NUCLEAR PROPULSION

1. INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR PROPULSION

 Nuclear propulsion refers to the use of nuclear reactions to generate thrust for propulsion purposes
 It involves the release of a large amount of energy from nuclear reactions, which is then converted into thrust to
propel a vehicle or spacecraft.
 Nuclear propulsion offers significant advantages over conventional propulsion methods,
a. including higher efficiency and
b. longer mission durations.

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2. HISTORY OF NUCLEAR PROPULSION:

 The concept of nuclear propulsion dates back to the early 20th century,
with notable contributions from scientists such as Robert H. Goddard
and Konstantin Tsiolkovsky.
 However, it was not until the 1950s that significant progress was made in
developing practical nuclear propulsion systems.
 The United States and the Soviet Union were at the forefront of
this research during the Cold War era.

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2. HISTORY OF NUCLEAR PROPULSION:

 One of the earliest applications of nuclear propulsion was in

submarines.
 The first nuclear-powered submarine, the USS Nautilus, was
launched by the United States in 1954.
 It marked a major milestone in the use of nuclear power for
propulsion and demonstrated the advantages of nuclear
propulsion in terms of endurance and range.

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3. ADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR PROPULSION

 High Energy Density: Nuclear reactions release a tremendous amount of energy, providing a much higher
energy density compared to chemical reactions. This allows for longer missions and greater operational range.
 Efficiency: Nuclear propulsion systems can achieve higher efficiency compared to conventional chemical rockets,
resulting in reduced fuel consumption and increased payload capacity.
 Endurance: Nuclear propulsion enables extended mission durations, making it suitable for deep space
exploration and interplanetary travel.
 Power Generation: In addition to propulsion, nuclear reactors can generate electricity, which can be used to
power various onboard systems and instruments.

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CHALLENGES OF NUCLEAR PROPULSION:

 Safety: Nuclear propulsion systems require stringent safety measures due to the potential hazards associated
with nuclear materials and radiation.
 Waste Management: The use of nuclear reactors produces radioactive waste, which needs to be carefully
managed and disposed of.
 Regulatory Framework: Nuclear propulsion technologies are subject to strict international regulations to
prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons and ensure peaceful uses of nuclear energy.
 Cost: Developing, building, and maintaining nuclear propulsion systems can be expensive, requiring substantial
financial investment.

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4. CURRENT APPLICATIONS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

Current Applications:
 Nuclear-powered submarines: Nuclear propulsion has been extensively used in submarines, providing them
with extended endurance and underwater mobility.
 Spacecraft: Nuclear propulsion is being considered for future space missions, including crewed missions to Mars
and deep space exploration. It offers the potential for faster interplanetary travel and reduced transit times.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

FUTURE PROSPECTS:

 Interplanetary Travel: Nuclear propulsion systems hold the promise of significantly reducing travel times for
crewed missions to other planets, enabling more ambitious exploration of the solar system.
 Space Colonization: Nuclear propulsion can facilitate the establishment of long-term habitats and colonies on
other celestial bodies, such as the Moon or Mars.
 Energy Generation: Nuclear propulsion technologies could potentially be harnessed for power generation in
space, providing a sustainable and efficient energy source for future space missions.

 Note: It's important to note that while nuclear propulsion offers numerous advantages,
 Implementation requires careful consideration of safety, environmental concerns, and international regulations to
ensure responsible and peaceful use of this technology.

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PRINCIPLES OF NUCLEAR ROCKET ENGINE DESIGN

 Nuclear rocket engines use the principle of nuclear fission or fusion to generate high thrust and specific
impulses.
 The energy released from the nuclear reactions is used to heat and accelerate the propellant, typically hydrogen,
resulting in high exhaust velocities.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

PRINCIPLES OF NUCLEAR ROCKET ENGINE DESIGN

 High Specific Impulse: The primary advantage of nuclear rocket engines is their high specific impulse (Isp),
which is a measure of the engine's efficiency.
 Nuclear propulsion offers significantly higher Isp compared to chemical rockets, enabling faster and more efficient
space travel.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

FISSION VS. FUSION

 Fission-based nuclear rocket engines use the controlled

splitting of heavy atomic nuclei to release energy.
 Fusion-based engines aim to achieve controlled fusion
reactions, which involve the merging of light atomic
nuclei.
 While fission-based engines are more mature technologically,
(Advanced)
 fusion-based engines have even higher performance
potential.

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U235, U238

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NUCLEAR FISSION REACTION

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NUCLEAR FUSION

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WHICH IS MORE POWERFUL ?

 Fusion releases several times the energy generated by fission, making it a far more powerful
process.

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ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023
NUCLEAR ROCKET ENGINE COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS:

1. Reactor Core

2. Propellant Flow System

3. Heat Exchangers

4. Nozzle and Thrust Chamber

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

NUCLEAR ROCKET ENGINE COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS

 Nuclear Reactor: The heart of a nuclear rocket engine is the nuclear reactor, which generates the heat needed for
propulsion. The reactor typically uses nuclear fission, splitting the atoms of a fissile material, such as uranium-235 or
plutonium-239. The reactor design should ensure a controlled and sustained chain reaction while maintaining the safety
and stability of the system.

 Propellant: The propellant in a nuclear rocket engine is usually liquid hydrogen (LH2). LH2 offers high specific impulse
and is readily available in space. It is stored in tanks and pumped into the reactor for heating. The propellant should be
carefully managed to handle extreme temperatures and pressures.

