MODULE 2:

DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

MAT051 Instructors

August 28, 2020

2
Contents

2 DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION 5
2.1 Definition of a Derivative of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Formulas for Algebraic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Formulas for Transcendental Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5 Higher Order Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.6 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.7 Increasing/Decreasing functions and the First Derivative Test . . 46
2.8 Concavity and the Second Derivative Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.9 Sketching the Graph of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.10 Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

3
4 CONTENTS
Chapter 2

DERIVATIVE OF A
FUNCTION

2.1 Definition of a Derivative of a function

Definition 2.1

Derivative of a function) If If f is a function of an independent variable,

say x, then the derivative of f at x0 , denoted by f 0 (x0 ), is given by

f (x0 + h)f (x0)

f 0 (x0 ) = lim ,
h→0 h
if this limit exists. If f 0 (x0 ) exists, then f is said to be differentiable at
x0 . The function f is said to be differentiable if it is differentiable at each
point in the domain of f .

The Three-Step Rule

Step 1 Simplify f (x + h)f (x).
Step 2 Divide f (x + h)f (x) by h, that is, solve

f (x + h)f (x)
, (h 6= 0).
h

f (x + h)f (x)
Step 3 Evaluate limh→0
h
Example 2.1. Find the derivative of f (x) = x2 using the Three-Step Rule.
Solution:

5
 6 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

Step 1 f (x + h) = (x + h)2 and f (x) = x2 .

Hence, f (x + h) − f (x) = (x + h)2 − x2 = x2 + 2xh + h2 − x2 = 2xh + h2
Step 2
f (x + h) − f (x) 2xh + h2 h(2x + h)
= = = 2x + h
h h h
Step 3
f (x + h) − f (x)
lim = lim 2x + h = 2x + (0) = 2x.
h→0 h h→0

Therefore, the derivative f at x where f (x) = x2 is

f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = limh→0 = 2x. N
h

The process of finding the derivative of a given function is called differenti-

ation.
Notation 2.2. If the function f is defined by the equation y = f (x), then the
derivative of f at x can be denoted by any of the following symbols:
dy d
f 0 (x), , Dx f, Dx (f (x)), Dx y, [f (x)], y 0
dx dx

2.2 Formulas for Algebraic Functions

Theorem 2.1

Let k be a constant. Then the following are true:

i. Dx k = 0,
ii. Dx [xr ] = rxr−1 (where r ∈ Q),

iii. Dx [k · f (x)] = k · Dx f (x),

iv. Dx [f (x) + g(x)] = Dx f (x) + Dx g(x) (Addition Rule),
v. Dx [f (x) · g(x)] = g(x) · Dx f (x) + f (x) · Dx g(x) (Product Rule),
 
f (x) g(x) · Dx f (x) − f (x) · Dx g(x)
vi. Dx = (Quotient Rule),
g(x) g 2 (x)
vii. Dx [(f ◦ g)(x)] = f 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x) (Chain Rule).
2.2. FORMULAS FOR ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS 7

Example 2.3. Differentiate the following:

d 3
1. (x − 12x + 5)
dx
√ √
2. Dx (2 x + 2x)
3. Dx [(2x − 1)3 (4x + 5)5 ]
d x3 − 8
 
4.
dx x2 − 4
Solution:
d 3
1. (x − 12x + 5)
dx

d 3 d 3 d d
(x − 12x + 5) = (x ) − (12x) + (5) (by Addition Rule)
dx dx dx dx
3−1 1−1
= 3x − 12x +0 (by Theorem 2.1(i) and Theorem 2.1(ii))
2
= 3x − 12.
d 3
Therefore, (x − 12x + 5) = 3x2 − 12. N
dx

√ √
2. Dx (2 x + 2x)
Rewriting the expression in terms of rational exponent,
√ √ 1 1 1 √ 1
2 x + 2x = 2x 2 + (2x) 2 = 2x 2 + 2x 2 .
Thus,
√ √ 1 √ 1
Dx (2 x + 2x) = Dx [2x 2 + 2x 2 ]
1 √ 1
= Dx [2x 2 ] + Dx [ 2x 2 ] (by Addition Rule)
1 √ 1
= 2Dx [x 2 ] + 2Dx [x 2 ] (by Theorem 2.1(iii))
√
 
1 1 −1 1 1 −1
= 2( x 2 )+ 2 x 2 (by Theorem 2.1(ii))
2 2
√
1 2 −1
= x− 2 + x 2
2
√
√ √ − 12 2 −1
Therefore, Dx (2 x + 2x) = x + x 2 N
2

3. Dx [(2x2 − 1)3 (4x3 + 5)5 ]

Let u = 2x2 − 1. Then Dx (u) = 4x. By Chain Rule,
Dx [(2x2 − 1)3 ] = Dx [u3 ] = 3[u2 ]Dx (u) = 3(2x − 1)2 (2x) = 6x(2x − 1)2 .
8 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

Let v = 4x3 + 5. Then Dx (v) = 12x2 . By Chain Rule,

Dx [(4x3 + 5)5 ] = Dx [v 5 ] = 5[v 4 ]Dx (v) = 5(4x3 + 5)4 (12x2 ) = 60x2 (4x3 + 5)4 .

Hence, By Product Rule

Dx [(2x2 − 1)3 (4x3 + 5)5 ]

= Dx [u3 v 5 ]
= u3 Dx [v 5 ] + v 5 Dx [u3 ] (by Product Rule)
2 3 2 3 4 3 5 2
= (2x − 1) [60x (4x + 5) ] + (4x + 5) [6x(2x − 1) ]
= (6x)(2x2 − 1)2 (4x3 + 5)4 [(2x2 − 1)(10x) + (4x3 + 5)]
= (6x)(2x2 − 1)2 (4x3 + 5)4 [20x3 − 10x + 4x3 + 5]
= (6x)(2x2 − 1)2 (4x3 + 5)4 [24x3 − 10x + 5].

Therefore,
Dx [(2x2 − 1)3 (4x3 + 5)5 ] = 6x(2x2 − 1)2 (4x3 + 5)4 [24x3 − 10x + 5]. N

x3 − 8
 
d
4.
dxx2 − 4
x3 − 8 (x − 2)(x2 + x + 1) x2 + x + 1
Simplifying 2 = = .
x −4 (x − 2)(x + 2) x+2
Thus,

d x3 − 8
 

dx x2 − 4
d x2 + x + 1
 
=
dx x+2
d d
(x + 2) dx (x2 + x + 1) − (x2 + x + 1) dx (x + 2)
= 2
(by Quotient Rule)
(x + 2)
(x + 2)(2x + 1) − (x2 + x + 1)(1)
=
(x + 2)2
(2x+ 5x + 2) − (x2 + x + 1)
=
(x + 2)2
x2 + 4x + 1
= .
(x + 2)2
Therefore,
d x3 − 8 x2 + 4x + 1
 
2
= . N
dx x − 4 (x + 2)2
2.2. FORMULAS FOR ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS 9

Exercise 2.1

Differentiate the following:

d
1. (3x3 − 2x2 + x)
dx
√ √
2. Dx (6 3 4x + 12 3 6x)
3. Dx (5x4 − 5x3 + 30x + 15)
d √
4. (2x 3 2x3 + 4)
dx
5. Dx [(x + 2)(x − 5)−1 ]
 
5 1
6. Dx 3 +
x x
 3 
d x −8
7.
dx x3 + 8
d x2 + 2x + 1
 
8.
dx x2 − 2x + 1
d 2
9. (x + [x3 + (x4 + x)2 ]3 )
dx
 
2x + 1
10. Dx (3x − 1)
x+5
 √ 
x 3 + 2x
11. Dx
4x − 1
 
d 3 5 2
12. − − 7x
dx x4 x
10 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

2.3 Formulas for Transcendental Functions

Theorem 2.2

Let u be a function of x. Then

i. Dx (sin u) = cos u · Dx (u),

ii. Dx (cos u) = − sin u · Dx (u),
iii. Dx (sec u) = sec u tan u · Dx (u),
iv. Dx (csc u) = − csc u cot u · Dx (u),

v. Dx (tan u) = sec2 u · Dx (u),

vi. Dx (cot u) = − csc2 u · Dx (u).

