Field, and Potential
3
TOPIC 3.7 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling

Electric Forces and 1.1

The student can create
representations and models

Free-Body Diagrams of natural or man-made

phenomena and systems in
the domain.
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
Required Course Content and quantitatively.
1.5
The student can re-
express key elements of
natural phenomena across
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
multiple representations
3.B in the domain.
Classically, the acceleration
 of an object interacting with other objects can be Mathematical

predicted by using a =
 F  . Routines
m 2.2
The student can apply
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE mathematical routines to
quantities that describe
3.B.1.3 3.B.1 natural phenomena.
Re-express a free-body If an object of interest interacts with several
diagram representation into a other objects, the net force is the vector sum Argumentation
mathematical representation of the individual forces. 6.4
and solve the mathematical Relevant Equation: The student can make
representation for the   claims and predictions
acceleration of the object.   F Fnet about natural phenomena
a= =
[SP 1.5, 2.2] m m based on scientific theories
and models.
3.B.1.4
BOUNDARY STATEMENT:
Predict the motion of an Making Connections
object subject to forces AP Physics 2 contains learning objectives
7.2
exerted by several objects under Enduring Understanding 3.B that focus
The student can connect
using an application of on electric and magnetic forces and other
concepts in and across
Newton’s second law in a forces arising in the context of interactions
domain(s) to generalize or
variety of physical situations. introduced in Physics 2, rather than the extrapolate in and/or across
[SP 6.4, 7.2] mechanical systems introduced in Physics 1. enduring understandings
and/or big ideas.

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3 Electric Force, Field, and Potential

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.B.2.1 3.B.2
Create and use free-body Free-body diagrams are useful tools for
diagrams to analyze physical visualizing forces being exerted on a single
situations to solve problems object and writing the equations that represent
with motion qualitatively a physical situation.
and quantitatively. a. An object can be drawn as if it were
[SP 1.1, 1.4, 2.2] extracted from its environment and the
interactions with the environment identified.
b. A force exerted on an object can be
represented as an arrow whose length
represents the magnitude of the force and
whose direction shows the direction of
the force.
c. A coordinate system with one axis parallel to
the direction of the acceleration simplifies
the translation from the free-body diagram
to the algebraic representation.

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Electric Force, Field, and Potential
3
TOPIC 3.8 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Mathematical

Describing
Routines
2.2
The student can apply

Electric Force mathematical routines to

quantities that describe
natural phenomena.

Argumentation
6.4
The student can make
claims and predictions
Required Course Content about natural phenomena
based on scientific theories
and models.

Making Connections
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING 7.2
3.C The student can connect
At the macroscopic level, forces can be categorized as either long-range (action-at- concepts in and across
a-distance) forces or contact forces. domain(s) to generalize or
extrapolate in and/or across
enduring understandings
and/or big ideas.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
3.C.2.1 3.C.2
Make predictions about the Electric force results from the interaction of
interaction between two one object that has an electric charge with
electric point charges, using another object that has an electric charge.
Coulomb’s law qualitatively a. Electric forces dominate the properties of
and quantitatively. the objects in our everyday experiences.
[SP 2.2, 6.4] However, the large number of particle
3.C.2.2 interactions that occur make it more
Connect the concepts convenient to treat everyday forces in terms
of gravitational force and of non-fundamental forces called contact
electric force to compare forces, such as normal force, friction,
similarities and differences and tension.
between the forces. [SP 7.2] b. Electric forces may be attractive or
3.C.2.3 repulsive, depending on the charges on the
Describe the electric objects involved.
force that results from Relevant Equations:
the interaction of several  q1q2
separated point charges FE = 1
(generally two to four point 4πε 0 r 2
charges, though more are  mm
Fg = G 1 2 2
permitted in situations of high r
symmetry) using appropriate
mathematics. [SP 2.2]

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3 Electric Force, Field, and Potential

SCIENCE PRACTICE
Making Connections
TOPIC 3.9
7.1
The student can connect
phenomena and models
Gravitational and
across spatial and
temporal scales. Electromagnetic
Forces
Required Course Content

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
3.G
Certain types of forces are considered fundamental.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.G.1.2 3.G.1
Connect the strength of the Gravitational forces are exerted at all scales
gravitational force between and dominate at the largest distance and
two objects to the spatial mass scales.
scale of the situation and Relevant Equation:
the masses of the objects  mm
involved and compare that Fg = G 1 2 2
r
strength with other types of
forces. [SP 7.1]

3.G.2.1 3.G.2
Connect the strength of Electromagnetic forces are exerted at all scales
electromagnetic forces and can dominate at the human scale.
with the spatial scale of the Relevant Equation:
situation, the magnitude of
 q1q2
the electric charges, and the FE = 1
motion of the electrically 4πε 0 r 2
charged objects involved.
[SP 7.1]

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Electric Force, Field, and Potential
3
TOPIC 3.10
Vector and
Scalar Fields

Required Course Content

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
2.A
A field associates a value of some physical quantity with every point in space. Field
models are useful for describing interactions that occur at a distance (long-range
forces) as well as a variety of other physical phenomena.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

[While there is no specific 2.A.1
learning objective for A vector field gives, as a function of position
it, EK 2.A.1 serves as a (and perhaps time), the value of a physical
foundation for other learning quantity that is described by a vector.
objectives in the course.]
a. Vector fields are represented by field
vectors indicating direction and magnitude.
b. When more than one source object with
mass or electric charge is present, the field
value can be determined by vector addition.
c. Conversely, a known vector field can be
used to make inferences about the number,
relative size, and location of sources.

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3 Electric Force, Field, and Potential

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling
TOPIC 3.11
1.1
The student can create
representations and models
Electric Charges
of natural or man-made
phenomena and systems in
the domain.
and Fields
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively. Required Course Content
Mathematical
Routines
2.2
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
The student can apply
mathematical routines to 2.C
quantities that describe An electric field is caused by an object with electric charge.
natural phenomena.

Argumentation
6.2
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
The student can 2.C.1.1 2.C.1
construct explanations Predict the direction and The magnitude of the electric force F exerted
of phenomena based on the magnitude of the force on an object with electric charge q by an
evidence produced through exerted on an object with an electric field E is
scientific practices.  
electric charge q placed in
F = qE
6.4 an electric field E using the
The student can make mathematical model of the The direction of the force is determined
claims and predictions relation between an electric by the direction of the field and the sign of
about natural phenomena force and an electric field: the charge, with positively charged objects
based on scientific theories  
F = qE accelerating in the direction of the field and
and models.
negatively charged objects accelerating in the
Making Connections a vector relation. [SP 6.4, 7.2] direction opposite the field. This should include
2.C.1.2 a vector field map for positive point charges,
7.1
negative point charges, spherically symmetric
The student can connect Calculate any one of the
charge distributions, and uniformly charged
phenomena and models variables—electric force,
parallel plates.
across spatial and electric charge, and electric
temporal scales. field—at a point given the
7.2 values and sign or direction
The student can connect of the other two quantities.
concepts in and across [SP 2.2]
domain(s) to generalize or
extrapolate in and/or across
enduring understandings continued on next page
and/or big ideas.

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Electric Force, Field, and Potential
3
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
2.C.2.1 2.C.2
Qualitatively and The magnitude of the electric field vector
semi quantitatively apply the is proportional to the net electric charge of
vector relationship between the object(s) creating that field. This includes
the electric field and the net positive point charges, negative point charges,
electric charge creating that spherically symmetric charge distributions, and
field. [SP 2.2, 6.4] uniformly charged parallel plates.

2.C.3.1 2.C.3
Explain the inverse square The electric field outside a spherically
dependence of the symmetric charged object is radial, and its
electric field surrounding magnitude varies as the inverse square of the
a spherically symmetric, radial distance from the center of that object.
electrically charged object. Electric field lines are not in the curriculum.
[SP 6.2] Students will be expected to rely only on the
rough intuitive sense underlying field lines,
wherein the field is viewed as analogous to
something emanating uniformly from a source.
a. The inverse square relation known as
Coulomb’s law gives the magnitude of the
electric field at a distance r from the center
of a source object of electric charge q as
 1 q
E=
4πε 0 r 2  .
b. This relation is based on a model of the
space surrounding a charged source object
by considering the radial dependence of the
area of the surface of a sphere centered on
the source object.

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3 Electric Force, Field, and Potential

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

2.C.4.1 2.C.4
Distinguish the The electric field around dipoles and other
characteristics that differ systems of electrically charged objects (that
between monopole can be modeled as point objects) is found by
fields (gravitational field vector addition of the field of each individual
of spherical mass and object. Electric dipoles are treated qualitatively
electrical field due to in this course as a teaching analogy to facilitate
single-point charge) and student understanding of magnetic dipoles.
dipole fields (electric dipole a. When an object is small compared with the
field and magnetic field) distances involved in the problem, or when
and make claims about a larger object is being modeled as a large
the spatial behavior of the
number of very small constituent particles,
fields using qualitative or
these can be modeled as charged objects
semiquantitative arguments
of negligible size, or “point charges.”
based on vector addition
of fields due to each b. The expression for the electric field due to
point source, including a point charge can be used to determine
identifying the locations the electric field, either qualitatively or
and signs of sources from a quantitatively, around a simple, highly
vector diagram of the field. symmetric distribution of point charges.
[SP 2.2, 6.4, 7.2] Relevant Equation:
2.C.4.2  1 q
Apply mathematical routines
E=
4πε 0 r 2
to determine the magnitude
and direction of the electric
field at specified points in the
vicinity of a small set (two to
four) of point charges and
express the results in terms
of magnitude and direction
of the field in a visual
representation by drawing
field vectors of appropriate
length and direction at the
specified points. [SP 1.4, 2.2]

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Electric Force, Field, and Potential
3
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
2.C.5.1 2.C.5
Create representations of Between two oppositely charged parallel plates
the magnitude and direction with uniformly distributed electric charge, at
of the electric field at points far from the edges of the plates, the
various distances (small electric field is perpendicular to the plates and
compared with plate size) is constant in both magnitude and direction.
from two electrically charged Relevant Equations:
plates of equal magnitude Q
and opposite signs, and be E=
able to recognize that the ε0A
assumption of uniform field  ΔV
is not appropriate near edges E =
of plates. [SP 1.1, 2.2] Δr
Q
2.C.5.2 ΔV =
Calculate the magnitude and C
determine the direction of U C = QΔV = 1 C ( ΔV )
1 2

the electric field between 2 2

two electrically charged
parallel plates, given the
charge of each plate, or the
electric potential difference
and plate separation. [SP 2.2]
2.C.5.3
Represent the motion of
an electrically charged
particle in the uniform field
between two oppositely
charged plates, and express
the connection of this
motion to projectile motion
of an object with mass in
Earth’s gravitational field.
[SP 1.1, 2.2, 7.1]

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3 Electric Force, Field, and Potential

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling
TOPIC 3.12
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
Isolines and
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.
Electric Fields
Mathematical
Routines
2.2
The student can apply
mathematical routines to Required Course Content
quantities that describe
natural phenomena.

Argumentation
6.4
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
The student can make 2.E
claims and predictions Physicists often construct a map of isolines connecting points of equal value for
about natural phenomena some quantity related to a field and use these maps to help visualize the field.
based on scientific theories
and models.

Making Connections LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

7.2 2.E.1.1 2.E.1
The student can connect Construct or interpret visual Isolines on a topographic (elevation) map
concepts in and across representations of the describe lines of approximately equal
domain(s) to generalize or
isolines of equal gravitational gravitational potential energy per unit mass
extrapolate in and/or across
potential energy per unit (gravitational equipotential). As the distance
enduring understandings
and/or big ideas.
mass and refer to each line as between two different isolines decreases,
a gravitational equipotential. the steepness of the surface increases.
[SP 1.4, 6.4, 7.2] [Contour lines on topographic maps are useful
teaching tools for introducing the concept of
equipotential lines. Students are encouraged
to use the analogy in their answers when
explaining gravitational and electrical potential
and potential differences.]
Relevant Equation:
Gm1m2
UG = −
r

continued on next page

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Electric Force, Field, and Potential
3
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
2.E.2.1 2.E.2
Determine the structure of Isolines in a region where an electric field exists
isolines of electric potential represent lines of equal electric potential,
by constructing them referred to as equipotential lines.
in a given electric field. a. An isoline map of electric potential can be
[SP 6.4, 7.2] constructed from an electric field vector
2.E.2.2 map, using the fact that the isolines are
Predict the structure of perpendicular to the electric field vectors.
isolines of electric potential b. Since the electric potential has the same
by constructing them in value along an isoline, there can be no
a given electric field, and component of the electric field along
make connections between the isoline.
these isolines and those Relevant Equation:
found in a gravitational field.
[SP 6.4, 7.2] 1 q
V=
2.E.2.3
4πε 0 r
Construct isolines of electric
potential in an electric field,
and determine the effect
of that field on electrically
charged objects, qualitatively
using the concept of isolines.
[SP 1.4]

2.E.3.1 2.E.3
Apply mathematical routines The average value of the electric field in a
to calculate the average region equals the change in electric potential
value of the magnitude of the across that region divided by the change in
electric field in a region from position (displacement) in the relevant direction.
a description of the electric Relevant Equation:
potential in that region using
 ΔV
the displacement along the E=
line on which the difference Δr
in potential is evaluated.
[SP 2.2]
2.E.3.2
Apply the concept of the
isoline representation of
electric potential for a given
electric charge distribution to
predict the average value of
the electric field in the region.
[SP 1.4, 6.4]

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3 Electric Force, Field, and Potential

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling
TOPIC 3.13
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
Conservation of
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.
Electric Energy
Mathematical
Routines
2.1
The student can justify the
selection of a mathematical Required Course Content
routine to solve problems.
2.2
The student can apply
mathematical routines to
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
quantities that describe
natural phenomena. 5.B
The energy of a system is conserved.
Argumentation
6.4
The student can make
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
claims and predictions
about natural phenomena 5.B.2.1 5.B.2
based on scientific theories Calculate the expected A system with internal structure can have
and models. behavior of a system using internal energy, and changes in a system’s
the object model (i.e., by internal structure can result in changes in
Making Connections
ignoring changes in internal internal energy. [Physics 1 includes mass-
7.2 structure) to analyze a spring oscillators and simple pendulums.
The student can connect situation. Then, when the Physics 2 includes charged objects in electric
concepts in and across model fails, justify the use fields and examining changes in internal energy
domain(s) to generalize or of conservation of energy with changes in configuration.]
extrapolate in and/or across principles to calculate the
enduring understandings Relevant Equation:
change in internal energy
and/or big ideas. ΔU E = qΔV
due to changes in internal
structure because the
object is actually a system. BOUNDARY STATEMENT:
[SP 1.4, 2.1] Conservation principles apply in the context
of the appropriate Physics 1 and Physics 2
courses. Work, potential energy, and kinetic
energy concepts are related to mechanical
systems in Physics 1 and electric, magnetic,
thermal, and atomic and elementary particle
systems in Physics 2.

continued on next page

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Electric Force, Field, and Potential
3
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
5.B.4.1 5.B.4
Describe and make The internal energy of a system includes the
predictions about the kinetic energy of the objects that make up
internal energy of systems. the system and the potential energy of the
[SP 6.4, 7.2] configuration of the objects that make up
5.B.4.2
the system.
Calculate changes in kinetic a. Since energy is constant in a closed system,
energy and potential energy changes in a system’s potential energy
of a system using information can result in changes to the system’s
from representations of that kinetic energy.
system. [SP 1.4, 2.1, 2.2] b. The changes in potential and kinetic energies
in a system may be further constrained by
the construction of the system.

BOUNDARY STATEMENT:
Conservation principles apply in the context
of the appropriate Physics 1 and Physics 2
courses. Work, potential energy, and kinetic
energy concepts are related to mechanical
systems in Physics 1 and electric, magnetic,
thermal, and atomic and elementary particle
systems in Physics 2.

5.B.5.4 5.B.5
Make claims about the Energy can be transferred by an external
interaction between a system force exerted on an object or system that
and its environment in which moves the object or system through a
the environment exerts a distance; this energy transfer is called work.
force on the system, thus Energy transfer in mechanical or electrical
doing work on the system systems may occur at different rates. Power is
and changing the energy of defined as the rate of energy transfer into, out
the system (kinetic energy of, or within a system. [A piston filled with gas
plus potential energy). getting compressed or expanded is treated
[SP 6.4, 7.2] in Physics 2 as a part of thermodynamics.]
5.B.5.5
The work done on a system is defined as
W = −P ΔV for constant pressure or an
Predict and calculate the
average pressure.
energy transfer to (i.e., the
work done on) an object or Relevant Equations:
system from information ΔE = W = Fd cosθ
about a force exerted on the ΔE
object or system through a P=
distance. [SP 2.2, 6.4] Δt

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 AP PHYSICS 2

UNIT 4
Electric
Circuits

10–14%
AP EXAM WEIGHTING

~14–16
CLASS PERIODS

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 Remember to go to AP Classroom
to assign students the online
Personal Progress Check for
this unit.
Whether assigned as homework or
completed in class, the Personal
Progress Check provides each
student with immediate feedback
related to this unit’s topics and
science practices.

Personal Progress Check 4

Multiple-choice: ~40 questions
Free-response: 2 questions
§§ Quantitative/Qualitative
Translation
§§ Short Answer

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4 10–14%  AP EXAM WEIGHTING ~14–16 CLASS PERIODS

Electric Circuits

Unit Overview
BIG IDEA 1 Unit 4 revisits the behavior of charged particles, discussed in Unit 3, to deepen students’
Systems  SYS understanding of the law of conservation of energy and how it’s applied to electric circuits.
§§ How can what’s inside This unit will ask students to do more than calculate for the current, resistance, and voltage
affect what’s outside? in a simple circuit; it will challenge them to draw connections between the interactions of
§§ How can we measure
systems and the changes that result from those interactions. For example, students will
something that has
need to be able to articulate the impact of a light bulb being removed on a circuit consisting
no weight, mass,
of several light bulbs. They will also need to design an experiment to test if a light bulb is
or temperature? ohmic or justify how changing the spacing of a capacitor will affect its capacitance. Using
models and representations to analyze physical situations, as well as using mathematical
BIG IDEA 4 relationships to justify claims, are critically important science practices in this unit. Unit 4 will
Change  CHA also compel students to discover and understand the relationship between the conservation
§§ How can you change of total energy and the conservation of total electric charge in circuits. It will encourage them
the value of something to use Kirchhoff’s rules to describe both energy conservation and charge conservation.
just by changing Simultaneously, students will also have more opportunities in Unit 4 to expand their data
its shape? collection and analysis abilities to include writing clear, concise procedural paragraphs in
§§ How does the resistance addition to revising their reasoning based on new data. In Unit 5, students will expand their
and capacitance of investigations of the symmetry between electric and magnetic fields.
resistors and capacitors
change in response to
changes in the physical
Preparing for the AP Exam
geometry of the Students will be challenged to apply the science practices to the learning objectives in
circuit element? the course framework. These science practices and learning objectives can be addressed in
§§ Why are holiday many ways, including through inquiry-based labs. While inquiry experiments will take more
lights usually wired in time than simple verification/confirmation labs, they are important for student success.
series, while house Students need to have firsthand experience in designing investigations and analyzing data
lights are usually wired instead of simply following a set of instructions given by the teacher.
in parallel? Students are expected to provide a sequence of statements that is clear, concise, and
orderly and that specifies the steps in the investigation needed to reasonably answer the
BIG IDEA 5 question or investigate the phenomenon.
Conservation  CON
§§ How can the electric On the AP Physics 2 Exam, there is a 12-point experimental design question in the
company justify free-response question section. In addition, there will be 8 to 10 multiple-choice questions
its claims that it that ask students to think about experimental design.
sells “electricity”?
§§ What happens to the
charge in a cell phone
battery when it “dies”?

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 UNIT

4 Electric Circuits

UNIT AT A GLANCE
Understanding

Class Periods
Enduring

Topic Science Practices ~14–16 CLASS PERIODS

Definition and
4.1  6.1 The student can justify claims with evidence.*
Conservation of Electric
6.2 The student can construct explanations of
Charge
phenomena based on evidence produced through
scientific practices.*

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

1.B

about natural phenomena based on scientific

theories and models.*

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.*

Resistivity and Resistance

4.2  4.1 The student can justify the selection of the kind of
1.E

data needed to answer a particular scientific question.

Resistance and
4.3  2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to
Capacitance quantities that describe natural phenomena.

4.1 The student can justify the selection of the kind of

data needed to answer a particular scientific question.

4.2 The student can design a plan for collecting data

to answer a particular scientific question.
4.E

5.1 The student can analyze data to identify patterns

or relationships.

6.1 The student can justify claims with evidence.

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.

*Indicates a science practice not assessed with its paired topic on this unit’s Personal Progress Check.

continued on next page

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 UNIT
Electric Circuits
4
UNIT AT A GLANCE (cont’d)
Understanding

Class Periods
Enduring

Topic Science Practices ~14–16 CLASS PERIODS

Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule

4.4  1.5 The student can re-express key elements of
natural phenomena across multiple representations
in the domain.

2.1 The student can justify the selection of a

mathematical routine to solve problems.

2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to

quantities that describe natural phenomena.

4.1 The student can justify the selection of the kind of

data needed to answer a particular scientific question.
5.B

4.2 The student can design a plan for collecting data

to answer a particular scientific question.

5.1 The student can analyze data to identify patterns

or relationships.

5.3 The student can evaluate the evidence provided by

data sets in relation to a particular scientific question.

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.

Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule

4.5  1.4 The student can use representations and models
and the Conservation of to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
Electric Charge and quantitatively.

2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to

quantities that describe natural phenomena.
5.C

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

Go to AP Classroom to assign the Personal Progress Check for Unit 4.

Review the results in class to identify and address any student misunderstandings.

UNIT 4 AVAILABLE RESOURCES:

§§ Classroom Resources > AP Physics 1 and 2 Inquiry-Based Lab Investigations: A Teacher’s Manual
§§ Classroom Resources > Conservation Concepts
§§ Classroom Resources > The Capacitor as a Bridge from Electrostatics to Circuits

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 UNIT

4 Electric Circuits

SAMPLE INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES

The sample activities on this page are optional and are offered to provide possible ways to
incorporate instructional approaches into the classroom. Teachers do not need to use these
activities or instructional approaches and are free to alter or edit them. The examples below
were developed in partnership with teachers from the AP community to share ways that they
approach teaching some of the topics in this unit. Please refer to the Instructional Approaches
section beginning on p. 185 for more examples of activities and strategies.

Activity Topic Sample Activity

1 4.2 Conflicting Contentions

Students A and B are trying to heat water by connecting mechanical pencil lead directly
to a battery and immersing the lead in the water. To heat the water in less time, Student A
says that 0.7 mm pencil lead should be used so that charges flow better, but Student B
says that 0.5 mm pencil lead will have greater resistance. Resolve this conflict using
equations and qualitative reasoning.

2 4.2 Desktop Experiment

Connect a 1.5 volt battery to five light bulbs in parallel. Measure potential difference
across and current through the battery, and then make a graph whose slope is the internal
resistance of the battery.

3 4.3 Desktop Experiment

Connect 0.5 mm or 0.7 mm mechanical pencil lead in series with a 1000 ohm resistor and a
1.5 volt battery. Measure the potential difference across and current through the lead, and
then determine the resistivity of the graphite.

4 4.4 Predict and Explain

4.5 Set up a mixed circuit with a battery and three or four light bulbs. Ask students to predict
what happens to the brightness of each of the remaining bulbs if one is removed, and
explain using Kirchhoff’s principles. Alternately, ask what bulb must be removed to make
another bulb brighter or dimmer.

