Chapter 3

THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE

COST OF CAPITAL
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (87)

Chapter learning objectives

In this chapter you will learn:

 Financing and the cost of capital

 Dividend valuation model
 Risk and reward, CAPM
 Cost of debt
 Weighted average cost of capital
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1 Overview of Chapter

2 Introduction to the Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC)

In order to calculate the NPV of a project, a company will need to determine an
appropriate discount rate. In many cases, the company's WACC, which reflects the
returns required by investors, will be used as a discount rate.

The WACC is derived by first estimating the cost of each source of finance separately
(e.g. ordinary shares, debt, preference shares) and then taking a weighted average of
these individual costs, using the following formula:

Ko = Keg x + Kd x
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3 The Cost of Equity – ke

The cost of equity is the rate of return that ordinary shareholders expect to receive on
their investment. The two main methods of computing ke are:

 the dividend valuation model (DVM)

 the capital asset pricing model (CAPM)

4 The Cost of Equity – Dividend Valuation Model

The DVM states that the current share price is determined by the future dividends,
discounted at the investors' required rate of return.

d
P0 = —
ke
where ke = cost of equity

d = is the constant dividend

P0 = the ex div market price of the share

This is a variant of the formula for a perpetuity.

We can re-arrange the formula to get the one below:

The dividend valuation model with constant dividends

d
ke = —
P0

Cum div and ex div share prices

The ex dividend ("ex div") value of a share is the value just after a dividend has been
paid. Occasionally in questions, you may be given a share price just before the
payment of a dividend (a "cum div" price). In this case, the value of the upcoming
dividend should be deducted from the cum div price to give the ex div price.

For example, if a dividend of Rs 2 is due to be paid on a share which has a cum div
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (90)

value of Rs 34.5, the ex div share price to be entered into the DVM formula is Rs 34.5
- Rs 2 = Rs 32.5.

Example 1

The ordinary shares of a company are quoted at Rs 20 per share ex div. A dividend of
Rs 1.6 per share has just been paid and there is expected to be no growth in
dividends.

Required:

What is the cost of equity?

Example 2 So its cum share price

The ordinary shares of Jibran Ltd are quoted at Rs 40 per share. A dividend of Rs 3 is
about to be paid. There is expected to be no growth in dividends.
Required:

What is the cost of equity?

Example 3

The cost of equity capital is 12%. The current dividend for a share of a company is Rs
4. There is expected to be no growth in the value of the dividend.

Required:

What is the value of the share (P0)?

Introducing growth

The dividend valuation model with constant growth

d1 d0(1 + g)
ke = —– + g or ke = ———— +g
P0 P0

where g = a constant rate of growth in dividends

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d1 = dividend to be paid in one year's time

d0 = current dividend
Estimating growth

There are two main methods of determining growth (although the examiner will
usually give the growth rate in the question if you need it):

(1) The averaging method

do
g  n 1
dn

Where do = current dividend

dn = idvident n year ago

Example 4

Kashmir Ltd paid a dividend of Rs 3 per share four years ago, and the current dividend is Rs
4.4. The current share price is Rs 100 ex div.

Required:

(a) Estimate the rate of growth in dividends.

(b) Calculate the cost of equity.

Example 5

A company paid a dividend of Rs 0.8 per share eight years ago, and the current dividend is
Rs 1.3. The current share price is Rs 27.6 ex div.

Required:

Calculate the cost of equity.

(2) Gordon's growth model

g = rb
where r = return on reinvested funds
b = proportion of funds retained
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Example 6

The ordinary shares of a company are quoted at Rs 70 cum div. A dividend of Rs 5 is

just about to be paid. The company has an annual accounting rate of return of 12%
and each year pays out 70% of its profits after tax as dividends.

Required:

Estimate the cost of equity.

Assumptions of Gordon’s growth model

Gordon’s growth model was developed by economist Myron Gordon. It attempts to

derive a future growth rate, rather than the previous approach of extrapolating the
historical growth rate.

Gordon argued that an increase in the level of investment by company will give rise to
an increase in future dividends. The two key elements in determining future dividend
growth will be the rate of reinvestment by the company and the return generated by
the investments.

There are a number of assumptions required to apply this model:


 The entity must be all equity financed;
 Retained profits are the only source of additional investment;
 A constant proportion of each year’s earnings is retained for reinvestment;
 Projects financed form retained earnings earn a constant rate of return.

Valuation with multiple growth rates

Calculating the value of share with multiple dividend growth rates involves the
following steps:

Step 1: Calculate the value of share in the year in which change in growth rate is
expected

Step 2: Calculate the dividend for each year before change in growth rate

Step 3: Calculate the present value of all amounts determined in step 1 and step 2

Illustration 1
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ABC Ltd paid a dividend of Rs 25 this year. Dividend is expected to grow at 3% for
next three years and at 2% afterwards.

Required:

Calculate current value per share if shareholders require annual return of 14%.