Example 2.4. Find the derivative of the following:

1. f (x) = sin(5x)

2. f (x) = cos(x2 )
 2
x
3. f (x) = sec
2

4. f (x) = csc(1 − x)

5. f (x) = tan(7x)

6. f (x) = cot(x3 )

Solution:
1. f (x) = sin(5x)
Let u = 5x. Then Dx (u) = 5. Hence, By Theorem 2.2(i)

f 0 (x) = Dx [sin(5x)]
= Dx [sin u]
= (cos u)Dx (u)
= (cos(5x))(5)
= 5 cos(5x).

Therefore, f 0 (x) = 5 cos(5x). N

2.3. FORMULAS FOR TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 11

2. f (x) = cos(x2 )
Let u = x2 . Then Dx (u) = 2x. Thus, By Theorem 2.2(ii)

f 0 (x) = Dx [cos(x2 )]
= Dx [cos u]
= −(sin u)Dx (u)
= −(sin(x2 ))(2x)
= −2x sin(x2 ).

Therefore, f 0 (x) = −2x sin(x2 ). N

x2
3. f (x) = sec
2
x2
Let u = . Then Dx (u) = x. Whence, By Theorem 2.2(iii)
2
  2 
x
f 0 (x) = Dx sec
2
= Dx [sec u]
= (sec u tan u)Dx (u)
  2  2 
x x
= sec tan (x)
2 2
 2  2
x x
= x sec tan .
2 2
 2  2
x x
Therefore, f 0 (x) = x sec tan . N
2 2

4. f (x) = csc(1 − x)
Let u = 1 − x. Then Dx (u) = −1. Consequently, By Theorem 2.2(iv)

f 0 (x) = Dx [csc(1 − x)]

= Dx [csc u]
= (− csc u cot u)Dx (u)
= (− csc(1 − x) cot(1 − x))(−1)
= csc(1 − x) cot(1 − x).

Therefore, f 0 (x) = csc(1 − x) cot(1 − x). N

12 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

5. f (x) = tan(7x)
Let u = 7x. Then Dx (u) = 7. As a consequence, By Theorem 2.2(v)

f 0 (x) = Dx [tan(7x)]
= Dx [tan u]
= (sec2 u)Dx (u)
= (sec2 (7x))(7)
= 7 sec2 (7x).

Therefore, f 0 (x) = 7 sec2 (7x). N

6. f (x) = cot(x3 )
Let u = x3 . Then Dx (u) = 3x2 . Hence, by Theorem 2.2(vi)

f 0 (x) = Dx cot x3
 

= Dx [cot u]
= (− csc2 u)Dx (u)
= (− csc2 (x3 ))(3x2 )
= −3x2 csc2 (x3 ).

Therefore, f 0 (x) = −3x2 csc2 (x3 ). N

Exercise 2.2

Find the derivative of the following:

1. f (x) = sin(2x)
2. f (x) = cos(x3 − 2x)
√
3. f (x) = tan( x3 − 2x)
√
4. f (x) = x sec( x + x)
√
5. f (x) = x3 cot 3x
6. f (x) = x2 csc(2x)
√
7. f (t) = 4t5 + csc 3t
8. g(x) = sec x2 + csc2 x2
2.3. FORMULAS FOR TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 13
r
2 − 3secx
9. f (x) =
tanx
10. g(x) = x3 − x2 cos x + 2x sin x
11. y = x2 sin x + 2x cos x − 2 sin x
sec4 2x
12. h(x) =
cos 2x
p
13. f (x) = 3 cos2 (2x + 1)
14. g(x) = tan2 (2x3 ) − 5
cot2 (2x)
15. h(x) =
1 + x2
 14 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

Theorem 2.3

Let u be a function of x. Then

i. Dx (eu ) = eu · Dx (u),
ii. Dx (au ) = au · ln a · Dx (u) (where a > 0anda 6= 1),
1
iii. Dx (ln u) = u · Dx (u),
1 1
iv. Dx (logb u) = u · ln b · Dx (u) (where b > 0 and b 6= 1).

Example 2.5. Find the derivative of the following:

1. f (x) = 4xe2x
2
2. f (t) = 25t
√
3. f (u) = ln( u)

4. h(x) = log7 (cos x)

Solution:
1. f (x) = 4xe2x
Let u = 4x and v = e2x . Then,

Dx (u) = 4,

and Theorem 2.3(i) implies

Dx (v) = e2x Dx (2x) = e2x (2) = 2e2x .

Hence,

f 0 (x) = Dx 4xe2x
 

= Dx [uv]
= uDx (v) + vDx (u) (by Product Rule)
2x 2x
= (4x)[2e ] + e [4]
= 8xe2x + 4e2x
= 4e2x (2x + 1).

Therefore, f 0 (x) = 4e2x (2x + 1). N

2.3. FORMULAS FOR TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 15

2
2. f (t) = 25t
Let u = t2 . Then, Dt (u) = 2t. Thus,
h 2i
f 0 (t) = Dt 25t
= Dt [25u ]
= 25u (ln 25)Dt (u) (by Theorem 2.3(ii))
t2
= 25 (2 ln 5)(2t)
2
= 4(ln 5)t25t .

2
Therefore, f 0 (t) = 4(ln 5)t25t . N

3. f (u) = ln(u2 )
Let w = u2 . Then, Du (w) = 2u. Whence,

f 0 (u) = Du ln(u2 )
 

= Du [ln w]
1
= Du (w) (by Theorem 2.3(iii))
w
1
= 2 (2u)
u
2
= .
u

2
Therefore, f 0 (t) = . N
u

Another way to solve this is simplifying f (u) = ln u2 = 2 ln u. Hence,

 
0 1 2 2
f (u) = Du [2 ln u] = 2Du [ln u] = 2 Du (u) = (1) =
u u u

and we still arrive at the same answer. Hence, it is better to simplify the func-
tion first before applying the theorems on differentiation.
√
4. h(x) = log7 ( cos x)
√ 1 1
Let h(x) = log7 ( cos x) = log7 ((cos x) 2 ) = log7 (cos x).
2
Let u = cos x. Then by Theorem 2.2, Dx (u) = − sin x.
16 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

Hence,
 
0 1
h (x) = Dx log7 (cos x)
2
1
= Dx [log u]
2  7  
1 1 1
= Dx (u) (by Theorem 2.3(iv))
2 u ln 7
  
1 1 1
= (− sin x)
2 cos x ln 7
− sin x
= .
2(ln 7) cos x
− sin x
Therefore, h0 (x) = . N
2(ln 7) cos x

Exercise 2.3

Find the derivative of the following:

1. f (x) = x3 ex
2. f (x) = e2x cos 4x

3. f (t) = t + 2t
4. f (t) = t43t
5. f (x) = 2e4x+1

x
6. f (x) = 1e
2
7. h(x) = (1/3)x
2
8. h(x) = (4)−x
2
9. f (u) = eu +4u

10. f (u) = 3etan u

e4w
11. f (w) =
w
w
12. f (w) = 6w
e
√
3 2x 3
13. g(x) = e x
2.3. FORMULAS FOR TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 17
√
3
14. g(x) = e2 x + x3
15. f (x) = ln(2x)
√
16. f (x) = ln 8x
17. f (t) = ln(t3 + 3t )

18. f (t) = t3 log4 t)

19. f (t) = ln(cos x)
20. g(x) = cos x ln(x2 + 1)

21. f (x) = sin(ln x2 )

22. g(t) = log7 (sin t2 )
√
ln x
23. f (x) =
x
√
ln t
24. g(t) =
t
25. h(x) = ex ln x

26. f (x) = ln(sin x)

27. f (x) = ln(sec x + tan x)
 18 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

Theorem 2.4

Let u be a function of x. Then

1
i. Dx (sin−1 u) = √ · Dx (u)
1 − u2
1
ii. Dx (cos−1 u) = − √ · Dx (u)
1 − u2
1
iii. Dx (tan−1 u) = − · Dx (u)
1 + u2
1
iv. Dx (cot−1 u) = − · Dx (u)
1 + u2
1
v. Dx (sec−1 u) = √ · Dx (u)
|u| u2 − 1
1
vi. Dx (csc−1 u) = − √ · Dx (u)
|u| u2 − 1

Example 2.6.