5 4.4 Working Backward/Graph and Switch

4.5 Students A and B each create a table of potential differences and currents for four or five ohmic
resistors in a circuit. They switch tables and then draw the circuit diagram that corresponds to
the other student’s table, complete with resistance values and battery voltages.

Unit Planning Notes

Use the space below to plan your approach to the unit.

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 UNIT
Electric Circuits
4
TOPIC 4.1 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Argumentation

Definition and 6.1

The student can justify
claims with evidence.

Conservation of 6.2
The student can

Electric Charge
construct explanations
of phenomena based on
evidence produced through
scientific practices.
6.4
The student can make
Required Course Content claims and predictions
about natural phenomena
based on scientific theories
and models.
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
Making Connections
1.B
7.2
Electric charge is a property of an object or system that affects its interactions with
The student can connect
other objects or systems containing charge.
concepts in and across
domain(s) to generalize or
extrapolate in and/or across
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE enduring understandings
and/or big ideas.
1.B.1.1 1.B.1
Make claims about natural Electric charge is conserved. The net charge
phenomena based on of a system is equal to the sum of the charges
conservation of electric of all the objects in the system.
charge. [SP 6.4] a. An electrical current is a movement of
1.B.1.2 charge through a conductor.
Make predictions, using the b. A circuit is a closed loop of electrical current.
conservation of electric Relevant Equation:
charge, about the sign and ΔQ
relative quantity of net charge I=
of objects or systems after Δt
various charging processes,
BOUNDARY STATEMENT:
including conservation
of charge in simple circuits. Full coverage of electrostatics occurs in
[SP 6.4, 7.2] Physics 2. A basic introduction to the
concepts that there are positive and negative
charges, and the electrostatic attraction
and repulsion between these charges, is
included in Physics 1 as well.

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4 Electric Circuits

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.B.2.1 1.B.2
Construct an explanation There are only two kinds of electric charge.
of the two charge model of Neutral objects or systems contain equal
electric charge based on quantities of positive and negative charge, with
evidence produced through the exception of some fundamental particles
scientific practices. [SP 6.2] that have no electric charge.
1.B.2.2 a. Like-charged objects and systems
Make a qualitative prediction repel, and unlike-charged objects and
about the distribution systems attract.
of positive and negative b. Charged objects or systems may attract
electric charges within neutral systems by changing the distribution
neutral systems as they of charge in the neutral system.
undergo various processes.
[SP 6.4, 7.2]
1.B.2.3
Challenge claims that
polarization of electric charge
or separation of charge must
result in a net charge on the
object. [SP 6.1]

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Electric Circuits
4
TOPIC 4.2 SCIENCE PRACTICE
Experimental

Resistivity and
Methods
4.1
The student can justify

Resistance the selection of the

kind of data needed
to answer a particular
scientific question.

Required Course Content

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
1.E
Materials have many macroscopic properties that result from the arrangement and
interactions of the atoms and molecules that make up the material.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.E.2.1 1.E.2
Select and justify the Matter has a property called resistivity.
data needed to determine a. The resistivity of a material depends on its
resistivity for a given molecular and atomic structure.
material. [SP 4.1]
b. The resistivity depends on the temperature
of the material.
Relevant Equation:
ρ
R=
A

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4 Electric Circuits

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Mathematical
TOPIC 4.3
Resistance and
Routines
2.2
The student can apply
mathematical routines to
quantities that describe
natural phenomena.
Capacitance
Experimental
Methods
4.1
The student can justify
the selection of the Required Course Content
kind of data needed
to answer a particular
scientific question.
4.2
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
The student can design
a plan for collecting data 4.E
to answer a particular The electric and magnetic properties of a system can change in response to the
scientific question. presence of, or changes in, other objects or systems.
Data Analysis
5.1
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
The student can analyze
data to identify patterns 4.E.4.1 4.E.4
or relationships. Make predictions about the The resistance of a resistor, and the capacitance
properties of resistors and/or of a capacitor, can be understood from the basic
Argumentation
capacitors when placed in a properties of electric fields and forces, as well as
6.1 simple circuit based on the the properties of materials and their geometry.
The student can justify geometry of the circuit element a. The resistance of a resistor is proportional
claims with evidence. and supported by scientific to its length and inversely proportional
6.4 theories and mathematical to its cross-sectional area. The constant
The student can make relationships. [SP 2.2, 6.4]
of proportionality is the resistivity
claims and predictions 4.E.4.2 of the material.
about natural phenomena
based on scientific theories
Design a plan for the b. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
and models. collection of data to determine is proportional to the area of one of its plates
the effect of changing the and inversely proportional to the separation
geometry and/or materials on between its plates. The constant of
the resistance or capacitance proportionality is the product of the dielectric
of a circuit element, and relate constant, κ, of the material between the
results to the basic properties plates and the electric permittivity, ε0.
of resistors and capacitors.
c. The current through a resistor is equal to
[SP 4.1, 4.2]
the potential difference across the resistor
divided by its resistance.
d. The magnitude of charge of one of the
plates of a parallel plate capacitor is directly
proportional to the product of the potential
difference across the capacitor and the
capacitance. The plates have equal amounts
of charge of opposite sign.

continued on next page

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Electric Circuits
4
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
4.E.4.3 Relevant Equations:
Analyze data to determine ρ
R=
the effect of changing the A
geometry and/or materials on A
the resistance or capacitance
C =κε 0
d
of a circuit element, and
ΔV
relate results to the basic I=
properties of resistors and R
capacitors. [SP 5.1] Q
ΔV =
C

4.E.5.1 4.E.5
Make and justify a The values of currents and electric potential
quantitative prediction of differences in an electric circuit are determined
the effect of a change in by the properties and arrangement of individual
values or arrangements circuit elements, such as sources of emf,
of one or two circuit resistors, and capacitors.
elements on the currents Relevant Equations:
and potential differences in
a circuit containing a small ΔV
I=
number of sources of emf, R
resistors, capacitors, and
switches in series and/or Rs =  Ri
i
parallel. [SP 2.2, 6.4]
1 1
4.E.5.2 =
RP i Ri
Make and justify a qualitative
prediction of the effect CP =  Ci
of a change in values i
or arrangements of one 1 1
or two circuit elements =
CS i Ci
on currents and potential
differences in a circuit
containing a small number
of sources of emf, resistors,
capacitors, and switches
in series and/or parallel.
[SP 6.1, 6.4]
4.E.5.3
Plan data collection
strategies and perform
data analysis to examine
the values of currents and
potential differences in
an electric circuit that is
modified by changing or
rearranging circuit elements,
including sources of emf,
resistors, and capacitors.
[SP 2.2, 4.2, 5.1]

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4 Electric Circuits

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling
TOPIC 4.4
1.5
The student can re-
express key elements of
Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule
natural phenomena across
multiple representations
in the domain.

Mathematical
Routines
2.1
The student can justify the
selection of a mathematical Required Course Content
routine to solve problems.
2.2
The student can apply
mathematical routines to
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
quantities that describe
natural phenomena. 5.B
The energy of a system is conserved.
Experimental
Methods
4.1
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
The student can justify
the selection of the 5.B.9.4 5.B.9
kind of data needed Analyze experimental Kirchhoff’s loop rule describes conservation
to answer a particular data including an analysis of energy in electrical circuits. [The application
scientific question. of experimental uncertainty of Kirchhoff’s laws to circuits is introduced in
4.2 that will demonstrate the Physics 1 and further developed in Physics 2 in
The student can design validity of Kirchhoff’s loop the context of more complex circuits, including
a plan for collecting data
to answer a particular
rule:  ΔV = 0 . [SP 5.1] those with capacitors.]
a. Energy changes in simple electrical circuits
scientific question. 5.B.9.5
are conveniently represented in terms of
Describe and make
Data Analysis energy change per charge moving through
predictions regarding
a battery and a resistor.
5.1 electrical potential difference,
charge, and current in steady- b. Since electric potential difference times
The student can analyze
data to identify patterns state circuits composed charge is energy, and energy is conserved,
or relationships. of various combinations the sum of the potential differences about
of resistors and capacitors any closed loop must add to zero.
5.3
The student can using conservation of energy c. The electric potential difference across
evaluate the evidence principles (Kirchhoff’s a resistor is given by the product of the
provided by data sets in loop rule). [SP 6.4] current and the resistance.
relation to a particular 5.B.9.6 d. The rate at which energy is transferred
scientific question. from a resistor is equal to the product
Mathematically express
the changes in electric of the electric potential difference across
Argumentation
potential energy of a loop in the resistor and the current through
6.4
a multiloop electrical circuit, the resistor.
The student can make
and justify this expression
claims and predictions
using the principle of the
about natural phenomena
based on scientific theories
conservation of energy.
and models. [SP 2.1, 2.2]

continued on next page

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Electric Circuits
4
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
5.B.9.7 e. Energy conservation can be applied to
Refine and analyze a combinations of resistors and capacitors
scientific question for an in series and parallel circuits.
experiment using Kirchhoff’s Relevant Equations:
loop rule for circuits
that includes determination
 ΔV = 0
of internal resistance of ΔV = IR
the battery and analysis P = I ΔV
of a non-ohmic resistor.
[SP 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 5.3] BOUNDARY STATEMENT:
5.B.9.8 Conservation principles apply in the context
Translate between graphical of the appropriate Physics 1 and Physics 2
and symbolic representations courses. Work, potential energy, and kinetic
of experimental data energy concepts are related to mechanical
describing relationships systems in Physics 1 and electric, magnetic,
among power, current, and thermal, and atomic and elementary particle
potential difference across
systems in Physics 2.
a resistor. [SP 1.5]

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4 Electric Circuits

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling
TOPIC 4.5
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
Kirchhoff’s Junction
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.
Rule and the
Mathematical
Routines
Conservation of
2.2
The student can apply
mathematical routines to
Electric Charge
quantities that describe
natural phenomena.

Argumentation
Required Course Content
6.4
The student can make
claims and predictions
about natural phenomena
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
based on scientific theories 5.C
and models. The electric charge of a system is conserved.
Making Connections
7.2
The student can connect
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
concepts in and across 5.C.3.4 5.C.3
domain(s) to generalize or Predict or describe current Kirchhoff’s junction rule describes the
extrapolate in and/or across values in series and parallel conservation of electric charge in electrical
enduring understandings
arrangements of resistors circuits. Since charge is conserved, current
and/or big ideas.
and other branching must be conserved at each junction in the
circuits using Kirchhoff’s circuit. Examples include circuits that combine
junction rule, and explain the resistors in series and parallel. [Physics 1
relationship of the rule to the covers circuits with resistors in series, with at
law of charge conservation. most one parallel branch and one battery only.
[SP 6.4, 7.2] Physics 2 includes capacitors in steady-state
5.C.3.5
situations. For circuits with capacitors,
situations should be limited to open circuit,
Determine missing values
just after circuit is closed, and a long time
and direction of electric
after the circuit is closed.]
current in branches of a
circuit with resistors and
NO capacitors from values
and directions of current
in other branches of the
circuit through appropriate
selection of nodes and
application of the junction
rule. [SP 1.4, 2.2]

continued on next page

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 UNIT
Electric Circuits
4
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
5.C.3.6 Relevant Equations:
Determine missing values ΔV
and direction of electric
I=
R
current in branches of a
circuit with both resistors Rs =  Ri
and capacitors from values i

and directions of current in 1 1

=
other branches of the circuit RP i Ri
through appropriate selection
of nodes and application of CP =  Ci
the junction rule. [SP 1.4, 2.2] i

1 1
5.C.3.7 =
Determine missing values, CS i Ci
direction of electric current,
ΔQ
charge of capacitors at I=
steady state, and potential Δt
differences within a circuit
with resistors and capacitors
from values and directions of
current in other branches of
the circuit. [SP 1.4, 2.2]

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THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK.
 AP PHYSICS 2

UNIT 5
Magnetism and
Electromagnetic
Induction

10–12%
AP EXAM WEIGHTING

~13–15
CLASS PERIODS

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 Remember to go to AP Classroom
to assign students the online
Personal Progress Check for
this unit.
Whether assigned as homework or
completed in class, the Personal
Progress Check provides each
student with immediate feedback
related to this unit’s topic and
science practices.

Personal Progress Check 5

Multiple-choice: ~35 questions
Free-response: 2 questions
§§ Experimental Design
§§ Paragraph Argument Short
Answer

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 UNIT

5 10–12%  AP EXAM WEIGHTING ~13–15 CLASS PERIODS

Magnetism and
Electromagnetic
Induction
Unit Overview
BIG IDEA 2 In Units 3 and 4, students investigated electrostatic forces and fields and how free charges
Fields  FLD can be moved through electric fields to produce currents. In Unit 5, students will supplement
§§ How are magnetic that knowledge by exploring the relationships between moving charges and the magnetic
fields both helpful forces and fields they generate. Students will discover the natural symmetry between
and harmful? electricity and magnetism and make connections between electromagnetic induction and the
§§ To what extent can you
underlying principles behind most of the technology in modern society, including telephones,
predict interactions in
television, computers, and the Internet.
magnetic fields? This unit will also build on the representations presented in the previous two units by
introducing the magnetic field diagram to illustrate the effects of static and dynamic magnetic
BIG IDEA 3 fields. Students must be able to relate the content and representations that they learned in
Force Interactions  INT
previous physics courses. Recalling this content will help students overcome misconceptions,
§§ How can current- such as the existence of a centrifugal force. While students should master how to use
carrying wires specific equations to calculate unknown quantities, it is more important that they are able
exert forces on to derive new expressions from fundamental principles to help them make predictions in
magnets and other unfamiliar, applied contexts. In Unit 6, the idea of electromagnetic induction is used to relate
current-carrying wires? to electromagnetic waves and their oscillating electric and magnetic fields. The concepts
§§ What common introduced in Unit 5 are greatly expanded upon in AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism.
characteristics are
shared by the magnetic
force and other forces?
Preparing for the AP Exam
§§ How can magnetic When using physical laws and fundamental ideas of physics as justification for claims,
forces accelerate students need to explain what stays the same as well as what happens when physical
objects or systems? scenarios are modified. Students must be provided with opportunities to investigate changes
in systems.
BIG IDEA 4 Students also need to be aware that when they are writing justifications for claims, simply
Change  CHA
referencing an equation, a law, or a physical principle is not enough. For example, stating
§§ Why does a relationship that the force on a charged particle is to the right because of the “right-hand rule” is not
exist between sufficient to earn points on free-response questions. Students must clearly and concisely
electrical currents and describe and use physics-based equations, laws, and principles as evidence to support their
magnetic fields? reasoning and/or to help justify their claims.

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 UNIT

5 Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction

UNIT AT A GLANCE
Understanding

Class Periods
Enduring

Topic Science Practices ~13–15 CLASS PERIODS

Magnetic Systems
5.1  1.1 The student can create representations and
models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.
1.4 The student can use representations and models
1.A

to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively

and quantitatively.*
7.1 The student can connect phenomena and
models across spatial and temporal scales.

Magnetic Permeability and

5.2  N/A
1.E

Magnetic Dipole Moment

Vector and
5.3  N/A
2.A

Scalar Fields

Monopole and
5.4  2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to
Dipole Fields quantities that describe natural phenomena.*
6.4 The student can make claims and predictions
about natural phenomena based on scientific
2.C

theories and models.

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across
domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.*

Magnetic Fields and Forces

5.5  1.1 The student can create representations and
models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.
1.2 The student can describe representations and
models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.
2.D

1.4 The student can use representations and models

to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.
2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to
quantities that describe natural phenomena.

5.6  Magnetic Forces 1.4 The student can use representations and models
to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.
3.C

4.2 The student can design a plan for collecting data

to answer a particular scientific question.
5.1 The student can analyze data to identify patterns
or relationships.

*Indicates a science practice not assessed with its paired topic on this unit’s Personal Progress Check.

continued on next page

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 UNIT
Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction
5
UNIT AT A GLANCE (cont’d)
Understanding

Class Periods
Enduring

Topic Science Practices ~13–15 CLASS PERIODS

5.7  Forces Review 1.1 The student can create representations and
models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.
1.4 The student can use representations and models
to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.*
6.1 The student can justify claims with evidence.
6.2 The student can construct explanations of
3.A

phenomena based on evidence produced through

scientific practices.
6.4 The student can make claims and predictions
about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.
7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across
domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.*

5.8  Magnetic Flux 1.1 The student can create representations and
models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.
1.4 The student can use representations and models
to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.
4.E

2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to

quantities that describe natural phenomena.*
6.4 The student can make claims and predictions
about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.

Go to AP Classroom to assign the Personal Progress Check for Unit 5.

Review the results in class to identify and address any student misunderstandings.

*Indicates a science practice not assessed with its paired topic on this unit’s Personal Progress Check.

UNIT 5 AVAILABLE RESOURCES:

§§ Classroom Resources > AP Physics 1 and 2 Inquiry-Based Lab Investigations: A Teacher’s Manual
§§ Classroom Resources >AP Physics Featured Question: Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field

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5 Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction

SAMPLE INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES

The sample activities on this page are optional and are offered to provide possible ways to
incorporate instructional approaches into the classroom. Teachers do not need to use these
activities or instructional approaches and are free to alter or edit them. The examples below
were developed in partnership with teachers from the AP community to share ways that they
approach teaching some of the topics in this unit. Please refer to the Instructional Approaches
section beginning on p. 185 for more examples of activities and strategies.

Activity Topic Sample Activity

1 5.5 Desktop Experiments

Give students a battery, three light bulbs, wire, and a cheap compass. Ask students to
develop an experiment that shows evidence that magnetic field strength decreases with
distance from the wire, and another experiment that shows evidence that magnetic field
increases with current through the wire.

2 5.5 Model Questions/Friends Without Pens

On AP Central, locate “AP Physics 2 Featured Question: Charged Particle in a Magnetic
Field” and have students work through it in small groups.

3 5.6 Discussion Groups

Students create right-hand-rule questions and then trade with other students and answer
them. Examples: Give charge sign, velocity, and magnetic force directions and determine
magnetic field direction; give velocity, force, and magnetic field directions and determine
charge sign; give velocity and magnetic field directions and determine the direction of an
electric field that would cause balanced forces.

4 5.6 Graph and Switch

Student A comes up with two related values in a magnetism-focused situation (examples:
“radius vs. speed of a circling charge in a magnetic field” or “flux through a spinning coil in
a uniform magnetic field as a function of time”). Student B then must sketch the graph and
justify either qualitatively or with symbolic equations.

5 5.8 Discussion Groups

Buy a “Non-Contact Voltage Tester” and hold it up to a wire carrying AC current (it chirps). Hold
it to a battery-powered circuit carrying DC current (no chirp). Have students discuss how this
object could use magnetism and Faraday’s Law principles to detect AC but not DC current.

Unit Planning Notes

Use the space below to plan your approach to the unit.

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 UNIT
Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction
5
TOPIC 5.1 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling

Magnetic Systems 1.1

The student can create
representations and models
of natural or man-made
phenomena and systems in
the domain.
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
Required Course Content and quantitatively.

Making Connections
7.1
The student can connect
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
phenomena and models
1.A across spatial and
The internal structure of a system determines many properties of the system. temporal scales.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.A.5.2 1.A.5
Construct representations Systems have properties determined by the
of how the properties of a properties and interactions of their constituent
system are determined by the atomic and molecular substructures. In AP
interactions of its constituent Physics, when the properties of the constituent
substructures. parts are not important in modeling the
[SP 1.1, 1.4, 7.1] behavior of the macroscopic system, the
system itself may be referred to as an object.

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5 Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction

TOPIC 5.2
Magnetic Permeability
and Magnetic
Dipole Moment
Required Course Content

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
1.E
Materials have many macroscopic properties that result from the arrangement and
interactions of the atoms and molecules that make up the material.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

[While there is no specific 1.E.5
learning objective for Matter has a property called magnetic
it, EK 1.E.5 serves as a permeability.
foundation for other learning
a. Free space has a constant value of the
objectives in the course.]
permeability that appears in physical
relationships.
b. The permeability of matter has a value
different from that of free space.

[While there is no specific 1.E.6

learning objective for Matter has a property called magnetic
it, EK 1.E.6 serves as a dipole moment.
foundation for other learning
a. Magnetic dipole moment is a fundamental
objectives in the course.]
source of magnetic behavior of matter and
an intrinsic property of some fundamental
particles, such as the electron.
b. Permanent magnetism or induced
magnetism of matter is a system property
resulting from the alignment of magnetic
dipole moments within the system.

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 UNIT
Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction
5
TOPIC 5.3
Vector and
Scalar Fields

Required Course Content

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
2.A
A field associates a value of some physical quantity with every point in space. Field
models are useful for describing interactions that occur at a distance (long-range
forces) as well as a variety of other physical phenomena.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

[While there is no specific 2.A.1
learning objective for A vector field gives, as a function of position
it, EK 2.A.1 serves as a (and perhaps time), the value of a physical
foundation for other learning quantity that is described by a vector.
objectives in the course.]
a. Vector fields are represented by field
vectors indicating direction and magnitude.
b. When more than one source object with
mass or electric charge is present, the field
value can be determined by vector addition.
c. Conversely, a known vector field can be
used to make inferences about the number,
relative size, and location of sources.

[While there is no specific 2.A.2

learning objective for A scalar field gives, as a function of position
it, EK 2.A.2 serves as a (and perhaps time), the value of a physical
foundation for other learning quantity that is described by a scalar. In
objectives in the course.] Physics 2, this should include electric potential.
a. Scalar fields are represented by field values.
b. When more than one source object with
mass or charge is present, the scalar field
value can be determined by scalar addition.
c. Conversely, a known scalar field can be
used to make inferences about the number,
relative size, and location of sources.

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5 Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Mathematical
TOPIC 5.4
Monopole and
Routines
2.2
The student can apply
mathematical routines to
quantities that describe
natural phenomena.
Dipole Fields
Argumentation
6.4
The student can make
claims and predictions
about natural phenomena Required Course Content
based on scientific theories
and models.

Making Connections
7.2
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
The student can connect 2.C
concepts in and across An electric field is caused by an object with electric charge.
domain(s) to generalize or
extrapolate in and/or across
enduring understandings
and/or big ideas. LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
2.C.4.1 2.C.4
Distinguish the The electric field around dipoles and other
characteristics that differ systems of electrically charged objects (that
between monopole can be modeled as point objects) is found by
fields (gravitational field vector addition of the field of each individual
of spherical mass and object. Electric dipoles are treated qualitatively
electrical field due to in this course as a teaching analogy to facilitate
single-point charge) and student understanding of magnetic dipoles.
dipole fields (electric dipole a. When an object is small compared with the
field and magnetic field) distances involved in the problem, or when
and make claims about a larger object is being modeled as a large
the spatial behavior of the
number of very small constituent particles,
fields using qualitative or
these can be modeled as charged objects
semiquantitative arguments
of negligible size, or “point charges.”
based on vector addition
of fields due to each point b. The expression for the electric field due to
source, including identifying a point charge can be used to determine
the locations and signs the electric field, either qualitatively or
of sources from a vector quantitatively, around a simple, highly
diagram of the field. symmetric distribution of point charges.
[SP 2.2, 6.4, 7.2] Relevant Equation:
 1 q
E=
4πε 0 r 2

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Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction
5
TOPIC 5.5 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling

Magnetic Fields 1.1

The student can create
representations and models

and Forces of natural or man-made

phenomena and systems in
the domain.
1.2
The student can describe
representations and models
of natural or man-made
phenomena and systems in
Required Course Content the domain.
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
to analyze situations or
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
solve problems qualitatively
2.D and quantitatively.
A magnetic field is caused by a magnet or moving electrically charged object. Magnetic
fields observed in nature always seem to be produced either by moving charged Mathematical
objects or by magnetic dipoles or combinations of dipoles and never by single poles. Routines
2.2
The student can apply
mathematical routines to
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE quantities that describe
2.D.1.1 2.D.1 natural phenomena.
Apply mathematical routines The magnetic field exerts a force on a moving
to express the force exerted electrically charged object. That magnetic force
on a moving charged object is perpendicular to the direction of velocity
by a magnetic field. [SP 2.2] of the object and to the magnetic field and is
proportional to the magnitude of the charge, the
magnitude of the velocity, and the magnitude of
the magnetic field. It also depends on the angle
between the velocity and the magnetic field
vectors. Treatment is quantitative for angles of
0°, 90°, and 180° and qualitative for other angles.
Relevant Equations:
  
FM = qv × B
  
FM = qv sinθ B

2.D.2.1 2.D.2
Create a verbal or visual The magnetic field vectors around a straight
representation of a magnetic wire that carries electric current are tangent to
field around a straight wire concentric circles centered on that wire. The
or a pair of parallel wires. field has no component toward the current-
[SP 1.1] carrying wire.
a. The magnitude of the magnetic field is
proportional to the magnitude of the current
in a long, straight wire.