Solution

Step 1:

Calculate dividend of the year in which growth rates changes: Rs 25 (1.03)3 = Rs 27.3

Market value in year 3 = P3 =

P3 = Rs 27.3 (1.02) / (.14-.02)

= Rs 27.8 / 0.12 = Rs 232

Step 2:

Year Dividend with

3% growth

1 25.8
2 26.5
3 27.3

Step 3:

P0 = Present value of first 3 dividends + present value of P3

Year Dividend Discount Present Value

factor @ 14% (14%)
Rs Rs
Y1 25.8 0.877 22.6
Y2 26.5 0.769 20.5
Y3 27.3 0.675 18.5
Value in Y3 232 0.675 156.6
Total Value 218.5
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The cost of preference shares

Preference shares usually pay a constant level of dividend, which is quoted as a

percentage of nominal value. Hence, the cost of preference shares (kp) can be
calculated using a formula very similar to the one covered earlier for ke in a no growth
situation.The formula is:

d
kp = —
P0
d = is the constant dividend

P0 = the ex div market price of the share

kp = the cost of preference shares

5 The Cost of Equity – Capital Asset Pricing Model

The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) is an alternative to the Dividend Valuation
Model, which can be used to calculate the cost of equity. The CAPM derives cost of
equity based on the risk perception of the investor.

Systematic and unsystematic risk

There are two elements that make up the risk associated with a company:

 Unsystematic (or specific) risk is the risk of the company's cash flows being affected
by specific factors like strikes, R&D successes, systems failures, etc.

 Systematic (or market) risk is the risk of the company's cash flows being affected to
some extent by general macroeconomic factors such as tax rates, unemployment
or interest rates.
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The impact of diversification

By holding a portfolio of investments, the unsystematic risk is diversified away but the
systematic risk is not, so will be present in all portfolios.

For example, the return from a single investment in an ice-cream entity will be
subject to changes in the weather – sunny weather producing good returns, cold
weather poor returns. By itself the investment could be considered a high risk. If a
second investment were made in an umbrella entity, which is also subject to
weather changes, but in the opposite way, then the return from the portfolio of the
two investments will have a much reduced risk level. This process is known as
diversification, and when continued can reduce portfolio risk to a minimum.

If an investor enlarges his portfolio to include approximately 25 shares the

unsystematic risk is reduced to close to zero, the implication being that we may
eliminate the unsystematic portion of overall risk by spreading investment over a
sufficiently diversified portfolio.

The capital asset pricing model (CAPM) enables us to calculate the required return
for a well-diversified investor who is not subject to unsystematic risk.

If we can measure the systematic risk of a company or investment, the CAPM will
enable us to calculate the level of required return.

ß (beta) factor

The method adopted by CAPM to measure systematic risk is an index, ß (beta). The
ß factor is the measure of a share's volatility in terms of market risk.

The ß factor of the market as a whole is 1. Market risk makes market returns volatile
and the ß factor is simply a yardstick against which the risk of other investments can
be measured.
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The ß factor is critical to applying the CAPM; it illustrates the relationship of an

individual security to the market as a whole, or conversely the market return given the
return on an individual security.

Beta values fall into four categories, with the following meanings:

(i) ß>1 The shares have more systematic risk than the stock market average.
(ii) ß=1 The shares have the same systematic risk as the stock market
average.
(iii) ß < 1 The shares have less systematic risk than the stock market average.
(iv) ß = 0 The shares have no risk at all.

A share's beta value can be interpreted quite precisely:

ß = 1.25 : The shares have 25% more systematic risk than the average level on the
stock market.
ß = 0.80 : The shares have 20% less systematic risks than the average. (i.e. they
only have 80% of the average level).

The security market line

The security market line (SML) gives the relationship between systematic risk and
return. We know two relationships:

(1) The risk-free security

This carries no risk and therefore no systematic risk and therefore has a beta of
zero.

(2) The market portfolio

This represents the ultimate in diversification and therefore contains only
systematic risk. It has a beta of 1.

The results may be plotted:

CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (97)

Rf is the point on the graph where the line intersects the axis, and then the higher the
systematic risk, the higher the required rate of return. The SML and the relationship
between required return and risk can be shown using the following formula:

ke = Rf + [Rm – Rf] ß

where

ke = required return from individual security

ß = Beta factor of individual security
Rf = risk-free rate of interest
Rm = return on market portfolio

Note: In exams, the question will sometimes refer to the market premium – this is the
difference between Rm and Rf. It is the long term market premium that should be used
in CAPM if this is different from current market rates.

Calculating beta factors

Beta factors for a company are calculated statistically from past observed returns; for
example the London Business School ‘Risk Measurement Service’ is published
quarterly, using monthly returns from the previous five years to calculate each quoted
share’s beta.

Such an analysis begs two questions:

CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (98)

 Is it reasonable to use a beta factor, calculated from the past, as the basis of
decision-making about the future?
 Are beta values observed to be stable over time?

If beta values were not observed to be almost stationary over time, the whole theory
would collapse. Luckily the evidence is that both US and UK shares do exhibit stable
betas, the stability being stronger for highly diversified shares such as investment
trusts than for more focused companies. Naturally beta will only be stable if the
company’s systematic risk remains the same, i.e. the company carries on the same
areas of business in the long term.

Since betas are calculated statistically, the calculated beta value will be more reliable
the more separate data went into its calculation. Therefore the longer the period
underlying the calculations the better. However if the beta will be used to estimate a
required rate of return for a future project, it is important that the company’s risk class
in future will be more or less unchanged by accepting the project. Many businesses
deal with this apparent paradox by using a sector average beta rather than using their
own calculated beta.

Example 7
Data for three shares

A B C
Beta 1.5 0.7 1
Risk-free rate 5%

Expected return on the Market Portfolio 12%.

Received:

Calculate the required return for each investment.

Illustration 2

In Example 7 above, we calculated the required return for each investment

separately.