√
1. f (x) = sin−1 ( x)

2. f (x) = cos−1 (ln x)

3. f (x) = tan−1 (5x )

4. f (x) = cot−1 (x + 1)

5. f (x) = sec−1 (ex )

6. f (x) = csc−1 (5x)

Solution: √
1. f (x) = sin−1 ( x)
√ 1
Let u = x = x 2 . Then,

1 −1 1
Dx (u) = x 2 = 1 .
2 2x 2
2.3. FORMULAS FOR TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 19

Thus,
√ 
f 0 (x) = Dx sin−1 ( x)


= Dx [sin−1 u]
1
=√ Dx (u) (by Theorem 2.4(i))
1 − u2
 
1 1
=p √ 1
1 − ( x)2 2x 2
1 √
= 1p (Since ( x)2 = |x|)
2x 2 1 − |x|
1p
x 2 1 − |x|
= .
2x(1 − |x|)
1p
0 x 2 1 − |x|
Therefore, f (x) = . N
2x(1 − |x|)

2. f (x) = cos−1 (ln x)

1 1
Let u = ln x. Then, Dx (u) = Dx (x) = . Hence,
x x
f 0 (x) = Dx cos−1 (ln x)
 

= Dx [cos−1 u]
1
= −√ Dx (u) (by Theorem 2.4(ii))
1 − u2
 
1 1
= −p
1 − (ln x)2 x
1
=− p .
x 1 − (ln x)2

1
Therefore, f 0 (x) = − p . N
x 1 − (ln x)2
20 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

3. f (x) = tan−1 (5x )

Let u = 5x . Then, Dx (u) = 5x (ln 5)Dx (x) = (ln 5)5x . Consequently,

f 0 (x) = Dx tan−1 (5x )

 

= Dx [tan−1 u]
1
= Dx (u) (by Theorem 2.4(iii))
1 + u2
1
= ((ln 5)5x )
1 + (5x )2
(ln 5)5x
= .
1 + 52x
(ln 5)5x
Therefore, f 0 (x) = . N
1 + 52x

4. f (x) = cot−1 (x + 1)
Let u = x + 1. Then, Dx (u) = 1. So,

f 0 (x) = Dx cot−1 (x + 1)
 

= Dx [cot−1 u]
1
=− Dx (u) (by Theorem 2.4(iv))
1 + u2
−1
= (1)
1 + (x + 1)2
−1
= 2 .
x + 2x + 2
1
Therefore, f 0 (x) = − . N
x2 + 2x + 2
2.3. FORMULAS FOR TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 21

5. f (x) = sec−1 (ex )

Let u = ex . Then, Dx (u) = ex .
Hence,

f 0 (x) = Dx sec−1 (ex )

 

= Dx [sec−1 u]
1
= √ Dx (u) (by Theorem 2.4(v))
|u| u2 − 1
1
= p (ex )
|e | (ex )2 − 1
x

ex
= √
ex e2x − 1
√
e2x − 1
= 2x .
e −1
√
0 e2x − 1
Therefore, f (x) = 2x . N
e −1

6. f (x) = csc−1 (5x)

Let u = 5x. Then, Dx (u) = 5.
Thus,

f 0 (x) = Dx csc−1 (5x)

 

= Dx [csc−1 u]
1
=− √ Dx (u) (by Theorem 2.4(vi))
|u| u2 − 1
1
=− p (5)
|5x| (5x)2 − 1
√
−5 25x2 − 1
=
5|x|(25x2 − 1)
√
− 25x2 − 1
= .
|x|(5x − 1)(5x + 1)
√
0 − 25x2 − 1
Therefore, f (x) = . N
|x|(5x − 1)(5x + 1)
22 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

Exercise 2.4

Find the derivative of the following:

1. f (x) = sin−1 (2x)
2. g(x) = cos−1 (ex )

3. h(x) = x tan−1 (2x )

4. f (t) = ex sec−1 (x + 2)
5. f (x) = x3 sin−1 (x2 ex )
−1
6. g(x) = e2 cos (x)
p
7. h(t) = tan−1 (2x − 1)
8. f (t) = sin−1 (2x ) + ln sin−1 (2x)
1 4 −1 3 x
9. f (x) = x sin (x e )
4
2.4. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION 23

2.4 Implicit Differentiation

If a function f is given by f = {(x, y) : y = 3x2 + 2}, then we say that
the equation y = 3x2 + 2 defines the function f explicitly. However, not all
relations can be defined in such a manner. For instance, consider the equation
x2 − y 2 = 16. This given equation does not describe a function ((5, 3) and
(5, −3) are in the locus). Now, the function g defined by
p
y = g(x) = x2 − 16

satisfies x2 − y 2 = 16, that is x2 − [g(x)]2 = 16. Also, the function h defined by

p
y = h(x) = − x2 − 16

satisfies x2 − y 2 = 16, that is, x2 − [h(x)]2 = 16. In this case, we say that
function g (or the function h) is defined implicitly by the equation x2 − y 2 = 16.
The process of finding the derivative of a function that is defined implicitly is
called implicit differentiation.

Example 2.7. Suppose that y is a function of x. Find y 0 if x2 + y 2 = xy.

Solution:
Let y be a function of x and denote Dx (y) = y 0 . Also, note that Dx (x) = 1.
Taking the derivative of both sides of x2 + y 2 = xy, we obtain

Dx [x2 + y 2 ] = Dx [xy]
⇔ Dx (x2 ) + Dx (y 2 ) = xDx (y) + yDx (x)
⇔ 2xDx (x) + 2yDx (y) = xDx (y) + y(1)
⇔ 2x + 2yy 0 = xy 0 + y
⇔ 2yy 0 − xy 0 = y − 2x
⇔ y 0 (2y − x) = y − 2x
y − 2x
⇔ y0 = .
2y − x

y − 2x
Therefore, y 0 = . N
2y − x

Example 2.8. Suppose that y is a function of x. Find y 0 if x3 − y 3 = −27y.

Solution:
Let y be a function of x and denote Dx (y) = y 0 . Also, note that Dx (x) = 1.
24 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

Taking the derivative of both sides of x3 + y 3 = −27y, we obtain

Dx [x3 − y 3 ] = Dx [9xy]
⇔ Dx (x3 ) − Dx (y 3 ) = −27Dx (y)
⇔ 3x2 Dx (x) − 3y 2 Dx (y) = −27Dx (y)
⇔ 3x2 − 3y 2 y 0 = −27y 0
⇔ 3x2 = 3y 2 y 0 − 27y 0
⇔ 3x2 = 3y 0 (y 2 − 9)
3x2
⇔ = y0
3(y 2 − 9)
x2
⇔ = y0 .
(y − 3)(y + 3)

x2
Therefore, y 0 = . N
(y − 3)(y + 3)

Example 2.9. Suppose that y is a function of x. Find y 0 if 8y sin(5y) = x.

Solution:
Let y be a function of x and denote Dx (y) = y 0 . Also, note that Dx (x) = 1.
Taking the derivative of both sides of 8y sin(5y) = x, we obtain

Dx [8y(sin(5y))] = Dx (x)
⇔ 8yDx (sin(5y)) + (sin(5y))Dx (8y) = 1
⇔ 8y(cos(5y))Dx (5y) + (sin(5y))Dx (8y) = 1
⇔ 8y(cos(5y))(5)Dx (y) + (sin(5y))(8)Dx (y) = 1
⇔ 40y(cos(5y))y 0 + 8(sin(5y))y 0 = 1
⇔ 8y 0 [5y(cos(5y)) + (sin(5y))] = 1
1
⇔ y0 = .
8[cos(5y) + sin(5y)]
1
Therefore, y 0 = . N
8[cos(5y) + sin(5y)]
2.4. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION 25

Exercise 2.5

Suppose y is differentiable function of x. Find y 0 for the following:

1. x4 + x3 y + y 4 = 3
x + 2y
2. x2 =
x − 2y
p
3. tan(xy) − xy = 5
y
4. √ = 2 + x2
x−y
5. x4 y 4 = sin x cos y
6. cos(x + y) = y sin x

7. sin3 (x2 + y 2 ) = xy 2
8. csc(x − y) + sec(x + y) = x
2 p
9. ex y − 3 2 + y 2 = 1 + 2x2
10. e4y − ln(y 2 + 2) = 4x
11. xexy − x sin−1 y = ln(xy)
xy p
12. −1
= ln x2 y 2 + 1
tan (x − y)
13. sec−1 (xy − 1) + 2x2 y 2 = 2xy

