• Big Bang Theory proposes that due to the expansion of universe, hydrogen and helium were produced.

• Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements are formed within stars by nuclear reactions. The
abundances of these elements change as the stars evolve.
• The theory which suggests that stars form due to the collapse of the dense regions of an atomic cloud is
known as the star formation theory
• As the cloud collapses, the fragments contract to form a stellar core called protostar.
• The reactions release positrons and neutrinos which increase pressure and stop the contraction. When the
contraction stops, the gravitational equilibrium is reached, and the protostar has become a main sequence
star.
• The star is unable to generate heat when it runs out of hydrogen in its core leading to its contraction and
expansion. It cools down and glows red. The Helium fused into Carbon. The star is now RED GIANT
• Red giant star becomes exhausted of nuclear fuel, the outer material is blown off into space leaving the inert
Carbon. The remnant is known as WHITE DWARF.
• This is said to be the remain of the white dwarf that cooled down and no longer emits light and heat. The
hypothetical BLACK DWARF.
• A more massive main sequence star evolves, cools and expands faster than low mass star and will turn into
RED SUPER GIANT star, the largest known star. Carbon fusion still occurs and Oxygen formed.
• Explosion of star or SUPERNOVA releases large amount of energy. Because of that, elements are dispersed
into the space
• It is believed that a NEUTRON STAR is formed from supernova explosion. This is also the smallest star.
• BLACK HOLE is a region in space where gravity is too strong that no matter can escape from it.
• Singularity is a one-dimensional point which contains a huge mass in an infinitely small space, where density
and gravity become infinite and space-time curves infinitely, and where the laws of physics as we know them
cease to operate.
• Nucleosynthesis was the nuclear fusion and the formation of new nuclei actions in the early stages of
development of the universe.
• Recombination - the formation of the capture of free electrons by the cations in a plasma.
• The atomic number is the number of protons (positively charged particles) in an atom.
• Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys Moseley was an English physicist who demonstrated that the atomic number, the
number of protons in an atom, determines most of the properties of an element.
• In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear transmutation reaction a process of
transforming one element or isotope into another element.
• In 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic table corresponding to the atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and
87. Elements with atomic numbers 43 and 85 were synthesized using particle accelerators.
• A particle accelerator is a device that is used to speed up the protons to overcome the repulsion between
the protons and the target atomic nuclei by using magnetic and electrical fields. It is used to synthesize new
elements
• Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number of uranium) are called transuranium
elements They were discovered in the laboratory using nuclear reactors or particle accelerators
• Dmitri Mendeleev created a classification of elements based on their atomic weight. He found that
organizing the elements at the time by their calculated weight demonstrated a periodic pattern of both
physical and chemical properties, such as luster, physical state, reactivity to water, and others.
• Chemical bonds are formed when atoms lose, accept or share electrons.
• An ionic bond occurs when there is a transfer of one or more valence electrons form one atom to another. It
exists between metal and nonmetal atoms where metal loses electron/s while nonmetal accepts the
electron/s donated by metal.
• When two nonmetal atoms combine, neither of them loses or gains electron Instead, electron pairs are
being shared by both atoms and the type of chemical bond formed is called covalent bond
• Electronegativity (EN) measures the relative tendency of an atom to attract electrons to itself when
chemically combined with other atom.
• A polar covalent bond is formed when electrons are shared unequally by two atoms in a compound.
• Dipole means “two poles” which means that a molecule has one positive end and one negative end.
• On the other hand, a nonpolar covalent bond develops if both atoms equally share a pair of electrons
between them.
• Solubility is defined as the ability of a solid substance to be dissolved in a given amount of solvent
• miscibility is the ability of the two liquids to combine or mix in all proportions, creating a homogenous mixture
• There are several types of IMFA and below they are arranged from STRONGEST to WEAKEST.

Ion-dipole → H-bonding→ dipole-dipole→dipole-induced dipole→ London forces of attraction

• The strength of IMFA greatly affects the physical properties of substances such as boiling point, melting point,
vapor pressure, surface tension, etc.

• Boiling point: temperature at which the vapor pressure and atmospheric pressure of a liquid substance are
equal.
• Melting point: temperature at which solid becomes liquid. At this point, the solid and liquid phases exist in
equilibrium.
• Surface tension: energy needed to increase the surface area by a unit amount
• Viscosity: the resistance of the liquid to flow
• Vapor pressure: pressure exerted by a substance in its gaseous state.
• Volatility: measures the rate at which a substance vaporizes (changes from liquid to gas)
• boiling point, melting point, viscosity and surface tension increase as the strength of intermolecular forces
increases.
• vapor pressure and volatility decrease with increasing strength of IMFA
• Monosaccharide – simplest form of carbohydrates
• Monomer – a molecule that can react with other molecule to form very large molecules orpolymers
• Peptide – short chain of amino acid monomer link by peptide bonds
• Hormones – special chemical messengers that are created in the endocrine gland
• Amino acids – organic compounds that combined to form proteins
• Enzymes – proteins which make the bio chemical reaction fast
• Nucleotide – made up of three components: nitrogen-containing base, five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate
group
• Phospholipids - contain glycerol, two-fatty acids, and a phosphate group
• The collision theory states that reacting substances must come into contact (collide) with enough activation
energy, and in the correct orientation (facing the correct way), so that their electron shells can rearrange to
form the products of the reaction. Therefore, any factor which changes the frequency or energy of the
collisions will change the rate of the reaction.
• When two particles collide, sometimes a chemical reaction can occur, which means the bonds between
two or more particles are broken and reformed, creating one or more new substances.
• The substances or particles that enter and is changed in the chemical reaction are called reactants
• the substances that are formed are called products.
• for a chemical reaction to occur, several things must happen:

1. The particles must come into contact with one another or collide.

2. When the particles collide, the particles must be aligned correctly so that the right parts of the atoms or
molecules are exposed. If they are not oriented correctly, no chemical reaction will take place.

3. The particles must collide with enough energy to break their chemical bonds. The amount of energy that
must be available for a reaction to occur is often referred to as the activation energy. It is the measure of
the change in the concentration of the reactants or products.
• The reaction rate of a chemical reaction is a measurement of the increase in the concentration of a
product or the decrease in the concentration of a reactant as the reaction proceeds over time
• The activation energy refers to the minimum energy required for a reaction to take place.
• Temperature refers to how hot or cold a certain substance is. Usually, a rise in temperature of 10 0C
doubles the reaction rate. The rate of a chemical reaction increases with increasing temperature. As the
temperature increases, collision between atoms and molecules becomes faster resulting to build up of
more energy
• The term concentration refers to the number of particles present in a given volume of solution.
Concentration may also mean a measure of how much of of the solute (something to be dissolved) is
dissolved in a solvent (dissolving medium) to form a homogeneous mixture.
• Surface area is the measure of how much exposed area a solid object has, expressed in square units. In a
reaction between a solid and a liquid, the more finely divided a solid is, the faster is the rate of reaction.
• A catalyst is a substance which speeds up a reaction, but is chemically unchanged at its end.
• Adding a catalyst has this effect on activation energy. A catalyst provides an alternative route for the
reaction with a lower activation energy.