Now assume that an investor intends to set up a portfolio, where he invests 50% of
his funds into A's shares, and 25% each into B's and C's.
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (99)

The individual company betas are exactly the same as in Example 7 above, and the
risk free rate is still 5% and the expected return on the market portfolio is 12%.

Required:

Calculate the required return from the new portfolio.

Solution:

The beta factor for the portfolio will be the weighted average of the individual
companies' beta factors, as follows:

ß (portfolio) = (50% × 1.5) + (25% × 0.7) + (25% × 1) = 1.175

So the required return from the portfolio is: 5% + (12%–5%)×1.175 = 13.2%

The CAPM gives a required return for a given level of risk (measured by the beta
factor).

Therefore, if we can estimate the level of risk associated with a new investment
project (the beta of the project), we can use CAPM to give a required return to
shareholders.

This required return to shareholders is essentially the cost of equity which should be
used to derive an appropriate WACC to use as a discount rate.

Alpha values

If the CAPM stated that we should expect, on average, an annual return of 16.5%,
this does not mean that the shares will produce a return (dividend yield plus capital
gain) of 16.5% each year. Remember, shares are a risky investment which produces
an uncertain annual return.

Suppose in one particular year, Company A shares produce an actual return of 18%.
The shares are said to have produced a positive 'abnormal' return of 1.5% - that is,
1.5% higher than the expected return.

The alpha value of a share is simply its average abnormal return. Suppose Company
A shares have an alpha value of +2%, this implies that in the recent past the shares
have, on average, produced a return of 16.5% + 2% = 18.5%.

Alpha values can be either positive or negative, and in a perfect world they should be
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (100)

zero. In other words the average return that the shares actually do produce should be
the same as the return indicated by CAPM. However, the world isn't perfect and so
that will not always happen. Hence we get positive and negative alpha values.

Criticisms of the CAPM

(1) CAPM is a single period model. This means that the values calculated are
only valid for a finite period of time and will need to be recalculated or
updated at regular intervals.
(2) CAPM assumes no transaction costs associated with trading securities.
(3) Any beta value calculated will be based on historic data which may not be
appropriate currently. This is particularly so if the company has changed the
capital structure of the business or the type of business it is trading in.
(4) The market return may change considerably over short periods of time.
(5) CAPM assumes an efficient investment market where it is possible to
diversify away risk. This is not necessarily the case, meaning that some
unsystematic risk may remain.
(6) Additionally, the idea that all unsystematic risk is diversified away will not
hold true if stocks change in terms of volatility. As stocks change over time it
is very likely that the portfolio becomes less than optimal.
(7) CAPM assumes all stocks relate to going concerns, this may not be the
case.

Arbitrage Pricing Theory (APT)

Arbitrage pricing theory (APT) is an alternative pricing model to CAPM, developed by

Ross in 1976. It attempts to explain the risk – return relationship using several
independent factors rather than a single index.

CAPM is a single index model in that the expected return form a security is a function
of only one factor, its beta value:

Rs = Rf + B (Rm – Rf)

However APT is a multi – index model in that the expected return form a security is a
linear function of several independent factors:

Rs = a + B1 f1 + B2 f2 +…..

Where Rs = the expected return form a security

a, B1, B2…. are constants

CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (101)

f1, f2…. are the various factors that influence security returns

For example, f1 could be the return on the market (as in CAPM), f2 could be an
industry index specific to the sector in which the company operates, f3 could be an
interest rate index, etc.

Ross showed that, if shares are assumed to form an efficient market, an equilibrium is
reached when:

Rs = Rf + B1 (R1 – Rf) + B2(R2 – Rf) + ………

Where Rs = the expected return form a security

Ri = the risk-free rate

Bi = constants expressing the security’s sensitivity to each factor

factor i and zero sensitivity to any other factor

Research undertaken to data suggests that there are a small number of factors, or
economic forces, that systematically affect the returns on assets. These are:

 Inflation or deflation;
 long-run growth in profitability in the company;
 Industrial production;
 Term structure of interest rates;
 Default premium on bonds;
 Price of oil.

Each factor must be independent of the other factors.

APT assumes that the process of arbitrage would ensure that two assets offering
identical returns and risks will sell for the same price.

Intuitively, APT appears to improve on CAPM, as return is determined by a number of

independent factors are, as the model does not specify them. Determining what those
factors are, as the model does not specify them, and forecasting their value. There
have been few tests of APT, probably because of the difficulties in determining which
variables to include in the model and how to weight them.

APT has gained in popularity as empirical tests of CAMP in practice have raised
significant doubts as to CAPM’s validity. However it is fair to say that empirical testing
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (102)

of APT has to date been only limited, so its effectiveness remains to be proved.
CAPM is certainly similar than APT, being a single index rather than a multi-index
model, so CAPM will remain popular for some time.

6 The Cost of Debt - kd

The cost of debt is the rate of return that debt providers require on the funds that they
provide.

The value of debt is assumed to be the present value of its future cash flows.