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5 Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

2.D.2.1 b. The magnitude of the field varies inversely with
Create a verbal or visual distance from the wire, and the direction of the
representation of a magnetic field can be determined by a right-hand rule.
field around a straight wire c. Determining the force due to the magnetic
or a pair of parallel wires. field from a permanent magnet is a subset of
[SP 1.1] determining the force due to the magnetic
field of a current-carrying wire.
Relevant Equation:
μ0 I
B=
2π r

2.D.3.1 2.D.3
Describe the orientation of A magnetic dipole placed in a magnetic field,
a magnetic dipole placed in such as the ones created by a magnet or Earth,
a magnetic field in general will tend to align with the magnetic field vector.
and the particular cases of a. A simple magnetic dipole can be modeled
a compass in the magnetic by a current in a loop. The dipole is
field of Earth and iron filings represented by a vector pointing through
surrounding a bar magnet. the loop in the direction of the field
[SP 1.2] produced by the current as given by the
right-hand rule.
b. A compass needle is a permanent magnetic
dipole. Iron filings in a magnetic field
become induced magnetic dipoles.
c. All magnets produce a magnetic field.
Examples include the magnetic field pattern
of a bar magnet as detected by iron filings or
small compasses.
d. Earth has a magnetic field.

2.D.4.1 2.D.4
Qualitatively analyze the Ferromagnetic materials contain magnetic
magnetic behavior of a domains that are themselves magnets.
bar magnet composed of a. Magnetic domains can be aligned
ferromagnetic material. by external magnetic fields or can
[SP 1.4] spontaneously align.
b. Each magnetic domain has its own internal
magnetic field, so there is no beginning
or end to the magnetic field—it is a
continuous loop.
c. If a bar magnet is broken in half, both halves
are magnetic dipoles in themselves; there is
no magnetic north pole found isolated from
a south pole.

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Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction
5
TOPIC 5.6 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling

Magnetic Forces 1.4

The student can use
representations and models
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.

Experimental
Methods
4.2
The student can design
Required Course Content a plan for collecting data
to answer a particular
scientific question.

Data Analysis
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING 5.1
3.C The student can analyze
At the macroscopic level, forces can be categorized as either long-range data to identify patterns
(action-at-a-distance) forces or contact forces. or relationships.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.C.3.1 3.C.3
Use right-hand rules to A magnetic force results from the interaction
analyze a situation involving of a moving charged object or a magnet
a current-carrying conductor with other moving charged objects or
and a moving electrically another magnet.
charged object to determine a. Magnetic dipoles have “north” and
the direction of the magnetic “south” polarity.
force exerted on the charged
b. The magnetic dipole moment of an object
object due to the magnetic
has the tail of the magnetic dipole moment
field created by the current-
vector at the south end of the object and
carrying conductor. [SP 1.4]
the head of the vector at the north end of
3.C.3.2 the object.
Plan a data collection c. In the presence of an external magnetic
strategy appropriate to an field, the magnetic dipole moment vector
investigation of the direction will align with the external magnetic field.
of the force on a moving
d. The force exerted on a moving charged
electrically charged object
object is perpendicular to both the magnetic
caused by a current in a wire
field and the velocity of the charge and is
in the context of a specific
described by a right-hand rule.
set of equipment and
instruments, and analyze the Relevant Equations:
  
resulting data to arrive at a FM = I  × B
conclusion. [SP 4.2, 5.1]   
FM = I  sinθ B

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5 Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling
TOPIC 5.7
1.1
The student can create
representations and models
Forces Review
of natural or man-made
phenomena and systems in
the domain.
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively. Required Course Content
Argumentation
6.1
The student can justify
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
claims with evidence.
3.A
6.2
The student can All forces share certain common characteristics when considered by observers in
construct explanations inertial reference frames.
of phenomena based on
evidence produced through
scientific practices.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
6.4
3.A.2.1 3.A.2
The student can make
claims and predictions Represent forces in diagrams Forces are described by vectors.
about natural phenomena or mathematically using a. Forces are detected by their influence on
based on scientific theories appropriately labeled vectors the motion of an object.
and models. with magnitude, direction,
b. Forces have magnitude and direction.
and units during the analysis
Making Connections of a situation. [SP 1.1] BOUNDARY STATEMENT:
7.2
AP Physics 2 has learning objectives under
The student can connect
concepts in and across
Enduring Understanding 3.A that focus
domain(s) to generalize or on electric and magnetic forces and other
extrapolate in and/or across forces arising in the context of interactions
enduring understandings introduced in Physics 2, rather than the
and/or big ideas. mechanical systems introduced in Physics 1.

3.A.3.2 3.A.3
Construct an explanation for A force exerted on an object is always due to the
why an object cannot exert a interaction of that object with another object.
force on itself. [SP 6.1] a. An object cannot exert a force on itself.
3.A.3.3 b. Even though an object is at rest, there
Describe a force as an may be forces exerted on that object by
interaction between two other objects.
objects and identify both c. The acceleration of an object, but not
objects for any force. [SP 1.4] necessarily its velocity, is always in the
direction of the net force exerted on the
object by other objects.

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Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction
5
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
3.A.3.4 Relevant Equation:
 
Make claims about the force   F Fnet
on an object due to the a= =
presence of other objects with m m
the same properties: mass,
electric charge. [SP 6.1, 6.4]

3.A.4.1 3.A.4
Construct explanations of If one object exerts a force on a second object,
physical situations involving the second object always exerts a force of
the interaction of bodies equal magnitude on the first object in the
using Newton’s third law and opposite direction.
the representation of action-
reaction pairs of forces.
[SP 1.4, 6.2]
3.A.4.2
Make claims and predictions
about the action-reaction pairs
of forces when two objects
interact using Newton’s third
law. [SP 6.4, 7.2]
3.A.4.3
Analyze situations involving
interactions among several
objects by using free-body
diagrams that include the
application of Newton’s third
law to identify forces. [SP 1.4]

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
3.B
Classically, the accelerationof an object interacting with other objects can be

predicted by using a =
F .
m

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.B.1.3 3.B.1
Re-express a free-body If an object of interest interacts with several
diagram representation into a other objects, the net force is the vector sum
mathematical representation of the individual forces.
and solve the mathematical Relevant Equation:
representation for the  
acceleration of the object.   F Fnet
a= =
[SP 1.5, 2.2] m m

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5 Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.B.1.4
BOUNDARY STATEMENT:
Predict the motion of an
AP Physics 2 contains learning objectives
object subject to forces
exerted by several objects under Enduring Understanding 3.B that focus
using an application of on electric and magnetic forces and other
Newton’s second law in a forces arising in the context of interactions
variety of physical situations. introduced in Physics 2, rather than the
[SP 6.4, 7.2] mechanical systems introduced in Physics 1.

3.B.2.1 3.B.2
Create and use free-body Free-body diagrams are useful tools for
diagrams to analyze physical visualizing forces being exerted on a single
situations to solve problems object and writing the equations that represent
with motion qualitatively a physical situation.
and quantitatively. a. An object can be drawn as if it were
[SP 1.1, 1.4, 2.2] extracted from its environment and the
interactions with the environment identified.
b. A force exerted on an object can be
represented as an arrow whose length
represents the magnitude of the force and
whose direction shows the direction of
the force.
c. A coordinate system with one axis parallel to
the direction of the acceleration simplifies
the translation from the free-body diagram
to the algebraic representation.

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
3.G
Certain types of forces are considered fundamental.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.G.2.1 3.G.2
Connect the strength of Electromagnetic forces are exerted at all scales
electromagnetic forces and can dominate at the human scale.
with the spatial scale of the Relevant Equation:
situation, the magnitude of
 q1q2
the electric charges, and the FE = 1
motion of the electrically 4πε 0 r 2
charged objects involved.
[SP 7.1]

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Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction
5
TOPIC 5.8 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling

Magnetic Flux 1.1

The student can create
representations and models
of natural or man-made
phenomena and systems in
the domain.
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
Required Course Content and quantitatively.

Mathematical
Routines
2.2
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
The student can apply
4.E mathematical routines to
The electric and magnetic properties of a system can change in response to the quantities that describe
presence of, or changes in, other objects or systems. natural phenomena.

Argumentation
6.4
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE The student can make
4.E.1.1 4.E.1 claims and predictions
Use representations and The magnetic properties of some materials can about natural phenomena
models to qualitatively be affected by magnetic fields in the system. based on scientific theories
and models.
describe the magnetic Students should focus on the underlying
properties of some materials concepts and not the use of the vocabulary.
that can be affected by a. Ferromagnetic materials can be
magnetic properties of permanently magnetized by an external
other objects in the system. field that causes the alignment of magnetic
[SP 1.1, 1.4, 2.2]
domains or atomic magnetic dipoles.
b. Paramagnetic materials interact weakly
with an external magnetic field, in that the
magnetic dipole moments of the material
do not remain aligned after the external field
is removed.
c. All materials have the property of
diamagnetism, in that their electronic
structure creates a (usually) weak alignment
of the dipole moments of the material
opposite the external magnetic field.

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5 Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

4.E.2.1 4.E.2
Construct an explanation Changing magnetic flux induces an electric
of the function of a simple field that can establish an induced emf in
electromagnetic device in a system.
which an induced emf is a. Changing magnetic flux induces an emf
produced by a changing in a system, with the magnitude of the
magnetic flux through an area induced emf equal to the rate of change in
defined by a current loop
magnetic flux.
(i.e., a simple microphone or
generator) or of the effect on b. When the area of the surface being
behavior of a device in which considered is constant, the induced emf
an induced emf is produced is the area multiplied by the rate of change
by a constant magnetic field in the component of the magnetic field
through a changing area. perpendicular to the surface.
[SP 6.4] c. When the magnetic field is constant, the
induced emf is the magnetic field multiplied
by the rate of change in area perpendicular
to the magnetic field.
d. The conservation of energy determines the
direction of the induced emf relative to the
change in the magnetic flux.
Relevant Equations:
 
ΦB = B ⋅ A
 
Φ B = B cosθ A
ΔΦ B
ε =−
Δt
ε = B v

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 AP PHYSICS 2

UNIT 6
Geometric
and Physical
Optics

12–14%
AP EXAM WEIGHTING

~15–18
CLASS PERIODS

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 Remember to go to AP Classroom
to assign students the online
Personal Progress Check for
this unit.
Whether assigned as homework or
completed in class, the Personal
Progress Check provides each
student with immediate feedback
related to this unit’s topic and
science practices.

Personal Progress Check 6

Multiple-choice: ~50 questions
Free-response: 2 questions
§§ Experimental Design
§§ Short Answer

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6 12–14%  AP EXAM WEIGHTING ~15–18 CLASS PERIODS

Geometric and
Physical Optics

Unit Overview
BIG IDEA 6 Although the nature of oscillating electric and magnetic fields, explored in Unit 5, sets
Waves  WAV the foundation for this unit’s fundamental topic—electromagnetic waves, or light—Unit 6
§§ Can we really make demonstrates another distinct shift in both content and the models/representations used
something invisible? to analyze physical scenarios. In this unit, students will be introduced to the different
§§ How do household items
ways of thinking about and modeling light, but the ideas and models used in this unit are
make use of various
fundamentally different from those used earlier in the course, as well as those used in
wave properties?
previous physics courses.

§§ How can an object not This unit presents new challenges for teachers and students, because it introduces many new
be where it appears types of representations, including ray, wave front, and interference diagrams. It is essential
to be? that students understand how to create and use these diagrams to help answer questions
§§ How can and to use as evidence for claims. A more complete understanding of the different ways
electromagnetic waves of thinking about and modeling light will help students analyze data more effectively; they
be modeled? can then apply this science practice to design a process of data analysis that will help them
determine if the experimental design needs to be altered to produce the needed data to
justify claims.

In Unit 7, students will continue to explore the behavior of light as an electromagnetic wave
and examine additional ways of thinking about and modeling light.

Preparing for the AP Exam

The last five questions of the multiple-choice section of the AP Physics 2 Exam are multiple-
correct questions. Students must select both correct answers and none of the incorrect
answers to get credit for these questions. These questions can easily intimidate students
if they have not had the opportunity to practice answering them throughout the year.
A common strategy to tackle multiple-correct questions is to slow down and read the entire
prompt. Students who jump right to the answers will be frustrated by choices that are factually
correct but do not answer the question.

Remember: Students will only get credit if they choose both correct answers.

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6 Geometric and Physical Optics

UNIT AT A GLANCE
Understanding

Class Periods
Enduring

Topic Science Practices ~15–18 CLASS PERIODS

6.1  Waves 1.2 The student can describe representations and

models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.

5.1 The student can analyze data to identify patterns

or relationships.

6.2 The student can construct explanations of

phenomena based on evidence produced through
6.A

scientific practices.

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

Electromagnetic Waves
6.2  1.1 The student can create representations and
models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
6.F

theories and models.

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

Periodic Waves
6.3  1.5 The student can re-express key elements of
natural phenomena across multiple representations
6.B

in the domain.

continued on next page

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Geometric and Physical Optics
6
UNIT AT A GLANCE (cont’d)
Understanding

Class Periods
Enduring

Topic Science Practices ~15–18 CLASS PERIODS

Refraction, Reflection,
6.4  1.1 The student can create representations and
and Absorption models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.

1.4 The student can use representations and models

to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.

4.1 The student can justify the selection of the kind of

data needed to answer a particular scientific question.

5.1 The student can analyze data to identify patterns

or relationships.

5.2 The student can refine observations and

measurements based on data analysis.

5.3 The student can evaluate the evidence provided by

data sets in relation to a particular scientific question.

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.
6.E

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

Images from Lenses

6.5  1.4 The student can use representations and models
and Mirrors to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.

2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to

quantities that describe natural phenomena.

3.2 The student can refine scientific questions.

4.1 The student can justify the selection of the kind of

data needed to answer a particular scientific question.

5.1 The student can analyze data to identify patterns

or relationships.

5.2 The student can refine observations and

measurements based on data analysis.

5.3 The student can evaluate the evidence provided by

data sets in relation to a particular scientific question.

continued on next page

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6 Geometric and Physical Optics

UNIT AT A GLANCE (cont’d)

Understanding

Class Periods
Enduring

Topic Science Practices ~15–18 CLASS PERIODS

Interference and Diffraction

6.6  1.4 The student can use representations and models
to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
6.E

theories and models.

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

Go to AP Classroom to assign the Personal Progress Check for Unit 6.

Review the results in class to identify and address any student misunderstandings.

UNIT 6 AVAILABLE RESOURCES:

§§ Classroom Resources > AP Physics 1 and 2 Inquiry-Based Lab Investigations: A Teacher’s Manual
§§ Classroom Resources > AP Physics Featured Question: Optics Experiment

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Geometric and Physical Optics
6
SAMPLE INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
The sample activities on this page are optional and are offered to provide possible ways to
incorporate instructional approaches into the classroom. Teachers do not need to use these
activities or instructional approaches and are free to alter or edit them. The examples below
were developed in partnership with teachers from the AP community to share ways that they
approach teaching some of the topics in this unit. Please refer to the Instructional Approaches
section beginning on p. 185 for more examples of activities and strategies.

Activity Topic Sample Activity

1 6.4 Desktop Experiment

Put orange Jell-O in a rectangular-prism-shaped container made of thin material. Give
students a red laser, a protractor, and paper, and have them determine the index of
refraction of orange Jell-O without touching the Jell-O directly.

2 6.5 Desktop Experiment

Buy a cheap magnifying glass and a cheap light source for each group. Then take several
pairs of object and image distance data, and graph them to find the focal length.

3 6.5 Working Backward

Student A describes a situation with a lens/mirror where the image is real/virtual and larger/
smaller than the object (so, eight possibilities). Student B determines whether the instrument
is converging/diverging and where to put the object (closer than f, between f and 2f, or
beyond 2f) to satisfy Student A’s parameters and draws a ray diagram to support the answer.

4 6.5 Quickwrite
The human eye, without optical deficiencies, will focus the image of a distant object on the
retina. If the object is closer, the eye muscles make the eye lens thicker so that the image
still focuses on the retina. The closer the object, the more the eye muscles force the eye
lens to be thicker. Explain what is happening in terms of so, si, and f, and use equations to
support relationships indicated.

5 6.6 Desktop Experiment

Give groups a red/green/purple laser and a cheap diffraction grating. Give wavelength, and
ask for diffraction slit spacing (or vice versa) experimentally. This can also be performed by
finding the width of a human hair or the width of data tracks on a CD or DVD.

Unit Planning Notes

Use the space below to plan your approach to the unit.

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6 Geometric and Physical Optics

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling
TOPIC 6.1
1.2
The student can describe
representations and models
Waves
of natural or man-made
phenomena and systems in
the domain.

Data Analysis
5.1
The student can analyze
data to identify patterns
or relationships. Required Course Content
Argumentation
6.2
The student can ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
construct explanations
of phenomena based on 6.A
evidence produced through A wave is a traveling disturbance that transfers energy and momentum.
scientific practices.
6.4
The student can make LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
claims and predictions
6.A.1.2 6.A.1
about natural phenomena
based on scientific theories Describe representations of Waves can propagate via different oscillation
and models. transverse and longitudinal modes, such as transverse and longitudinal.
waves. [SP 1.2] a. Mechanical waves can be either transverse or
Making Connections
6.A.1.3 longitudinal. Examples should include waves
7.2
Analyze data (or a visual on a stretched string and sound waves.
The student can connect representation) to identify b. Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves.
concepts in and across
patterns that indicate that a c. Transverse waves may be polarized.
domain(s) to generalize or
particular mechanical wave
extrapolate in and/or across
enduring understandings is polarized, and construct BOUNDARY STATEMENT:
and/or big ideas. an explanation of the fact Conservation principles apply in the context
that the wave must have of the appropriate Physics 1 and Physics 2
a vibration perpendicular
courses. Work, potential energy, and kinetic
to the direction of energy
energy concepts are related to mechanical
propagation. [SP 5.1, 6.2]
systems in Physics 1 and electric, magnetic,
thermal, and atomic and elementary particle
systems in Physics 2.

6.A.2.2 6.A.2
Contrast mechanical and For propagation, mechanical waves require a
electromagnetic waves medium, while electromagnetic waves do not
in terms of the need for a require a physical medium. Examples include
medium in wave propagation. light traveling through a vacuum and sound not
[SP 6.4, 7.2] traveling through a vacuum.

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Geometric and Physical Optics
6
TOPIC 6.2 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling

Electromagnetic Waves 1.1

The student can create
representations and models
of natural or man-made
phenomena and systems in
the domain.

Argumentation
6.4
The student can make
claims and predictions
Required Course Content about natural phenomena
based on scientific theories
and models.

Making Connections
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
7.2
6.F The student can connect
Electromagnetic radiation can be modeled as waves or as fundamental particles. concepts in and across
domain(s) to generalize or
extrapolate in and/or across
enduring understandings
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE and/or big ideas.
6.F.1.1 6.F.1
Make qualitative comparisons Types of electromagnetic radiation are
of the wavelengths of types characterized by their wavelengths, and
of electromagnetic radiation. certain ranges of wavelength have been given
[SP 6.4, 7.2] specific names. These include (in order of
increasing wavelength spanning a range from
picometers to kilometers) gamma rays, x-rays,
ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, microwaves,
and radio waves.
Relevant Equation:
v
λ=
f

6.F.2.1 6.F.2
Describe representations and Electromagnetic waves can transmit energy
models of electromagnetic through a medium and through a vacuum.
waves that explain the a. Electromagnetic waves are transverse
transmission of energy waves composed of mutually perpendicular
when no medium is present. electric and magnetic fields that can
[SP 1.1]
propagate through a vacuum.
b. The planes of these transverse waves
are both perpendicular to the direction
of propagation.

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6 Geometric and Physical Optics

SCIENCE PRACTICE
Modeling
TOPIC 6.3
1.5
The student can re-
express key elements of
Periodic Waves
natural phenomena across
multiple representations in
the domain.

Required Course Content

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
6.B
A periodic wave is one that repeats as a function of both time and position and can
be described by its amplitude, frequency, wavelength, speed, and energy.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

6.B.3.1 6.B.3
Construct an equation A simple wave can be described by an equation
relating the wavelength and involving one sine or cosine function involving
amplitude of a wave from a the wavelength, amplitude, and frequency of
graphical representation of the wave.
the electric or magnetic field Relevant Equation:
value as a function of position
at a given time instant and
x = A cos(ωt ) = A cos(2π ft )
vice versa, or construct
an equation relating the
frequency or period and
amplitude of a wave from a
graphical representation of
the electric or magnetic field
value at a given position as
a function of time and vice
versa. [SP 1.5]

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Geometric and Physical Optics
6
TOPIC 6.4 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling

Refraction, Reflection, 1.1

The student can create
representations and models

and Absorption of natural or man-made

phenomena and systems in
the domain.
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
Required Course Content and quantitatively.

Experimental
Methods
4.1
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
The student can justify
6.E the selection of the kind
The direction of propagation of a wave such as light may be changed when the wave of data needed to answer
encounters an interface between two media. a particular scientific
question.

Data Analysis
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE 5.1
6.E.1.1 6.E.1 The student can analyze
Make claims using When light travels from one medium to another, data to identify patterns
connections across concepts some of the light is transmitted, some is or relationships.
about the behavior of light reflected, and some is absorbed (qualitative 5.2
as the wave travels from understanding only). The student can refine
one medium into another, as observations and
some is transmitted, some measurements based on
is reflected, and some is data analysis.
absorbed. [SP 6.4, 7.2] 5.3
The student can
evaluate the evidence
6.E.2.1 6.E.2 provided by data sets in
relation to a particular
Make predictions about When light hits a smooth reflecting surface
scientific question.
the locations of object and at an angle, it reflects at the same angle on
image relative to the location the other side of the line perpendicular to Argumentation
of a reflecting surface. The the surface (specular reflection); this law of
6.4
prediction should be based reflection accounts for the size and location of
on the model of specular images seen in mirrors. The student can make
claims and predictions
reflection with all angles Relevant Equations: about natural phenomena
measured relative to the
1 1 1 based on scientific theories
normal to the surface. + = and models.
[SP 6.4, 7.2] si so f
Making Connections
h s
M = i = i 7.2
ho so
The student can connect
concepts in and across
domain(s) to generalize or
continued on next page extrapolate in and/or across
enduring understandings
and/or big ideas.