14. xy = cos−1 |xy + 1|

26 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

2.5 Higher Order Derivatives

If the function f is differentiable, then its derivative f ’ is called the first deriva-
tive of f . If the function f 0 is differentiable, then the derivative of f 0 is called the
second derivative of f . It is denoted by f 00 (read as f double prime). Similarly,
the third derivative of f , is defined as the derivative of f 00 , provided that f 00
exists. The third derivative of f is denoted by f”’(read as f triple prime). The
nth derivative of the function f , denoted by f (n) , is defined as the derivative of
the (n − 1)st derivative of f , provided the latter exists.
dy
The Leibniz notation for the first derivative is , where y = f (x). The
dx
Leibniz notation for the second derivative of f with respect to x is

d2 y
   
d dy d d
= = (y) .
dx2 dx dx dx dx

dn y
In general, the symbol denotes the nth derivative of y with respect to
dxn
x. Other symbols for the nth derivative of f with respect of x are

dn
[f (x)] and Dnx [f (x)].
dxn

1
Example 2.10. Find g 000 (x) if g(x) = √ .
3x + 7

Solution:
1 1
Note that g(x) = √ = (3x + 7) 2 .
3x + 7
Let u = 3x + 7. Then Dx (u) = 3.
Hence,

1
f 0 (x) = Dx [(3x + 7) 2 ]
1
= Dx [u 2 ]
1 −1
= u 2 Dx [u]
2
1 −1
= (3x + 7) 2 (3)
2
3 −1
= (3x + 7) 2 ,
2
2.5. HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES 27

and

f 00 (x) = Dx [f 0 (x)]
 
3 −1
= Dx (3x + 7) 2
2
 
3 −1
= Dx (u) 2
2
 
3 −1 −3
= u 2 Dx [u]
2 2
−3 −3
= (3x + 7) 2 (3)
4
−9 −3
= (3x + 7) 2 .
4

Thus,

f 000 (x) = Dx [f 00 (x)]

 
−9 −3
= Dx (3x + 7) 2
4
 
−9 −3
= Dx (u) 2
4
 
−9 −3 −5
= u 2 Dx [u]
4 2
27 −5
= (3x + 7) 2 (3)
8
81 −5
= (3x + 7) 2 .
8

−5
Therefore, f 000 (x) = 81
8 (3x + 7) 2 . N

d3
Example 2.11. Find (2 sin x + 3 cos 2x − x3 ).
dx3

Solution:
Let u = 2 sin x + 3 cos 2x − x3 . Then

d3 d3
 2    
3 d d d d d
(2 sin x + 3 cos 2x − x ) = (u) = (u) = (u) .
dx3 dx3 dx dx2 dx dx dx
28 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

Thus,
d d
(u) = (2 sin x + 3 cos 2x − x3 )
dx dx
d d d 3
= 2 [sin x] + 3 [cos 2x] − [x ]
dx dx dx
d d d
= 2 cos x [x] + 3(− sin 2x) [2x] − 3x2 [x]
dx dx dx
= 2(cos x)(1) − 3(sin 2x)(2) − 3x2 (1)
= 2 cos x − 6 sin 2x − 3x2 ,

and
d2
 
d d
(u) = (u)
dx2 dx dx
d
= [2 cos x − 6 sin 2x − 3x2 ]
dx
d d d
= 2 [cos x] − 6 [sin 2x] − 3 [x2 ]
dx dx dx
d d d
= 2(− sin x) [x] − 6(cos 2x) [2x] − 3(2x) [x]
dx dx dx
= −2(sin x)(1) − 6(cos 2x)(2) − 6x(1)
= −2 sin x − 12 cos 2x − 6x.

Hence,

d3
(2 sin x + 3 cos 2x − x3 )
dx3 
d2

d
= (u)
dx dx2
d
= [−2 sin x − 12 cos 2x − 6x]
dx
d d d
= −2 [sin x] − 12 [cos 2x] − 6 [x]
dx dx dx
d d d
= −2(cos x) [x] − 12(− sin 2x) [2x] − 6 [x]
dx dx dx
= −2(cos x)(1) + 12(sin 2x)(2) − 6(1)
= −2 cos x + 24 sin 2x − 6.

d3
Therefore, (2 sin x + 3 cos x − x3 ) = −2 cos x + 24 sin 2x − 6. N
dx3
2.5. HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES 29

Example 2.12. Find g 0 (x) and g 00 (x) if g(x) = (2x − 3)2 (x + 4)2 .
Solution:
Let u = 2x − 3 and v = x + 4. Then Dx (u) = 2 and Dx (v) = 1.
Hence,

g 0 (x) = Dx [(2x − 3)2 (x + 4)2 ]

= Dx [u2 v 2 ]
= u2 Dx [v 2 ] + v 2 Dx [u2 ]
= u2 [2vDx (v)] + v 2 [2uDx (u)]
= (2x − 3)2 [2(x + 4)(1)] + (x + 4)2 [2(2x − 3)(2)]
= 2(x + 4)(2x − 3)2 + 4(2x − 3)(x + 4)2

and

g 00 (x) = Dx [g 0 (x)]
= Dx [2(x + 4)(2x − 3)2 + 4(2x − 3)(x + 4)2 ]
= Dx [2vu2 + 4uv 2 ]
= 2Dx [vu2 ] + 4Dx [uv 2 ]
= 2 vDx [u2 ] + u2 Dx (v) + 4 uDx [v 2 ] + v 2 Dx (u)
   

= 2[v[2u2 Dx (u)] + u2 Dx (v)] + 4[u[2v 2 Dx (v)] + v 2 Dx (u)]

= 4vu2 Dx (u) + 2u2 Dx (v) + 8uv 2 Dx (v) + 4v 2 Dx (u)
= 4(x + 4)(2x − 3)2 (2) + 2(2x − 3)2 (1) + 8(2x − 3)(x + 4)2 (1) + 4(x + 4)2 (2)
= 8(x + 4)(2x − 3)2 + 2(2x − 3)2 + 8(2x − 3)(x + 4)2 + 8(x + 4)2 .

Expressing in factored form, we have

g 0 (x) = 2(x + 4)(2x − 3)2 + 4(2x − 3)(x + 4)2

= 2(x + 4)(2x − 3)[(2x − 3) + 2(x + 4)]
= 2(x + 4)(2x − 3)(4x + 5).

Therefore, g 0 (x) = 2(x + 4)(2x − 3)(4x + 5) and

g 00 (x) = 8(x + 4)(2x − 3)2 + 2(2x − 3)2 + 8(2x − 3)(x + 4)2 + 8(x + 4)2 . N
30 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

Exercise 2.6

d2 t
1. Find if t = 2s(14s)2 .
ds2
p
2. Find F 0 (y) and F 00 (y) if F (y) = 3
2y 3 + 3.
3. Find h0 (x) and h00 (x) if h(x) = sec 2x + tan 2x.
d4
 
3
4. Find .
dx4 2x − 1
5. Find Dx3 [2 tan 3x].

6. Find f (5) (x) if f (x) = cos 2x sin 2x

d3 u √
7. Find 4
if u = v v − 2 (provided v − 2 > 0).
dv
d3 y √
8. Find if y = 3 − 2x.
dx3
d2 y 2x
9. Given x3 + y 3 = 1, Show that = 5.
dx2 y
1 1 d2 y 1
10. Given x 2 + y 2 = 2, Show that = 3.
dx2 x2
10x
11. Given x3 − y 3 = 5, Show that y 00 = − .
y5
cos x R(x)R0 (x)
12. Let R(x) = . show that = −1.
1 + sin x R00 (x)
1
13. Let f (x) = . Show that
1 + sin x

(1 + sin x)3 · F 00 (x) = cos2 x + sin x + 1.