 Heat Exchanger: A heat exchanger transfers the intense heat generated by the nuclear reactor to the propellant. The
propellant flows through channels or tubes in the heat exchanger, and the heat from the reactor is transferred to the
propellant, raising its temperature. The heat exchanger should efficiently transfer the heat while preventing any mixing of
the propellant and reactor material.

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NUCLEAR ROCKET ENGINE COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS

 Nozzle: The nozzle is responsible for directing the flow of the superheated propellant out of the engine to generate thrust. The design
of the nozzle is crucial for maximizing the efficiency of thrust generation. It should be optimized for the specific impulse and exhaust
velocity desired.

 Radiation Shielding: Given the use of nuclear materials, effective radiation shielding is crucial for the safety of the crew and the
integrity of the spacecraft. The reactor and other components should be shielded with materials that can block or absorb harmful
radiation emitted during the nuclear reactions.

 Control Systems: Nuclear rocket engines require precise control systems to regulate the nuclear reaction, propellant flow, and other
parameters. These systems ensure stable and controlled operation, and they play a crucial role in the safety and efficiency of the
engine.

 Safety Features: Nuclear rocket engine designs include various safety features to prevent accidents or mishaps. These features may
include fail-safe mechanisms, emergency shutdown systems, and containment structures to prevent the release of radioactive material in
case of an anomaly

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WHY LIQUID HYDROGEN AS PROPELLANT IN NUCLEAR ROCKET ENGINE ?

 Liquid hydrogen (LH2) is commonly used as a propellant in nuclear rockets due to several advantageous properties:
 Hydrogen can be liquified at a temperature of − 253°C (20 K, − 424°F, 36R),
 High Specific Impulse: Liquid hydrogen offers a high specific impulse (Isp) compared to other propellants. Specific impulse represents
the efficiency of a rocket engine, and a higher Isp means that more thrust is produced per unit of propellant consumed. The high Isp of
LH2 allows for greater fuel efficiency and potentially shorter travel times in space missions.

 Abundance in Space: Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, including in space. It can be obtained from various
sources such as water ice on asteroids, comets, or moons. Utilizing hydrogen as a propellant allows for the possibility of refueling or
resupplying in space, which can enable longer-duration missions and reduce the need for Earth-based logistics.

 Low Molecular Weight: Hydrogen has a low molecular weight, which means that it offers a higher exhaust velocity when
expelled from a rocket nozzle. This high exhaust velocity contributes to a higher specific impulse and improved overall performance
of the rocket engine.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

WHY LIQUID HYDROGEN AS PROPELLANT IN NUCLEAR ROCKET ENGINE ?

 Compatibility with Nuclear Reactors: Liquid hydrogen is compatible with nuclear reactors used in nuclear
thermal rocket engines. The hydrogen can be heated to extremely high temperatures by transferring the heat
from the reactor through a heat exchanger. This allows for efficient thermal energy transfer from the nuclear
reactor to the propellant.

 Non-Toxic and Non-Polluting: Hydrogen is non-toxic and non-polluting, making it a cleaner choice compared
to some other propellants. When combined with oxygen in a rocket engine, the resulting combustion product is
water vapor, which is environmentally benign.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

WHY LIQUID HYDROGEN AS PROPELLANT IN NUCLEAR ROCKET ENGINE ?

Challenges associated with using liquid hydrogen

It requires careful handling and storage due to its extremely low boiling point and cryogenic nature.
Additionally, the storage and insulation systems for liquid hydrogen can add weight and complexity to the
overall rocket design.
Nevertheless, the benefits of using LH2 in nuclear rockets often outweigh these challenges, making it a preferred
choice for many space exploration missions.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

SOME KNOWLEDGE ON CRYOGENICS

Cryogen (K) (°C) (°R) (°F)

Methane 111.7 -161.5 201.1 -258.6
Oxygen 90.2 -183.0 162.4 -297.3
Nitrogen 77.4 -195.8 139.3 -320.4
Hydrogen 20.3 -252.9 36.5 -423.2
Helium 4.2 -269.0 7.6 -452.1
Absolute zero 0 -273.15 0 -459.67

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ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023
ISP

Here are the typical ranges of specific impulse for various types of rocket engines:

1. Solid Rocket Engine: The specific impulse of a solid rocket engine typically ranges from about 240 seconds to 300
seconds. However, specific impulse can vary depending on the specific composition and design of the solid propellant.

2. Liquid Rocket Engine: Liquid rocket engines generally offer higher specific impulse compared to solid rocket engines.
The specific impulse of liquid rocket engines can range from about 250 seconds for simple propellant combinations to over
450 seconds for advanced engines using high-performance propellants like liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen.

3. Hybrid Rocket Engine: Hybrid rocket engines combine features of both solid and liquid propulsion systems. The
specific impulse of hybrid engines generally falls between those of solid and liquid rocket engines, typically ranging from
around 250 seconds to 350 seconds.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

ISP
4. Ion Propulsion: Ion propulsion, also known as electric propulsion, offers exceptionally high specific impulse but operates
at very low thrust levels. Specific impulse for ion engines can range from 1,500 seconds to over 10,000 seconds, depending
on the specific design and technology employed.

5. Cold Gas Rocket: Cold gas propulsion systems utilize compressed gas, such as nitrogen, as the propellant. The specific
impulse of cold gas rockets is relatively low, typically ranging from about 50 seconds to 100 seconds.

6. Nuclear Thermal Rocket (NTR): Nuclear thermal rocket engines can achieve specific impulses in the range of 800
seconds to 1,000 seconds or even higher. The specific impulse of an NTR depends on the specific design and performance
characteristics of the nuclear reactor and propellant system.

