Metacognition – Cultivating Reflection to Help

Students Become Self-Directed Learners

Overview

Reflection is an act of looking back in order to process experiences. Metacognition, a type of

reflection, is a way of thinking about one’s thinking in order to grow. Metacognition and
reflection are terms often used interchangeably, but it is most helpful to distinguish
metacognition as a particular form of reflection. Often instructors and students think about
reflection as one specific genre that never changes—a letter or a note to an authority figure
about what was done effectively and what could be improved. But this doesn’t have to be the
case. At its best, reflection is not a static form. It can work in many dynamic ways: talking,
blogging/vlogging, writing letters, formal essays, etc. Teaching your students to practice
reflection in a variety of ways can facilitate more effective and fulfilling metacognition.

Table of Contents
General Considerations
In Practice: Strategies for the Classroom
Resources

General Considerations

Coursework can train students to think not only about the subject matter of the field, but also
about how they acquire knowledge in relation to society or a specific social context [i.e. a
particular scholarly or practical community]. Students who learn to think about how their
academic environments affect their learning strategies are more likely to develop the ability to
transfer knowledge among varying contexts. Here are some rules of thumb that make for
effective reflection:

1. Students need explicit training to practice reflection and metacognition. Experience
shows that the best way to develop students’ metacognitive abilities is to teach
metacognitive strategies hand-in-hand with the course content. The most effective
metacognitive training happens when you talk explicitly with your students about why
metacognitive practice is useful. You should also provide specific, guided prompts that
consistently direct students’ thinking throughout the course. For example:

• Have students work in groups to parse out the prompt for a new paper, asking
each group to complete a portion of the “Pre-Write” exercise (see “Planning
Exercises: Strategy 2” below) and then report back to the class. This allows the
class to work collectively to imagine strategies that students can then tailor to
their individual needs. They can learn from their peers’ ideas as well as from
your feedback in the class discussion.

 • Contribute to a class blog as they work. For instance, ask students to post calls
for help when they hit an obstacle or become frustrated in some way. Likewise,
you might ask them to post when they experience a moment of triumph in their
work—perhaps when they found the perfect source after a long search, or when
they had an epiphany about a great way to start an essay. These kinds of in-the-
moment posts (which can be very brief) help students not only to observe their
own process but also to make use of their classmates’ potential advice and
encouragement. Such contributions build a record of reflection that students
can return to later for self-evaluation.

2. The best reflective assignments respond to an authentic problem or a disagreement
that needs to be resolved. Otherwise, reflective assignments can be counterproductive
by allowing students not to think but to get by operating on autopilot. For example,
many students have come to expect being asked to write self-assessment letters to
professors making a case for what grade they think a particular project should receive
and why. Thus, many students automatically write about the effort they spent (often in
terms of hours or days, rather than anything concrete to actually illustrate effort). They
also may acknowledge that they have “some trouble with grammar and punctuation”
and then suggest an ‘A’ or a ‘B’ and call it a day. In a response like that, virtually no self-
assessment is actually happening, because students assume they already know the
genre and its markers, and they fill in what they perceive to be the expected answers.
Often instructors assign grades that disregard the self-assessments or creatively
“average” their own assessments with the students’, thereby proving the exercise fairly
useless for both parties. A small adjustment, such as asking students to create a Post-
Write (see “Evaluation Exercises: Strategy 3” below) after they receive a grade from you,
will help students understand how each element of their process affected the product.
You also might consider allowing the Post-Write to serve as an argument for a separate
grade or as a blueprint for a revision that could lead to a re-grade.

3. The best reflection is often social/collaborative. Social activity is an essential part of
reflective practice; by reflecting together occasionally, students can begin to understand
their own learning in relationship to other people’s learning styles and experiences.

4. Reflection in the midst of a process can be as helpful as reflection after the fact.
Reflection can be powerful in a moment of problem solving (reflection in-action) or after
problem solving (reflection-on-action). Reflection-in-action, however, allows learners to
disrupt bad habits and shift gears as they recognize unproductive strategies. It’s most
useful to establish a reflective practice of setting goals beforehand, monitoring progress
as students work, and evaluating the outcome compared to original goals after the fact.

5. Reflection should be consistent and responsive. It’s most effective when it happens
often (in a variety of ways), and when you respond promptly (whether in writing, in class, or
in some other way). Encouraging a variety of formal and informal reflections allows students
to receive different kinds of feedback at multiple stages without overburdening your own
preparation time. For instance, across the course of a semester, you might assign:

 • Semi-regular informal in-class reflections that you read and respond to in
the next class (perhaps condensed versions of the Pre-Write and Post-Write
activities mentioned below)

• Self-reflective comments (on various project drafts) to which you respond

individually in writing

• Collaborative troubleshooting exercises that you have students report back

on and respond to in the moment.