Features
(1) Debt is tax deductible and hence interest payments are made net of tax.
(2) Debt is always quoted in Rs 100 nominal units or blocks.
(3) Interest paid on the debt is stated as a percentage of nominal value. This is
known as the coupon rate. It is not the same as the cost of debt. The amount of
interest payable on the debt is fixed. The interest is calculated as the coupon rate
multiplied by the nominal value of the debt.
(4) Debt can be:
(i) irredeemable;
(ii) redeemable at par (nominal value) or at a premium or discount.
(5) Interest can be either fixed or floating (variable).

kd for irredeemable debt

Irredeemable debt is debt issued by the company where there is no intention to repay
the principal. The company will simply pay interest on the debt for ever.

i(1 – T)
kd = ———
P0

where i = interest paid

T = marginal rate of tax

P0 = ex interest market price of the loan stock

Note that if the current market price is the par value of Rs 100, then the cost of debt is
simply the after-tax interest rate i.e. i(1-T).
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (103)

Example 8

The 10% irredeemable debentures of a company are quoted at Rs 130 ex int.

Corporation tax is payable at 30%.

Required:

What is the net of tax cost of debt?

kd for redeemable debt

The kd for redeemable debt is given by the IRR of the relevant cash flows. The
relevant cash flows would be (assuming that there is no one year delay in the tax
saving):

Year Cash flow Rs

0 Market value of the loan (P0)
1 to n Annual net interest payments i(1 - T)
n Redemption value of loan RV

There are four steps to ensuring an accurate computation:

(1) Identify the cash flows.

(2) Estimate the IRR.
(3) Calculate two NPVs (preferably one -ve and one +ve).
(4) Calculate the IRR.
Example 9
A company has 10% debentures quoted at Rs 95.00 ex int redeemable at par in five
years' time. Corporation tax is paid at 31%.

Required:

What is the net of tax cost of debt?

Note: The cost of bank loans and debt trading at par can be calculated more simply
by taking the net of tax interest payment.

kd = I (1 - t)
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (104)

The cost of convertible debt

Convertible debentures are like redeemables, but they offer the investor a choice of
cash or shares on the redemption date.

In practice, particularly if the value of the cash and shares option is very similar, some
investors will choose cash for liquidity reasons, whereas other investors may choose
shares, hoping for large dividend returns in the future.

In order to calculate the cost of convertible debt, we make a simplifying assumption

that all investors will make the same decision.

Illustration 3

Consider a Rs 100 debenture which is redeemable at par in 5 years, or convertible

into 10 shares at that time. The current share price is Rs 8.60 and historically,
dividends (and hence share prices) have grown at 5% per annum.

To decide which option is likely to be chosen by investors, we compare:

 the value of the cash option, Rs 100; with

 the value of the conversion option, i.e. 10 × (Rs 8.60 × 1.055) =Rs 109.76

Hence, it is assumed that all investors will choose the conversion option, and the cost
of the convertible debt is calculated in a similar way to the cost of redeemable debt,
i.e. it is the IRR of :

Year Cash flow Rs

0 Market value of the loan (P0)
1 to n Annual net interest payments i(1 - T)
n The higher of the cash and the conversion C
option

7 Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC)

The weighted average cost of capital (WACC) is the average of cost of the company's
finance (equity, debentures, bank loans, and preference shares) weighted according
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (105)

to the proportion each element bears to the total pool of funds.

A company's WACC can be regarded as its opportunity cost of capital/marginal cost

of capital, and this cost of capital can be used to evaluate the company's investment
projects.

In the analysis so far carried out, each source of finance has been examined in
isolation. However, the practical business situation is that there is a continuous
raising of funds from various sources. These funds are used, partly in existing
operations and partly to finance new projects. There is not normally any separation
between funds from different sources and their application to specific projects.

In order to provide a measure for evaluating these projects, the cost of the pool of
funds is required. This is variously referred to as the combined or weighted average
cost of capital (WACC).
The general approach is to calculate the cost of each source of finance, then to
weight these according to their importance in the financing mix.

Procedure for calculating the WACC

The calculation involves a series of steps.

Step 1 Calculate weights for each source of capital.

Step 2 Estimate the cost of each source of capital.

Step 3 Multiply the proportion of the total of each source of capital by the
cost of that source of capital.

Step 4 Sum the results of step 3 to give the weighted average cost of capital.
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (106)

Formula to calculate WACC

 VE   VE 
ko  kes    kd  
VE  VD  VE  VD 
Alternative WAC formula

Using market values for a firm with equity, debt and preference shares in its capital
structure, the WACC would be:

Ko =

Where Ve, Vp and Vd are the market values of equity, preference shares and debt
respectively.

Example 10

Rahat Ltd has a capital structure as follows.

Cost of Book value Market value

Capital Rs m Rs m
%

Bank loans 6 5 5
Debenture loans 10 8 5
Ordinary shares 15 18 30

Required:

Calculate Rahat’s WACC, using market values as weights

Problems with the computation of WACC

Which sources of finance to include

The above examples have concentrated on the cost of long-term finance. Firms also
raise finance from short-term sources, e.g. overdrafts, short-term loans, trade credit
etc. It is possible to calculate a cost for short-term finance and we need to decide
whether it should be included in our calculations. The usual argument is that the
weighted average cost of capital is a tool for appraising long-term investments and as
these should only be financed by long-term funds then the costs of short-term funds
should be excluded. However, if it is clear that short-term finance is being used to
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (107)

fund long-term projects, then it should be included.

Loans without market values

Bank loans do not have market values in the same way as debentures. All we can do
in this case is to take the book value of loans as an approximation of market value.

Cost of capital for small companies

There are important factors which are relevant to the cost of capital of small
companies:

· If the company is unquoted, then obtaining the cost of finance is much more
difficult.
· The lack of liquidity offered by the company’s securities, plus the smaller size of
the company, tend to make finance more expensive.