It's important to note that these values are approximate ranges and can vary depending on the specific design, technology,
and propellant choices for each type of rocket engine.

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF NUCLEAR ENGINES

 1. Nuclear Thermal Rocket (NTR): NTRs use a nuclear reactor to heat a propellant, typically liquid hydrogen, to
extremely high temperatures. The heated propellant is then expelled through a rocket nozzle to produce thrust. NTRs
offer high specific impulse and have been extensively studied since the 1950s.

 2. Nuclear Electric Propulsion (NEP): NEP systems use a nuclear reactor to generate electricity, which is then used
to power an electric propulsion system, such as ion thrusters or Hall effect thrusters. These engines provide very
high specific impulse, but their thrust is generally low, making them suitable for long-duration missions where continuous
acceleration is required.

 3. Fission Fragment Rocket (FFR): FFR engines utilize the energy released by the fission of heavy atomic nuclei. As
the fuel undergoes fission, it produces high-speed fragments that are expelled at high velocities to generate thrust. FFRs
have the potential to provide high specific impulse and thrust levels.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

DIFFERENT TYPES OF NUCLEAR ENGINES

 4. Gas Core Reactor Rocket (GCR): GCR engines use a gaseous nuclear fuel, such as uranium
hexafluoride or a mixture of hydrogen and uranium vapor. The nuclear fuel is contained in a core surrounded by
a magnetic field. The fuel is heated to a plasma state, and then the plasma is expelled through a nozzle to produce
thrust.

 Note: nuclear rocket engines offer advantages in terms of specific impulse, they also present significant
technical and safety challenges.
 Additionally, the development and use of nuclear propulsion systems require careful consideration of potential
environmental and political implications.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

NUCLEAR ROCKET ENGINE DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE

 Nuclear rocket engines can be categorized into two main types:

 1. solid-core systems and
 2. Fluid-core systems.
 Fluid-core systems can be further divided into liquid, gas, and plasma-core engines

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COMPARISON OF NUCLEAR AND CHEMICAL ROCKET ENGINES

 Solid-core reactor systems have been studied since 1955. These engines
use reactors with graphite, metal, or metal-carbide cores that can
operate at temperatures of 2000 to 3000° K.
 These engines work by pressurizing hydrogen, heating it by passing
through the high-temperature reactor, and then expelling it at high
speeds through a convergent-divergent nozzle. The focus has primarily
been on graphite-core systems.
 Solid-core nuclear rocket engines are modified versions of liquid rocket
engines. They use a nuclear reactor instead of a combustion chamber,
and they don't need an oxidizer system. The reactor produces heat
through nuclear fission, which is used to generate thrust and propel the
rocket.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

COMPARISON OF NUCLEAR AND CHEMICAL ROCKET ENGINES

1. The propellant (fuel) enters the nozzle and then flows upward
through the neutron reflector and control drums surrounding the
reactor core. This cools both the reflector and the control drums.
2. There is a shield at the upper end of the reactor assembly to limit
radiation heating of the propellant in the tank.
3. The propellant then flows downward, cooling the reactor support
structure and getting heated to the design temperature.
4. The propellant exits into the nozzle plenum chamber before being
discharged through the exhaust nozzle.
5. Some propellant is bled off from the plenum chamber and cooled
to an acceptable temperature for the pump drive turbine.
6. The cooling of the propellant is achieved by mixing the heated
material with cold fluids.
7. A small amount of gas is drawn from a suitable part of the engine
ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE
(such as the reactor core inlet plenum) to pressurize
6/12/2023
the propellant
tank and operate pneumatic control system components.
OVERALL ENGINE DESIGN

 To make a solid-core nuclear rocket engine work properly, a control system is needed. This control system is
responsible for managing the reactor power, gas temperature, and pump discharge pressure. There are different
ways to control these factors, and several methods can be used.
 To control the direction of a rocket, a thrust vector control (TVC) system is used. Its main job is to keep the
rocket's thrust in line with its velocity and through its center of gravity. The TVC system allows the rocket to
change its heading and the direction of its velocity. In simple terms, it helps the rocket steer and stay on course.
 The performance of a rocket vehicle can be measured using characteristic speeds. These speeds represent the
additional speed that a rocket propulsion system can provide, disregarding factors like gravity or other losses. It
can be calculated using a specific equation.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

OVERALL ENGINE DESIGN

The gas properties ( and M) and the

nozzle expansion ratio also impact the
specific impulse of a rocket.

The equations used to calculate this

are based on assumptions of frozen
composition and constant specific heat
ratio.

While not entirely accurate, these

equations give a reasonably close
estimate compared to more detailed
calculations of equilibrium expansion.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

OVERALL ENGINE DESIGN.

 The equations used to calculate specific impulse depend mainly on the ratio Tc/M. This means that increasing the
gas temperature will increase the specific impulse.
 However, in solid-core nuclear rocket engines, the gas temperature must always be lower than the temperature of
the fuel material. This limitation is because the engine's structural materials can only handle a certain maximum
temperature. So, the performance potential of the engine is restricted by the maximum temperature the materials
can withstand.
 Equation (8-2) shows that using hydrogen (M = 2.0) as a propellant is highly advantageous. Hydrogen's low
molecular weight is the reason why nuclear engines outperform chemical engines. In a nuclear rocket engine,
there are three main sources of gaseous exhaust. The overall specific impulse of the engine system is defined by a
specific equation.

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ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023
COMPONENT DESIGN (NUCLEAR ROCKET REACTOR)

 1.1 General Design Considerations

 Nuclear reactors use special materials (like uranium or plutonium) to create a chain reaction. This reaction
releases a lot of energy. It happens when a neutron is absorbed by a material, causing it to split and release more
neutrons. These released neutrons can then be absorbed by other materials, continuing the chain reaction and
producing more energy.