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6 Geometric and Physical Optics

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

6.E.3.1 6.E.3
Describe models of light When light travels across a boundary from one
traveling across a boundary transparent material to another, the speed of
from one transparent material propagation changes. At a non-normal incident
to another when the speed angle, the path of the light ray bends closer
of propagation changes, to the perpendicular in the optically slower
causing a change in the substance. This is called refraction.
path of the light ray at the a. Snell’s law relates the angles of incidence
boundary of the two media. and refraction to the indices of refraction,
[SP 1.1, 1.4] with the ratio of the indices of refraction
6.E.3.2 inversely proportional to the ratio of the
Plan data collection speeds of propagation in the two media.
strategies as well as perform b. When light travels from an optically slower
data analysis and evaluation substance into an optically faster substance,
of the evidence for finding it bends away from the perpendicular.
the relationship between the
c. At the critical angle, the light bends far
angle of incidence and the
enough away from the perpendicular that it
angle of refraction for light
skims the surface of the material.
crossing boundaries from
one transparent material d. Beyond the critical angle, all of the light is
to another (Snell’s law). internally reflected.
[SP 4.1, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3] Relevant Equations:
c
6.E.3.3 n=
Make claims and predictions v
about path changes for light n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2
traveling across a boundary
from one transparent material
to another at non-normal
angles resulting from
changes in the speed of
propagation. [SP 6.4, 7.2]

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Geometric and Physical Optics
6
TOPIC 6.5 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling

Images from Lenses 1.4

The student can use
representations and models

and Mirrors to analyze situations or

solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.

Mathematical
Routines
2.2
The student can apply
Required Course Content mathematical routines to
quantities that describe
natural phenomena.

Scientific
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING Questioning
6.E 3.2
The direction of propagation of a wave such as light may be changed when the wave The student can refine
encounters an interface between two media. scientific questions.

Experimental
Methods
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE 4.1
6.E.4.1 6.E.4 The student can justify
Plan data collection The reflection of light from surfaces can be the selection of the
strategies and perform data used to form images. kind of data needed
analysis and evaluation to answer a particular
a. Ray diagrams are very useful for showing scientific question.
of evidence about the how and where images of objects are
formation of images due formed for different mirrors and how Data Analysis
to reflection of light from
this depends on the placement of the 5.1
curved spherical mirrors.
object. Examples include concave and The student can analyze
[SP 3.2, 4.1, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3]
convex mirrors. data to identify patterns
6.E.4.2 or relationships.
b. Ray diagrams are also useful for determining
Use quantitative and the size of the resulting image compared 5.2
qualitative representations with the size of the object. The student can refine
and models to analyze observations and
c. Plane mirrors, convex spherical mirrors,
situations and solve measurements based
and concave spherical mirrors are part
problems about image on data analysis.
of this course. The construction of these
formation occurring due to
ray diagrams and comparison with direct 5.3
the reflection of light from
experiences are necessary. The student can
surfaces. [SP 1.4, 2.2] evaluate the evidence
Relevant Equations:
provided by data sets in
1 1 1 relation to a particular
+ =
si so f scientific question.

hi s
M = = i
ho so

continued on next page

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6 Geometric and Physical Optics

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

6.E.5.1 6.E.5
Use quantitative and The refraction of light as it travels from one
qualitative representations transparent medium to another can be used to
and models to analyze form images.
situations and solve a. Ray diagrams are used to determine the
problems about image relative size of object and image, the
formation occurring due to location of object and image relative to the
the refraction of light through
lens, the focal length, and the real or virtual
thin lenses. [SP 1.4, 2.2]
nature of the image. Examples include
6.E.5.2 converging and diverging lenses.
Plan data collection Relevant Equations:
strategies, perform data 1 1 1
analysis and evaluation + =
of evidence, and refine
si so f
scientific questions about
hi s
the formation of images due M = = i
to refraction for thin lenses. ho so
[SP 3.2, 4.1, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3]

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Geometric and Physical Optics
6
TOPIC 6.6 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling

Interference and 1.4

The student can use
representations and models

Diffraction to analyze situations or

solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.

Argumentation
6.4
The student can make
claims and predictions
Required Course Content about natural phenomena
based on scientific theories
and models.

Making Connections
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
7.2
6.C The student can connect
Only waves exhibit interference and diffraction. concepts in and across
domain(s) to generalize or
extrapolate in and/or across
enduring understandings
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE and/or big ideas.
6.C.1.1 6.C.1
Make claims and predictions When two waves cross, they travel through
about the net disturbance each other; they do not bounce off each
that occurs when two waves other. Where the waves overlap, the resulting
overlap. Examples include displacement can be determined by adding the
standing waves. [SP 6.4, 7.2] displacements of the two waves. This is called
6.C.1.2
superposition. Examples include interference
resulting from diffraction through slits as well
Construct representations to
as thin-film interference.
graphically analyze situations
in which two waves overlap
over time using the principle
of superposition. [SP 1.4]

6.C.2.1 6.C.2
Make claims about the When waves pass through an opening whose
diffraction pattern produced dimensions are comparable to the wavelength,
when a wave passes a diffraction pattern can be observed.
through a small opening, Relevant Equations:
and qualitatively apply the
ΔL = mλ
wave model to quantities that
describe the generation of d sinθ = mλ
a diffraction pattern when
a wave passes through an
opening whose dimensions
are comparable to the
wavelength of the wave.
[SP 1.4, 6.4, 7.2]

continued on next page

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6 Geometric and Physical Optics

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

6.C.3.1 6.C.3
Qualitatively apply the wave When waves pass through a set of openings
model to quantities that whose spacing is comparable to the
describe the generation wavelength, an interference pattern can be
of interference patterns observed. Examples include monochromatic
to make predictions about double-slit interference.
interference patterns that
form when waves pass
through a set of openings
whose spacing and widths
are small compared with the
wavelength of the waves.
[SP 1.4, 6.4]

6.C.4.1 6.C.4
Predict and explain, using When waves pass by an edge, they can diffract
representations and models, into the “shadow region” behind the edge.
the ability or inability of Examples include hearing around corners
waves to transfer energy but not seeing around them, and water waves
around corners and behind bending around obstacles.
obstacles in terms of the
diffraction property of waves
in situations involving various
kinds of wave phenomena,
including sound and light.
[SP 6.4, 7.2]

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 AP PHYSICS 2

UNIT 7
Quantum,
Atomic, and
Nuclear
Physics

10–12%
AP EXAM WEIGHTING

~13–15
CLASS PERIODS

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 Remember to go to AP Classroom
to assign students the online
Personal Progress Check for
this unit.
Whether assigned as homework or
completed in class, the Personal
Progress Check provides each
student with immediate feedback
related to this unit’s topic and
science practices.

Personal Progress Check 7

Multiple-choice: ~55 questions
Free-response: 2 questions
§§ Quantitative/Qualitative
Translation
§§ Paragraph Argument Short
Answer

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7 10–12%  AP EXAM WEIGHTING ~13–15 CLASS PERIODS

Quantum, Atomic, and

Nuclear Physics

Unit Overview
BIG IDEA 5 Unit 7 lays the groundwork for the study of modern physics by resolving the conflicts
Conservation  CON and questions that were left unanswered by Newtonian mechanics. While new models
§§ How can nucleon and representations are introduced in Unit 7 (such as the electron level diagram), students
numbers be conserved will be able to make connections between the content of this unit and the fundamental
when there are so principles of physics, principles of conservation, and models and representations used
many ways for an atom earlier in the course. These connections will help students make predictions about a variety
to split and decay? of phenomena—including the rate of radioactive decay or the type of nuclear reaction—
in addition to making and justifying claims with evidence about such phenomena. Students
BIG IDEA 6 must be able to connect what they learn in this unit with the fundamental principles of
Waves  WAV physics. This is more important than being able to calculate numerical equations. For example,
§§ How does the students will be asked to connect the photoelectric experiment to the ideas of energy
photoelectric effect conservation and the particle model of light.
support the idea of
Unit 7 represents only the first step into the realm of modern physics. Students who continue
wave/particle duality?
their study of physics in college will have the opportunity to learn about the developments in
physics since the dawn of the 20th century.
BIG IDEA 7
Probability  PRO
§§ How does probability Preparing for the AP Exam
govern the behavior
Credit for answers in the free-response section depends on the quality of the solutions and
of systems?
the explanations given. Partial solutions may receive only partial credit, so students should
§§ How can we best always show all their work, starting with the fundamental principles of physics. Answers
measure/describe/ must be justified through some verbal or mathematical analysis, or full credit will not be given.
represent what we In general, it is a good practice to have students annotate their calculations and mathematical
cannot directly see? derivations, as well as laboratory setups, etc., for clarity.

To achieve full credit, students must draw from the fundamental principles of physics to
answer the question clearly and concisely.

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7 Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics

UNIT AT A GLANCE
Understanding

Class Periods
Enduring

Topic Science Practices ~13–15 CLASS PERIODS

Systems and
7.1  1.1 The student can create representations and
Fundamental Forces models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.
1.A, 3.G

7.1 The student can connect phenomena and

models across spatial and temporal scales.

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

Radioactive Decay
7.2  2.1 The student can justify the selection of a
mathematical routine to solve problems.

2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to

quantities that describe natural phenomena.
5.C, 5.D, 5.G

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

Energy in Modern Physics

7.3  1.2 The student can describe representations and
(Energy in Radioactive models of natural or man-made phenomena and
Decay and E = mc 2) systems in the domain.

1.4 The student can use representations and models

to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.

2.1 The student can justify the selection of a

mathematical routine to solve problems.
5.B

2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to

quantities that describe natural phenomena.

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

continued on next page

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Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics
7
UNIT AT A GLANCE (cont’d)
Understanding

Class Periods
Enduring

Topic Science Practices ~13–15 CLASS PERIODS

Mass–Energy Equivalence
7.4  2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to
quantities that describe natural phenomena.

2.3 The student can estimate numerically quantities

that describe natural phenomena.
1.C, 4.C

6.3 The student can articulate the reasons

that scientific explanations and theories are
refined or replaced.

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

7.5 Properties of Waves 1.4 The student can use representations and models
and Particles to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.

6.1 The student can justify claims with evidence.

6.3 The student can articulate the reasons

that scientific explanations and theories are
1.D, 6.C, 6.G

refined or replaced.

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.

7.1 The student can connect phenomena and

models across spatial and temporal scales.

7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across

domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or
across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

Photoelectric Effect
7.6  6.4 The student can make claims and predictions
about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.
6.F

7.1 The student can connect phenomena and

models across spatial and temporal scales.

continued on next page

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7 Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics

UNIT AT A GLANCE (cont’d)

Understanding

Class Periods
Enduring

Topic Science Practices ~13–15 CLASS PERIODS

Wave Functions and

7.7  1.1 The student can create representations and
Probability models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.

1.2 The student can describe representations and

models of natural or man-made phenomena and
systems in the domain.
7.C

1.4 The student can use representations and models

to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.

6.4 The student can make claims and predictions

about natural phenomena based on scientific
theories and models.

Go to AP Classroom to assign the Personal Progress Check for Unit 7.

Review the results in class to identify and address any student misunderstandings.

UNIT 7 AVAILABLE RESOURCES:

§§ Classroom Resources > AP Physics 1 and 2 Inquiry-Based Lab Investigations: A Teacher’s Manual
§§ Classroom Resources > Conservation Concepts
§§ Classroom Resources > Graphical Analysis

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Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics
7
SAMPLE INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
The sample activities on this page are optional and are offered to provide possible ways to
incorporate instructional approaches into the classroom. Teachers do not need to use these
activities or instructional approaches and are free to alter or edit them. The examples below
were developed in partnership with teachers from the AP community to share ways that they
approach teaching some of the topics in this unit. Please refer to the Instructional Approaches
section beginning on p. 185 for more examples of activities and strategies.

Activity Topic Sample Activity

1 7.2 Desktop Experiment

Get 200 dice and put them in a sealed box. On each “turn,” shake the box so that all dice
are rolled and then open the box and remove all dice that land on 1. Record the remaining
number of dice. Repeat (without putting the dice back in the box) until all dice are removed.
Graph “dice versus turns,” and from it determine the “half-life” of the dice (about 3.8 turns).

2 7.4 Identify Subtasks

The goal is to determine how many tons of uranium must be mined to meet the electrical
energy needs of the United States through only nuclear power. Students identify subtasks
in terms of “information we need to research to find” and “calculations we need to make,”
list the tasks in the order they must be done, and then do them and report their findings.

3 7.5 Concept-Oriented Demonstration

Show students a hydrogen discharge tube, and give them a diffraction grating, so
they can see the red, cyan, and purple. Tell students that the energy levels of hydrogen are
En = (−13.6 eV)/n2. Have students estimate the wavelengths of the three colors (based on
research) and determine which energy level transitions they are seeing (red 3 to 2,
cyan 4 to 2, purple 5 to 2).

4 7.6 Desktop Experiment

Charge a capacitor (at least 10 μF) to 4.5 V or more, and then discharge it across an LED.
Have students record the voltage on the LED and determine its light frequency from the
LED’s color or wavelength (many LEDs come with data sheets with their wavelength listed).
Do this for red, orange, yellow, green, and blue LEDs. Graph voltage versus frequency, and
the slope will be Planck’s constant in eV • s.

Unit Planning Notes

Use the space below to plan your approach to the unit.

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7 Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling
TOPIC 7.1
1.1
The student can create
representations and models
Systems and
of natural or man-made
phenomena and systems in
the domain.
Fundamental Forces
Making Connections
7.1
The student can connect
phenomena and models
across spatial and Required Course Content
temporal scales.
7.2
The student can connect
concepts in and across
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
domain(s) to generalize or
extrapolate in and/or across 1.A
enduring understandings The internal structure of a system determines many properties of the system.
and/or big ideas.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.A.2.1 1.A.2
Construct representations Fundamental particles have no internal structure.
of the differences between a. Electrons, neutrinos, photons, and quarks
a fundamental particle
are examples of fundamental particles.
and a system composed
of fundamental particles, b. Neutrons and protons are composed
and relate this to the of quarks.
properties and scales of the c. All quarks have electric charges, which are
systems being investigated. fractions of the elementary charge of the
[SP 1.1, 7.1] electron. Students will not be expected to
know specifics of quark charge or quark
composition of nucleons.

[While there is no specific 1.A.3

learning objective for Nuclei have internal structures that determine
it, EK 1.A.3 serves as a their properties.
foundation for other learning
a. The number of protons identifies the element.
objectives in the course.]
b. The number of neutrons together with the
number of protons identifies the isotope.
c. There are different types of radioactive
emissions from the nucleus.
d. The rate of decay of any radioactive isotope
is specified by its half-life.

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Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics
7
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
1.A.4.1 1.A.4
Construct representations Atoms have internal structures that determine
of the energy-level their properties.
structure of an electron in a. The number of protons in the nucleus
an atom, and relate this to
determines the number of electrons in
the properties and scales
a neutral atom.
of the systems being
investigated. [SP 1.1, 7.1] b. The number and arrangements of
electrons cause elements to have
different properties.
c. The Bohr model based on classical
foundations was the historical
representation of the atom that led to
the description of the hydrogen atom
in terms of discrete energy states
(represented in energy diagrams by
discrete energy levels).
d. Discrete energy-state transitions lead
to spectra.

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
3.G
Certain types of forces are considered fundamental.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.G.3.1 3.G.3
Identify the strong force as The strong force is exerted at nuclear
the force that is responsible scales and dominates the interactions
for holding the nucleus of nucleons.
together. [SP 7.2]

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7 Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Mathematical
TOPIC 7.2
Radioactive Decay
Routines
2.1
The student can justify the
selection of a mathematical
routine to solve problems.
2.2
The student can apply
mathematical routines to
quantities that describe
natural phenomena.

Argumentation Required Course Content

6.4
The student can make
claims and predictions
about natural phenomena ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
based on scientific theories
and models. 5.C
The electric charge of a system is conserved.
Making Connections
7.2
The student can connect LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
concepts in and across
domain(s) to generalize or 5.C.1.1 5.C.1
extrapolate in and/or across Analyze electric charge Electric charge is conserved in nuclear
enduring understandings conservation for nuclear and and elementary particle reactions, even
and/or big ideas. elementary particle reactions, when elementary particles are produced
and make predictions or destroyed. Examples include equations
related to such reactions representing nuclear decay.
based on conservation of
charge. [SP 6.4, 7.2]

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
5.D
The linear momentum of a system is conserved.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

5.D.1.6 5.D.1
Make predictions of the In a collision between objects, linear
dynamical properties of momentum is conserved. In an elastic collision,
a system undergoing a kinetic energy is the same before and after.
collision by application of the a. In a closed system, the linear momentum is
principle of linear momentum constant throughout the collision.
conservation and the
b. In a closed system, the kinetic energy after
principle of the conservation
of energy in situations in an elastic collision is the same as the kinetic
which an elastic collision may energy before the collision.
also be assumed. [SP 6.4]

continued on next page

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Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics
7
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
5.D.1.7 Relevant
 Equations:

Classify a given collision pp =
= mv
mv
situation as elastic or 11 22
inelastic, justify the selection K=
K = mv mv
22
of conservation of linear
momentum and restoration
BOUNDARY STATEMENT:
of kinetic energy as the
Physics 1 includes a quantitative and qualitative
appropriate principles for
analyzing an elastic collision, treatment of conservation of momentum
solve for missing variables, in one dimension and a semiquantitative
and calculate their values. treatment of conservation of momentum in
[SP 2.1, 2.2] two dimensions. Test items involving solution
of simultaneous equations are not included on
either the Physics 1 or Physics 2 Exams, but
items testing whether students can set up the
equations properly and can reason about how
changing a given mass, speed, or angle would
affect other quantities are included. Physics 1
includes only conceptual understanding of
center-of-mass motion of a system without
the need for calculation of center of mass.
Physics 2 includes full qualitative and
quantitative two-dimensional treatment of
conservation of momentum and velocity of
the center of mass of the system. Physics 1
addresses Enduring Understanding 5.D with
topics in the context of mechanical systems.
Physics 2 does so with content that involves
interactions arising in the context of topics
such as nuclear decay, other nuclear reactions,
and interactions of subatomic particles with
each other and with photons.

5.D.2.5 5.D.2
Classify a given collision In a collision between objects, linear
situation as elastic or momentum is conserved. In an inelastic
inelastic, justify the collision, kinetic energy is not the same before
selection of conservation and after the collision.
of linear momentum as the a. In a closed system, the linear momentum is
appropriate solution method constant throughout the collision.
for an inelastic collision,
b. In a closed system, the kinetic energy after
recognize that there is a
common final velocity for an inelastic collision is different from the
the colliding objects in kinetic energy before the collision.
the totally inelastic case, Relevant
 Equations:
 = mv
solve for missing variables, pp = mv
and calculate their values. 1 22
[SP 2.1, 2.2] K=
K = 1 mv
mv
22

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7 Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

5.D.2.6 5.D.2
Apply the conservation of In a collision between objects, linear
linear momentum to a closed momentum is conserved. In an inelastic
system of objects involved collision, kinetic energy is not the same before
in an inelastic collision to and after the collision.
predict the change in kinetic a. In a closed system, the linear momentum is
energy. [SP 6.4, 7.2] constant throughout the collision.
b. In a closed system, the kinetic energy after
an inelastic collision is different from the
kinetic energy before the collision.
Relevant
 Equations:
 = mv
pp = mv
1 22
K=
K = 1 mv
mv
22

5.D.3.2 5.D.3
Make predictions about the The velocity of the center of mass of the
velocity of the center of system cannot be changed by an interaction
mass for interactions within within the system. [Physics 1 includes no
a defined one-dimensional calculations of centers of mass; the equation is
system. [SP 6.4] not provided until Physics 2. However, without
5.D.3.3
doing calculations, Physics 1 students are
expected to be able to locate the center of
Make predictions about the
mass of highly symmetric mass distributions,
velocity of the center of
such as a uniform rod or cube of uniform
mass for interactions within
density, or two spheres of equal mass.]
a defined two-dimensional
system. [SP 6.4] a. The center of mass of a system depends on
the masses and positions of the objects in
the system. In an isolated system (a system
with no external forces), the velocity of the
center of mass does not change.
b. When objects in a system collide, the
velocity of the center of mass of the
system will not change unless an external
force is exerted on the system.
Relevant Equation:
 mi xi
xcm =
 mi

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Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics
7
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
5.G
Nucleon number is conserved.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

5.G.1.1 5.G.1
Apply conservation of The possible nuclear reactions are constrained
nucleon number and by the law of conservation of nucleon number.
conservation of electric
charge to make predictions
about nuclear reactions
and decays such as
fission, fusion, alpha decay,
beta decay, or gamma
decay. [SP 6.4]

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7 Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling
TOPIC 7.3
1.2
The student can describe
representations and models
Energy in Modern
of natural or man-made
phenomena and systems in
the domain.
Physics (Energy in
1.4
The student can use Radioactive Decay
and E = mc 2)
representations and models
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.

Mathematical
Routines
Required Course Content
2.1
The student can justify the
selection of a mathematical
routine to solve problems.
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
2.2
5.B
The student can apply
mathematical routines to The energy of a system is conserved.
quantities that describe
natural phenomena.

Argumentation LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

5.B.2.1 5.B.2
6.4
The student can make
Calculate the expected A system with internal structure can have
claims and predictions behavior of a system using internal energy, and changes in a system’s
about natural phenomena the object model (i.e., by internal structure can result in changes
based on scientific theories ignoring changes in internal in internal energy. [Physics 1 includes
and models. structure) to analyze a mass-spring oscillators and simple pendulums.
situation. Then, when the Physics 2 includes charged objects in electric
Making Connections model fails, justify the use fields and examining changes in internal
7.2 of conservation of energy energy with changes in configuration.]
The student can connect principles to calculate Relevant Equation:
concepts in and across the change in internal
ΔU E = qΔV
domain(s) to generalize or energy due to changes in
extrapolate in and/or across internal structure because
enduring understandings the object is actually a BOUNDARY STATEMENT:
and/or big ideas. system. [SP 1.4, 2.1] Conservation principles apply in the context
of the appropriate Physics 1 and Physics 2
courses. Work, potential energy, and kinetic
energy concepts are related to mechanical
systems in Physics 1 and electric, magnetic,
thermal, and atomic and elementary particle
systems in Physics 2.

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Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics
7
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
5.B.4.1 5.B.4
Describe and make The internal energy of a system includes the
predictions about the kinetic energy of the objects that make up
internal energy of systems. the system and the potential energy of the
[SP 6.4, 7.2] configuration of the objects that make up
5.B.4.2
the system.
Calculate changes in kinetic a. Since energy is constant in a closed system,
energy and potential energy changes in a system’s potential energy
of a system using information can result in changes to the system’s
from representations of that kinetic energy.
system. [SP 1.4, 2.1, 2.2] b. The changes in potential and kinetic energies
in a system may be further constrained by
the construction of the system.