8 When can WACC be used as a discount rate?

The WACC can be used as a discount rate when using net present value or internal
rate of return calculations. This is only appropriate if the following are met:

(1) The capital structure is constant. If the capital structure changes the
weightings in the WACC will also change.
(2) The new investment does not carry a different risk profile to the existing
company's operations.
(3) The new investment is marginal to the company. If we are only looking at a
small investment then we would not expect any of ke, kd or the WACC to
change materially. If the investment is substantial it will necessarily change
the values.

These issues are covered in detail in the later chapter on investment and financing
interactions.

More details on the use of WACC as discount rate

When discounting cash flows to present value, it is important to match the discount
rate used to the cash flows being discounted.
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (108)

Cost of equity

For example, the cost of equity capital should be used for valuing income flows (such
as dividends, or earnings) which are attributable to the equity investor.

The NPV result is the value of equity.

WACC

The weighted average cost of capital is used when discounting after tax cash flows
but before deducting finance charges such as interest. The WACC is the cost of
capital required on the whole capital employed (debt plus equity capital invested in
the company). This is therefore the appropriate discount rate to use to discount the
cash flows attributable to all contributors to capital employed in the entity. For
example, when valuing a project or a division of a company which does not have its
own debt capital or finance charges.

The NPV result obtained is the value of the total capital employed in the entity –
giving the total value of debt plus equity for a company.

Alternatives to the use of existing WACC as a discount rate in project appraisal

We have now established that the existing WACC should only be used as a discount
rate for a new investment project if the business risk and the capital structure are
likely to stay constant. Alternatively,

If the business risk of the new project differs from the entity's existing business
risk

A risk-adjusted WACC can be calculated, by recalculating the cost of equity to reflect

the business risk of the new project. This often involves the technique of 'degearing'
and 'regearing' beta factors, covered in the later 'Capital Structure' Chapter.

If the capital structure is expected to change when the new project is

undertaken

The simplest way of incorporating a change in capital structure is to recalculate the

WACC using the new capital structure weightings. This is appropriate if the new
investment project can be effectively treated as a new business, with its own long-
term gearing level.

Alternatively, if the capital structure is expected to change significantly, the Adjusted

Present Value method of project appraisal could be used. This approach separates
the investment element of the decision from the financing element and appraises
them independently. APV is only recommended when there are complex funding
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (109)

arrangements (e.g. subsidised loan, temporary or permanent change to debt capacity

or choice of capital structure). APV is covered in detail in the later 'Investment
Appraisal – further techniques' Chapter.

Finally, the Marginal Cost of Capital (MCC) could be used. Again, this is appropriate if
the capital structure is forecast to change significantly. It is found by calculating the
total additional cost of financing a new project, and it attempts to reflect the true
incremental cost associated with the new financing.

More details on the marginal cost of capital

As discussed above, the use of WACC assumes that the capital structure of an entity
will remain unchanged and that any new investment will have a similar risk profile to
existing investments.

If a large project is under consideration, and it would fundamentally affect the capital
structure of an entity, these assumptions would mean that WACC is no longer the
appropriate technique for investment appraisal. Use of WACC could lead to the
acceptance of projects that reduce the entity’ value.

The relevant cost of capital is now arguably the incremental cost that is the marginal
cost reflecting the changes in the total cost of the capital structure before and after
the introduction of the new capital.

In theory, the marginal cost of capital is just the difference between the total cost with
the existing capital structure and the total cost with the new capital structure once the
investment has been undertaken.

Consider an entity with the following cost of capital

Just make market proportion and multiply it with the cost of capital
Post tax cost Value Cost x value
% Rs m
Equity 20 20x5/10 5 1.00
Preference 10 10x1/10 1 0.10
8x4/10
Debt 8 4 0.32
10 1.42
So, WACC = (1.42/10 x 100% = 14.2%

It has a large investment project under consideration, to be financed by a major issue

of funds which will alter the capital structure. The estimated project cost is Rs
1,000,000 to be financed in equal proportions by a new share issue and a new issue
of bonds.

The new capital structure will imply a new level of risk for holders of bonds and equity
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (110)

shares, causing the cost of capital for the company to change.

The new cost of capital may be as follows (if we assume that the cost of equity will
rise to 22% and the new bonds will have a post-tax cost of 10%)

Post tax cost Value Cost x value

% Rs m
Equity 22 5.5 1.21
Preference 10 1.0 0.10
Bonds 8 4.0 0.32
New Bonds 10 0.5 0.05
11 1.68
So, WACC = (1.68/11 x 100% = 15.3%

Marginal Cost of Capital = (1.68 – 1.42) / (11- 10) x 100% = 26%

The total cost of capital has increased by Rs 260,000 as a result of raising Rs

1,000,000 of funds. The incremental cost of capital is therefore 26%.

It might be thought that by raising Rs 500,000 of equity with a cost of 22%, and Rs
500,000 of bonds with a cost of 10%, the marginal cost of capital would be:

(0.50 x 22) + (0.5 x 10) = 16%

but this would ignore the change in the cost of original capital.

The approach illustrated here is appropriate only if the investment project is large
relative to the current size of the entity and undertaking the project causes an
identifiable difference in the capital structure.

In practice, entities rarely raise funds from a particular source for a particular purpose,
which makes this approach difficult to use.

Illustration 4 – The marginal cost of capital

Shams Ltd has a current capital structure of Rs 5m equity and Rs 5m debt finance. Its
cost of equity is 13% and its post tax cost of debt is 6%.