In Practice

Reflection & the Metacognitive Cycle

In this section, we focus on activities and exercises you can use in and out of the classroom to
provide the explicit training that will develop students’ reflective and metacognitive skills.
People who study metacognition think about it in terms of metacognitive cycle, which at its
most basic includes:

• planning
• monitoring
• evaluating

In the next section you’ll find several strategies for incorporating reflection at each stage of the
metacognitive cycle.

Strategies for the Classroom

“Planning” Exercises

In the planning stage, students think ahead to upcoming assignments and identify what tools,
skills, knowledge, and resources they already have and what they will still need to acquire in
order to get the work done. They also set goals for the tasks and develop strategies for achieving
those goals.

Strategy 1: Role Playing. In terms of helping students understand who they are as learners
in various communities, you can provide roles for students to play as they work on
mastering elements of course content. This leads to a particular environment that supports
the range of roles created, and challenges students to respond to the material—and the
conversations in the course—in those roles. This can be a useful strategy for in-class
discussions, peer review sessions, and written homework, such as blogging, essays, or
reports. For example, before students begin an essay or project, talk to them about their
role in the assignment (i.e. their role as the author). That is, they would benefit from
thinking not only about who their audience is, but who they are as they address that
audience.

 You can certainly let them determine the role they want to play, however, in early iterations
of this process, it helps if you provide a specific role, particularly one that they wouldn’t
automatically take. For example, if the assignment is to make a case for lowering the legal
drinking age, you might ask students to write their essay/create their presentation/build
their site (whatever the task may be) as a concerned parent, or a conservative legislator, or
a university president. This way, students must reflect on the differences between how they
themselves might argue the case and how someone in another position might argue
differently. They would reflect on their own identities, leanings, and perspectives, and then
they would actively investigate or brainstorm those of the role they’ve assumed.

Strategy 2: Pre-writing. As you begin a new project (or exam, unit, essay, etc.), ask students
to examine the prompt and write a reflection that does some or all of the following:

o Paraphrases what the project is calling for them to do in terms of the “big
picture”

o Identifies (in their own words) the individual pieces, or tasks, or processes that
will need to happen for them to successfully complete the project

o Identifies areas of the prompt that require clarification

o Identifies and articulates their role as the author/architect of this project (Who
are they in the big picture? To whom are they speaking? For what purpose?)

o Considers the purpose of the assignment—what is its role in the course, but also
how might it help them in the future?

o Lists or sketches out what they will need to know and/or know how to do in
order to complete the project

o Lists or sketches out what they already know/know how to do in relation to the
assignment

o Lists or sketches out what they will need to learn (a research question to pursue,
a skill they need to develop, a tool they need to figure out how to use, etc.)

o Lays out a plan of action (the more specific it can be, the better … including self-
imposed deadlines for “deliverables”)

Because research has shown that reflection is often effective when it’s social, it would be
nice to give students time in class to break into pairs or small groups so they can share the
results of their pre-writing exercise and discuss their reactions to the prompt. Furthermore,
if you read these pre-writes quickly and respond to their questions for clarification as soon
as possible, you can help students identify strategies they might need to reconsider before
they begin, or course-correct misunderstandings about the project. You might want to look
for common questions that you can clarify in the classroom, and then respond to any that
need individual attention either in writing or via conference.

“Monitoring” Exercises

In the monitoring stage, students check in with you (and/or themselves) during the course of
their work and report how things are going and where they might need to adjust or adopt new
strategies. (This kind of reflection during a task is often referred to as “reflection-in-action”.)
Students have indicated that these kinds of exercises often lead to the most productive
reflection and learning opportunities.

Strategy 1: Collaborative Troubleshooting. Have students help each other out, either in a
lab or with groups or partners, by reflecting on problems whenever they arise. For example,
if students are working in class on drafting introductions, encourage them to turn to their
neighbors to talk about what they’re struggling with as they write.

Strategy 2: Post Peer Review Follow-Up. After giving students time to read and consider the
feedback they receive in a peer review, have them actively engage with that feedback as
they plan their revisions. For example, ask them to choose something a peer disliked or
disagreed with and respond to it in writing or in direct conversation with their peers.
Alternatively, have them explain why they plan to follow a peer’s particular piece of advice,
and/or explain why they have considered and dismissed a peer’s particular piece of advice.

Strategy 3: Self-Reflective Comments On Drafts. As students draft papers or other projects,
ask them to insert a few comments that do the following: identify areas of struggle; ask for a
specific piece of advice; and explain why they believe something specific aspect is already
working well. Then, when you respond to their work, you can engage in direct conversation
with them via those comments. For a thorough demonstration of how this practice can work,
along with sample handouts you can provide to your students, refer to Supplement 1:
“Inserting Self-Reflective Comments.”

Strategy 4: Troubleshooting Journal. In this journal, students make note of any time they
have a question or hit a “roadblock” in their work. Once they’ve noted the issue, they can
seek help by talking to peers or to you, or by consulting other resources. They should keep
an active record of their troubleshooting process, noting what strategies seem successful,
and what strategies seem less so (and why). You can make this journal more productive by:

• Establishing a minimum number of entries, depending on your anticipation of or
experience with the kinds of trouble students run into with the project you’re
assigning.