5.B.5.4 5.B.5
Make claims about the Energy can be transferred by an external
interaction between a system force exerted on an object or system that
and its environment in which moves the object or system through a
the environment exerts a distance; this energy transfer is called work.
force on the system, thus Energy transfer in mechanical or electrical
doing work on the system systems may occur at different rates. Power is
and changing the energy of defined as the rate of energy transfer into, out
the system (kinetic energy of, or within a system. [A piston filled with gas
plus potential energy). getting compressed or expanded is treated
[SP 6.4, 7.2] in Physics 2 as a part of thermodynamics.]
The work done on a system is defined as
W = −P ΔV
for constant pressure or an average pressure.
Relevant Equations:
ΔE = W = Fd cosθ
ΔE
P=
Δt

5.B.8.1 5.B.8
Describe emission or Energy transfer occurs when photons are
absorption spectra absorbed or emitted, for example, by atoms
associated with electronic or nuclei.
or nuclear transitions as a. Transitions between two given energy states
transitions between allowed of an atom correspond to the absorption or
energy states of the atom emission of a photon of a given frequency
in terms of the principle
(and hence, a given wavelength).
of energy conservation,
including characterization b. An emission spectrum can be used to
of the frequency of radiation determine the elements in a source of light.
emitted or absorbed.
[SP 1.2, 7.2]

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7 Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

5.B.11.1 5.B.11
Apply conservation of Beyond the classical approximation, mass is
mass and conservation actually part of the internal energy of an object
2
of energy concepts to a or system with E = mc .
natural phenomenon, and 2
2 a. E = mc can be used to calculate the mass
use the equation E = mc to equivalent for a given amount of energy
make a related calculation.
transfer or an energy equivalent for a given
[SP 2.2, 7.2]
amount of mass change (e.g., fission and
fusion reactions).

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Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics
7
TOPIC 7.4 SCIENCE PRACTICES
Mathematical

Mass–Energy
Routines
2.2
The student can apply

Equivalence mathematical routines to

quantities that describe
natural phenomena.
2.3
The student can
estimate numerically
quantities that describe
natural phenomena.
Required Course Content Argumentation
6.3
The student can articulate
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING the reasons that scientific
explanations and theories
1.C are refined or replaced.
Objects and systems have properties of inertial mass and gravitational mass that are
experimentally verified to be the same and satisfy conservation principles. Making Connections
7.2
The student can connect
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE concepts in and across
domain(s) to generalize or
1.C.4.1 1.C.4 extrapolate in and/or across
Articulate the reasons that In certain processes, mass can be converted to enduring understandings
the theory of conservation energy and energy can be converted to mass and/or big ideas.
2
of mass was replaced by the according to E = mc , the equation derived
theory of conservation of from the theory of special relativity.
mass–energy. [SP 6.3]

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
4.C
Interactions with other objects or systems can change the total energy of a system.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

4.C.4.1 4.C.4
Apply mathematical routines Mass can be converted into energy, and energy
to describe the relationship can be converted into mass.
between mass and energy, a. Mass and energy are interrelated by E = mc .
2

and apply this concept

b. Significant amounts of energy can be
across domains of scale.
[SP 2.2, 2.3, 7.2] released in nuclear processes.

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7 Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling
TOPIC 7.5
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
Properties of Waves
to analyze situations or
solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively.
and Particles
Argumentation
6.1
The student can justify
claims with evidence.
6.3 Required Course Content
The student can articulate
the reasons that scientific
explanations and theories
are refined or replaced. ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
6.4 1.D
The student can make Classical mechanics cannot describe all properties of objects.
claims and predictions
about natural phenomena
based on scientific theories
and models. LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
1.D.1.1 1.D.1
Making Connections
Explain why classical Objects classically thought of as particles can
7.1
mechanics cannot describe exhibit properties of waves.
The student can connect all properties of objects by
phenomena and models a. This wavelike behavior of particles has been
articulating the reasons that observed (e.g., in a double-slit experiment
across spatial and
classical mechanics must using elementary particles).
temporal scales.
be refined and an alternative
7.2
explanation developed when b. The classical models of objects do not
The student can connect classical particles display describe their wave nature. These models
concepts in and across wave properties. [SP 6.3] break down when observing objects in
domain(s) to generalize or small dimensions.
extrapolate in and/or across
Relevant Equation:
enduring understandings
and/or big ideas. h
λ=
p

[While there is no specific 1.D.2

learning objective for Certain phenomena classically thought of as
it, EK 1.D.2 serves as a waves can exhibit properties of particles.
foundation for other learning
a. The classical models of waves do not
objectives in the course.]
describe the nature of a photon.
b. Momentum and energy of a photon can be
related to its frequency and wavelength.

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Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics
7
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
1.D.3.1 1.D.3
Articulate the reasons that Properties of space and time cannot always be
classical mechanics must be treated as absolute.
replaced by special relativity a. Relativistic mass–energy equivalence
to describe the experimental is a reconceptualization of matter and
results and theoretical energy as two manifestations of the same
predictions that show that
underlying entity, fully interconvertible,
the properties of space
thereby rendering invalid the classically
and time are not absolute.
separate laws of conservation of mass and
[Students will be expected
conservation of energy. Students will not
to recognize situations in
be expected to know apparent mass or
which nonrelativistic classical
physics breaks down and rest mass.
to explain how relativity b. Measurements of length and time depend
addresses that breakdown, on speed (qualitative treatment only).
but students will not be Relevant Equation:
expected to know in which of E = mc 2
two reference frames a given
series of events corresponds
to a greater or lesser time
interval, or a greater or lesser
spatial distance; they will just
need to know that observers
in the two reference frames
can “disagree” about some
time and distance intervals.]
[SP 6.3, 7.1]

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
6.C
Only waves exhibit interference and diffraction.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

6.C.1.1 6.C.1
Make claims and predictions When two waves cross, they travel through
about the net disturbance each other; they do not bounce off each
that occurs when two waves other. Where the waves overlap, the resulting
overlap. Examples include displacement can be determined by adding the
standing waves. [SP 6.4, 7.2] displacements of the two waves. This is called
6.C.1.2
superposition. Examples include interference
resulting from diffraction through slits as well
Construct representations to
as thin-film interference.
graphically analyze situations
in which two waves overlap
over time using the principle
of superposition. [SP 1.4]

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7 Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

6.C.2.1 6.C.2
Make claims about the When waves pass through an opening whose
diffraction pattern produced dimensions are comparable to the wavelength,
when a wave passes through a a diffraction pattern can be observed.
small opening, and qualitatively Relevant Equations:
apply the wave model to
ΔL = mλ
quantities that describe the
generation of a diffraction d sinθ = mλ
pattern when a wave passes
through an opening whose
dimensions are comparable
to the wavelength of the wave.
[SP 1.4, 6.4, 7.2]

6.C.3.1 6.C.3
Qualitatively apply the wave When waves pass through a set of openings
model to quantities that whose spacing is comparable to the
describe the generation wavelength, an interference pattern can be
of interference patterns observed. Examples include monochromatic
to make predictions about double-slit interference.
interference patterns that
form when waves pass
through a set of openings
whose spacing and widths
are small compared with the
wavelength of the waves.
[SP 1.4, 6.4]

6.C.4.1 6.C.4
Predict and explain, using When waves pass by an edge, they can diffract
representations and models, into the “shadow region” behind the edge.
the ability or inability of Examples include hearing around corners
waves to transfer energy but not seeing around them, and water waves
around corners and behind bending around obstacles.
obstacles in terms of the
diffraction property of waves
in situations involving various
kinds of wave phenomena,
including sound and light.
[SP 6.4, 7.2]

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Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics
7
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
6.G
All matter can be modeled as waves or particles.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

6.G.1.1 6.G.1
Make predictions about Under certain regimes of energy or distance,
using the scale of the matter can be modeled as a classical particle.
problem to determine at what
regimes a particle or wave
model is more appropriate.
[SP 6.4, 7.1]

6.G.2.1 6.G.2
Articulate the evidence Under certain regimes of energy or distance,
supporting the claim that matter can be modeled as a wave. The
a wave model of matter behavior in these regimes is described by
is appropriate to explain quantum mechanics.
the diffraction of matter a. A wave model of matter is quantified by the
interacting with a crystal, de Broglie wavelength that increases as the
given conditions where momentum of the particle decreases.
a particle of matter has
momentum corresponding b. The wave property of matter was
to a de Broglie wavelength experimentally confirmed by the diffraction
smaller than the separation of electrons in the experiments of Clinton
between adjacent atoms in Joseph Davisson, Lester Germer, and
the crystal. [SP 6.1] George Paget Thomson.
Relevant Equation:
6.G.2.2
Predict the dependence of
h
λ=
major features of a diffraction p
pattern (e.g., spacing
between interference
maxima) based on the
particle speed and de Broglie
wavelength of electrons in
an electron beam interacting
with a crystal. (De Broglie
wavelength need not be
given, so students may need
to obtain it.) [SP 6.4]

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7 Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Argumentation
TOPIC 7.6
6.4
The student can make
claims and predictions
Photoelectric Effect
about natural phenomena
based on scientific theories
and models.

Making Connections
7.1
The student can connect
phenomena and models
across spatial and Required Course Content
temporal scales.

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
6.F
Electromagnetic radiation can be modeled as waves or as fundamental particles.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

6.F.3.1 6.F.3
Support the photon model of Photons are individual energy packets of
radiant energy with evidence electromagnetic waves, with E = hf, where h is
provided by the photoelectric Planck’s constant, and f is the frequency of the
effect. [SP 6.4] associated light wave.
a. In the quantum model of electromagnetic
radiation, the energy is emitted or absorbed
in discrete energy packets called photons.
Discrete spectral lines should be included
as an example.
b. For the short-wavelength portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum, the energy
per photon can be observed by direct
measurement when electron emissions
from matter result from the absorption of
radiant energy.
c. Evidence for discrete energy packets is
provided by a frequency threshold for
electron emission. Above the threshold,
emission increases with the frequency and
not the intensity of absorbed radiation. The
photoelectric effect should be included as
an example.
Relevant Equation:
K max = hf − φ

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Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics
7
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
6.F.4.1 6.F.4
Select a model of radiant The nature of light requires that different
energy that is appropriate to models of light are most appropriate at
the spatial or temporal scale different scales.
of an interaction with matter. a. The particle-like properties of
[SP 6.4, 7.1] electromagnetic radiation are more readily
observed when the energy transported
during the time of the measurement is
comparable to Ephoton.
b. The wavelike properties of electromagnetic
radiation are more readily observed when
the scale of the objects with which it
interacts is comparable to or larger than the
wavelength of the radiation.

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7 Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics

SCIENCE PRACTICES
Modeling
TOPIC 7.7
1.1
The student can create
representations and models
Wave Functions
of natural or man-made
phenomena and systems in
the domain.
and Probability
1.2
The student can describe
representations and models
of natural or man-made
phenomena and systems in
the domain. Required Course Content
1.4
The student can use
representations and models
to analyze situations or
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
solve problems qualitatively
and quantitatively. 7.C
At the quantum scale, matter is described by a wave function, which leads to a
Argumentation probabilistic description of the microscopic world.
6.4
The student can make
claims and predictions LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
about natural phenomena
based on scientific theories 7.C.1.1 7.C.1
and models. Use a graphical wave function The probabilistic description of matter is modeled
representation of a particle by a wave function, which can be assigned to
to predict qualitatively the an object and used to describe its motion and
probability of finding a interactions. The absolute value of the wave
particle in a specific spatial function is related to the probability of finding
region. [SP 1.4] a particle in some spatial region (qualitative
treatment only, using graphical analysis).

7.C.2.1 7.C.2
Use a standing wave model The allowed states for an electron in an atom
in which an electron orbit can be calculated from the wave model of
circumference is an integer an electron.
multiple of the de Broglie a. The allowed electron energy states of
wavelength to give a an atom are modeled as standing waves.
qualitative explanation that Transitions between these levels, due to
accounts for the existence
emission or absorption of photons, are
of specific allowed energy
observable as discrete spectral lines.
states of an electron in an
atom. [SP 1.4] b. The de Broglie wavelength of an electron
can be calculated from its momentum, and
a wave representation can be used to model
discrete transitions between energy states
as transitions between standing waves.
Relevant Equation:
h
λ=
p

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Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics
7
LEARNING OBJECTIVE ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
7.C.3.1 7.C.3
Predict the number of The spontaneous radioactive decay of an
radioactive nuclei remaining individual nucleus is described by probability.
in a sample after a certain a. In radioactive decay processes, we cannot
period of time, and also predict when any one nucleus will undergo a
predict the missing species change; we can only predict what happens
(alpha, beta, gamma) in a
on the average to a large number of
radioactive decay. [SP 6.4]
identical nuclei.
b. In radioactive decay, mass and energy
are interrelated, and energy is released in
nuclear processes as kinetic energy of the
products or as electromagnetic energy.
c. The time for half of a given number of
radioactive nuclei to decay is called the
half-life.
d. Different unstable elements and isotopes
have vastly different half-lives, ranging
from small fractions of a second to billions
of years.

7.C.4.1 7.C.4
Construct or interpret Photon emission and absorption processes are
representations of transitions described by probability.
between atomic energy a. An atom in a given energy state may absorb
states involving the emission a photon of the right energy and move to a
and absorption of photons. higher energy state (stimulated absorption).
[For questions addressing
stimulated emission, b. An atom in an excited energy state may
students will not be expected jump spontaneously to a lower energy
to recall the details of the state with the emission of a photon
process, such as the fact that (spontaneous emission).
the emitted photons have the c. Spontaneous transitions to higher energy
same frequency and phase states have a very low probability but
as the incident photon; but can be stimulated to occur. Spontaneous
given a representation of transitions to lower energy states are
the process, students are highly probable.
expected to make inferences d. When a photon of the right energy interacts
such as figuring out from with an atom in an excited energy state, it
energy conservation that, may stimulate the atom to make a transition
since the atom loses energy
to a lower energy state with the emission of
in the process, the emitted
a photon (stimulated emission). In this case,
photons taken together must
both photons have the same energy and are
carry more energy than the
in phase and moving in the same direction.
incident photon.] [SP 1.1, 1.2]

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THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK.
AP PHYSICS 2

Laboratory
Investigations
Lab Experiments

Although laboratory work has often been separated

Lab Materials
from classroom work, research shows that experience
and experimentation are often more instructionally A wide range of equipment may be used in the
effective. Familiarity with concrete evidence leads to a physics laboratory, from generic lab items such
deeper understanding and gives students a sense of as meter sticks, rubber balls, springs, string, metal
ownership of the knowledge they have constructed. spheres, calibrated mass sets, beakers, glass and
cardboard tubes, electronic balances, stopwatches,
AP Physics courses require students to engage with clamps, and ring stands to items more specific to
data in a variety of ways. The analysis, interpretation, physics, such as tracks, carts, light bulbs, resistors,
and application of quantitative information are vital magnets, and batteries. Successful guided inquiry
skills for students. Scientific inquiry experiences in AP student work can be accomplished both with simple,
Physics 2 should be designed and implemented with inexpensive materials and with more sophisticated
increasing student involvement to help enhance inquiry physics equipment, such air tracks, force sensors,
learning and develop critical thinking and problem- and oscilloscopes. Remember that the AP lab should
solving skills. Typically, the level of investigations in an provide an experience for students equivalent to
AP Physics 2 classroom should focus primarily on the that of a college laboratory, so teachers should make
continuum between guided and open inquiry. However, every effort to provide a range of experiences–—from
depending on students’ familiarity with the topic, a given experiments students contrive from plumbing pipe,
laboratory experience might incorporate a sequence string, and duct tape to experiments in which students
involving all four levels of inquiry (confirmation, gather and analyze data using calculators or computer-
structured inquiry, guided inquiry, and open inquiry). interfaced equipment.

There are avenues that teachers can explore as a

Lab Manuals and Lab Notebooks means of getting access to more expensive equipment,
College Board publishes AP Physics 1 and 2 Inquiry- such as computers and probes. Probes can often
Based Lab Investigations: A Teacher’s Manual to be rented for short periods of time from instrument
support the guided inquiry lab requirement for the suppliers. Alternatively, local colleges or universities
course. It includes labs that teachers can choose may allow high school students to complete a lab as a
from to satisfy the guided inquiry lab component for field trip on their campus, or they may allow teachers to
the course. Many publishers and science classroom borrow their equipment. They may even donate their old
material distributors offer affordable lab manuals equipment. Some schools have partnerships with local
with outlined experiments and activities as well as lab businesses that can help with laboratory equipment
notebooks for recording lab data and observations. and materials. Teachers can also utilize online donation
Students can use any type of notebook to fulfill the sites, such as Donors Choose and Adopt-A-Classroom.
lab notebook requirement, even an online document.
Consider the needs of the classroom when deciding
what type of lab notebook to use.

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Lab Time
For this AP Physics 2 to be comparable to a college laboratory program be adapted to local conditions and
physics course, it is critical that teachers make funding, as it aims to offer the students a well-rounded
laboratory work an important part their curriculum. experience with experimental physics. Adequate
An analysis of data from AP Physics 2 examinees laboratory facilities should be provided so that each
regarding the length of time they spent per week student has a work space where equipment and
in the laboratory shows that increased laboratory materials can be left overnight if necessary. Sufficient
time correlates with higher AP scores. Flexible or laboratory equipment for the anticipated enrollment
modular scheduling must be implemented to meet and appropriate instruments should be provided.
the time requirements identified in the course outline. Students in AP Physics 2 should have access to
At minimum, one double period a week is needed. computers with software appropriate for processing
Furthermore, it is important that the AP Physics 2 laboratory data and writing reports.

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How to Set Up a Lab Program

Physics is not just a subject. Rather, it is a way of

Getting Students Started
approaching scientific discovery that requires personal
observation and physical experimentation. Being There are no prescriptive “steps” to the iterative
successful in this endeavor requires students to process of inquiry-based investigations. However,
synthesize and use a broad spectrum of knowledge there are some common characteristics of inquiry that
and skills, including mathematical, computational, will support students in designing their investigations.
experimental, and practical skills, and to develop Often, this simply begins with using the learning
habits of mind that might be characterized as thinking objectives to craft a question for students to
like a physicist. Student-directed, inquiry-based lab investigate. Teachers may choose to give students a list
experience supports the AP Physics 2 course and of materials they are allowed to use in their design, or
AP Course Audit curricular requirements. It provides require that students request the equipment they feel
opportunities for students to design experiments, they need to investigate the question. To use learning
collect data, apply mathematical routines and methods, objectives when crafting questions, consider the
and refine testable explanations and predictions. following points:
Teachers are expected to devote a minimum of 25% of §§ Select learning objectives from the course
instructional time to lab investigations to support the framework that relate to the subject under study
learning objectives in the course framework. and may set forth specific tasks, in the form of
The AP Physics 2 Exam directly assesses the learning “Design an experiment to … .”
objectives of the course framework, which means §§ Rephrase or refine the learning objectives that
the inclusion of appropriate experiments aligned with align to the unit of study to create an inquiry-based
those learning objectives is important for student investigation for students.
success. Teachers should select experiments that
Students should be given latitude to make design
provide students with the broadest laboratory
modifications or ask for additional equipment
experience possible.
appropriate for their design. It is also helpful for
We encourage teachers to be creative in designing individual groups to report out to the class on their
their lab program while ensuring students explore and basic design to elicit feedback on feasibility. Guided
develop understandings of these core techniques. student groups can proceed through the experiment,
After completion, students should be able to describe with the teacher allowing them the freedom to make
how to construct knowledge, model (create an abstract mistakes—as long as those mistakes don’t endanger
representation of a real system), design experiments, students or equipment or lead the groups too far off
analyze visual data, and communicate physics. task. Students should have many opportunities for
Students should also develop an understanding of post-lab reporting so that groups can understand the
how changes in the design of the experiments would successes and challenges of individual lab designs.
impact the outcome of their results. Many questions
on the AP Exam are written in an experimental context,
so these skills will prove invaluable for both concept
comprehension and exam performance.

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Communication, Group provide specific guidelines prior to students’ discussion
on investigation designs for each experiment, so
Collaboration, and the that those precautions can be incorporated into the
Laboratory Record final student-selected lab design and included in the
background or design plan in a laboratory record. It may
Laboratory work is an excellent means through which
also be helpful to print the precautions that apply to
students can develop and practice communication
that specific lab as Safety Notes to place on the desk or
skills. Success in subsequent work in physics
wall near student workstations. Additionally, a general
depends heavily on an ability to communicate about
set of safety guidelines should be set forth for students
observations, ideas, and conclusions. Students must
at the beginning of the course. The following is a list of
learn to recognize that an understanding of physics is
possible general guidelines teachers may post:
relatively useless unless they can communicate their
knowledge effectively to others. By working together §§ Before each lab, make sure you know and record the
in a truly collaborative manner to plan and carry out potential hazards involved in the investigation, as
experiments, students learn oral communication skills well as the precautions you will take to stay safe.
and teamwork. Students must be encouraged to take §§ Before using equipment, make sure you know the
full individual responsibility for the success of the proper use to acquire good data and avoid damage
collaboration and not be a sleeping partner ready to to equipment.
blame the rest of the team for failure.
§§ Know where safety equipment is located in the lab,
After students are given a question for investigation, such as the fire extinguisher, safety goggles, and
they may present their findings either in a written or an the first aid kit.
oral report to the teacher and the class for feedback §§ Follow the teacher’s special safety guidelines as set
and critique on their final design and results. Students forth prior to each experiment. (Students should
should be encouraged to critique and challenge one record these as part of their design plan for a lab.)
another’s claims based on the evidence collected
§§ When in doubt about the safety or advisability
during the investigation.
of a procedure, check with the teacher
before proceeding.
Laboratory Safety Teachers should interact constantly with students as
Giving students the responsibility for design of they work to observe safety practices and anticipate
their own laboratory experience involves special and discuss with them any problems that may arise.
responsibilities for teachers. To ensure a safe Walking among student groups, asking questions, and
working environment, teachers should first provide showing interest in students’ work allows teachers to
the limitations and safety precautions necessary for take the pulse of what students are doing and maintain
potential procedures and equipment students may a watchful eye for potential safety issues.
use during their investigation. Teachers should also

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AP PHYSICS 2

Instructional
Approaches
Selecting and Using
Course Materials

Teachers will benefit from a wide array of materials

Textbooks
to help students become proficient with the science
practices necessary to develop a conceptual While nearly all college-level physics textbooks address
understanding of the relationships, laws, and the seven units of AP Physics 2, it’s important for
phenomena studied in AP Physics 2. In addition teachers to identify other types of secondary sources
to using a college-level textbook that will provide to supplement the chosen textbook accordingly,
required course content, students should have regular ensuring that each of the seven topic areas, as well as
opportunities to create and use data, representations, the science practices, receives adequate attention.
and models. Rich, experimental investigation is the AP Central provides an example textbook list to help
cornerstone of AP Physics 2, and diverse source determine whether a text is considered appropriate
material allows teachers more flexibility in designing in meeting the AP Physics 2 Course Audit resource
the types of learning activities that will help develop the requirement. Teachers can also select textbooks locally.
habits of thinking like a physicist.

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Guided Inquiry in
AP Physics 2

The more active students are in their science students mirror how scientists analyze the natural
education, the more scientifically literate they will world. Inquiry requires identifying assumptions, using
become. Inquiry into authentic questions generated critical and logical thinking, and considering alternative
from student experiences should be one of the central explanations. Having students probe for answers to
strategies when teaching AP Physics 2. By posing scientific questions will lead to a deeper understanding
questions, planning investigations, and reviewing what of scientific concepts.
is already known in light of experimental evidence,

How to Scaffold Inquiry in the AP Classroom

Science Practice MORE AMOUNT OF DIRECTION FROM TEACHER LESS

3.1: The student can pose The student The student The student The student
scientific questions. works with sharpens or clarifies selects from a set determines the
a question a question provided of given questions question.
developed by by the teacher. or can modify a
the teacher. given question.

4.1: The student can justify The student The student is given The student is told to The student
the selection of the kind is given data data to analyze. collect and analyze can determine
of data needed to answer and told how to certain data. what constitutes
a particular scientific analyze it. evidence and can
question. collect it.

5.1: The student can analyze [Science The student is given The student is The student can
data to identify patterns or Practice 5.1 possible relationships directed toward independently
relationships. has only three or patterns. patterns or examine data
levels of inquiry relationships. and form links
instruction.] to explanations.