14. Let x + y = tan y. Show that y 00 = −2[cot5 y + cot3 y]

2.6. INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HÔPITAL’S RULE 31

2.6 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule

Definition 2.2

If f and g are two functions such that limx→a f (x) = 0 and limx→a g(x) =
0, then the function fg has the indeterminate form 00 at a.

x2 − 4 0
Example 2.13. has the indeterminate form at a = 2.
x−2 0

Theorem 2.5: L’Hôpital’s Rule(1)

Let f and g be functions which are differentiable on an open interval I,

except possibly at the number a ∈ I. Suppose that for all x 6= a in I,
f 0
g 0 (x) 6= 0. If has the indeterminate from at a and
g 0

f 0 (x)
lim = L,
x→a g 0 (x)

then
f (x)
lim = L.
x→a g(x)

Remark 2.14. The theorem above is valid if two-sided limit is replaced by one-
sided limit.
sin x
Example 2.15. Find the lim .
x→0 x

Solution:
sin x 0
has indeterminate form at a = 0. Thus, by L’Hôpital’s Rule(1)
x 0
sin x
lim
x→0 x
Dx (sin x)
= lim
x→0 Dx (x)
cos x
= lim
x→0 1
= cos x.

sin x
Therefore, lim = cos x. N
x→0 x
32 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

6r4 − 4r2 − 2
Example 2.16. Find the limit of lim .
r→1+ 11 − r − 10r2
Solution:
6r4 − 4r2 − 2 0
2
has indeterminate form at a = 1+ . Thus, by L’Hôpital’s
11 − r − 10r 0
Rule(1)

6r4 − 4r2 − 2
lim
r→1+ 11 − r − 10r2
Dr [6r4 − 4r2 − 2]
= lim+
r→1 Dr [11 − r − 10r 2 ]

[24r3 − 8r]
= lim+
r→1 −1 − 20r]
26(1)3 − 8
=
−1 − 20(1)
16
= .
−21
6r4 − 4r2 − 2 16
Therefore, limr→1+ 2
= . N
11 − r − 10r −21

Exercise 2.7

Evaluate the following limits using L’Hôpital’s Rule:

x2 − 4
1. limx→2
x−2
sin x
2. limx→0
x
4x − 3x
3. limx→0
x
x − sin x
4. limx→0
x4 − x3
cos x − sin x
5. limx→ π4
cos(2x)
2.6. INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HÔPITAL’S RULE 33

Theorem 2.6: L’Hôpital’s Rule(2)

Let f and g be functions which are differentiable for all x > N , where
N is a positive constant, and suppose that for all x > N , g 0 (x) 6= 0. If
limx→+∞ f (x) = 0, limx→+∞ g(x) = 0, and

f 0 (x)
lim = L,
x→a g 0 (x)

then
f (x)
lim = L.
x→a g(x)

Remark 2.17. The theorem above is valid if “x → +∞” is replaced by “x →

−∞”.

Example 2.18. Evaluate the following limits using L’Hôpital’s Rule:

1
x2 − 2 tan−1 1
x
1. limx→∞ 1
x

 
1
sin
x
2. limx→∞  
1
tan−1
x

Solution:
1
x2 − 2 tan−1 1
x
1. limx→∞ 1
x
1 1 1 1
Note that lim 2 = 0, and lim = 0. Hence, lim 2 − 2 tan−1 = 0 −
x→∞ x x→∞ x x→∞ x x
1 −1 1
−1 x2 − 2 tan x 0
2 tan (0) = 0. Thus, 1 has indeterminate form as x → ∞. As
x
0
34 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

a consequence, by By L’Hôpital’s Rule(2),

1
x2 − 2 tan−1 1
x
lim 1
x→∞
x
Dx [ x12 − 2 tan−1 x1 ]
= lim
x→∞ Dx [ x1 ]
 
1
−2x−3 − 2( )(−x−2 )
1 + x−2
= lim
x→∞ −x−2
 
−2 −1 1
−2x x −
1 + x−2
= lim −2
x→∞ −x
 
−1 1
= lim x −
x→∞ 1 + x−2
lim 1
x→∞
= lim x−1 −
x→∞ lim 1 + lim x−2
x→∞ x→∞
1
=0−
1+0
= 1.

1
x2 − 2 tan−1 1
x
Therefore, lim 1 = 1. N
x→∞
x

 
1
sin
x
2. limx→∞  
1
tan−1
x
Note that
 
1
lim sin → sin 0 = 0
x→∞ x

and
 
1
lim tan−1 → tan−1 0 = 0.
x→∞ x
 
1
sin
x 0
Hence,   has indeterminate form as x → ∞ (,that is, x increases
1 0
tan−1
x
without bound).
2.6. INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HÔPITAL’S RULE 35

Hence, By L’Hôpital’s Rule(2),

 
1
sin
x
lim  
x→∞ 1
tan−1
x
  
1
Dx sin
x
= lim   
x→∞ 1
Dx tan−1
x
(cos x−1 )Dx (x−1 )
= lim
x→∞ 1
Dx (x−1 )
1 + (x−1 )2
(cos x−1 )(−1x−2 )
= lim
x→∞ 1
(−1x−2 )
1 + (x−1 )2
(cos x−1 )
= lim  
x→∞ 1
1 + (x−1 )2
lim (cos x−1 )
x→∞
= .
1
lim
x→∞ 1 + x−2

But,  
−1 1
lim cos x = cos lim = cos 0 = 1,
x→∞ x→∞ x

and
1 1 1
lim = = = 1.
1 + x−2

x→∞ 1 1 + 02
1 + lim 2
x→∞ x
 
1
sin lim cos(x−1 )
x x→∞ 1
Therefore, limx→∞  = = = 1. N
1 1 1
tan−1 lim
x→∞ 1 + (x−1 )2
x

Definition 2.3

If f and g are two functions such that limx→a f (x) = ±∞ and limx→a g(x) =
±∞, then the function fg has the indeterminate form ±∞ ±∞ at a.
36 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

ln x −∞
Example 2.19. has the indeterminate form at a = 0+ .
1 +∞
x

Theorem 2.7: L’Hôpital’s Rule(3)

Let f and g be functions which are differentiable on an open interval I,

except possibly at the number a ∈ I. Suppose that for all x 6= a in I,
g 0 (x) 6= 0. If limx→+∞ f (x) = +∞ or −∞, limx→+∞ g(x) = +∞ or −∞,
and
f 0 (x)
lim 0 = L,
x→a g (x)

then
f (x)
lim = L.
x→a g(x)

Remark 2.20. The theorem above is valid if two-sided limit is replaced by one-
sided limit.
ln x
Example 2.21. Evaluate the lim   using L’Hôpital’s Rule (3).
x→0+ 1
x
Solution:
1 ln x
Note that lim ln x = −∞ and lim = +∞. Hence, the fraction has
x→0+ x→0+ x 1
x
−∞ +
indeterminate form at a = 0 . Hence, using L’Hôpital’s Rule (3),
+∞
ln x
lim  
x→0+ 1
x
Dx [ln x]
= lim
x→0+ Dx [x−1 ]
 
1
x
= lim
x→0+ (−x−2 )

= lim (−x)
x→0+

= −0
= 0.

ln x
Therefore, lim   = 0. N
x→0+ 1
x
2.6. INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HÔPITAL’S RULE 37

Theorem 2.8: L’Hôpital’s Rule(4)

Let f and g be functions which are differentiable for all x > N , where
N is a positive constant, and suppose that for all x > N , g 0 (x) 6= 0. If
limx→+∞ f (x) = +∞ or −∞, limx→+∞ g(x) = +∞ or −∞, and

f 0 (x)
lim = L,
x→a g 0 (x)

then
f (x)
lim = L.
x→a g(x)

Remark 2.22. The theorem above is valid if “x → +∞” is replaced by “x →

−∞”.
ex
Example 2.23. Find lim .
x→∞ x2

Solution:
ex
Note that lim ex = +∞ and lim x2 = +∞. Then, 2 has indeterminate form
x→∞ x→∞ x
+∞
as x → ∞. By L’Hôpital’s Rule(4),
+∞
ex
lim
x→∞ x2
Dx [ex ]
= lim
x→∞ Dx [x2 ]

ex
= lim .
x→∞ 2x

ex +∞
But, lim ex = +∞ and lim 2x = +∞. Then, has indeterminate form
x→∞ x→∞ 2x +∞
as x → ∞. By L’Hôpital’s Rule(4),
ex
lim
x→∞ 2x
Dx [ex ]
= lim
x→∞ Dx [2x]

ex
= lim . = +∞.
x→∞ 2

ex
Therefore, lim = +∞. N
x→∞ x2
38 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