It intends to raise Rs 1m of new debt finance to fund a new project. The new debt
finance will have a post tax cost of 8%, and the cost of equity of Shams is expected to
rise to 15% when the new project is undertaken.

Required:

Calculate the WACC of Shams before and after undertaking the project, and calculate
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (111)

the Marginal Cost of Capital.

Solution:

Current WACC

Post tax cost Value Cost x value

% Rs m
Equity 13 5 0.65
Debt 6 5 0.30
––––– –––––
10 0.95
––––– –––––

So, WACC = (0.95/10) × 100% = 9.5%

New WACC
Post tax cost Value Cost x value
% Rs m
Equity 15 5 0.75
Existing Debt 6 5 0.30
New Debt 8 1 0.08
––––– –––––
11 1.13
––––– –––––
So, WACC = (1.13/11) × 100% = 10.3%
Marginal Cost of Capital = (1.13–0.95) / (1110) × 100% = 18%

9 Exam style questions

Test your understanding 1 – L Ltd

L Ltd.
Statement of financial position
as at 31st December 20X5
Rs m
Net assets 50
════
Capital and reserves
Ordinary share capital (Rs 10 shares) 15
Reserves 25
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (112)

10% irredeemable debentures 10

———
50
The current share price is Rs 26.4 cum div and a dividend of Rs 2.4 has been
paid for many years. The debentures are trading at 90 ex int. The
corporation tax rate is 30%

Required:

Calculate the WACC at 31st December 20X5.

.
Test your understanding 2 – Wahab Ltd

Wahab Ltd is a company which specialises in elocution courses based in Preston and
Oxford.

The recently appointed finance director, Mr Qasim, has asked for your assistance in
obtaining a cost of capital which Wahab Ltd can use in appraising its long-term
investment opportunities. Mr Qasim has provided you with the following information
regarding the capital structure of the company.

(1) 50,000 Rs 10 ordinary shares valued @ Rs 34.8. The annual dividend of Rs

180,000, which represents 70% of the amount available for distribution, has just been
paid. The company expects to achieve a return of 26% on its retained profits.
(2) 10,000 9% preference shares of Rs 10 each valued at Rs 80,000 cum div.
(3) Rs 1 million 8% debentures which are redeemable in eight years' time at a
premium of 5%. Mr Qasim estimates that the debenture holders require a return of
11%.

Corporation tax is at a rate of 35%.

Required:

Calculate for Wahab Ltd its:

(a) cost of equity share capital; This makes the difference, kp is not required, but
market value is asked for.
(b) cost of preference share capital;
(c) market value of debentures;
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (113)

(d) cost of debentures;

(e) weighted average cost of capital (WACC).

Test your understanding 3 – Rock Ltd

The capital structure of Rock Ltd as at 1st January 20X3 is as follows:

Rs m

Issue ordinary shares (Rs 50 shares) 500

6% debenture 20X6 700
11% bank term loan 500

The ordinary shares have a current market price of Rs 200 each. The dividend for
20X2 has just been paid. Dividends per share in the five preceding years were as
follows:

20W8 Rs 6.8
20W9 Rs 7.2
20X0 Rs 8.8
20X1 Rs 9.6
20X2 Rs 10.4

Dividends are paid once a year and are expected to grow in future at the same
annual rate as they have since 20W8. The debenture stock has a market price of Rs
90. Redemption will be at par in four years time. The company pays corporation tax at
a rate of 30%.

Required:

Estimate the cost of capital of Rock Ltd.

Test your understanding 4 – WACC and financing discussion

The summarised statement of financial position (balance sheet) of D Ltd at 30 June

20X9 was as follows:
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (114)

Assets Rs 000
Noncurrent assets 15,350
Current assets 5,900
–––––
Total assets 21,250
–––––
Equity and liabilities
Ordinary shares (Rs 10) 2,000
7% Preference shares (Rs 10) 1,000
Share premium 1,100
Retained earnings 6,550
–––––
Total equity 10,650
Long term liabilities: 5% debentures 8,000
Current liabilities 2,600
–––––
21,250
The current price of the ordinary shares is Rs 54 ex-dividend. The dividend of Rs 4 is
payable during the next few days. The expected rate of growth of the dividend is 9%
per annum. The current price of the preference shares is Rs 7.7 and the dividend has
recently been paid. The debenture interest has also been paid recently and the
debentures are currently trading at Rs 80 per Rs 100 nominal. Corporate tax is at the
rate of 30%.
Required:
(a) Calculate the gearing ratio for D Ltd using:
(i) book values
(ii) market values

(b) Calculate the entity’s WACC, using the respective market values as weighting
factors.

Assume that D Ltd issued the debentures one year ago to finance a new investment.

(c) Discuss the reasons why D Ltd may have issued debentures rather than
preference shares to raise the required finance.

(d) Explain what services a merchant bank may have provided to D Ltd in connection
with the raising of this finance.
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (115)

Test your understanding 5 – Management of risk

You are the company accountant with a medium-sized, privately-owned company.

The company has surplus funds which it does not believe it will be able to invest in
company operations for at least five years. The majority shareholders are also the
directors of the company and they do not wish the surplus funds to be distributed as
dividends. A board meeting has therefore been called to discuss the proposal that the
funds be invested in a portfolio of medium-to long-term securities.

Three of the directors have recently attended a short course at the local university on
'Investment and the Management of Risk'. They make the following comments at the
meeting, based on their interpretations of what they have learnt on the course:

'If we hold a portfolio of stocks, we need only consider the systematic risk of the
securities.'