6.1: The student can justify The student is The student is given The student is guided The student creates
claims with evidence. provided with possible ways to through the process an explanation
evidence to use evidence to of formulating after summarizing
support a claim. create explanations. explanations the evidence.
from evidence.

6.4: The student can make The student is The student is given The student is The student can
claims and predictions given steps and broad guidelines coached in the form reasonable and
about natural phenomena procedures to to use in the development logical arguments
based on scientific theories make claims sharpening of claims of claims to communicate
and models. and predictions. and predictions. and predictions. explanations based
on scientific theories
and models.

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Different types of lessons, and therefore different homework assignment, and then work together as
types of inquiry, are used throughout AP Physics 2. a class to develop it further, making sure that the
There is a continuum from more student-centered question, variables, and safety are addressed.
types of inquiry to more teacher-centered types. §§ Try a goal-oriented task: Completely remove the
Understanding the different types of inquiry can help procedure, and prompt students with a question
teachers scaffold the types of labs and activities to that asks them to achieve something they want
better meet the needs of their students. to do. At this point, it’s best to choose a lab that
Below are four suggestions to make labs and activities students already understand conceptually and that
more student-centered and inquiry-based: uses simple, familiar equipment.
§§ Let them do the thinking: Students choose what
§§ Start small: Take out the “data” or “results” section
they will investigate. Facilitate (rather than walk them
from traditional labs. If the procedure is thorough
through) their thought process without telling them
and simple enough, students can read and design
what to do. A pre-lab brainstorming session in small
the data and/or results sections on their own.
groups is helpful when having students develop a
§§ Tackle the procedure: Eventually, teachers will want question to investigate. It is important to provide
students to design their own experiments, but they students with some guidelines at this step. For
may need some practice first. Remove the step example, students need to think about a question,
numbers and shuffle the steps. Have students a hypothesis, and materials before beginning an
work in pairs to put the steps into the correct order. open-ended lab. Seeing and approving this in the
Next, try having them write a procedure as a pre-lab lab groups helps boost students’ confidence.

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Instructional Strategies

The AP Physics 2 course framework outlines the concepts and science practices
students must master in order to be successful on the AP Exam. To address those
concepts and science practices effectively, it helps to incorporate a variety of
instructional approaches into daily lessons and activities. Teachers can help their
students develop the science practices by engaging them in learning activities
that allow them to apply their understanding of course concepts. Teachers may
consider the following strategies as they plan instruction. Please note they are listed
alphabetically and not by order of importance or instruction.

Strategy Definition Purpose Activity

Ask the Expert Students are assigned as “experts” on Students share their In Unit 7, assign students
problems they have mastered. Groups knowledge and learn as “experts” on atomic,
rotate through the expert stations to from one another. quantum, or nuclear
learn about problems they have not questions. Have them rotate
yet mastered. through stations in groups,
working with the station
expert to justify a set of
claims with corresponding
physical laws as evidence.

Bar Chart Bar chart tasks have histograms for Bar chart tasks This strategy can be used
one or more quantities. Frequently, help students make with conservation laws.
histograms are given before and meaning by asking Students can define the
after some physical process with them to translate system and then create bar
one bar left off. Students are between before charts for before and after
asked to complete the bar chart by and after some some event. For example,
supplying the value for the missing physical process. have students create an
quantity. This is a new type of energy bar chart for a ball
representation, requiring students rolling down an incline. Have
to translate between whatever other them identify the system
representation they are using and this and then create one set of
one. Bar chart tasks are usually quite charts for the top of the
productive in helping students incline and a separate set of
make meaning. charts for the bottom of the
incline.

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 Strategy Definition Purpose Activity

Changing These tasks require students to Students create As students learn about
Representations translate from one representation pictures, tables, energy conservation
(e.g., an electric field diagram) to graphs, lists, in circuits, ask them to
another (e.g., an equipotential curves equations, models, move between different
or surfaces diagram). Students and/or verbal representations of circuits.
often learn how to cope with one expressions to For example, if given a
representation without really learning interpret text or sketch of a simple circuit,
the role and value of representations data. This helps have students create a
and their relationship to problem organize information circuit diagram, a set of
solving. Getting them to go back using multiple equations using Kirchhoff’s
and forth between/among different ways to present rules, and a graph of
representations for a concept forces data and answer a potential around the circuit.
them to develop a more robust question or show a Students should be able to
understanding of each representation. problem’s solution. move freely between these
Among the representations that representations as well as
will be employed at times are use them for evidence in
mathematical relationships, so this support of claims.
task can serve as a bridge between
conceptual understanding and
traditional problem solving.

Concept-Oriented These tasks involve an actual Involving an actual Although most students
Demonstration demonstration but with the students demonstration, will already know the
doing as much of the description, students are outcome, the “soda can
prediction, and explanation as asked to predict crushing” experiment can
possible. Although the demonstration and explain. be demonstrated in Unit 2
should produce results students don’t to challenge students to
expect, students should nonetheless explain how and/or why the
feel comfortable making predictions phenomena occurred in
about what will happen. terms of physical laws and
theories.

Conflicting Conflicting contentions tasks present These tasks help This strategy is useful for
Contentions students with two or three statements contrast statements helping students begin to
that disagree in some way, and of students’ alternate understand how to write a
students decide which contention conceptions with full argument. By providing
they agree with and explain why. physically accepted the arguments and having
These tasks are very useful for statements. students identify strong
contrasting statements of students’ and weak claims, evidence,
alternate conceptions with physically and reasoning, teachers can
accepted statements. This process is help scaffold the instruction
facilitated in these tasks because they of good argumentation for
can be phrased as “Which statement their students.
do you agree with and why?” rather
than asking which statement
is correct or true. These tasks
complement the “What if Anything Is
Wrong?” tasks.

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 Strategy Definition Purpose Activity

Construct an Students use mathematical reasoning Helps in developing This strategy can be used
Argument to present assumptions about the process of with word problems that
mathematical situations, support evaluation of do not lend themselves to
conjectures with mathematically mathematical immediate application of
relevant and accurate data, and information, a formula or mathematical
provide a logical progression of developing process. The teacher can
ideas leading to a conclusion reasoning skills, provide distance and velocity
that makes sense. and enhancing graphs that represent a
communication motorist’s behavior through
skills in supporting several towns on a map and
conjectures ask students to construct
and conclusions. a mathematical argument
either in defense of or
against a police officer’s
charge of speeding, given a
known speed limit.

Create a Plan Students analyze the tasks in a Assists in breaking When scaffolding
problem and create a process for tasks into smaller for how to design an
completing the tasks by finding the parts and identifying experiment, a good first step
information needed, interpreting data, the steps needed is assigning small groups to
choosing how to solve a problem, to complete the analyze the tasks necessary
communicating the results, and entire task. to design the experiment.
verifying accuracy. Have students identify the
steps needed to answer the
question by collecting and
analyzing data. Included
in this discussion is a plan
for what to do with the
collected data.

Debriefing Students discuss the understanding Helps clarify In order to discern the
of a concept to lead to a consensus misconceptions difference between average
on its meaning. and deepen velocity and instantaneous
understanding velocity, have students roll a
of context. ball down a simple ramp and
measure the distance the
ball travels over time every
second for five seconds.
While plotting position versus
time and sketching a curve of
best fit, students can discuss
how they might determine
the average velocity of the
ball over the five seconds
and then the instantaneous
velocity of the ball at several
points. A discussion in
which students address the
distinction between the ball’s
velocity between two points
and its velocity at a single
point helps in clarifying the
concept and mathematical
process.

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 Strategy Definition Purpose Activity

Desktop These tasks involve students Students are Direct Measurement Videos
Experiment performing a demonstration at their presented with make excellent “desktop”
Tasks (DETs) desks (either in class or at home) a small desktop experiments. They can
using a predict-and-explain format. experiment and include small experiments
After doing the experiment, students asked to use with magnets, syringes (to
“reformulate,” or reconsider, their the apparatus experiment with force and
previous explanations in light of what provided to answer pressure), lenses/mirrors,
happened. DETs are narrow in scope, a given question. diffraction gratings, fur,
usually qualitative in nature, and balloons, etc.
typically use simple equipment.

Discussion Students work within groups to Aids in Once students learn all
Groups discuss content, create problem understanding methods of problem solving
solutions, and explain and through the and can choose which
justify a solution. sharing of ideas, is the most appropriate
interpretation given a particular situation,
of concepts, have them discuss in small
and analysis of groups (no writing) why a
problem scenarios. specific method should be
used over another.

Friends Students are given a free-response This can be a Have students identify,
Without Pens problem, quiz, or challenging problem. scaffolding tool with their peers, adequate
“Friends Without Pens” takes place if students are claims, evidence, and
in two rounds: The first round is being introduced reasoning. After discussing
the timed “Friends Without Pens” to a new type of their various claims,
round, in which students are grouped assignment or a have students return to
together and can discuss—but not particularly difficult their desks and develop
write about—the question. At the or challenging a complete argument.
end of the time, students return to AP-level question.
their desks for the “Pens Without
Friends” round, where they tackle
the assignment in the traditional,
independent sense.

Four-Square Students are given some sort of Re-expressing or In Unit 4, students can
Problem Solving situation, perhaps one that came from re-representing regularly and repeatedly do
a traditional plug-and-chug problem. data is a key skill four-square problem solving
They then divide a sheet of paper necessary for tasks about circuits. The
into four quadrants. In each quadrant, student success key representations can
the student(s) are to put some in AP Physics 2. include a circuit diagram, a
representation of what is going on in This task scaffolds circuit sketch, an energy bar
the problem. Possible representations the needed practice chart, or a graph of potential
include motion maps or graphs, for students to get around the circuit.
free-body diagrams, energy bar into the habit of
graphs, momentum bar graphs, creating and using
mathematical models (equations representations to
with symbols), well-labeled diagrams, make claims and
or written responses (two to three answer questions.
strong, clear sentences).

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 Strategy Definition Purpose Activity

Graph and Students generate a graph (or Allows students As students learn about
Switch sketch of a graph) to model a to practice PV graphs, they can graph
certain function and then switch creating different pressure versus volume
calculators (or papers) to review representations of for different processes
each other’s solutions. functions as well as (isobaric, isochoric,
giving and receiving adiabatic, and isothermal).
feedback on each Have students individually
other’s work. graph and explain how their
graphs support claims.
After, have them share their
steps with a partner and
exchange feedback on their
graphs, claims, evidence,
and reasoning.

Graphic Students use visual representation Builds To determine the work done
Organizer for the organization of information. comprehension and on or by a gas and the change
facilitates discussion in internal energy (and the
by representing heat) from a PV graph, have
information in students construct a sign
visual form. table to help them keep
track of their logic as they
think through the different
processes represented.
Have them mark where the
heat, work, and internal
energy increases, decreases,
or remains the same. This
process also works well in
circuits when switches are
opened/closed or when bulbs
are removed/added.

Identify Subtasks Students break a problem into Helps organize the Another scaffolding
smaller pieces with outcomes leading pieces of a complex technique: When first
to a solution. problem and reach a exposing students to AP-level
complete solution. questions that involve several
steps of reasoning and
logic, additional questions
can be added to help guide
students to the final claim,
evidence, and reasoning. For
example, ask students to
sketch a free-body diagram,
discuss the system, and/or
draw energy bar charts. After
completing the first few units,
students should be able to
identify (first in groups and
then individually) what the
subtasks would be (free-body
diagram, etc.) to start thinking
about the claim, evidence,
and reasoning.

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 Strategy Definition Purpose Activity

Marking the Text Students highlight, underline, Helps the student This strategy can be used
and/or annotate text to focus on key identify important with AP-level problems
information to help understand the information in the as well as problems from
text or solve the problem. text and make notes the textbook and sample
in the text about the laboratory procedures.
interpretation of Have students read through
tasks required and the question, experimental
concepts to apply to design, or another student’s
reach a solution. experimental design;
underline the pronouns,
equipment, key information
(i.e., the car begins at rest),
etc., to identify important
information and to be able
to ask clarifying questions.

Meaningful, Students are presented with Students are These calculations can take
Meaningless an unreduced expression for a presented with many forms, but the most
Calculations calculation for a physical quantity an unreduced useful are those where the
describing a physical situation. They calculation for a “meaningless” calculations
must decide whether the calculation physical calculation illustrate common student
is meaningful (i.e., it gives a value that involves a misconceptions. For
that tells us something legitimate mathematical example, when calculating
about the physical situation) or is relationship, and current through individual
meaningless (i.e., the expression students are asked resistors, students might
is a totally inappropriate use of a if the calculation see sample calculations
relation). These calculations should makes any sense. that use the voltage of
not be trivially meaningless, such the battery instead of the
as substituting a wrong numerical voltage across the individual
value into the expression. These resistor. Have students
items are best when the quantity identify the calculation(s)
calculated fits with students’ that have physical meaning.
alternative conceptions.
Ask students about a
situation in which there is
a uniform magnetic field
of specified magnitude,
directed toward the left, with
an electron traveling parallel
to the field at a speed of
300 m/s. Have students find
the magnetic force acting on
the electron as the product
of the speed, the charge,
and the magnitude of the
field. Ask students if this a
meaningful (or meaningless)
calculation for this situation.

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 Strategy Definition Purpose Activity

Model Questions Students answer items from released Provides rigorous Model questions can be
AP Physics Exams. practice and AP-released or AP-level
assesses students’ questions. They can be
ability to apply given as is, or scaffolded
multiple physical for students earlier in the
practices on year to provide them with
content, either a support.
multiple-choice or
a free-response
question.

Note Taking Students create a record of Helps in Have students write down
information while reading a text or organizing ideas verbal descriptions of the
listening to a speaker. and processing steps needed to solve a
information. problem so that a record
of the processes can be
referred to at a later point
in time.

Predict and These tasks describe a physical Stimulates thinking When a circuit is set up with
Explain situation that is set up at a point by asking students a capacitor, bulb, and switch,
where some event is about to occur. to make, check, and ask students: “What will
Students predict and explain what correct predictions happen to the brightness
they think will happen. These tasks based on evidence of the bulb when the switch
must have situations with which from the outcome. is closed or opened? What
the students are familiar or have happens immediately versus
sufficient background information in what happens after a long
to enable the students to understand time? What would happen if
the situation. This is important the capacitor was replaced
because otherwise students usually with a second bulb?”
do not feel comfortable enough to
attempt to answer.

Qualitative These tasks can take a variety Students are Ask students what would
Reasoning of forms, with their common presented with a happen to the image
denominator being qualitative physical situation created by a convex lens
analysis. Frequently, students are and asked to apply if the object were moved
presented with an initial and final a principle to farther from or closer to
situation and asked how some qualitatively reason the lens or focal point.
quantity or aspect will change. out what will happen. Additional questions could
Qualitative comparisons (e.g., the These questions include, “What happens if
quantity increases, decreases, are commonly a second lens is added?”
or stays the same) are often the found in other or “What would happen
appropriate answer. Qualitative multiple-choice to the image if the whole
reasoning tasks can frequently question subtypes. experiment were put
contain elements found in some of under water?”
the other task formats (e.g., different
qualitative representations and a
prediction or explanation).

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 Strategy Definition Purpose Activity

Quickwrite Students write for a short, Helps generate ideas To help synthesize concepts
specific amount of time about a in a short amount after having learned how
designated topic. of time. to analyze single- and
double-slit experiments,
have students list as many
ways as possible to change
the interference pattern
on the screen and explain
how each change affects
the pattern.

Ranking A ranking task is an exercise that These tasks require Given six different arrows
presents students with a set of students to engage launched from the ground
variations—sometimes three or four in a comparison with different speeds at
but usually six to eight—on a basic reasoning process different angles, have
physical situation. The variations that they seldom students rank the arrows
differ in value (numeric or symbolic) have opportunities on the basis of the highest
for the variables involved but also to do in traditional acceleration at the top,
frequently include variables that problem solving. the longest time in the air,
are not important to the task. The and the largest velocity
students’ task is to rank the variations at the top.
on the basis of a specified physical
quantity. Students must also explain
the reasoning for their ranking
scheme and rate their confidence in
their ranking.

Sharing and Students communicate with Gives students Group students to review
Responding another person or a small group of the opportunity to individual work (graphs,
peers who respond to a proposed discuss their work derivations, problem
problem solution. with peers, make solutions, experimental
suggestions to designs, etc.). Have the
improve the work groups make any necessary
of others, and/or corrections and build a
receive appropriate single complete solution
and relevant together.
feedback on their
own work.

Simplify the Students use “friendlier” numbers or Provides insight into Have students use resistors
Problem functions to help solve a problem. the problem or the with resistances that
strategies needed to add easily in parallel. Two
solve the problem. resistors with resistances
of 30 ohms and 60 ohms
in parallel add nicely to
20 ohm total resistance for
the combination.

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 Strategy Definition Purpose Activity

Troubleshooting Troubleshooting tasks are variations Allows students to Give students a derivation
on “What if Anything Is Wrong?” troubleshoot errors or problem solution and ask
tasks. Students are explicitly told that and misconceptions them to find the incorrect
there is an error in the given situation. by focusing on step(s). Have them identify
Their job is to determine what the problems that may and explain the mistake
error is and explain how to correct arise when they do or misunderstanding that
it. These tasks can often produce the same procedures led to the error. This can
interesting insights into students’ themselves. also be done with bar
thinking, because they will, at times, charts, diagrams, and other
identify some correct aspect of the representations.
situation as erroneous. Once again,
this helps develop additional items.

“What if Requires students to analyze a Allows students Give students a ray diagram
Anything Is statement or diagrammed situation to troubleshoot that may or may not have
Wrong?” to determine if it is correct or not. errors and focus on incorrect rays drawn. Or,
If everything is correct, the student problems that may give them a sketch of a
is asked to explain the statement/ arise when they do circuit and a corresponding
situation and why it works as the same procedures circuit diagram and ask
described. If something is incorrect, themselves. them to identify if the
the student has to identify the error diagram matches the
and explain how to correct it. These sketch. This technique can
are open-ended exercises, so they also be used in derivations
provide insights into students’ ideas, and problem solving where
since they will often have interesting students are given the
reasons for accepting incorrect “complete” solution and are
situations and for rejecting legitimate asked to verify that it was
situations. Often, students’ responses done correctly.
provide ideas for other items.

Write and Switch Like graph and switch, but with Allows students As students learn about
writing. Make observations or collect to practice writing creating an argument,
data or make a claim, and then and both give and have them draft an initial
switch papers. receive feedback on argument themselves; share
each other’s work. their claim, evidence, and
reasoning with a partner;
and receive feedback on
their argument.

Working This task reverses the order of the Provides another Give students an
Backward problem steps. For example, the given way to check equation, such as
information could be an equation with
specific values for all, or all but one,
possible answers for
accuracy.
( )
−16m = ( 2 ms ) t − 5 m2 t 2
s ,
of the variables. The students must and ask them to create
then construct a physical situation another representation from
for which the given equation would this equation. For example,
apply. Such working backward tasks position versus time graphs,
require students to take numerical velocity versus time graphs,
values, including units, and translate motion maps, etc., are all
them into physical variables. written scenarios that this
Working backward problems also equation represents.
require students to reason about
these situations in an unusual way,
and they often allow for more than
one solution.

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Developing the
Science Practices

Throughout the course, students will develop and apply science practices that
are fundamental to the discipline of physics. Since these practices represent the
complex skills that adept physicists demonstrate, students will benefit from multiple
opportunities to develop them in a scaffolded manner. Through the use of guided
questioning, discussion techniques, and other instructional strategies, Teachers
can help their students apply these science practices in new contexts, providing an
important foundation for their college and career readiness.

Science Practice 1: Modeling

The student can use representations and models Inherent in the construction of models that physicists
to communicate scientific phenomena and solve invent is the use of representations, such as force
scientific problems. diagrams, graphs, energy bar charts, ray diagrams, and
circuit diagrams. Representations help in analyzing
The real world is extremely complex. When physicists
phenomena, making predictions, and communicating
describe and explain phenomena, they try to simplify
ideas. AP Physics 2 requires students to use and/or
real objects, systems, and processes to make the
analyze and/or re-express models and representations
analysis manageable. These simplifications, or models,
of natural or man-made systems.
are used to predict how new phenomena will occur.
A simple model may treat a system as an object, The table on the following page provides examples of
neglecting the system’s internal structure and behavior, questions and instructional strategies for implementing
while more complex models illustrate a system of modeling resources into the course.
objects, such as an ideal gas.

To create an accurate model, students must identify

a set of the most important characteristics of the
phenomenon or system that may simplify analysis.

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 Instructional Notes or Instructional
Science Practice Key Questions Sample Activities Strategies

1.1 The student can §§ What kind of model or Have students divide their §§ Four-Square Problem
create representations representation would paper into four quarters. In Solving
and models of natural or be appropriate for this each quarter of the paper, have §§ “What if Anything Is
physical system? them create a representation
man-made phenomena Wrong?”
of the physical situation.
and systems §§ What physical §§ Graph and Switch
Representations can include
in the domain. characteristics
equations and sentences (or §§ Changing
can be modeled or
paragraphs) as well as bar Representations
represented for this
charts, circuit diagrams, or
physical situation?
sketches of physical situations.

1.2 The student can §§ What does the Have students describe the §§ Label and Describe
describe representations representation show? physical features and meaning §§ “What if Anything Is
and models of natural or of figures and representations, Wrong?”
including figures and
man-made phenomena §§ Graph and Switch
representations from the
and systems
textbook and other reference §§ Discussion Groups
in the domain. sources.

1.3 The student can §§ What assumptions In groups, have students create §§ Graph and Switch
refine representations are inherent in the a representation for a certain §§ “What if Anything Is
and models of natural or representation physical situation. The groups Wrong?”
or model? then switch papers and discuss
man-made phenomena
modifications that can be
and systems §§ How can these
made to the representations or
in the domain. assumptions be
models based on assumptions
modified in the
that may have been made or
representation
that could be made about the
or model?
physical situation.
§§ What would the
representation or
model look like if
these assumptions
were modified?

1.4 The student can §§ What does the Have students analyze slopes, §§ “What if Anything Is
use representations representation show? areas under curves, and y and Wrong?”
and models to analyze §§ What features of x intercepts to help them solve §§ Changing
problems. They should be able
situations or solve the representation Representations
to analyze situations using
problems qualitatively provide information §§ Bar Chart
graphs/models/representations
and quantitatively. relevant to the
as easily as they can with
question or problem?
numbers and equations.

1.5 The student §§ What characteristic Have students divide their §§ “What if Anything Is
can re-express key or physical quantity paper into four quarters Wrong?”
elements of natural of the situation does and provide four different §§ Changing
each representation representations for a given
phenomena across Representations
illustrate? physical situation.
multiple representations §§ Four-Square Problem
in the domain. §§ How do the Representations can include Solving
representations an equation, a written sentence
show consistency? (or paragraph), a graph, a
bar chart, or a sketch of the
physical scenario.

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Science Practice 2: Mathematical Routines
The student can use mathematics appropriately. or mathematical representations, students need to be
able to justify why using a particular equation to analyze
Physicists commonly use mathematical
a particular situation is useful and to be aware of the
representations to describe and explain phenomena,
conditions under which the equations/mathematical
as well as to solve problems. When students work with
representations can be used.
these representations, they should understand the
connections between the mathematical description, the The following table provides examples of questions and
physical phenomena, and the concepts represented in instructional strategies for implementing mathematical
the mathematical descriptions. When using equations resources into the course:

Instructional Notes or Instructional

Science Practice Key Questions Sample Activities Strategies

2.1 The student can §§ What quantities are given? Have students work backward §§ Working
justify the selection §§ What quantity is needed to from a given mathematical Backward
of a mathematical answer the question? routine to a physical situation. §§ Simplify the
For instance, give them an
routine to §§ What relationship(s) link the Problem
equation such as
solve problems. needed quantities with the
given quantities? ( )
−16m = ( 2 ms ) t − 5 m2 t 2
s
§§ Ask the Expert

and ask them to create another

representation—such as a
written scenario about this
equation, position versus
time graphs, velocity versus
time graphs, motion maps,
etc.—from this equation.