Other Indeterminate Forms

0 · (±∞), +∞ − (+∞), 00 , (±∞)0 , 1±∞

In order to evaluate these forms, find a way to express these form to either
0 ±∞
indeterminate forms or
0 ±∞
Example 2.24. Evaluate the following limits using L’Hôpital’s Rule:
 
1
1. lim ln x (0 · ∞)
x→+∞ x
 
1 1
2. lim − (∞ − ∞)
x→0 ln(x + 1) x
2
3. lim (x + 1) x (∞0 )
x→0+

4. lim (sin x)x (00 )

x→0+
 x
1
5. lim (1∞ )
x→+∞ x−1
Solution: 
1
1. lim ln x
x→+∞ x
 
1 1
Note that lim = 0 and lim ln x = +∞. Hence, ln x has indetermi-
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x
nate form 0 · (+∞) as x → +∞. But the fraction
1 ln x
ln x = .
x x
ln x
Also, lim ln x = +∞ and lim x = +∞ imply that has indeterminate
x→+∞ x→+∞ x
+∞
form as x → +∞. By L’Hôpital’s Rule(4),
+∞
 
ln x
lim
x→+∞ x
 
Dx [ln x]
= lim
x→+∞ Dx [x]
1
 

= lim  x 
 
x→+∞ 1

1
= lim
x→+∞ x
= 0.
2.6. INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HÔPITAL’S RULE 39
   
1 ln x
Therefore, lim ln x = lim = 0. N
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x

 
1 1
2. lim −
x→0 ln(x + 1) x
1 1
Note that lim = +∞ and lim . this implies that the fraction
x→0 ln(x + 1) x→0 x
 
1 1
− has indeterminate form (+∞) − (+∞) at a = 0. But the
ln(x + 1) x
fraction,
1 1 x − ln(x + 1)
− = .
ln(x + 1) x x ln(x + 1)

Also,
lim x − ln(x + 1) = 0 − ln 1 = 0 − 0 = 0
x→0

and
lim x ln(x + 1) = 0(ln 1) = 0
x→0

x − ln(x + 1) 0
imply that has indeterminate form at a = 0. By L’Hôpital’s
x ln(x + 1) 0
Rule(1),

x − ln(x + 1)
lim
x→0 x ln(x + 1)
Dx [x − ln(x + 1)]
= lim
x→0 Dx [x ln(x + 1)]
1
1− (1)]
= lim x+1
x→0 1
(x)( ) + (ln(x + 1))(1)
x+1
1
1− ]
= lim x+1
x→0 1
(x)( (1)) + (ln(x + 1))(1)
x+1
1
1−
= lim x x + 1
x→0
− ln(x + 1)
x+1
x
= lim
x→0 x + ln(x + 1)

But lim x = 0 and lim [x + ln(x + 1)] = 0 + ln 1 = 0 + 0 = 0, which implies that

x→0 x→0
40 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

x 0
has indeterminate form at a = 0. By L’Hôpital’s Rule(1),
x + ln(x + 1) 0

x
lim
x→0 x + ln(x + 1)

Dx [x]
= lim
x→0 Dx [x + ln(x + 1)]
1
= lim
x→0 1
1+
x+1
1
=
1
1+
0+1
1
= .
2

Therefore,
 
1 1 x − ln(x + 1) x 1
lim − = lim = lim = . N
x→0 ln(x + 1) x x→0 x ln(x + 1) x→0 x + ln(x + 1) 2

2
3. limx→0+ (x + 1) x
2
lim (x + 1) = 1 and lim = +∞. Hence, the fraction has indeterminate
x→0+ x→0+ x
+∞ +
form 1 at a = 0 . In this case, we will use a different approach, using the
continuity of the natural logarithmic function (ln),

2 2
   

ln  lim+ (x + 1) x  = lim+ ln(x + 1) x  .

x→0 x→0

But,

2
lim+ ln(x + 1) x
x→0
2
= lim ln(x + 1)
x→0+x
ln(x + 1)
= 2 lim .
x→0 + x

ln(x + 1)
Note that lim ln(x + 1) = ln(0 + 1) = 0 and lim x = 0 implies that
x→0+ x→0+ x
2.6. INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HÔPITAL’S RULE 41

0
has indeterminate form at a = 0+ . By L’Hôpital’s Rule(1),
0
ln(x + 1)
lim+
x→0 x
Dx [ln(x + 1)]
= lim+
x→0 Dx [x]
1
= lim+ x + 1
x→0 1
1
= lim+
x→0 x + 1
1
=
0+1
= 1.

2 2
   
 
ln(x + 1)
. Thus, ln  lim+ (x + 1) x  = lim+ ln(x + 1) x  = 2 lim+ =
x→0 x→0 x→0 x
2(1) = 2. That is,

2 2
 

ln  lim (x + 1) x  = 2 ⇔ e2 = lim (x + 1) x .
x→0+ x→0+

2
Therefore, lim+ (x + 1) x = e2 . N
x→0

4. lim+ (sin x)x

x→0
lim+ (sin x) = 0 and lim+ x = 0. Hence, the fraction has indeterminate form 00
x→0 x→0
at a = 0+ . Using the continuity of the natural logarithmic function (ln),
 
x
ln lim+ (sin x) = lim+ (ln(sin x)x ) .
x→0 x→0

But,

lim ln(sin x)x

x→0+
= lim+ x ln(sin x)
x→0
ln sin x
= lim+ .
x→0 1
x
42 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

1 ln(sin x)
Note that lim+ ln(sin x) = −∞ and lim+ = +∞ implies that has
x→0 x→0 x 1
x
−∞
indeterminate form at a = 0+ . By L’Hôpital’s Rule(3),
+∞
ln sin x
lim
x→0+ 1
x
Dx [ln(sin x)]
= lim+  
x→0 1
Dx
x
1
cos x
= lim+ sin x −2
x→0 −x
x2 cos x
= − lim .
x→0+ sin x

Note that lim+ x2 (cos x) = 02 (cos 0) = 0 and lim+ sin x = sin 0 = 0 implies
x→0 x→0
x2 cos x 0
that has indeterminate form at a = 0+ . By L’Hôpital’s Rule(1),
sin x 0
x2 cos x
= − lim+
x→0 sin x
Dx [x2 cos x]
= − lim+
x→0 Dx [sin x]
x2 (− sin x) + (cos x)(2x)
= − lim+
x→0 cos x
2
0 (− sin 0) + (cos 0)(2(0))
=−
cos 0
0(0) + (1)(0)
=−
1
= 0.
 
x
Thus, ln lim (sin x) = lim+ (ln(sin x)x ) = 0. That is,
x→0+ x→0
 
ln lim (sin x)x = 0 ⇔ e0 = lim (sin x)x .
x→0+ x→0+

Therefore, limx→0+ (sin x)x = 1. N

2.6. INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HÔPITAL’S RULE 43
 x
1
5. lim
x→+∞ x−1  x
1 1
lim = 0 and lim x + 1 = +∞. Thus, has indeterminate
x→+∞ x − 1 x→+∞ x−1
+∞
form 0 as x → ∞. Using the continuity of the natural logarithmic function
(ln),
  x    x 
1 1
ln lim = lim ln .
x→+∞ x−1 x→+∞ x−1

But,

  x 
1
lim ln
x→+∞ x−1
 
1
= lim x ln
x→+∞ x−1
 
1
ln
x−1
= lim .
x→+∞ 1
x

1

1

1 ln
lim ln = 0 and lim = 0. Hence, x − 1 has indeterminate
x→+∞ x−1 x→+∞ x 1
x
0
form as x → ∞. Then, by L’Hôpital’s Rule(2),
0

1
ln
lim x−1
x→+∞ 1
x  
1
Dx ln
x−1
= lim  
x→+∞ 1
Dx
x
(x − 1)(−1(x − 1)−2 )
= lim
x→+∞ −x−2
2
x
= lim .
x→+∞ x − 1

x2
lim x2 = +∞ and lim x − 1 = +∞ imply that the fraction has
x→+∞ x→+∞ x−1
44 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