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COMPONENT DESIGN (NUCLEAR ROCKET REACTOR)

 The nuclear rocket reactor system consists of a central core containing fissionable uranium
dispersed in a high-temperature matrix material.
 The core is designed as a heat exchanger for desired power levels.
 Structural members and a support plate at the cold end support the core-heat exchanger.
 The core is surrounded by a neutron reflector material, which helps to reflect neutrons back
into the core, reducing neutron losses.
 Rotating drum elements with neutron-absorbing material are incorporated to control the
number of neutrons returning to the core.
 By withdrawing the poison material towards the outside of the reflector, more neutrons are
reflected back into the core, increasing reactor power.
 Conversely, turning the drums in reduces the number of reflected neutrons, causing the power
to decrease.
 The position of the drums is adjusted to establish and maintain a steady-state power
operation at the desired power level.

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COMPONENT DESIGN
1.1. NUCLEAR ROCKET REACTOR

 To make a nuclear rocket reactor work effectively, certain requirements must be met:

 1. Core materials must withstand high temperatures in the presence of hydrogen. This is important because the heat released by the
fission reaction needs to be managed while keeping structural components within safe temperature limits.

 2. The mechanical design of the reactor must ensure its structural integrity, ensuring that it remains strong and reliable.

 3. The nuclear design should ensure that there is enough fissionable material within the system to sustain the fission reaction under the
desired operating conditions.

 4. Control mechanisms must be in place to start up, regulate, and shut down the reactor as needed. This allows for control and flexibility
in its operation.

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1.2 REACTOR CORE MATERIALS

 To choose the core material for a nuclear rocket reactor, several factors need consideration. The material must withstand higher
temperatures than the coolant (propellant), and it's desirable to have a very high temperature capability. Only a few materials meet these
criteria. Here are some options and their corresponding temperatures in Celsius:

 1. Graphite: 3927°C
 2. Tungsten: 3627°C
 3. Zirconium carbide: 3847°C
 4. Hafnium carbide: 4150°C
 5. Tantalum carbide: 4127°C
 6. Niobium carbide: 3767°C

 These materials are known for their high-temperature capabilities and can be considered for the core of a nuclear rocket reactor.

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REACTOR CORE MATERIALS

 To account for the thermal properties of uranium used in the reactor assembly, there is an additional
consideration for the maximum design temperature. Uranium dioxide is a form of uranium with a melting point of
3010°C. However, it is not compatible with the carbides mentioned earlier. A promising alternative is tungsten-
uranium oxide fuel, which shows potential as a material combination for the reactor.
 Currently, graphite is the preferred choice as the core matrix material for nuclear rockets due to its level of
development. The addition of VC2 (a material) is limited to around 2 to 3 percent of the volume in the graphite.
This mixture can be reasonably contained for tens of minutes during operation, with an average exit temperature
of 2482°C. However, when the temperature exceeds 2982°C, the strength of the material decreases rapidly,
imposing practical limitations on the use of graphite fuel structures.

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THE NEUTRON POISONING EFFECT

 The neutron poisoning effect and its impact on certain carbides in rocket reactors:

 1. Neutron poisoning effect: Neutrons play a crucial role in sustaining the fission reaction in a nuclear reactor. However,
some materials have a high tendency to absorb or "poison" neutrons, reducing their availability for the fission process.

 2. Hafnium and tantalum: These two carbides, hafnium carbide and tantalum carbide, have neutron-absorption cross
sections that are disadvantageous in rocket reactors. This means they tend to absorb a significant number of neutrons,
limiting their effectiveness in sustaining the fission reaction.

 3. Niobium carbide: Similarly, niobium carbide also has a reasonably high neutron-absorption cross section. This limits the
usefulness of niobium carbide as a fuel material in rocket reactors.

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CHEMICAL COMPATIBILITY

 1. Chemical compatibility: When selecting materials for the reactor core, it is important to consider their compatibility with the hydrogen coolant. Chemical
reactions between the core material and hydrogen can occur at high temperatures, which may affect the performance and safety of the reactor.

 2. Hydrogen and graphite: Hydrogen and graphite react rapidly at the temperatures used in the reactor, forming methane and other hydrocarbon gases. This
reaction is not desirable and can impact the overall efficiency and reliability of the system.

 3. Tungsten and hydrogen: Tungsten is compatible with hydrogen, meaning it does not react or degrade significantly when exposed to hydrogen coolant. This
makes tungsten a suitable material choice for the reactor core.

 4. Isolation of UO2: If uranium dioxide (UO2) is used in the reactor core, it needs to be isolated from the hydrogen coolant. UO2 and hydrogen should not
come into direct contact as it may lead to unwanted chemical reactions.

 5. Metal carbides: Metal carbides, such as tungsten carbide, have good resistance to high-temperature hydrogen. They can serve as protective cladding for
graphite, shielding it from direct contact with hydrogen and preventing unwanted reactions.

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1.3 THERMAL DESIGN

 1. Maximum allowable material temperatures: The maximum allowable temperatures for reactor materials range from
approximately 2667°C to 3482°C.

 2. Design objective: The thermal design aims to achieve a high hydrogen exit temperature while minimizing the weight
and volume of the reactor core. It also needs to ensure adequate cooling for structural members.

 3. Structural members: High-temperature metal alloys are used for the structural components of the reactor. These
components require cooling to temperatures below approximately 1150°C to 1400°C, and possibly even below 600°C.