• Discussing with the class what kinds of problems might arise (and when) and
explaining how they can become aware that they’re in need of troubleshooting in
the first place. For example, many students deal with “writer’s block” of some kind
when writing essays. Maybe they struggle with developing a thesis, or organization,
or writing a conclusion, or integrating evidence. However, many students don’t
necessarily automatically think: “This is a roadblock. How can I get around it?”
Therefore, you’ll need to prime them to be more intentional about identifying and
dealing with the challenges of writing.


“Evaluating” Exercises:

Finally, in the evaluating stage, students look back on the work they’ve done and reflect on the
strategies, tools, resources, and/or processes that served them well. They should also think
about what didn’t work as effectively, what they learned in the process, what they achieved,
and how they might translate—or “transfer”—the experiences, skills, and knowledge gained to
another context. (This kind of reflection is often referred to as “reflection-on-action.”)

Strategy 1: Dialogue About Feedback. Once students have had time to review your
feedback on a project, ask them to write a letter back to you that addresses the following
questions: What was most clear and helpful to you? What was your biggest take-away?
What suggestions about revision do you agree with? Why? How will you put those into
practice? What suggestions about revision do you disagree with? Why?

Strategy 2: Articulate Transferable Skills. Have students write a reflection in which they
discuss a skill that the project helped them develop and ask them to imagine how the next
writing experience could be made easier, more effective, or more efficient based on this
writing experience. You might also ask them to imagine how they would solve problems in
other writing scenarios or classes, such as other fields or professional work. For example, if
they struggled with creating a cohesive narrative in a personal essay and used storyboarding
to visualize what they were trying to do, how might they use that same skill in, say, a
marketing course or in a job as a geologist?

Strategy 3: Project Post-Write. A post-write can be an effective way of getting students to
think carefully about their process, the product, and the assessment of that product. After
you’ve handed back a graded project with your feedback, invite students to consider how
well their planning and/or monitoring strategies worked, and why they earned the particular
grade (or other form of assessment).

The post-write may take many forms, from a simple worksheet providing questions to
answer, to an informal letter of advice to future students taking on similar projects, to a
formally written reflective essay. Some questions you may want to have students consider
are:

• How much time did you spend on this project?

• How was that time organized? For instance, about how much time did you spend on
each of the following (the individual tasks will vary from project to project):

o Creating a plan of action
o Research
o Reviewing course notes
o Talking with your peers
o Talking with your instructor
o Visiting the Writing Center
o Learning a new tool
o Pre-writing
o Drafting
o Revising

• Given the time you spent on various aspects of the project, and the feedback you
received, what would you do differently if you were to do it over? Why? What
would you do the same? Why?

• What kind of plans and strategies did you make for completing this project? To what
extent did you follow those plans? How and to what extent did they change as your
work progressed?

• Looking at the feedback you received on your project, what strategies proved most
effective for you, and how? What strategies didn’t work, and why? Based on your
answers to these questions, what could you do differently next time to increase
your chances of success?


Final Thoughts

The exercises suggested for each stage of the metacognitive cycle can be productively mixed and
matched in a variety of ways. For instance, one effective combination is to use Planning Strategy
2 (Pre-Write), Monitoring Strategy 3 (Self-Reflective Comments), and Evaluation Strategy 3
(Project Post-Write) for one project or unit. We do suggest that you try different combinations—
not only to find what seems most relevant and appropriate to your course, but also to keep
students from falling back on rote responses when they get too used to a particular pattern.

Resources:

Ambrose, Susan, et al. “How Do Students Become Self-Directed Learners?” How Learning Works:
7 Research-Based Principles for Smart Teaching. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2010.

Barkley, Elizabeth F. Student Engagement Techniques: A Handbook for College Faculty. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2010.

Belanoff, Pat. “Reflection, Literacy, Learning, and Teaching.” College Composition and
Communication. 52.3 (2001): 399-428.

Bishop, Wendy. “Places to Stand: The Reflective Writer-Teacher-Writer in Composition.” College
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Kaplan, Matthew, Naomi Silver, Danielle Lavaque-Manty, and Deborah Meizlish. Using Reflection
and Metacognition to Improve Student Learning. Sterling, VA: Stylus, 2013.

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Meizlish, Deborah, Danielle Lavaque-Manty, Naomi Silver, and Matthew Kaplan. “Think
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National Research Council. Knowing What Students Know: The Science and Design of
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Parkes, Kelly A. and Sara Kajder. “Eliciting and Assessing Reflective Practice: A Case Study in Web
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22.2 (2010): 218-228.

Schon, Donald. Educating the Reflective Practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1987.

Yancey, Kathleen Blake. "Getting Beyond Exhaustion: Reflection, Self-Assessment, and
Learning." Clearing House. 72.1 (S/O 98): 13-17.