+∞
indeterminate form as x → +∞. Consequently, by L’Hôpital’s Rule(2),
+∞
x2
lim
x→+∞ x − 1
Dx [x2 ]
= lim
x→+∞ Dx [x − 1]
2x
= lim
x→+∞ 1

= +∞
  x    x 
1 1
Hence, ln lim = limx→+∞ ln = +∞. Thus,
x→+∞ x − 1 x−1
  x   x
1 1
ln lim ⇔ lim = 0.
x→+∞ x − 1 x→+∞ x − 1

 x
1
Therefore, lim = 0. N
x→+∞ x − 1
2.6. INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HÔPITAL’S RULE 45

Exercise 2.8

Evaluate the following limits using L’Hôpital’s Rule:

ln(2 + ex )
1. limx→+∞
3x
√
x
2. limx→0+
ln x
3. limx→+∞ (ln x − x)
√ 2
 x + 1  x −4

4. limx→+∞ 
 
x − 2
1
5. limx→0+ (cos x) x
sin(sin x)
6. limx→0
sin x
ln x)
7. limx→0+
cot x
√
8. limx→+∞ ( x2 + 1 − x)

x
9. limx→+∞ 1 + x1
 x
1
10. limx→0+
x
46 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

2.7 Increasing/Decreasing functions and the First

Derivative Test
Definition 2.4: Monotonic Functions

A function f defined on an interval is said to be (strictly)increasing on

that interval if and only if f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 , where x1 and
x2 are any numbers in the interval. A function f defined on an interval is
said to be (strictly) decreasing on that interval if and only if f (x1 ) > f (x2 )
whenever x1 < x2 where x1 and x2 are any numbers in the interval. If a
function is either increasing or decreasing on an interval, then it is said to
be monotonic on the interval.

Theorem 2.9

Let the function f be continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and differen-
tiable on the open interval (a, b).

1. If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x in (a, b), then f is increasing on [a, b].
2. If f 0 (x) < 0 for all x in (a, b), then f is decreasing on [a, b].

Theorem 2.10: First Derivative Test for Relative Extrema

Let the function f be continuous at all points of the open interval (a, b)
containing the number x0 , and suppose that f 0 exists at each point of
(a, b), except possibly at x0 .
1. If f is increasing (f 0 (x) > 0) on some open interval to the left of x0
with x0 as endpoint of this interval, and if f is decreasing (f 0 (x) < 0)
on some open interval to the right of x0 with x0 as endpoint, then f
has a relative maximum value at x0 .
2. If f is decreasing (f 0 (x) < 0) on some open interval to the left of x0
with x0 as endpoint, and if f is increasing (f 0 (x) > 0) on some open
interval to the right of x0 with x0 as endpoint of this interval, then
f has a relative minimum value at x0 .

Example 2.25. Given the function f, discuss its relative maximum and mini-
mum points and the intervals where it is increasing and decreasing.
1
1. f (x) = x − x3
3
2. f (x) = x4 − 8x3 + 18x2 − 27
2.7. INCREASING/DECREASING FUNCTIONS AND THE FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST47

Solution:
1
1. f (x) = x − x3
3

1
f (x) = x − x3
3
1
f 0 (x) = 1 − (3x2 )
3
0
f (x) = 1 − x2
f 0 (x) = (1 − x)(1 + x)

When

f 0 (x) = 0 ⇒ 0 = (1 − x)(1 + x)
⇒ 0 = 1 − x or 0 = 1 + x
⇒ x = 1 or x = −1.

Intervals on x-axis to be considered :

(−∞, −1), (−1, 1), (1, +∞)

Cirtical points are:

 
2
(−1, f (−1)) = −1, − ,
3
 
2
(1, f (1)) = 1, −
3

x-axis Test point Conclusion

x0 f 0 (x0 ) = 1 − (x0 )2 of FDT
(−∞, −1) −2 f 0 (−2) = 1 − (−2)2 f 0 (x0 ) < 0,
= 1 − 4 = −3 decreasing (&)
(−1, 1) 0 f 0 (0) = 1 − (0)2 f 0 (x0 ) > 0,
=1−0=1 increasing (%)
(1, +∞) 2 f 0 (2) = 1 − (2)2 f 0 (x0 ) < 0,
= 1 − 4 = −3 decreasing (&)

Hence,
f (x) is decreasing on (−∞, −1),

f (x) is increasing on (−1, 1),

f (x) is decreasing on (1, +∞).

48 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

Because,
 f (x)  is decreasing on (−∞, −1) and increasing on (−1, 1), we conclude
2
that −1, − is a relative minimum point. Also, f (x) increasing on (−1, 1)
3  
2
and f (x) is decreasing on (1, +∞), then 1, − is a relative maximum point.
3
N

2. f (x) = x4 − 8x3 + 18x2 − 27

f (x) = x4 − 8x3 + 18x2 − 27

f 0 (x) = 4x3 − 24x2 + 36x + 0
f 0 (x) = 4x3 − 24x2 + 36x
f 0 (x) = 4x(x − 3)2
When
f 0 (x) = 0 ⇒ 0 = 4x(x − 3)2
⇒ 4x = 0 or (x − 3)2 = 0
⇒ x = 0 or x = 3.

Intervals on x-axis to be considered :

(−∞, 0), (0, 3), (3, +∞)

Cirtical points are:

(0, f (0)) = (0, −27) ,

(3, f (3)) = (3, 0)
x-axis Test point Conclusion
x0 f 0 (x0 ) = 4x0 (x0 − 3)2 of FDT
(−∞, 0) −1 f 0 (−1) = 4(−1)(−1 − 3)2 f 0 (x0 ) < 0,
= −4(16) = −64 decreasing (&)
(0, 3) 1 f 0 (1) = 4(1)(1 − 3)2 f 0 (x0 ) > 0,
= 4(4) = 16 increasing (%)
(3, +∞) 4 f 0 (4) = 4(4)(4 − 3)2 f 0 (x0 ) > 0,
= 16(1) = 16 increasing (%)

Hence,
f (x) is decreasing on (−∞, 0),
2.7. INCREASING/DECREASING FUNCTIONS AND THE FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST49

f (x) is increasing on (0, 3),

f (x) is increasing on (3, +∞).
Because, f (x) is decreasing on (−∞, 0) and increasing on (0, 3), we conclude
that (0, −27) is a relative minimum point. But, f (x) increasing on (0, 3) and
f (x) is increasing on (3, +∞), then the critical point (3, 0) is not a relative ex-
trema. Hence, there are no relative maximum point. N
50 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

2.8 Concavity and the Second Derivative Test

Definition 2.5: Concavity

The graph of a function f is said to be concave upward on a given interval

I, if at each point of I the graph of f always remains above the line tangent
to the curve at this point. The graph of a function f is said to be concave
downward on an interval I, if at each point of I the graph of f always
remains below the line tangent to the curve at this point.

Theorem 2.11: Second Derivative Test for Concavity

Let f be a function such that f 00 (x) exists for every x in some open interval
I.

1. If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x on I, then the graph of f is concave upward

on I.
2. If f 00 (x) < 0 for all x on I, then the graph of f is concave downward
on I.

Theorem 2.12: Second Derivative Test for Relative Extrema

Suppose that f 00 exists on I and suppose x0 ∈ I is a critical value of f .

1. If f 00 (x0 ) > 0, then x0 corresponds to a relative minimum value of
f.
2. If f 00 (x0 ) < 0, then x0 corresponds to a relative maximum value of
f.

Definition 2.6: Point of inflection

A point (x0 , f (x0 )) is a point of inflection of the graph of the function f

if the graph has a tangent line there, and if there exists an open interval
I containing x0 such that if x is in I, then either
1. f 00 (x) < 0 if x < x0 , and f 00 (x) > 0 if x > x0 , or
2. f 00 (x) > 0 if x < x0 , and f 00 (x) < 0 if x > x0 .
2.8. CONCAVITY AND THE SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST 51

Theorem 2.13

If the function f is differentiable on some open interval containing x0 , and

if (x0 , f (x0 )) is a point of inflection of the graph of f , then if f 00 (x0 ) exists,
f 00 (x0 ) = 0.

