1- Light nature and electromagnetic spectrum : Lecturer: Dalya H.

Abbas

Light is an electromagnetic wave packet moving through space, these

wave packets consist of an electric and magnetic field: the electric and
magnetic fields are each at right angles to the direction of propagation
(electric field is vertical , magnetic field is horizontal ) as shown in figure
(1) .
The intensity of light varies with the square of the peak amplitude of the
electric field and it is proportional to the number of photons in the field.
Each wave is characterized by temporal period frequency, spatial period
(wavelength), as higher frequencies are synonyms with shorter
wavelengths and vice versa.

Figure (1): Electromagnetic wave propagation.

The electromagnetic spectrum covers an extremely broad range, from radio

waves (with a long wavelengths and low frequencies), microwaves,
infrared region, visible light region, down to shorter wavelength and higher
frequencies which is ultraviolet, x-rays, and gamma rays, (Table 1).

Table (1): Electromagnetic spectrum region.

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 Type of Frequency Wavelength Type of Detector
Radiation Range(Hz) Range Transition
Gamma-rays 1020-1024 <1 pm Nuclear Geiger tube
X-rays 1017-1020 1 nm-1 nm Inner electron Ionization
champers
Ultraviolet 1015-1017 400nm-1 nm Outer electron Photoelectric
photo
multiplier
Visible 4-7.5x1014 750nm-400 Outer electron Eye silver
haled film
nm
Near- 1x1014- 2.5µm-750 Outer electron
Molecular
infrared 4x1014 nm vibrations
Infrared 1013-1014 25µm-2.5 Molecular Thermopile
vibrations bolometer
µm
Microwaves 3x1011-1013 1 mm-25 µm Molecular Crystal
rotations,
Electron spin
flips
Radio waves <3x1011 >1 m Nuclear spin Electronic
flips circuits

The wavelength λ is marked in meters, micrometers µm, and nanometer

nm. Angstrom A0. The important quantity from the point of view of atomic
and molecular structure is the frequency υ, which is related directly to the
energy difference between two states of the system by ∆E:

∆E = h υ

h: Plank's constant

Frequency is measured in Hz (s-1) and multiples thereof (kHz,

MHz,GHz,….)

The wavelength measured in vacuum is:

υ=c/λvac

c: is the velocity of the light in vacuum

υ: is usually replaced by a unit proportional to it, the wavenumber

σ is defined by:
σ=υ/c = 1/ λvac
The unit of σ is m .-1

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Very high photon energies, corresponding to very short wavelengths are
expressed by electron volts (eV)

1 eV= 1.6 x 10-19 J = 8066 cm-1

∆E (joules) = h υ = hc/ λvac (m) = 100 hc σ (cm-1)

If the wavelength is measured in air, it must be multiplied by n, the

refractive index of air, before conversion to frequency or wavenumber
units:
υ =c/n λair, σ=1/n λair

2- Spontaneous and stimulated emission, absorption:

Einstein demonstrated three related physical phenomena in 1916 , which

after along period ,found practical application in laser research and
technology .These processes were defined as spontaneous emission
,spontaneous absorption and stimulated emission.
The electron in an atom or molecule exist in specific energy levels , these
levels are called states, according to quantum theory , atoms and
molecules have discrete energy level and can change from one level to
another.
Under normal conditions, most atoms or molecules remain quiescent in
their lowest energy level or the ground state, by absorbing a photon that
has energy equal to the difference between the lower state and higher one,
electron can move to more energetic state (called an excited state), this
excited state is less stable than the lower or ground state, thus electrons
tend to give up energy by radiating a photon of an energy equal to the
energy difference between the two states, and returning to some lower
states.
This emission occurs after a period of time called lifetime of spontaneous
emission.

In spontaneous emission: atoms emit an electromagnetic wave

spontaneously that has no definite phase relation to that emitted by another
atom. Furthermore the wave can be emitted in any direction, without
external provocation.

In the case of stimulated emission (induced emission), since the process is

forced by the incident electromagnetic wave, the emission of any atom
adds in phase to that of the incoming wave and in the same direction. This

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is the crucial feature on which the properties of the laser are based .In order
for the laser to work effectively; stimulated emission must predominate
over both absorption and spontaneous emission.

All processes were explained in figure (2):

Figure 2 Schematic illustrations of the three processes:

(Absorption, spontaneous emission, stimulated or induced emission).

3- Population inversion:
In matter ,most of the population of atoms in the ground state is more than
that in high energy levels (normal population distribution) ,but when more
atoms must be in the upper state than in the lower state ,this unusual
situation is called population inversion. Without a population inversion,
there can be no lasing action.

4- Three-level and four-level Laser:

In a three-level laser, the lower losing levels is the ground state this type of
laser can have a population inversion only if more than half the atoms in
the ground state are pumped to higher energy states.

In four-level laser, such intense pumping is unnecessary because a high

ground state population does not affect the population inversion between
the upper and lower laser levels. The Ruby laser is the only important three-
level laser.