2.2 The student can §§ What laws, definitions, or Have students perform a task §§ Model
apply mathematical mathematical relationships exist in which the calculations are Questions
routines to quantities that relate the given problem? already done—a task that §§ Discussion
will require them to focus on
that describe §§ What are the rules, assumptions, Groups
making important distinctions
natural phenomena. or limitations surrounding the §§ Meaningful,
that physicists consider critical.
use of the chosen law, definition, Meaningless
For example, have students
or relationship? Calculations
determine whether a specified
§§ Did the calculation begin with an calculation is meaningful or
equation or a fundamental physics meaningless. This is entirely
relationship, law, or definition? different from plugging
§§ Are the steps clearly written out numerical values into an
and annotated? equation and turning the crank.

§§ Are any steps skipped? Meaningful/meaningless

§§ Is the unknown quantity clearly calculation tasks are another
labeled as the final answer, tool to get students to process
complete with units? information about a concept or
principle in a different way.

2.3 The student can §§ How can the mathematical Have students practice §§ Meaningful,
estimate numerically routine be simplified to estimating numerical quantities Meaningless
quantities that give an estimated or order- by, for example, doing order- Calculations
of-magnitude calculation? of-magnitude calculations to
describe natural §§ Simplify the
estimate the strength of an
phenomena. §§ How can this estimated value be Problem
electric or a magnetic field at a
used as a guide when calculating
point.
an unknown value?

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Science Practice 3: Scientific Questioning
The student can engage in scientific questioning to and cognitive goal. Students need to be guided away
extend thinking or to guide investigations within the from asking “fuzzy” questions about queries that can be
context of the AP course. measured and tested. A first step in refining questions
might be to guide students to consider all the ways one
Research scientists pose and answer meaningful
might measure relevant physical quantities, leading
questions. Students may easily miss this point since,
to further discussions about how one would evaluate
depending on how a science class is taught, it may
questions by designing and carrying out experiments
seem that science is about compiling and passing
and then evaluating data and findings.
down a large body of known facts (e.g., the acceleration
of a free-falling object is 9.8 m/s2). Helping students The following table provides examples of questions
learn how to pose, refine, and evaluate scientific and instructional strategies for implementing scientific
questions is an important but difficult instructional questioning into the course:

Instructional Notes or Instructional

Science Practice Key Questions Sample Activities Strategies

3.1 The student §§ What does it mean for a Have students practice posing §§ Desktop
can pose question to be “scientific”? scientific questions by giving Experiment Tasks
scientific questions. §§ How can questions them opportunities to discuss §§ Write and Switch
what is scientifically measurable
be modified to make
and determinable with certain
them testable?
laboratory equipment.

3.2 The student §§ How can scientific Have students practice engaging §§ Desktop
can refine questions be modified to in scientific questioning by, Experiment Tasks
scientific questions. make them testable? for example asking questions §§ Write and Switch
about the relationships between
§§ How can a scientific §§ Predict and
pressure, temperature, and
question be refined Explain
volume in an ideal gas. As a first
concerning a proposed
step, students might consider the
incorrect relationship
ways in which one can measure
between variables?
physical quantities relevant to the
gas, leading to a discussion of
pressure, temperature, volume,
and number of gas particles (in
moles). Follow-up discussions
can lead to how one goes about
evaluating questions such as,
“Upon what does the pressure
in an ideal gas depend?” by
designing and carrying out
experiments and then evaluating
data and findings.

3.3 The student This science practice is not N/A N/A

can evaluate directly tested on the AP
scientific questions. Physics 2 Exam. However,
through laboratory investigation,
students need to be able to
determine what makes a good
scientific question. This is
especially important if students
are going to continue in their
studies of science.

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Science Practice 4: Experimental Methods
The student can plan and implement data collection are best thought of as an interval, not a single number.
strategies in relation to a particular scientific question. This interval, the experimental uncertainty, is due to
a combination of uncertainty in the instruments used
Scientific questions can range in scope, as well as in
and the process of taking the measurement. Detailed
specificity, from determining influencing factors and/
error analysis is not necessary to convey this pivotal
or causes to determining mechanism. The question
idea; however, it is important that students make some
posed determines the type of data required, as well as
reasoned estimate of the interval within which they
the plan for collecting data. Although class discussion
know the value of a measured data point and express
can reveal issues of measurement uncertainty and
their results in a way that makes this clear.
assumptions in the data collection, designing and
improving experimental designs and/or data collection The following table provides examples of questions and
strategies is a learned skill. Students must ultimately instructional strategies for implementing data collection
understand that the results of collecting and using resources into the course:
data to determine a numerical answer to a question

Instructional Notes or Instructional

Science Practice Key Questions Sample Activities Strategies

4.1 The student §§ What data is necessary Have students practice justifying §§ Discussion
can justify the to answer the the selection of the kind of data Groups
selection of the kind scientific question? needed to answer a particular §§ Create a Plan
scientific question.
of data needed to §§ What physical law, equation, §§ Write and Switch
answer a particular or relationship links the
For example, have students
scientific question. scientific question with the design an experiment and
collected data? analyze data from it to determine
thermal conductivity.

4.2 The student can §§ What information will be Have students practice designing §§ Create a Plan
design a plan for needed to answer the plans for collecting data to answer §§ Troubleshooting
collecting data to scientific question? scientific questions. Laboratory
design procedures do not always §§ Desktop
answer a particular §§ What equipment is Experiment
have to be carried out.
scientific question. needed to collect the Tasks
necessary data? For example, have students
§§ How will each piece of design an experiment and
equipment be used to analyze graphical data where the
collect the necessary data? area under a curve is needed to
§§ What will be done determine the work done on or by
the object or system.
with the data (data
analysis) to answer the
scientific question?

continued on next page

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 Instructional Notes or Instructional
Science Practice Key Questions Sample Activities Strategies

4.3 The student §§ What information will be Have students follow through with §§ Write and Switch
can collect data to needed to answer the the plans they have designed to §§ Desktop
answer a particular scientific question? collect data to answer a scientific Experiment
question. Students can also be
scientific question. §§ What equipment is Tasks
given a procedure to follow and
needed to collect the
can practice collecting careful data
necessary data?
from a teacher’s or classmate’s
§§ How will each piece of written instructions.
equipment be used to
collect the necessary data?
§§ What will be done
with the data (data
analysis) to answer the
scientific question?

4.4 The student §§ Can the data set given or Expose students to data that might §§ Troubleshooting
can evaluate collected be trusted? have anomalies or might not be §§ Desktop
sources of data to §§ Could there be anomalies accurate. Have them discuss the Experiment
possible reasons why a particular
answer a particular in the data that need Tasks
data set is or is not reliable.
scientific question. to be resolved?

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Science Practice 5: Data Analysis
The student can perform data analysis and is present and try to explain it using the knowledge
evaluation of evidence. that they have. When dealing with a new phenomenon,
they should be able to devise a testable explanation
The analysis, interpretation, and application of
of the pattern, if possible. It is important that students
quantitative information are vital skills for students in
understand that instruments do not produce exact
AP Physics 2. Analysis skills can be taught using any
measurements and must learn what steps they can
type of data, so it’s critical that students are fluent in
take to decrease uncertainty. Students should be able
pattern recognition and comfortable using models and
to design a second experiment to determine the same
representations.
quantity and then check for consistency across the two
Students often think that to make a graph, they need measurements, comparing the results by writing them
to connect data points or that the best-fit function both as intervals and not as single, absolute numbers.
is always linear. Thus, it is important that they can Finally, students should be able to revise their reasoning
construct a best-fit curve even for data that does not based on the new data, data for some that may appear
fit a linear relationship. Students should be able to anomalous.
represent data points as intervals with sizes dependent
The following table provides examples of questions and
on the experimental uncertainty. After students find a
instructional strategies for implementing data analysis
pattern in the data, they need to ask why this pattern
resources into the course:

Instructional
Notes or Sample Instructional
Science Practice Key Questions Activities Strategies

5.1 The student §§ How should the data be graphed Have students practice §§ Friends
can analyze data so that the best-fit curve shows analyzing data to find Without Pens
to identify patterns a relationship? patterns and relationships. §§ Write and
For example, have them
or relationships. §§ How can data intervals be used to Switch
analyze data (or a visual
show experimental uncertainty? §§ Graph and
representation) to identify
§§ What do the data or graphs show? patterns that indicate Switch
§§ What trends and patterns can you that a mechanical wave §§ Predict and
identify from the data? is polarized. Next, have Explain
students construct an
§§ Why is the pattern present
explanation based on the
in the data?
fact that the wave must have
§§ What does the pattern show about a vibration perpendicular
the relationship between quantities? to the direction of the
energy propagation.

continued on next page

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 Instructional
Notes or Sample Instructional
Science Practice Key Questions Activities Strategies

5.2. The student can §§ What changes can be made to Have students practice §§ Desktop
refine observations observations and measurements to refining observations Experiment
and measurements refine the data? and measurements. For Tasks
example, have them perform
based on §§ How can a second experiment §§ Write and
data analysis and evaluation
data analysis. be designed to answer the same Switch
of the evidence for the
scientific question? §§ Graph and
relationship between the
§§ What steps can be taken to angle of incidence and the Switch
decrease the uncertainty in the angle of refraction for light
measurements and data? crossing boundaries from
one transparent material to
another (Snell’s law).

5.3. The student §§ How does the presented evidence Have students refine §§ Sharing and
can evaluate the provide support for the claim or and analyze a scientific Responding
evidence provided by scientific question? question for an experiment §§ Conflicting
using Kirchhoff’s loop rule
data sets in relation §§ Does the data set present clear Contentions
for circuits that includes
to a particular and complete evidence in relation
determining the internal
scientific question. to the scientific question, or is the
resistance of the battery
data flawed?
and an analysis of a non-
§§ If the data is flawed, what new data ohmic resistor.
or procedure should be completed
to obtain data in relation to the
scientific question?

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Science Practice 6: Argumentation
The student can work with scientific explanations Physicists examine data and evidence to develop
and theories. claims about physical phenomena. As they articulate
their claims, physicists use reasoning processes
A scientific explanation, accounting for an observed
that rely on their awareness of different types of
phenomenon, needs to be experimentally testable. One
relationships, connections, and patterns within the data
should be able to use it to make predictions about new
and evidence. They then formulate a claim and develop
phenomena. A theory—such as the kinetic molecular
an argument that explains how the claim is supported
theory or atomic theory—uses a unified approach
by the available evidence. AP Physics 2 teachers should
to account for a large set of phenomena and gives
help students learn how to create persuasive and
accounts that are consistent with multiple experimental
meaningful arguments by improving their proficiency
outcomes within the range of applicability of the theory.
with each of these practices.
Understanding the difference between explanations
and theories is essential. The following table provides examples of strategies for
implementing argumentation resources into the course:
Students should be prepared to offer evidence,
construct reasoned arguments based on that evidence,
and make a claim or provide an explanation to support
predictions. A prediction states that the expected
outcome of a particular experimental design is based
on an explanation or a claim under scrutiny.

Instructional Notes or Instructional

Science Practice Key Questions Sample Activities Strategies

6.1. The student §§ What is evidence and Have students identify and explain the §§ Conflicting
can justify claims how does it differ evidence that supports their claim, Contentions
with evidence. from reasoning? with an emphasis on how the evidence
supports the claim.

Give students a question such as,

“Which of the following is most
responsible for … ?”

Students should analyze possibilities

and the evidence for and against each
position. Have students choose a
position and write a defensible claim
or thesis that reflects their reasoning
and evidence.

6.2. The student §§ What possible claims Have students construct an §§ Conflicting
can construct could you make based explanation of physical phenomena Contentions
explanations on the question and based on evidence. A scientific §§ Concept-
the evidence? explanation includes a claim, evidence,
of phenomena Oriented
and reasoning. For example, have
based on evidence §§ What is your purpose Demonstration
them construct an explanation of the
produced through (to define, show causality, §§ Discussion
inverse square dependence of the
scientific practices. compare, or explain Groups
electric field surrounding a spherically
a process)?
symmetric, electrically charged object.
§§ What evidence supports
your claim?
§§ How does the evidence
support your explanation?

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 Instructional Notes or Instructional
Science Practice Key Questions Sample Activities Strategies

6.3 The student §§ What evidence is there Have students list and discuss §§ Discussion
can articulate that refutes the old reasons that a scientific explanation Groups
the reasons scientific explanation and/or theory was refined or replaced.
or theory? For example, have them explain why
that scientific
classical mechanics cannot describe
explanations and §§ What evidence is there
all properties of objects by listing
theories are refined that supports the new
the reasons that classical mechanics
or replaced. scientific explanation
must be refined and an alternative
or theory?
explanation developed when classical
§§ Are there still phenomena particles display wave properties.
that cannot be explained
by scientific explanation
or theory?

6.4 The student can §§ What reasoning (physical Have students make claims about a §§ Predict and
make claims and laws or theories) supports physical situation that is set up at a Explain
predictions about your claim? point where some event is about to §§ Discussion
occur. Next, have students predict
natural phenomena §§ How does the reasoning Groups
what will happen in the situation and
based on scientific support your claim? §§ Conflicting
explain why they think that will occur.
theories and models. §§ How does the evidence For example, have students make Contentions
support your claim? claims and predictions about the
Use transitions such as net disturbance that occurs when
because or therefore. two waves overlap (superposition).

6.5 The student §§ Not tested in AP Physics 2 N/A §§ N/A

can evaluate
alternative scientific
explanations.

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Science Practice 7: Making Connections
The student is able to connect and relate knowledge ideas facilitate transfer, allowing students to bundle
across various scales, concepts, and representations knowledge together with the multiple contexts to which
in and across domains. it applies. Students should also be able to recognize
seemingly appropriate contexts to which major
Throughout the course, students will have opportunities
concepts and ideas do not apply.
to transfer their learning across disciplinary boundaries
to link, synthesize, and apply the ideas they learn The following table provides examples of questions
across the sciences and mathematics. Teachers are and instructional strategies for making connections
encouraged to provide multiple contexts in which major throughout the course:

Instructional Notes or Instructional

Science Practice Key Questions Sample Activities Strategies

7.1 The student can §§ What models and/or Have students practice §§ Meaningful,
connect phenomena representations can help connecting phenomena across Meaningless
and models connect these phenomena spatial and temporal scales. Calculations
with other phenomena? Problem solving in isolation of
across spatial and §§ Model Questions
one unit will not prepare students
temporal scales. §§ What important features §§ “What if Anything
for the AP Physics 2 Exam.
of the models and/or Is Wrong?”
representations connect the For example, have students
phenomena across spatial connect representations
and temporal scales? between topics and big ideas.
Students should be able to make
predictions about the scale of the
physical situation to determine
when a wave or particle model is
more appropriate.

7.2 The student can §§ What big ideas can link Have students practice §§ Meaningful,
connect concepts in these phenomena with connecting phenomena Meaningless
and across domain(s) other phenomena? across domains and making Calculations
generalizations across enduring
to generalize or §§ How can the ideas used to §§ Model Questions
understandings and big ideas.
extrapolate in explain this phenomenon §§ “What if Anything
For example, have students
and/or across be generalized to Is Wrong?”
predict and explain, using
enduring extrapolate across enduring
representations and models,
understandings understandings?
how waves can transfer energy
and/or big ideas. §§ How can the ideas used to around corners and behind
explain this phenomenon be obstacles by using diffraction as
generalized to extrapolate a property of waves, including
across big ideas? with sound and light.

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THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK.
AP PHYSICS 2

Exam
Information
Exam Overview

The AP Physics 2 Exam assesses student application of the science practices

and understanding of the course learning objectives outlined in the course
framework. The exam is 3 hours long and includes 50 multiple-choice
questions and 4 free-response questions. The four free-response questions
may appear in any order on the AP Exam. A four-function, scientific, or
graphing calculator is allowed on both sections of the exam. The details of
the exam, including exam weighting and timing, can be found below:

Number of
Section Question Type Questions Weighting Timing
Single-select multiple-choice 45
IA
questions (discrete or in sets)
50% 90 minutes
Multiple-select multiple-choice 5
IB
items (all discrete)

II Free-response questions 4 50% 90 minutes

Question 1: Experimental Design (12 points)

Question 2: Quantitative/Qualitative Translation (12 points)

Question 3: Paragraph Argument Short Answer Question (10 points)

Question 4: Short Answer Question (10 points)

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The exam assesses content from each of the seven big ideas for the course:

Big Idea 1: Systems

Big Idea 2: Fields

Big Idea 3: Force Interactions

Big Idea 4: Change

Big Idea 5: Conservation

Big Idea 6: Waves

Big Idea 7: Probability

The exam also assesses each of the seven units of the course with the following
weightings on the multiple-choice question section of the AP Exam:

Exam Weighting for the Multiple-Choice Section of the AP Exam

Unit of Instruction Exam Weighting

Unit 1: Fluids 10–12%

Unit 2: Thermodynamics 12–18%

Unit 3: Electric Force, Field, and Potential 18–22%

Unit 4: Electric Circuits 10–14%

Unit 5: Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction 10–12%

Unit 6: Geometric and Physical Optics 12–14%

Unit 7: Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics 10–12%

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How Student Learning is
Assessed on the AP Exam

Section I: Multiple-Choice
Science practices 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, and 7 are all assessed in in the multiple-choice section, with the following
weighting (science practice 3 will not be assessed in the multiple-choice section):

Exam Weighting for the Multiple-Choice Section of the AP Exam

Science Practice Exam Weighting

Science Practice 1: Modeling 28–30%

Science Practice 2: Mathematical Routines 16–18%

Science Practice 4: Experimental Method 2–4%

Science Practice 5: Data Analysis 10–12%

Science Practice 6: Argumentation 26–28%

Science Practice 7: Making Connections 12–16%

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Section II: Free-Response
Science practices 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, and 7 are all assessed in the free-response section, with the following weighting
(science practice 3 will not be assessed in the free-response section):

Exam Weighting for the Free-Response Section of the AP Exam

Science Practice Exam Weighting

Science Practice 1: Modeling 11–23%

Science Practice 2: Mathematical Routines 18–30%

Science Practice 4: Experimental Method 6–14%

Science Practice 5: Data Analysis 6–16%

Science Practice 6: Argumentation 22–41%

Science Practice 7: Making Connections 2–11%

The Physics 2 free-response section includes four free-response questions: two 12-point questions and
two 10-point questions. Every exam includes one experimental design question, one quantitative/qualitative
translation question, one paragraph argument short answer question, and one additional short answer question.
These questions may appear in any order on the AP Exam.

Experimental Design Question (12 points; 3–5 question parts)

This question type assesses student ability to design and describe a scientific investigation, analyze authentic
laboratory data, and identify patterns or explain phenomena.

Quantitative/Qualitative Translation Question

(12 points; 3–5 question parts)
This question type assesses student ability to translate between qualitative and quantitative
justification and reasoning.

Paragraph Argument Short Answer Question

(10 points; 2–4 question parts)
This question type assesses student ability to create a paragraph-length response, which consists of a coherent
argument about a physics phenomenon that uses the information presented in the question and proceeds in a
logical, expository fashion to arrive at a conclusion.

Short Answer Question (10 points; 2–4 question parts)

This question focuses on practices and learning objectives not focused on in the other question types.

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Task Verbs Used in
Free-Response
Questions

The following task verbs are commonly used in the free-response questions.
Calculate: Perform mathematical steps to arrive at a final answer, including
algebraic expressions, properly substituted numbers, and correct labeling of
units and significant figures. Also phrased as “What is?”
Compare: Provide a description or explanation of similarities and/or differences.
Derive: Perform a series of mathematical steps using equations or laws to
arrive at a final answer.
Describe: Provide the relevant characteristics of a specified topic.
Determine: Make a decision or arrive at a conclusion after reasoning,
observation, or applying mathematical routines (calculations).
Evaluate: Roughly calculate numerical quantities, values (greater than, equal
to, less than), or signs (negative, positive) of quantities based on experimental
evidence or provided data. When making estimations, showing steps in
calculations are not required.
Explain: Provide information about how or why a relationship, process, pattern,
position, situation, or outcome occurs, using evidence and/or reasoning
to support or qualify a claim. Explain “how” typically requires analyzing the
relationship, process, pattern, position, situation, or outcome; explain “why”
typically requires analysis of motivations or reasons for the relationship,
process, pattern, position, situation, or outcome.
Justify: Provide evidence to support, qualify, or defend a claim, and/or provide
reasoning to explain how that evidence supports or qualifies the claim.
Label: Provide labels indicating unit, scale, and/or components in a diagram,
graph, model, or representation.
Plot: Draw data points in a graph using a given scale or indicating the scale and
units, demonstrating consistency between different types of representations.
Sketch/Draw: Create a diagram, graph, representation, or model that illustrates
or explains relationships or phenomena, demonstrating consistency between
different types of representations. Labels may or may not be required.
State/Indicate/Circle: Indicate or provide information about a specified topic,
without elaboration or explanation. Also phrased as “What…?” or ”Would…?”
interrogatory questions.
Verify: Confirm that the conditions of a scientific definition, law, theorem, or
test are met in order to explain why it applies in a given situation. Also, use
empirical data, observations, tests, or experiments to prove, confirm, and/or
justify a hypothesis.

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 Sample Exam
Questions

The sample exam questions that follow illustrate the relationship between the course
framework and AP Physics 2 Exam and serve as examples of the types of questions
that appear on the exam. After the sample questions, teachers will find a table that
shows which science practice(s), learning objective(s), and unit each question relates
to. The table also provides the answers to the multiple-choice questions.

Section I: Multiple-Choice Questions

The following are examples of the kinds of multiple-choice questions found on
the exam.

Questions 1 and 2 refer to the following material.

P
3P0 C

2P0

P0 A
B

V
V0 2V0 3V0

A sealed cylinder with a moveable piston contains N molecules of an ideal gas. The
gas is initially in state A shown on the above PV diagram, where P is pressure and V is
volume. The gas is then taken through the two processes shown.

1. Which of the following correctly ranks the average speed v of the molecules in
states A, B, and C?
(A) ( v B = vC ) > v A
(B) vC > v B > v A
(C) ( v A = vC ) > v B
(D) v B > ( v A = vC )

2. Which of the following correctly ranks the magnitude of the force F the gas
exerts on the piston in states A, B, and C?
(A) FA > FC > FB
(B) FC > FB > FA
(C) ( FA = FC ) > FA
(D) FC > ( FA = FB )

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3. A cylindrical resistor is connected to a battery with an emf of 15.0 V, resulting
in a current of 3.0 A in the circuit. The resistor is removed, and a new resistor
of the same material with twice the radius and twice the length of the original
resistor is connected to the battery. What is the new current in the circuit?
(A) 1.5 A
(B) 3.0 A
(C) 6.0 A
(D) 12.0 A

4. Water of density 1000 kg/m3 is pumped through a straight, horizontal hose

and out a nozzle that has an opening with a cross-sectional area 10 times smaller
than that of the hose. The water exits the nozzle at a speed of 10.0 m/s . The
difference between the pressure of the fluid when it is in the hose near the pump
and as it exits the nozzle is
(A) 4.5 × 103 Pa
(B) 4.95 × 104 Pa
(C) 9.9 × 104 Pa
(D) 4.95 × 106 Pa

Y C

5. In the circuit shown above, bulbs X, Y, and Z are identical and capacitor C is
initially uncharged. The switch is closed at time t = 0. Which of the following
describes the brightness of bulbs Y and Z after the switch is closed?
(A) Both bulbs light and remain lit.
(B) Bulbs Y and Z are both initially lit, and bulb Y eventually goes out.
(C) Bulbs Y and Z are both initially lit, and bulb Z eventually goes out.
(D) Bulb Y is always lit and bulb Z is always out.