Example 2.26. Given the function f , discuss the intervals of concavity and
the points of inflection.
1
1. f (x) = x − x3
3
2. f (x) = x4 − 8x3 + 18x2 − 27
Solution:
1
1. f (x) = x − x3
3

1
f (x) = x − x3
3
1
f 0 (x) = 1 − (3x2 )
3
f 0 (x) = 1 − x2
f 00 (x) = 0 − 2x
f 00 (x) = −2x

When f 0 (x) = 0 ⇒ 0 = −2x ⇒ x = 0.

Intervals on x-axis to be considered : (−∞, 0), (0, +∞)

Cirtical point: (0, f (0)) = (0, 0)

x-axis Test point Conclusion

x0 f 00 (x0 ) = −2(x0 ) of SDT
(−∞, 0) −1 f 00 (−1) = (−2)(−1) = 2 f 00 (x0 ) > 0,
concave upward (∪)
(0, +∞) 1 f 00 (1) = (−2)(1) = −2 f 00 (x0 ) < 0,
concave downward (∩)

Hence, f (x) concave upward on (−∞, 0) and concave downward on (0, +∞).

Also, since f (x) concave upward on (−∞, 0) and concave downward on

(0, +∞), the critical point (0, 0) is a point of inflection. N
52 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

2.

f (x) = x4 − 8x3 + 18x2 − 27

f 0 (x) = 4x3 − 24x2 + 36x + 0
f 0 (x) = 4x3 − 24x2 + 36x
f 00 (x) = 12x2 − 48x + 36
f 00 (x) = 12(x2 − 4x + 3)
f 00 (x) = 12(x − 1)(x − 3).
When
f 0 (x) = 0 ⇒ 0 = 12(x − 1)(x − 3)
⇒ 0 = x − 1 or 0 = x − 3
⇒ x = 1 or x = 3.

Intervals on x-axis to be considered : (−∞, 1), (1, 3)(3, +∞)

Cirtical points are:

(1, f (1)) = (1, −16) ,
(3, f (3)) = (3, 0)

x-axis Test point Conclusion

x0 f 00 (x0 ) = 12(x0 − 1)(x0 − 3). of SDT
(−∞, 1) 0 f 00 (0) = 12(−1)(−3) = 36 f 00 (x0 ) > 0,
concave upward (∪)
(1, 3) 2 f 00 (2) = 12(1)(−1) = −12 f 00 (x0 ) < 0,
concave downward (∩)
(3, +∞) 4 f 00 (4) = 12(3)(1) = 36 f 00 (x0 ) > 0,
concave upward (∪)

Hence, f (x) concave upward on (−∞, 1), concave downward on (1, 3), and con-
cave upward on (0, +∞).

Also, since f (x) concave upward on (−∞, 1) and concave downward on (1, 3),
the critical point (1, −16) is a point of inflection. Also, f (x) concave downward
on (1, 3) and concave upward on (0, +∞) implies that the critical point (3, 0) is
also a point of inflection. N
2.9. SKETCHING THE GRAPH OF FUNCTIONS 53

2.9 Sketching the Graph of Functions

Example 2.27. Construct a sketch of the graph of the function given.
1
1. f (x) = x − x3
3
2. f (x) = x4 − 8x3 + 18x2 − 27
Solution:
1
1. f (x) = x − x3
3  
2
Relative minimum point: −1, −
 3
2
Relative maximum point: 1,
3
Point of inflection: (0, 0)

critical values along the x-axis: −1, 0, 1

intervals to be considered: (−∞, −1), (−1, 0), (0, 1), (1, +∞)

(−∞, −1) (−1, 0) (0, 1) (1, +∞)

& or % & % & &
∪ or ∩ ∪ ∪ ∩ ∩

N
54 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

2. f (x) = x4 − 8x3 + 18x2 − 27

Relative minimum point: (0, −27)
Relative maximum point: none
Points of inflection: (1, −16) and (3, 0)

critical values along the x-axis: 0, 1, 3

intervals to be considered: (−∞, 0), (0, 1), (1, 3), (3, +∞)

(−∞, 0) (0, 1) (1, 3) (3, +∞)

& or % & % % %
∪ or ∩ ∪ ∪ ∩ ∪

N
2.9. SKETCHING THE GRAPH OF FUNCTIONS 55

Exercise 2.9

Given the function f , discuss its relative maximum and minimum points,
the intervals where it is increasing and decreasing, the intervals of concav-
ity, and the points of inflection. Construct a sketch of the graph of the
function.
2x−4
1. f (x) = x2
10x
2. f (x) = 1+3x2

x2 −3x−4
3. f (x) = x−2

3
4. f (x) = x3 − x2
2
5. f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 3x + 6

6. f (x) = x4 − 4x3
7. f (x) = x4 − 8x2 + 18x − 27
8. f (x) = 3x5 − 5x3 + 1
4 1
9. f (x) = x 3 + 4x 3
10. f (x) = (x2 − 4)2
4
11. f (x) = (1 − x2 )2 − x3 − 8x
3
12. f (x) = (x − 1)3 (x − 3)
56 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

2.10 Mean Value Theorem

Theorem 2.14: Mean Value Theorem

Let f be a function such that

1. it is continuous on the closed interval [a, b], and

2. is differentiable on the open interval (a, b).

Then there is a number c in the open interval (a, b) such that

f (b)f (a)
f 0 (c) = .
ba

f (b)f (a)
Geometrically, is the slope of the secant line through the points
ba
A(a, f (a)) and B(b, f (b)). Thus, the Mean Value Theorem simply says that
there is some point on the curve between A and B where the tangent line to
the curve at this point is parallel to the secant line through A and B.

A special case of the Mean Value Theorem is given below.

Theorem 2.15: Rolle’s Theorem

Suppose that f (x) has a derivative on the interval (a, b), is continuous
on the interval [a, b], and f (a) = f (b). Then at some value c ∈ (a, b),
f 0 (c) = 0.
2.10. MEAN VALUE THEOREM 57

2x + 3
Example 2.28. Given that f (x) = , find all numbers c between 1 and 5
3x − 2
f (5) − f (1)
such that f 0 (c) = = −1.
5−1
Solution:

2x + 3
f (x) =
3x − 2
(3x − 2)Dx [2x + 3] − (2x + 3)Dx [3x − 2]
f 0 (x) =
(3x − 2)2
(3x − 2)(2) − (2x + 3)(3)
f 0 (x) =
(3x − 2)2
−13
f 0 (x) =
(3x − 2)2
−13
So, −1 = f 0 (c) = . Hence, we have
(3c − 2)2
−13
= −1
(3c − 2)2
−13
= (3c − 2)2
−1
13 = 9c2 − 12c + 4
0 = 9c2 − 12c − 9
0 = (9)c2 + (−12)c + (−9).

By Quadratic Formula,
p √
−(−12) ± (−12)2 − 4(9)(9) 2 ± 13
c= = .
2(9) 3
√ √
2 − 13 2 + 13
But, ∈/ (1, 5) while ∈ (1, 5).
3 3
√
2 + 13
Therefore, the value of c is . N
3
58 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

Exercise 2.10

I. Determine all the number(s) c which satisfy the conclusion of the Mean
Value Theorem for the given function and interval:

1. h(z) = 4z 3 − 8z 2 + 7z − 2 on [2, 5]
2. A(t) = 8t + e−3t on [−2, 3]
II. Determine all the number(s) c which satisfy the conclusion of the Rolle’s
Theorem for the given function and interval:

1. f (x) = x2 − 2x − 8 on [−1, 3]
2. g(t) = 2t − t2 − t3 on [−2, 1]
III.

1. Given f (x) = x3 − x, a = 0 and b = 2. Use the Mean Value Theorem

to find c.
2. Let f (x) = x2 . Find a value c ∈ (−1, −2) so that f 0 (c) equals the
slope between the endpoints of f (x) on [−1, 2].
3x
3. Verify that f (x) = satisfies the hypotheses of the Mean Value
x+7
Theorem on the interval [−2, 6] and then find all values c that satisfy
the conclusion of the theorem.
4. Let f (x) = (x − 3)−2 . Show that there is no value c ∈ (1, 4) such
f (4) − f (1)
that f 0 (c) = . Why is this not a contradiction of the
4−1
Mean Value Theorem?
5. Let f (x) = tan x. Show that f (π) = f (2π) = 0 but there is no
number c ∈ (π, 2π) such that f 0 (c) = 0. Why does this not contradict
Rolle’s Theorem?