'As a cautious investor we must always consider total risk.'

'We should not buy anything if the expected return is less than that on the market as a
whole, and certainly not if it is below the return on the risk-
free asset.'

Required:

(a) Explain to the members of the board the meaning of systematic,

unsystematic and total risk and advise them, briefly, how all three types of
risk can be measured.
(b) Discuss the directors' comments.

Multiple choice question (MCQs)

1. Rate of return of a company is 20% and dividend payout ratio is 40%. What
is expected growth in dividend:
A) 8%
B) 12%
C) 20%
D) None of the above

2. A company issued a debt of Rs 100 million. Debt will be redeemed in two

years’ time at Rs 110.5. Annual interest of Rs 5% will be paid to the debt
holder. Calculate Kd:
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (116)

A) 5%
B) 15%
C) 10%
D) None of the above

Example 1

Rs 1.6
ke = —— = 8%
Rs 20

Example 2

Rs 3
ke = ————— = 8.1%
Rs 40 – Rs 3

Example 3

Rs 4
P0 = —— = Rs 33.3
0.12

Example 4

(A) g = (Rs 4.4/Rs 3)¼ – 1 = 10%

Rs 4.4 × 1.1
(B) ke = ———— + 0.1 = 14.84%
Rs 100

Example 5

(A) g = (Rs 1.3/0.8)1/8 – 1 = 6.26%

Rs 1.3 × 1.0625
(B) ke = —————— + 0.0625 = 11.26%
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (117)

Rs 27.6

Example 6

(A) g = 12% × 30% = 3.6%

Rs 5 × 1.036
(B) k = —————— + 0.036 = 11.57%
e Rs 70 – Rs 5

Example 7

(a) 15.5%
(b) 9.9%
(c) 12%

Example 8

Rs 10(1 – 0.30)
kd = —————— = 5.4%
Rs 130

Example 9

Cash flows

Year 0 Rs 95
Year 1 - 5 Rs 10 (1 - 0.31) = Rs 6.90
Year 5 Rs 100
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (118)

Discounting

Year Cash Disc. fact. Present Disc. Fact Present

flow @ value @
value
6% 10%
0 (95.00) 1,000 (95.00) 1.000 (95.00)
1-5 6.90 4,212 29.06 3.791 26.16
5 100 0.747 74.7 0.621 62.10
Total +8.76 -6.74

8.76
IRR = 6% + (10% – 6%) × ————— = 8.26%
(8.76 – 6.74)
Example 10

The calculation is carried out as follows:

Market value Cost of capital Weighted cost
Source Rs Proportions % %
Bank loans 5 0.125 ×6= 0.75
Debenture loans 5 0.125 × 10 = 1.25
Ordinary shares 30 0.75 × 15 = 11.25
—– —–– ——–
40 1.00 13.25
—– —–– ——–

WACC = 13.25%

Test your understanding 1 – L Ltd

(1) ke = 2.4/(26.4-2.4) = 10%

(2) kd = Rs 10(1-0.30) /Rs 90 = 7.78%
(3) Market values: Equity 15/10 × Rs 24 = Rs 36 m
Debt 10 x (90/100) = Rs 9m
Equity and Debt = Rs 45m
(4) WACC = 10% × (36/45) + 7.78% × (9/45) = 9.56%
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (119)

Test your understanding 2 – Wahab Ltd

(a) Using the dividend valuation model (DVM)

Dividend in 1 year
ke = ———————— + g
MV (Ex Div)

where g = growth rate = rb, and

r = return on new investment = 0.26

b = proportion of earnings retained = 0.3

hence g = 0.26 × 0.3 = 0.078.

Dividend in 1 year = Current dividend × (1 + g)

= 180,000 × 1.078

= Rs 194,040

MV (Ex Div) = 50,000 x Rs 34.8

= Rs 1,740,000

The market value is ex div since the dividend has just been paid.

194.040
ke = ————– + 0.078
1,740,000

= 18.95%, say 19%

(b) Again using the DVM

9,000
kp = ——————– = 12.68%, say 12.7%
80,000 – 9,000

(c) The DVM gives the market value of debentures as the present value (at the
debenture holder's required rate of return) of the payments to debenture
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (120)

holders gross of tax.

Time Cash flow DF @ 11% PV @ 11%
Rs Rs
1-8 Interest 80,000 5.146 411,680
8 Redemption 1,050,000 0.434 455,700
————
MV ex interest 867,380
Debentures ————
(d) The cost of debt kd is equal to the discount rate which, when applied
to the interest flows net of tax and the redemption costs, produces a
PV of Rs 867,380.

i.e. the internal rate of return of the following flows:

Time Cash flow DF @ 7% PV @ 7%

Rs Rs
0 Market value (867,380) 1 (867,380)
1-8 Net interest 52,000 5.971 310,492
8 Redemption 1,050,000 0.582 611,100
————
54,212
————
We chose 7% as our first estimate of the IRR since 11% × (1 - 0.35) = 7.15%. Since
the result is positive, the second estimate is higher, say 8%.

Time Cash flow DF @ 8%

PV@8%

Rs Rs
0 (867,380) 1 (867,380)
1-8 52,000 5.747 298,844
8 1,050,000 0.540 567,000
————
(1,536)
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (121)

———
Hence IRR is approximately 8%.
(e)
Market value Cost of capital Weighted
cost
Rs % %
Equity 1,740,000 19 12.34
Preference 71,000 12.7 4
Debentures 867,380 8 2.59
———— ——–
Total 2,678,380 15.27
———— ——–
Weighted average cost of capital is approximately 15.3%.