 4. Maximizing hydrogen exit temperature: The focus is on maximizing the temperature of the hydrogen as it exits the
reactor, as this contributes to the efficiency of the propulsion system.

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THERMAL DESIGN

 1. Maximizing gas temperature: To achieve high gas temperatures, it is

important to minimize the distance between any point in the fuel matrix and
the nearest coolant channel. This helps in keeping local heat fluxes low.

 2. Core structure: A finely-divided core structure is necessary to achieve this

objective. This can be achieved using techniques such as closely spaced holes
in a solid structure, a pebble bed, or thin ribbed plates.

 3. Core segment: A typical core segment is designed to facilitate the desired

heat transfer. The specific configuration of the core segment may vary, but the
focus remains on minimizing distances and maintaining low heat fluxes.

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THERMAL DESIGN

 4. Coolant-channel dimensions: The minimum diameters and spacing of the coolant channels are determined based on
fabrication requirements and ensuring the structural integrity of the core matrix.

 5. Thermal design: The thermal design of the reactor can be accomplished using conventional heat transfer theory, which
provides guidelines and principles for efficient heat transfer within the system.:

 Tentative thermal design: A preliminary thermal design is established, considering factors such as fuel matrix, coolant
channels, and heat transfer.

 Nuclear and mechanical evaluation: The nuclear and mechanical aspects of the design are assessed. This involves
evaluating the performance and safety of the reactor, as well as considering structural integrity and other mechanical
considerations.

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THERMAL DESIGN

 Modifications: Based on the evaluations, necessary modifications are made to the thermal design model. This could
involve adjusting fuel matrix configuration, coolant channel dimensions, or other parameters.

 iterative process: The modified thermal design is then re-evaluated, and the process is repeated. This iterative
approach allows for continuous improvement and refinement of the design.

 Balanced design: The goal is to achieve a satisfactorily balanced design that meets the required performance, safety,
and mechanical criteria.

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1.4 MECHANICAL DESIGN

 1. Supporting the reactor core: One major challenge is designing a support system for the reactor core to
withstand various loadings such as shock, vibration, acceleration, and fluid flow.

 2. Ground handling: The reactor core must be able to withstand the loads and stresses it experiences during
ground handling, which includes transportation, assembly, and maintenance activities.

 3. Booster phase of flight: During the initial phase of the rocket's flight, known as the booster phase, the reactor
core must endure intense vibrations and acceleration forces. The mechanical design should ensure that the core
remains stable and undamaged under these conditions.

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MECHANICAL DESIGN

 4. In-flight operation: The reactor core needs to be mechanically robust to withstand the dynamic forces and fluid-
flow loads it encounters during the entire duration of the rocket's flight. This includes maintaining structural
integrity and stability in the presence of aerodynamic forces and fluid flow.

 5. Overall mechanical integrity: The mechanical design of the reactor should ensure that all supporting
components, such as structural members and attachments, are designed and constructed to withstand the various
mechanical challenges throughout the reactor's lifecycle.

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MECHANICAL DESIGN

 Core subdivision: To prevent excessive thermal stresses caused by no uniform temperatures, the reactor core is likely to be divided into
smaller sections or subdivisions.This helps in distributing heat more evenly and reducing thermal stress concentrations.

 Flutter-type vibrations: Coolant flow phenomena can sometimes lead to flutter-type vibrations, which are rapid, self-excited vibrations.
These vibrations can be particularly problematic because the fuel element material used in the reactor core tends to be brittle.

 Prevention of vibrations: It is important to prevent flutter-type vibrations from occurring in the reactor core. These vibrations can cause
mechanical damage and potential failure of fuel elements. Proper design measures and control mechanisms are implemented to minimize
or eliminate vibrations caused by coolant flow.

 Maintaining fuel element integrity: Given the brittle nature of the fuel element material, it is crucial to ensure that vibrations and
associated stresses are kept within acceptable limits. This helps in preserving the integrity and longevity of the fuel elements.

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MECHANICAL DESIGN

 1. Axial support concept: The figure illustrates a potential method of axial

support for the reactor core. Metal support tubes are threaded into the
coolant channels of the fuel elements.

 2. Assembly with support plate: The support tubes are then attached to a
support plate located at the cold end of the core. This assembly helps in
structurally supporting and assembling the core.

 3. Reliable joint: Establishing a reliable joint between the metal support tube
and the refractory fuel material is a significant concern. The fine structure of
the fuel element limits the amount of material through which the loads can be
transmitted.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

MECHANICAL DESIGN

 4. Preventing breakage: When using this axial support concept, it is

crucial to minimize the probability of fuel element breakage. Breakage
can occur due to various factors, including pressure forces.
Interlocking techniques should be employed to prevent material
ejection if breakage occurs.

 5. Ensuring safety: The design should prioritize safety by minimizing

the risk of fuel element breakage and ejection. Careful attention
should be given to the selection of materials, joint configurations, and
interlocking mechanisms to maintain the structural integrity of the
core.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

 MECHANICAL DESIGN
 Tie rods: Tie rods are suggested as a possible solution to support the
reactor core and prevent fuel element movement. These cooled metal
rods extend from a support plate at the cold end to a refractory plate at
the hot end, effectively locking the fuel material in place.

 Locking the fuel material: The tie rods secure the fuel material in
position, maintaining stability and preventing unwanted movement during
operation.

 Base support options: Two types of base support are shown in the figure:
a refractory dome and a cooled-metal grid structure. These structures
provide additional support to the core.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

MECHANICAL DESIGN

 Complete base support: The tie rods, in combination with the base support structures, offer comprehensive
support to the reactor core, ensuring its stability and structural integrity.