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 Population inversion
∆N21 = N2-N1 > 0
hυ = E2–E1
E3,
N3 Fast decayLaser transition
Stimulated emission
E2, N2
hν

E1
Ground
state N1

Fig. (3): Three level system.

Figure below is the energy-level diagram of a four-level laser model. The

lasing transition occurs between E3 and E2. Energy level E3 is called the
upper lasing level and is a metastable state, with a lifetime of 10 -6 seconds
or longer.
Population inversion
E4,
N4 ∆N32 = N3-N2 > 0
Fast decay
E3, N3 hυ = E3–E2
Pumping
hν hν Laser transition
Stimulated emission
E2
Fast decay
E1
Ground
state N1

Fig. (4): Four level system.

Atoms remain in this metastable state for a relatively long time, increasing
both the population inversion and the probability of stimulated emission
level E2 has a short atomic lifetime, which means that atoms leave this
energy state quickly and return to the ground state.
An upward transition to the metastable state is just as unlikely as a
downward transition from it. Therefore, the pumping of atoms directly
from the ground state to the upper lasing level would be impractical. An
alternative energy level, E4 is a short-lived atomic state above E3, to which
atoms may be pumped more easily. Since short energy transitions are more
likely to occur than long energy transitions, more of the atoms pumped to

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atomic state E4 can be counted on to decay rapidly to atomic state E3, the
metastable state.

5- The optical components of a laser system:

A laser consists of three basic components: the lasing medium (active

medium), the pumping source, and the resonator. The lasing medium and
resonator mirrors together form the laser resonator (optical resonator), as
shown in figure (5):

Figure (5): Physical components of a laser system.

5-1 Active medium :

In principle, light amplification by stimulated emission can occur in all

collective states of matter (solid , liquid ,gas ) ,the atoms ,ions, or molecules
capable of decaying from their high energy states in a radiative manner,
i.e., by emitting electromagnetic waves ,these atoms (ions or molecules )
are sometimes called active species. Accordingly, lasers can be classified
as follows:
• Solid –state lasers (crystals).
• Semiconductor lasers .
• Dye lasers (dye in liquid solution).
• Gas lasers .

5-2 Pumping source (Excitation mechanism):

The lasing medium may be pumped with optical or electrical energy to

induce a population inversion, solid and liquid lasers tend to be energized

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optically, usually by lamps, and gas lasers tend to be energized electrically
by direct current of 200 to 25000 volts.

5-3 Optical resonator:

The process of stimulated emission is increased by enclosing the active

medium between two mirrors so that the stimulated emissions are reflected
back and forth in the axial direction.

In its simplest form, an optical resonator consists of two plane – parallel

mirrors, one of which is completely reflective while the other is
approximately 2% transmissive to allow the laser light to escape.
Therefore, photons exactly perpendicular to the mirrors re-enter the active
medium, while those off axis leave the lasing process .Because the process
is not 100% efficient and some energy is converted into heat, it is necessary
to provide some form of cooling.

6- Lasing action:

Laser, or Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation, is a

term that describes the process in which a certain laser medium within a
resonator space is energized by internal or external energy sources to
produce an excited population of atoms, molecules, and gas.
The energy within a resonator space reaches a population inversion in an
excited state and in which photons are emitted and amplified within a laser
cavity. The radiant energy is released as a laser beam. The first laser
constructed in 1960 by Maiman was a pulsed ruby laser, which emitted
light of 0.694µm wavelength. Laser operates either in pulse mode or CW
(continuous) mode.

In summary, for laser operation, three basic conditions must be met; first
there must be a suitable energy source to excite atoms, molecules, or ions
of the active medium to higher energy level. When they drop back to
lower energy levels, photons of energy are emitted. Second, there must be
an active medium (of atoms, molecules, or ions) that will emit photons
when stimulated. Third, there must be some form of optical feed back,
or gain, generally provided by mirrors in the lasers optical cavity. This
produce resonance.

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1.4.5 Properties of laser light :

Laser light has several unique properties that distinguish it from

conventional light sources.

• Coherence.
• Monochromaticity.
• Directionality (small divergence).
• Brightness (high intensity).

While the ordinary light source is non-collimated (light emitted in all

directions), polychromatic (many colors) because its non-coherent beam as
shown in figure (6).

Figure (6): The differences between a conventional light source and a

laser light.
❖ Coherence: it is the most distinguished property of laser light,
laser light consists almost exclusively of one wavelength, with all its
waves traveling in the same direction and in “phase” with each other.
Waves are in phase with each other when all the troughs and all the
peaks are exactly opposite one another. Coherence thus causes the
collimation of a laser beam over extremely large distances and
allows the beam to accept extremely fine focusing.

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 ❖ Monochromaticity: indicates that the emitted photons are all of
the same wavelength (color).
❖ Directionality ( collimation ) :
A laser produces a collimated or parallel beam of light, which does not
diverge significantly over very long distance .This produce a very powerful
light.

❖ Brightness (high intensity) :

The laser gives out light into a narrow beam and its energy is concentrated
in small region .This concentration of energy, both spatially and spectrally,
accounts for the great intensity of lasers.