Test your understanding 3 – Rock Ltd

(1) Ke

d o (1  g )
ko  g
Po
10.4
g  1  11.2%
6.8

10.4  1.112
ko   0.112  17.0%
200

(2) kd – redeemable debt – IRR of Market Value, net interest and

redemption amount:

Cash flow DF PV DF PV
@10% @ 10%
0 Market value (90.0) 1.000 (90.00) 1.000 (90.00)
1-4 Interest payments 4.2 13.31 3.546 14.89
3.170

4 Capital repayment 100.0 0.683 68.30 0.823 82.30

——— ———
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (122)

NPV (8.39) 7.19

(3) Market Values

Rs m
Equity 500/50 × 200 2,000
Debentures 700 × 0.90 630
Bank loan 500
———
Total 3,130
———

(4) WACC

Test your understanding 4 – WACC and financing discussion

(a) Gearing = debt / (debt + equity)

Using book values, gearing = 8,000 / (8,000 + 10,650) = 43%

(assuming that the preference shares are irredeemable and therefore treated as
equity)

Tutorial note: Gearing measured as (debt / equity) would be equally acceptable. Show
your workings clearly.

Market values

Ordinary shares 2m × (1.35 / 0.25) 10,800,000

Preference shares 1m × 0.77 770,000
Debentures 8m × 80% 6,400,000
–––––––––
17,970,000
So gearing = 6,400 / (6,400 + 770 + 10,800) = 36%
(b) Cost of equity

Ke = + 0.09
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (123)

= 17.1%

Cost of preference shares

Kp = = 9.1%

Cost of debentures

Kd (1-t) = = 4.4%

So the weighted average cost of capital is:

Market value Cost of capital Weighted cost
Rs % %
Equity 10,800,000 17.1 10.3
Preference 770,000 9.1 0.4

Debentures 6,400,000 4.4 1.6

———— ——–
Total 17,970,000 12.3%
———— ——–

(c) The debentures are a cheaper source of finance than the preference shares. The
interest is a tax-deductible expense, whereas the preference dividend is an
appropriation from post-tax
profits.

The debentures will be secured on the company’s assets, which makes them more
attractive to investors than preference shares.

Preference shares cannot be secured.

Debenture holders will rank before preference shareholders in a liquidation.

(d) A merchant bank may have provided the following services:

– advice on the type of capital to be issued, that is debt, equity or preference shares;

– advice on the form of debt issued, that is secured or unsecured, and on the use of
sweeteners such as a conversion option or warrants;

– advising on the coupon rate, issue price and maturity of the debenture;
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (124)

– marketing and administration of the issue;

– identifying potential investors;

– recommendations about any derivatives that may be available to hedge interestrate

exposure;

– ensuring that D Co complied with any statutory and regulatory requirements relating
to the new issue.

Test your understanding 1 – Management of risk

MEMORANDUM

To: The Board of Directors

From: The Company Accountant

Date: X June 20XX

Subject: Investing funds in a portfolio of securities

(a) This memorandum starts with some definitions:

Systematic risk is risk that cannot be eliminated by diversification.

Unsystematic risk is risk that can be eliminated by diversification.

Total risk is the sum of systematic and unsystematic risk.

These definitions can be explained as follows. There will be some uncertainty

normally inherent in the future returns of any investment that is made. This
uncertainty can be measured as the total risk of the investment by calculating the
standard deviation of the investment's possible returns.

Some of this total risk can be diversified away by combining the investment with other
different investments; this component of total risk is called unsystematic risk and
relates to factors unique to the company itself or the business sector it is in.

The remainder of the total risk cannot be diversified away; this component of total
risk is called systematic risk and relates to factors affecting the stock market as a
whole e.g. the risk that interest rates rise.
CHAPTER - 3 THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (125)

Total risk is measured as the standard deviation of investment returns.

If future returns are unclear, the standard deviation of past returns over recent
periods can be calculated as a measure of the investment's total risk.

Systematic risk is measured by looking at an investment's beta value. An investment

with no systematic risk has a beta value of zero. An investment with the same
systematic risk as the market as a whole has a beta of one. An investment with
systematic risk twice that of the market as a whole has a beta of two, etc.

Unsystematic risk is normally measured as the difference between systematic risk

and total risk i.e. as a balancing figure, although it is possible to calculate it

separately.

(b) The expected return from any investment should compensate for its risk. If
the investment is held alone, it is the total risk that is relevant. But if the
investment is held as one unit in a widely diversified portfolio, the
unsystematic risk will be eliminated, and it is only the systematic risk that is
relevant.

Thus it is acceptable to buy investments with expected returns less than the
expected return on the market as a whole, as long as those investments possess
less risk than the market as a whole. It might be felt prudent, for example, to hold a
proportion of a portfolio in cash on deposit, effectively as a risk-free asset, although
the expected return will be lower than the return expected for investing in shares on
the stock market.
It is even acceptable to buy investments with expected returns less than the risk-free
rate of return, as long as those investments contribute sufficiently to the overall
diversification of the portfolio held. Investments with negative beta values fall
particularly into this category; their expected return is low but they offer substantial
diversification opportunities.

Answers to MCQs:
1) B
2) C