 Coolant flow through the base: In certain cases, coolant from the nozzle can be directed through the base plate
before entering the reflector. This allows for additional cooling of the base structure and helps manage the
temperature distribution.

 Complex flow circuit: However, implementing coolant flow through the base plate can introduce complexity to
the overall flow circuit of the reactor system. This complexity may be considered a disadvantage due to potential
challenges in design and operation.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

1.5 NUCLEAR DESIGN

 Materials and regional distribution: The nuclear design of a reactor involves selecting suitable materials and determining their arrangement within
the reactor. This includes the choice of fuel and structural materials and their placement in specific regions of the reactor.

 Thermal and structural requirements: The design must meet thermal and structural criteria. It should handle high temperatures while ensuring
structural integrity. These requirements place constraints on the design and affect the weight and performance potential of the nuclear-powered
rocket.

 Weight limitations: The design must consider weight constraints to optimize the overall performance of the rocket. Lighter materials and efficient
distribution help reduce the weight, allowing for better rocket performance.

 Performance limitations: Nuclear constraints also come into play, limiting the thermal performance of the reactor system. These constraints relate
to factors such as fuel availability, neutron moderation, and the control of fission reactions.

 Balancing design requirements: The nuclear design process involves finding a balance between thermal, structural, and nuclear constraints. It
requires careful consideration of materials, their arrangement, and the reactor's overall design to meet safety, efficiency, and performance goals.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

1.5 NUCLEAR DESIGN

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

NUCLEAR DESIGN

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

NUCLEAR DESIGN

 Probabilistic nature: The equation involved in solving reactor problems represents probabilities of events rather
than precise quantities. This means that the equation cannot be easily solved directly.

 Time dependence removal: In practical problems, the time dependence of the equation is eliminated to make it
more solvable. This simplification allows for easier analysis of the system.

 Path tracing: One method used to solve the simplified equation involves tracing the paths of individual neutrons
within the reactor. This approach considers the direction of motion, energy level, and path length to the first
collision for each neutron.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

NUCLEAR DESIGN

 Random selection: Random selection and weighted probability functions are used to determine various
characteristics of the neutron, such as its direction, energy, and interaction type. This randomness helps simulate
the behavior of neutrons within the reactor.

 Scattering interactions: If the neutron undergoes a scattering interaction, the scattering angle and energy loss are
chosen randomly based on weighted probability functions. This randomness helps capture the stochastic nature of
scattering events.

 Absorption or loss: The process continues until the neutron is either absorbed by the system or lost from it. By
examining enough neutrons, the criticality of the system can be determined.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

1.6 SHIELDING

 Heating effects: Analyses of nuclear rocket vehicle systems show that the radiation field generated by the
reactor, although low in intensity, can still cause significant heating of sensitive components.
 Radiation shielding: To prevent excessive heating, it is necessary to place a radiation shield between the reactor
and the sensitive components. This shield helps reduce the amount of radiation reaching the components and
thus minimizes heating.
 Shield effectiveness: The effectiveness of a radiation shield depends on two main factors: the specific chemical
elements used in the shield and the density of atoms per unit area in the shield material. These factors
determine how well the shield can absorb or block the radiation.
 Shielding materials: Design studies have shown that a combination of lithium hydride and stainless steel is
effective in providing shielding against radiation. These materials have properties that make them suitable for
absorbing and attenuating the radiation, thereby protecting the sensitive components.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

1.6 SHIELDING

 analyses of nuclear rocket systems have highlighted the need for radiation shielding to prevent excessive heating
of sensitive components. The effectiveness of a shield depends on the choice of materials and their atomic density.
Studies have suggested that a combination of lithium hydride and stainless steel can provide effective shielding
characteristics.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

2. NUCLEAR ROCKET NOZZLES

 2.1 General Design Considerations

 1. Nozzles for nuclear rocket engines must withstand all the environmental conditions experienced by chemical
rocket nozzles.
 2. Nuclear rocket engine nozzles operate in a highly radioactive environment, leading to heat generation and
potential changes in the material.
 3. Ablative-type nozzles are unsuitable for nuclear rocket engines due to the internal heat generated by radiation
absorption.
 4. All-metal nozzles primarily experience heating effects in the radiation environment.
 5. Alloys containing boron may be exceptions, as they can undergo significant embrittlement at high radiation dose
levels.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

NUCLEAR ROCKET NOZZLES

 6. The physical size of the reactor core is a major difference between nuclear and chemical rocket nozzles.
 7. Liquid chemical rocket nozzles typically have a chamber-to-throat contraction area-ratio ranging from 1.5 to
3.0.
 8. In nuclear rockets, this ratio can be much larger, ranging from 15 to 25.
 9. The wire-wrapped tube bundle construction used in liquid chemical rocket nozzles would not be strong enough
for a nuclear application.
 10. Therefore, additional strength must be provided for the nozzle component in nuclear rockets.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

NUCLEAR ROCKET NOZZLES

 1. The NERVA program uses a specific design for nuclear rocket engines.
 2. The design involves attaching U-shaped channels to the inner surface of the pressure shell.
 3. These channels form coolant tubes, as shown in the figure.
 4. This design technique has been highly successful in the NERVA program.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

NUCLEAR ROCKET NOZZLES

 1. Besides the U-shaped channel design, other configurations can be used for nuclear rocket nozzles.
 2. One alternative is to install heavy thermal barriers on the inner surface of the pressure shell.
 3. These barriers are designed to withstand the local environment of the nozzle.
 4. By providing coolant to the outer surface, the pressure shell can be kept at an appropriate temperature.
 5. This approach minimizes the amount of heat extracted from the hot propellant stream.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