6. A student in a classroom sees a tree outside that is far from the classroom
window and uses a concave mirror to form an image of the tree on a screen.
Which of the following best describes the image?
(A) Real and near the center of curvature of the mirror
(B) Real and near the focal point of the mirror
(C) Virtual and near the center of curvature of the mirror
(D) Virtual and near the focal point of the mirror

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 P

7. A circuit consists of a battery and some wire with significant resistance. The wire
is bent so that the circuit is in the shape of a square, and the circuit is aligned in
the plane of the page, as shown above. Which of the following best describes the
direction of the magnetic field near point P?
(A) Clockwise around point P
(B) Out of the page
(C) Into the page
(D) The field has no direction because the magnitude of the field is zero.

+
2V –
Metal X

Metal Y

Photon

8. A photon with energy 4 eV is incident on metal X , which has a work function of

3 eV. Metal X is electrically connected to metal Y through a 2V voltage supply
with the polarity shown in the figure above. What is the maximum kinetic
energy an emitted electron could have when it reaches metal Y?
3 eV
(A) 1 eV (C)
5 eV
(B) 2 eV (D)

4m 3m

X Y
5m

9. Two charged spheres, X and Y, are held fixed at two vertices of a triangle, as
shown above. The direction of the electric field E at the third vertex due to the
two spheres is also shown. Which of the following correctly indicates the sign of
the charges on the spheres?
Sphere X Sphere Y Sphere X Sphere Y
(A)    (C)
Positive Positive Negative Positive
Sphere X Sphere Y Sphere X Sphere Y
(B)    (D)
Positive Negative Negative Negative

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 Tape 1 Tape 2

Tape 1 Tape 2

Positively charged object Attracted Repelled

Negatively charged object Repelled Attracted

Uncharged object Attracted Attracted

10. Two pieces of transparent adhesive tape, labeled 1 and 2, are stuck together. The
pieces of tape are then quickly pulled apart and stuck to an insulating rod, as
shown above. Three objects are brought near each piece of tape, one at a time.
One of the objects is positively charged, one is negatively charged, and one is
uncharged. The reaction of each piece of tape is recorded in the table above.
Based on the results, what can be concluded about the signs of the charges on
the tapes, and why?
(A) Tape 1 is positively charged, because it is attracted to the positively charged
object. Tape 2 is negatively charged because it is repelled by the positively
charged object.
(B) Tape 1 is negatively charged, because it is repelled by the negatively charged
object. Tape 2 is positively charged, because it is repelled by the positively
charged object.
(C) Tape 1 and tape 2 are both positively charged because they are both
attracted to the uncharged object.
(D) Tape 1 and tape 2 are both negatively charged because they are both
attracted to the uncharged object.

11. At the instant shown above, a particle with a positive charge travels to the right
near a wire carrying a current to the right. What is the direction of the force
exerted by the charge on the wire?
(A) Toward the bottom of the page
(B) Toward the top of the page
(C) Out of the page
(D) Into the page

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 12. A beam of electrons is incident on a crystal, creating a diffraction pattern. How
should the speed of the electrons be changed to increase the separation of the
spacing of the maxima in the pattern, and why would the pattern change?
(A) The speed should be increased, because that would increase the de Broglie
wavelength of the electrons.
(B) The speed should be increased, because that would decrease the de Broglie
wavelength of the electrons.
(C) The speed should be decreased, because that would increase the de Broglie
wavelength of the electrons.
(D) The speed should be decreased, because that would decrease the de Broglie
wavelength of the electrons.

13. A canister and the hydrogen gas it contains are at 100°C. The canister is placed
in a vacuum, and the temperature of the canister and gas begins to decrease.
Which of the following statements of reasoning best explains how the canister-
gas system loses energy?
(A) High-energy hydrogen molecules collide with lower-energy molecules and
the walls inside the canister, losing energy during the collisions.
(B) The molecules collide with the walls of the canister, causing the
canister molecules to vibrate and carry energy from the canister to the
canister’s surroundings.
(C) Energy is released from the canister as infrared radiation that can travel
through the vacuum, causing a decrease in the average energy of the
canister and the molecules.
(D) Energy is released from the canister and travels through the vacuum by
convection, causing a decrease in the average energy of the canister and
the molecules.

n=∞
n=4 –1 eV
n=3 –3 eV
n=2 –5 eV

n=1 –9 eV

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14. The figure above shows the energy levels for a hypothetical atom. For which
transitions will the emitted photon have an energy of 4 eV? Select two answers.
(A) n=4 to n=3
(B) n=4 to n=2
(C) n=3 to n=1
(D) n=2 to n=1

15. A student is asked to use the steps listed below to induce a positive charge on an
aluminum soda can. In what order could the steps be done to accomplish the
task? Select two answers.
Step W: Bring a negatively charged rod near, but not touching, the can.
Step X: Ground the can.
Step Y: Remove the ground from the can.
Step Z: Move the charged rod away from the can.
(A) W, X, Y, Z
(B) W, X, Z, Y
(C) X, W, Y, Z
(D) X, W, Z, Y

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 Section II: Free-Response Questions
The following are examples of the kinds of free-response questions found on the exam.
Note that on the actual AP Exam, there will be one experimental design question, one
quantitative/qualitative translation question, one paragraph argument short answer
question, and one additional short answer question.

1. Students use a sample of gas to investigate the behavior of the pressure P of the gas
at constant temperature T as the volume V changes. The gas is in a cylinder with
a movable piston and volume markings. Pressure and temperature probes can be
inserted into the cylinder. A hot water bath and a cold water bath are also available.
(A) Describe a procedure that would allow the students to obtain data for the
pressure P of the gas at constant temperature T as volume changes.
(B) One student suggests that the temperature probe is not needed. Is the
student correct? Briefly explain your answer.
(C) Describe a method of analyzing the pressure and volume data that could be
used to determine whether the gas is ideal. Explicitly indicate the results of
the analysis that would indicate an ideal gas.
The students are now given a sample of ideal gas in a similar container with
a piston. They investigate the behavior of the temperature T of the gas at
known constant pressure P as the volume V changes. Their graph of the
data, including a best-fit line, is shown below.

V (m3)
0.007
0.006
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.001
T (°C)
–400 –200 O 200 400
(D) Describe a method for using the graph to determine the number of moles
of gas in the container.
(E) From the graph, determine the students’ experimental value for absolute
zero temperature on the Celsius scale. Describe the method you used.

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 + 500 nC

+ 300 nC – 200 nC
70 cm

2. Three small spheres, with net charges indicated above, are held fixed at the
corners of an equilateral triangle with sides of length 70°cm.
(A) Calculate the magnitude of the net electric force acting on the sphere with
charge +500°nC at the top of the triangle due to the other two spheres.

+ +

1 2
– – + –

+ –

3 4
+ + – –

Spheres with positive or negative charges of equal magnitude are now held
fixed at the corners of four identical equilateral triangles, as shown above.
Each triangle is isolated from all other charges.
(B) For which of the triangles will the net electric field at the center of the
triangle be zero?
___ 1 ___2 ___ 3 ___ 4
Briefly describe the method you used to arrive at your answer.
(C) Rank the electric potentials V1, V2, V3, and V4 at the center of the triangles.
Briefly describe the method you used to arrive at your answer.

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Answer Key and Question
Alignment to Course Framework
Multiple-Choice
Question Answer Science Practice Learning Objective Unit

7.1 7.A.2.1
1 C 2
5.1 7.A.3.3
2 D 6.4 7.A.1.1 2
2.2 4.E.4.1
3 C 4
6.4 4.E.5.1
4 B 2.2 5.B.10.3 1
5 C 6.4 4.E.5.2 4
6 B 1.4 6.E.4.2 6
7 C 1.1 2.D.2.1 5
1.4
5.B.4.2
8 C 2.2 7
6.F.3.1
6.4
9 C 6.4 2.C.2.1 3
10 B 5.1 5.C.2.2 3
7.2 3.A.4.2
11 B 3
1.4 3.C.3.1
12 C 6.4 6.G.2.2 7
1.1 6.F.2.1
13 C 2, 6
6.2 7.B.1.1
14 B, D 1.1 7.C.4.1 7
15 A, C 4.2 4.E.3.5 3

Free-Response Science Learning

Question Question Type Question Part Practice Objective Unit

1 Experimental (A) 4.2 7.A.3.2 2

Design (B) 4.2 7.A.3.2 2
(C) 5.1 7.A.3.3 2
(D) 5.1 7.A.3.3 2
(E) 6.4 7.A.3.1 2
2 Short Answer (A) 2.2 3.C.2.3 3
(B) 1.4 2.C.4.2 3
2.2
(C) 6.4 2.E.2.1 3
7.2

The scoring information for the questions within this course and exam description, along with further
exam resources, can be found on the AP Physics 2 Exam Page on AP Central.

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 AP PHYSICS 2

Scoring Guidelines
Question 1:  Experimental Design

1. Students use a sample of gas to investigate the behavior of the pressure P of the gas at constant temperature T as the
volume V changes. The gas is in a cylinder with a movable piston and volume markings. Pressure and temperature probes
can be inserted into the cylinder. A hot water bath and a cold water bath are also available.
(A) Describe a procedure that would allow the students to obtain data for the pressure P of the gas at constant
temperature T as volume changes.
(B) One student suggests that the temperature probe is not needed. Is the student correct? Briefly explain your answer.
(C) Describe a method of analyzing the pressure and volume data that could be used to determine whether the gas is
ideal. Explicitly indicate the results of the analysis that would indicate an ideal gas.
The students are now given a sample of ideal gas in a similar container with a piston. They investigate the behavior
of the temperature T of the gas at known constant pressure P as the volume V changes. Their graph of the data,
including a best-fit line, is shown below.

V (m3)
0.007
0.006
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.001
T (°C)
–400 –200 O 200 400
(D) Describe a method for using the graph to determine the number of moles of gas in the container.
(E) From the graph, determine the students’ experimental value for absolute zero temperature on the Celsius scale.
Describe the method you used.

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 Scoring Guidelines for Question 1:  Experimental Design 12 points
Learning Objectives:  7.A.3.2 7.A.3.2 7.A.3.3 7.A.3.3 7.A.3.1

(A) Describe a procedure that would allow the students to obtain data for the pressure P of the gas at 1 point
constant temperature T as volume changes. 4.2

One point for using one of the baths to regulate the temperature.

One point for using the piston to change the volume of the gas. 1 point
4.2

One point for waiting for the temperature to reach equilibrium before measuring pressure 1 point
4.2

One point for explicitly taking more than two measurements. 1 point
4.2

Total for part (A) 4 points

(B) One student suggests that the temperature probe is not needed. Is the student correct? Briefly explain 1 point
your answer. 4.2

One point for indicating that the student is incorrect with an acceptable explanation that addresses the
need to know the gas temperature.

Example of acceptable explanation (claim, evidence, and reasoning):

• The student is not correct (claim). As the pressure and volume change the temperature also changes
(evidence). The gas temperature would need to be measured to verify that it has reached equilibrium
with the water bath (reasoning).

(C) Describe a method of analyzing the pressure and volume data that could be used to determine whether 1 point
the gas is ideal. 5.1

One point for indicating an appropriate analysis method.

One point for indicating the information from the analysis that would indicate an ideal gas. 1 point
• Example 1: Graph pressure as a function of volume. If the gas is ideal the best fit to the data 5.1

will be linear.
• Example 2: For each pressure-volume data pair, multiply the pressure and the volume. If the values
are reasonably the same, the gas is ideal.

Total for part (C) 2 points

(D) Describe a method for using the graph to determine the number of moles of gas in the container. 1 point
5.1
One point for using the slope of the graph.

1 point
nR
One point for indicating that the slope equals . 5.1
P

One point for noting that the fundamental constant R and the value at which P is held 1 point
constant are known. 5.1

Total for part (D) 3 points

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 (E) Determine the students’ experimental value for absolute zero temperature on the Celsius scale. 1 point
One point for indicating a value near 300° C (but not so precise as 273° C since the graph cannot be 6.4

read that precisely).

Describe the method you used. 1 point

One point for describing the extrapolation of the line to zero volume to determine absolute zero. 6.4

Total for part (E) 2 points

Total for question 1 12 points

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 Question 2:  Short Answer

+ 500 nC

+ 300 nC – 200 nC
70 cm

2. Three small spheres, with net charges indicated above, are held fixed at the corners of an equilateral triangle with sides
of length 70°cm.
(A) Calculate the magnitude of the net electric force acting on the sphere with charge +500°nC at the top of the
triangle due to the other two spheres.

+ +

1 2
– – + –

+ –

3 4
+ + – –

Spheres with positive or negative charges of equal magnitude are now held fixed at the corners of four identical
equilateral triangles, as shown above. Each triangle is isolated from all other charges.
(B) For which of the triangles will the net electric field at the center of the triangle be zero?
___ 1 ___2 ___ 3 ___ 4
Briefly describe the method you used to arrive at your answer.
(C) Rank the electric potentials V1, V2, V3, and V4 at the center of the triangles.
Briefly describe the method you used to arrive at your answer.

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 Scoring Guidelines for Question 2:  Short Answer 10 points
Learning Objectives:  3.C.2.3 2.C.2.4 2.E.2.1

(A) Calculate the magnitude of the net electric force acting on the sphere with charge +500°nC at the top of 1 point
the triangle due to the other two spheres. 2.2

As shown above, the vertical components of the forces subtract and the horizontal components add.

One point for correct substitutions for the magnitude of the force from each of the charges.

kq1q2
F=
r2

The magnitude for the positive charge is:

 9 Nm 
2
 (500 × 10 C)( 300 × 10 C)
−9 −9
 9.0 × 10
F= C2  = 2.8 × 10−3 N
2
(0.7 m)

The magnitude for the negative charge is:

 9 Nm 
2
 9.0 × 10 2 
(500 × 10−9 C)(200 × 10−9 C)
F= C = 1.8 × 10−3 N
2
(0.7 m)

One point for evidence of taking components of the forces or adding the forces as vectors. 1 point
2.2

One point for subtracting the vertical components and adding the horizontal components. 1 point
2.2
The net vertical force is (2.8 − 1.8) ( ×10 −3
N) sin60° = 8.6 × 10 −4
N.
The net horizontal force is (2.8 + 1.8) ( ×10−3 N) cos60° = 2.3 × 10−3 N.

One point for adding the sum of the squares of the components to find the magnitude of the net force. 1 point
2.2
2 2
Fnet = (8.6 × 10 ) + (2.3 × 10 )
−4 −3
N = 2.5 × 10 −3
N

Total for part (A) 4 points

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 (B) For which of the triangles will the net electric field at the center of the triangle be zero? Briefly describe 1 point
the method you used to arrive at your answer. 1.4

One point for indicating triangles 3 and 4 with an attempt at a relevant description.

One point for treating the electric fields as vectors. 1 point

1.4

One point for using the symmetry of the triangular arrangement. 1 point
1.4
Example of an acceptable description:
• In triangles 3 and 4, the fields from each of the three spheres all point toward the center
of the triangle or away from it. This is a symmetrical arrangement, so the net force is zero.

Total for part (B) 3 points

(C) Rank the electric potentials V1, V2 , V3 , and V4 a t the center of the triangles. 1 point
6.4
Briefly describe the method you used to arrive at your answer.

One point for a correct ranking with an attempt at a relevant description.

V3 > V2 > V1 > V4

One point for treating the electric potentials as scalars. 1 point

6.4

One point for indicating that positive charges produce a positive potential and negative charges 1 point
produce a negative potential. 6.4

Example of an acceptable description:

• Potential is not a vector, so the potentials from each sphere simply add. Positive charges produce
positive potential, and negative charges produce negative potential. The charges are equal, so all
charges produce the same magnitude of potential at the center. V3 is caused by a net of 3 positive
charges, V2 by 2 positives, V1 by 2 negatives, and V4 by 3 negatives.

Total for part (C) 3 points

Total for question 2 10 points

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AP PHYSICS 2

Appendix
 AP PHYSICS 2

Table of
Information:
Equations

AP Physics 2: Algebra-Based Course and Exam Description Appendix V.1 | 235

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 AP® PHYSICS 2 TABLE OF INFORMATION
CONSTANTS AND CONVERSION FACTORS
m p 1.67 ¥ 10 -27 kg
Proton mass, = Electron charge magnitude, =e 1.60 ¥ 10 -19 C
mn 1.67 ¥ 10 -27 kg
Neutron mass, = eV 1.60 ¥ 10 -19 J
1 electron volt, 1=
me 9.11 ¥ 10 -31 kg
Electron mass, = Speed of light, =c 3.00 ¥ 108 m s
Universal gravitational
N 0 6.02 ¥ 1023 mol -1
Avogadro’s number, = G 6.67 ¥ 10 -11 m 3 kg s 2
constant, =
R = 8.31 J (mol K) Acceleration due to gravity
Universal gas constant,
at Earth’s surface, g = 9.8 m s2
kB 1.38 ¥ 10 -23 J K
Boltzmann’s constant, =
1 unified atomic mass unit, 1.66 ¥ 10 -27 kg =
1u = 931 MeV c 2
Planck’s constant, 6.63 ¥ 10 -34 J s =
h= 4.14 ¥ 10 -15 eVs
1.99 10 -25 J  m =¥
hc =¥ 1.24 103 eV nm
Vacuum permittivity, e0 8.85 ¥ 10 -12 C2 N  m 2
=
Coulomb’s law constant, = =
k 1 4 pe0 9.0 ¥ 10 9 N  m 2 C2
Vacuum permeability, m=
0 4 p ¥ 10 -7 (T m) A
Magnetic constant, k ¢= m0 4 p= 1 ¥ 10 -7 (T m) A
1 atmosphere pressure, 1.0 ¥ 10 5 N m 2 =
1 atm = 1.0 ¥ 10 5 Pa

meter, m mole, mol watt, W farad, F

kilogram, kg hertz, Hz coulomb, C tesla, T
UNIT
second, s newton, N volt, V degree Celsius, ∞C
SYMBOLS
ampere, A pascal, Pa ohm, W electron volt, eV
kelvin, K joule, J henry, H

PREFIXES VALUES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS FOR COMMON ANGLES

      
Factor Prefix Symbol q 0 30 37 45 53 60 90
12 tera T
10 12 35 45
sinq 0 2 2 3 2 1
10 9 giga G
cosq 1 3 2 45 2 2 35 12 0
10 6 mega M
10 3 kilo k tanq 0 3 3 34 1 43 3 •
10 -2 centi c
10 -3 milli m The following conventions are used in this exam.
I. The frame of reference of any problem is assumed to be inertial unless
10 -6 micro m otherwise stated.
10 -9 nano n II. In all situations, positive work is defined as work done on a system.
-12 III. The direction of current is conventional current: the direction in which
10 pico p positive charge would drift.
IV. Assume all batteries and meters are ideal unless otherwise stated.
V. Assume edge effects for the electric field of a parallel plate capacitor
unless otherwise stated.
VI. For any isolated electrically charged object, the electric potential is
defined as zero at infinite distance from the charged object

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© 2020
2019 College Board
 AP® PHYSICS 2 EQUATIONS

MECHANICS ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

=
à x Ãx 0 + a x t a = acceleration  1 q1q2 A = area
FE =
A = amplitude 4 pe0 r 2 B = magnetic field
1 2 d = distance  C = capacitance
x =x0 + Ãx 0 t + at
2 x E = energy  FE d = distance
E =
F = force q E = electric field
Ãx2 Ãx20 + 2ax ( x - x0 )
= f = frequency e= emf
 1 q
  I = rotational inertia E = F = force
=

a
Â
=
F Fnet
K = kinetic energy
4 pe0 r 2
I = current
m m
k = spring constant DUE = qDV  = length
 
Ff £ m Fn L = angular momentum P = power
 = length 1 q Q = charge
V =
Ã2 m = mass 4 pe0 r q = point charge
ac = P = power
r  R = resistance
  p = momentum DV
p = mv E = r = separation
r = radius or separation Dr t = time
  T = period U = potential (stored)
Dp = F Dt Q
t = time DV = energy
C
1 2 U = potential energy V = electric potential
K = mv A
2 v = speed C = ke0 v = speed
W = work done on a d k = dielectric
D= = F=
E W d Fd cos q
system Q constant
x = position E = r= resistivity
DE e0 A
P= y = height
Dt q = angle
a = angular acceleration 1 1
1 2 =UC = QDV C ( DV )2 F = flux
q =q0 + w0t + at m = coefficient of friction 2 2
2
q = angle
=
w w0 + at t = torque DQ
I =   
w = angular speed Dt = qv ¥ B
FM
= cos ( wt ) A cos (2p ft )
x A= 1
Us = kx 2 r   
2 R= FM = qv sin q B
x cm =
 mi xi A
 mi DUg = mg Dy
P = I DV   
  FM= I  ¥ B
=
a
 Â t
= net
t =
T
2p
=
1
DV
I I w f I =   
R FM = I  sin q B
=t r=
^F rF sin q m
Ts = 2 p Rs = Â Ri  
k i F B = B A
L = Iw
  
Tp = 2 p 1 1
DL = t Dt g
Rp
= Â Ri FB = B cos q A
i
1  mm
K = I w2 Fg = G 1 2 2 Cp = Â Ci DFB
2 r e= -
i
   Dt
Fs = k x  Fg 1
g =
m Cs
= Â C1i e = B v
i
Gm1m2
UG = - m0 I
r B=
2p r

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 AP® PHYSICS 2 EQUATIONS

FLUID MECHANICS AND THERMAL PHYSICS WAVES AND OPTICS

m A = area v d = separation
r= l=
V F = force f f = frequency or
h = depth focal length
F c
P= k = thermal conductivity n= h = height
A Ã
K = kinetic energy L = distance
=
P P0 + rgh L = thickness n 1 sin q1 = n 2 sin q2 M = magnification
m = mass m = an integer
Fb = rVg n = number of moles 1 1 1 n = index of
+ =
N = number of molecules si so f refraction
A1v1 = A2 v2
P = pressure s = distance
hi si
1 Q = energy transferred to a =
M = v = speed
P1 + rgy1 + rv12 ho so
2 system by heating l = wavelength
1 T = temperature DL = ml q = angle
=P2 + rgy2 + rv 2
2 2 t = time
d sin q = ml
U = internal energy
Q kA DT
= V = volume
Dt L
v = speed GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY
= = NkBT
PV nRT W = work done on a system
Rectangle A= area
y = height A = bh
3 C= circumference
K = k T r = density
2 B V= volume
Triangle S = surface area
W = -P DV 1 b = base
A = bh
2 h = height
D U= Q + W
= length
Circle
w= width
A = pr 2 r = radius
C = 2 pr
MODERN PHYSICS
E = hf E= energy Rectangular solid Right triangle
f = frequency V = wh 2
= hf - f
K max K= kinetic energy c= a 2 + b2
m= mass Cylinder a
h sin q =
l= p = momentum c
p V = pr 2 
l= wavelength b
=S 2 pr  + 2 pr 2 cos q =
2 f= work function c
E = mc
a
Sphere tan q =
b
4 3
V = pr c
3 a
2
S = 4 pr q 90
b

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