2.2 HEAT-TRANSFER ANALYSIS

 1. The wall of a nuclear rocket nozzle is heated by three main factors: thermal convection from the hot gas,
thermal radiation from the reactor face, and attenuation of the neutron and gamma ray fields produced by the
reactor.
 2. The nozzle wall is cooled by the cold propellant before it enters the reactor.
 3. Limited cooling also occurs through thermal radiation or by convection to any local atmosphere.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

2.2 HEAT-TRANSFER ANALYSIS

 4. There are three sources of uncertainty in heat transfer analyses for these nozzles.
 5. The first source is the rate of heat generation caused by nuclear radiation, which is significant only in thick
metal sections.
 6. The accuracy of calculating this heat generation rate is limited, so a margin of safety is needed in the design.
 7. The remaining two uncertainties are associated with the convective heat-transfer coefficients across the fluid-
to-metal boundaries.
 8. These uncertainties affect the analysis of heat transfer in the nozzle.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

HOT-GAS BOUNDARY

 The general agreement is that the convective heat transfer coefficient of the hot gases can be sufficiently
estimated using the Nusselt equation for design purposes.

 1. Different correlations are used to estimate the convective heat transfer coefficient in nozzle design.
 2. These correlations may use the fluid bulk-stream temperature, adiabatic-fluid temperature, wall temperature, or
an intermediate temperature value.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

HOT-GAS BOUNDARY

 3. Among these correlations, the Bartz simplified equation is commonly used in nozzle design.
 4. The Bartz equation is based on his boundary-layer solution.
 5. It provides a simplified method for estimating the convective heat transfer coefficient.

 The transport properties in this context are determined by calculating the average temperature between the
free-stream temperature and the wall temperature.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

HOT-GAS BOUNDARY

 1. There were two areas of concern regarding the data:

 a. The data were collected at low area ratios in the expansion section.
 b. The numerical difference in the (T/Tf)0.8 parameter becomes significant only at higher Mach numbers of the
free stream and high area ratios in the expansion section.
 2. The reported data were specifically for conical nozzles.
 3. NASA's analysis and experimentation by H. Neuman and A. Fortini suggested that any simplified equation
should consider the mass flow term in relation to the three-dimensional wall pV value, rather than the isentropic
one-dimensional ꝬV value.
 4. This effect is more pronounced at high Mach numbers.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

HOT-GAS BOUNDARY

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

COLD-GAS BOUNDARY

 1. Experimental measurements of heat transfer coefficients for liquid hydrogen have been conducted.
 2. However, these studies have limitations in terms of scope and usefulness.
 3. There is a lack of data specifically for high heat fluxes, high pressures, high fluid velocities, and the specific
heating and flow conditions (curvature and partial heating) that are present in a nozzle tube bundle.
 4. More research and data collection are needed in these areas to enhance our understanding of heat transfer in
such conditions.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSIONS TO CALCULATE NOZZLE HEAT
TRANSFER RATES

 1. Researchers have developed mathematical expressions to calculate nozzle heat transfer rates.
 2. These expressions typically involve correction factors to represent the experimental data.
 3. For the values of x and y in the equation, commonly used values are 0.8 and 0.4, respectively.
 4. These values are based on the studies of Dittus and Boelter.
 5. One example equation is (provide the equation).

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSIONS TO CALCULATE NOZZLE HEAT
TRANSFER RATES

 1. The equation's validity can be assessed by examining a figure in a next slide that shows the ratio of experimentally
determined heat transfer coefficient to the one calculated using the equation.
 2. The figure reveals a wide scatter of data points and a deviation of the mean from unity.
 3. These characteristics are typical of correlations based on hydrogen heat transfer data.
 4. The figure highlights the challenges involved in accurately predicting nozzle wall temperature.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023
3. NUCLEAR ROCKET ENGINE CONTROL

 3.1 General Design Considerations

 1. The control system of a nuclear rocket engine is more complex compared to a chemical rocket engine.
 2. The reactor power level in a nuclear rocket engine is independent of the engine thrust, which adds to the complexity.
 3. Minor variations in fuel distribution and reactor configuration occur due to manufacturing tolerances, causing slight
differences in the steady-state position of the reactor control drums for each reactor.
 4. To ensure the desired power level, a method is needed to detect and adjust the power level based on the steady-state
position.
 5. A nuclear rocket engine control system consists of two separate control loops: one for the propellant feed system and
one for reactor power.
 6. The loops are interconnected through the relationship between the flow rate of the sonic nozzle and the inlet
pressure, as power is related to flow rate and temperature.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

3.2 POWER LEVEL CONTROL

 - The power level of a nuclear reactor is directly related to the neutron flux in its core and vicinity.
 - The proportionality factor between power level and neutron flux is not completely constant over time or across
reactors of the same design.
 - Small variations in fuel loading and manufacturing variables can cause differences in the proportionality factor.
 - Neutron flux measurements are useful for determining if power generation is constant or to calculate the rate
of change during transient conditions.
 - However, neutron flux measurements are not very useful for determining the absolute power level of a nuclear
rocket.
 - Flux-measuring devices, such as ion chambers, are highly responsive to changes in flux.
 - This responsiveness allows for precise control of either the steady-state condition or desired changes in reactor
power.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEM

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

POWER LEVEL CONTROL

 The control system described in the text consists of two interlocked control loops and an engine programmer.
 The system is designed for current engine models, but it may need modifications to accommodate more advanced
engines.
 The purpose of the control loops is to maintain desired values of measured parameters set by the engine
programmer.
 The control loops work in tandem to ensure the desired values are maintained.
 In addition to the control loops, the system also includes several manual controls.
 These manual controls can be used for ground testing or in situations where difficulties arise with the automatic
control system.
 The manual controls provide an alternative means of controlling the engine if needed.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

POWER LEVEL CONTROL

 The control system described here uses a specific time period to adjust the reactor power level from its initial
strength to a desired neutron flux value.
 Once the desired neutron flux level is reached, power control is transferred to a closed-loop system that uses
chamber temperature as the reference.
 Propellant flow begins when the neutron flux level indicates that the reactor is operating within the range of 0.1
to 10% of its full power capacity.
 Operating within this power range allows for smooth temperature changes in the system without wasting
propellant.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

POWER LEVEL CONTROL

 - Measuring gas temperatures in nuclear engines is challenging due to the harsh environment.
 - Operational nuclear rockets have exhaust temperatures ranging from 4500 to 6300° R/2326.85 to 3472.58°C.
 - Very few materials can withstand these high temperatures.
 - Tungsten and its alloys can be used at the lower end of this temperature range but may not be strong enough for
temperatures near the upper limit.
 - Carbide-carbon systems fail at higher temperatures due to the carbon component.
 - The carbon component also needs protection from the propellant at all temperatures of interest.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

POWER LEVEL CONTROL

 - An alternative method for determining gas temperature is to calculate it based on a measured value at an
intermediate temperature point within the reactor.
 - However, the accuracy of this approach is questionable.
 - Another method involves measuring pressure and weight flow to determine the c* value, which in turn can be
used to calculate the gas temperature.
 - Currently available hydrogen mass flow meters may not be as accurate as desired.
 - However, considering the inherent inaccuracies in core measurements and potential improvements in flow
meters, measuring pressure and weight flow rate may become the preferred method for temperature
measurement.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

3.3 CHAMBER-PRESSURE CONTROL

 - The control system for chamber pressure includes:

 - A pressure sensor to measure the chamber pressure.
 - Signal-conditioning equipment to process the sensor's signal.
 - A reference signal for comparison.
 - A turbine power-control valve and actuator to regulate the pressure.
 - These components work together to maintain the desired chamber pressure.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

 - Various pressure sensors are available for measuring chamber pressure in this application.
 - These sensors can be easily adapted for the task.
 - If the sensors are placed directly in the chamber to measure pressure, cooling may be necessary.
 - In cases where the environment near the chamber is too harsh, pressure measurement can be done at a point
upstream.
 - Mounting the sensors appropriately and considering cooling needs ensure accurate pressure measurement.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

 - Implementing the technique of measuring pressure at a point upstream of the chamber would result in reduced
precision for determining chamber pressure and thrust.
 - However, this approach ensures that the chamber pressure does not exceed the measured value, providing a
safety measure.
 - Designing the system with sufficient safety margins can account for the uncertainties involved.
 - Using any measurement other than direct chamber pressure would introduce additional uncertainties when
calculating temperature using Equation 8-9, if temperature determination is required.
 - Therefore, alternative measurements may increase the uncertainty in determining temperature using the given
equation.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

4.RADIOISOTOPE PROPULSION

 - A radioisotope rocket is a type of thermal rocket engine that utilizes the heat produced by the decay of
radioactive elements.
 - The heat is used to warm a working fluid, which is then expelled through a rocket nozzle to create thrust.
 - These rockets are simpler than nuclear thermal rockets like NERVA and typically lack moving parts.
 - Another application is the use of radioisotopes in a radioisotope electric rocket.
 - In this case, the energy from nuclear decay is converted into electricity to power an electric propulsion system.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

4.RADIOISOTOPE PROPULSION

 - The idea of using radioisotope energy for space propulsion has been explored for a long time.
 - Several different approaches have been considered over the decades.
 - However, most of these approaches have been deemed impractical, except for one.
 - We will discuss these various approaches, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages.
 - Additionally, we will summarize the mission capabilities and current state of technology for the most promising
approaches.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

VARIOUS ISOTOPE PROPULSION SCHEMES

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

4.1.1 DIRECT RECOIL METHOD

 One straightforward approach to using isotopes for space propulsion is the direct recoil method.
 In this method, a radioisotope is placed on the external surface of a spacecraft.
 Radioactive decay particles are emitted directly into space, while some are absorbed by the spacecraft structure.
 Direct recoil propulsion can achieve very high specific impulses, which is a measure of efficiency in space
propulsion.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

4.1.1 DIRECT RECOIL METHOD

 The direct recoil method, while having high specific impulses, produces very low levels of thrust for a given
amount of source.
 For instance, 1KWth of directed Po-210 α particles results in only about 3 x 10-5 lbs. of thrust.
 Assuming that only 10% of the emitted α particles contribute to the desired direction of thrust, the actual thrust
generated by a 1KW source is just a few micro pounds.
 Additionally, even at this low thrust level, the energy absorbed by the spacecraft structure creates significant
thermal control challenges.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023

DIRECT RECOIL METHOD

 Most space propulsion applications require thrust levels that exceed what can be achieved practically with
polonium.
 The thrust levels achievable with polonium are only a few micro pounds, which can be accomplished by simpler
and less expensive means.
 Therefore, the limitations on source quantity, thrust level, and the associated cost and availability of isotopes make
direct recoil propulsion impractical for the propulsion applications envisioned currently.
 Thus, direct recoil propulsion is not considered further due to these practical limitations.

ASST., PROF. MALLAPPA JABADE 6/12/2023