Published by VLCC Health Care Limited

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or copied in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system
or otherwise, without the written permission of the publishers. Breach of this condition is liable for
legal action.

Every effort has been made to avoid errors or omissions in the publication. In spite of this, errors
may creep in. Any mistake, error or discrepancy noted may be brought to our notice which shall be
taken care of in the next edition. It is notified that neither the publisher nor the author or seller will
be responsible for any damage or loss of action to any one, of any kind, in any manner, there from.

All disputes are subject to Delhi jurisdiction only.

 MODULE-I

BASIC NUTRITION
 INDEX

UNIT TOPIC PAGES

UNIT-I Introduction to Nutrition 4

UNIT-II Carbohydrate 11
UNIT-III Proteins & Amino Acids 21
UNIT-IV Lipids 36
UNIT-V Water 44
UNIT-VI Energy Metabolism 48
UNIT-VII Introduction to Vitamins 52
• Vitamin A
• Vitamin D
• Vitamin E
• Vitamin K
Vitamin B Complex
• Thiamin
• Niacin
• Biotin
• Pantothenic Acid
Vitamin C
UNIT-VIII Introduction to Minerals 83
• Calcium
• Phosphorus
• Magnesium
• Iron
• Iodine
• Zinc
• Copper
• Selenium
• Fluorine
• Chromium
• Manganese
• Molybdenum
• Sodium, Potassium & Chloride
UNIT-IX Phytochemical & Antioxidant 111
 UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION TO NUTRITION
Food is the necessity of life. It is a part of our basic existence. The scientists were curious about
(a) the food they consumed, (b) its passage in the body, (c) its effects in the body. This curiosity led
to the development of the Science of Nutrition.
Therefore: Food may be defined as anything eaten or drunk, which can be absorbed by the body to be
used as an (1) Energy Source, (2) Building, Regulating or Protective material.
In short, food is the raw material from which our bodies’ arc made:
Intake of Foods In Right Amounts

Good Health

Evident in Our
1. Appearance
2. Efficiency &
3. State of Well being.
Foods, Nutrition & Health are intimately connected aspects of our life.
• Food is the prerequisite of nutrition. Food is made up of NUTRIENTS. Nutrients are the
components / chemical substances in the food, that are needed by the body, in adequate amounts
in order to grow, reproduce and lead a normal life.
• Man needs a wide range of nutrients to perform various functions in the body and to lead a healthy
life. The nutrients include :
1. Proteins
2. Fats
3. Carbohydrates
4. Vitamins
5. Minerals
6. Water - most forgotten nutrient.
• Carbohydrates, Fats and Proteins and Vitamins contain Carbon, which is found in all living things.
They are therefore organic (meaning, literally, ‘alive’). During metabolism, three of these four
(Carbohydrates, proteins and fats) provide energy which the body can use .Vitamins are organic
but do not provide energy to the body .They facilitate the release of energy from the three energy
yielding nutrients. Mineral and Water are inorganic nutrients. Minerals yield no energy in the

4
 human body, but like vitamins, they help to regulate the release of energy, among their many other
roles. As for water, it is the medium in which all of the body processes takes place.
• Vitamins, Minerals and Water, once broken down in the body, do not yield energy but perform
other key tasks, such as maintenance and repair.
• The study of the science of Nutrition deals with what nutrients we need, how much we need, why
we need & where we can get them.
• Therefore, nutrition has been defined as the food at work in the body. Thus Nutrition is a
combination of processes by which all parts of the body receive and utilize the materials
necessary for the performance of their functions and for the growth and renewal of all the
components.
• Adequate, Optimum or Good Nutrition: Supply of food in right amount or proportion means
that a person is receiving and utilizing essential nutrients in proper proportions as required by the
body while also providing “Reserve”.
• Good Nutritional Status: Refers to the intake of a well balanced diet, which supplies all the
essential nutrients to meet the body’s requirements. Such a person may be said to be receiving
optimum nutrients.
Signs of Good Nutritional Status:
♦ Shiny hair
♦ Smooth skin
♦ Clear eyes
♦ Alert expression, and
♦ Firm flesh on well-developed structures (bone), reflect good nutritional status of a person.
♦ A person should be of correct weight in a relation to his height. His physical and mental
responses should be normal.
♦ Good nutritional status of a person is also reflected by his stamina and resistance to diseases.
♦ Good nutrition also helps a person have regular sleep and elimination (excretion I bowel)
habits.
♦ It may increase a person’s life span
♦ In short, a person with a good nutritional status can enjoy life fully.
• Poor Nutritional Status: Refers to an inadequate or even an excessive intake or poor utilization
of the nutrients to meet the body’s requirements. Overeating can also result in poor nutritional
status of a person.
Signs of Poor Nutritional Status:
♦ Poor Physique

♦ Very little stamina

5
 ♦ Dull lifeless hair
♦ Dull eyes
♦ Slumped posture
♦ Fatigue and depression
♦ Person may be grossly overweight or underweight.
♦ Three important aspects: (a) Diet, (b) Sleep, (c) Elimination habits are irregular. Clinical
symptoms of Nutritional deficiency may be evident in same.
• Malnutrition: Means an undesirable kind of nutrition leading to ill health. It could result from a
lack or excess, or imbalance of nutrients in the diet.
♦ Undernutrition: State of an insufficient supply of nutrients - in quantity and quality.
♦ Over Nutrition: Refers to an excessive intake of one or more nutrients, which creates a stress
in the bodily function.
Achieving Nutritional Balance – Balanced Diet
A diet that contains adequate amounts of all the necessary nutrients required for healthy growth and
activity is known as a Balanced Diet.
Nutrition: An Integrated Approach
To meet the nutritional needs of the population of a nation requires a complex system involving many
disciplines. Each step in the food chain must provide conditions that ensure retention of maximum
nutritive values, safety, and quality. These requirements are met by:
1. Application of agricultural science and technology to produce sufficient amounts of animal &
plant foods;
2. Harvesting & transporting of foods to processors;
3. Processing and packaging of foods;
4. Adequate storage, transportation, and marketing facilities to make foods available at times and
places where needed;
5. Appropriate government controls and measures to ensure wholesomeness & nutritive quality of
the food supply;
6. Economic conditions that make it possible to procure the necessary foods at a cost within the
reach of all;
7. Educational programs in Nutrition within the schools and at the community level; and
8. Efficient use of food within the home, public eating place, and other institutions.
The perspectives of nutrition held by each of the specialists who help to ensure an adequate food
supply obviously would be quite different. Thus, the disciplines of Life sciences, human behavior,
economics, government, and communications are intertwined in the study of Nutrition. The benefits
of good nutrition – health, happiness, efficiency, and longevity are sought by people all over the

6
world. The achievement of these benefits is like a utopian dream to one and all across all parts of
the World.
Human Nutrition and the allied aspects:

FOOD HABITS SCIENCE OF FOOD PRODUCTION

COMMUNICATION
& BEHAVIOR NUTRITION & ECONOMICS

Anthropology Nutrition Education Income

Food beliefs Food science Formal Geopolitical
Ethnic influences Biochemistry Informal National & World Food
Geographic Genetics Language policy priorities: energy,
Influences Physiology water, land usage.
Governmental
Psychology Microbiology Agencies Agriculture: Supply,
demand
Religion Histology local
Animal nutrition
Sociology Pharmacology State
Plant physiology
Pathology National
Food technology
Medicine International
Processing
Private agencies
Fisheries
Mass Media
Transportation
Print
Marketing
Radio
T.V.

SCOPE OF NUTRITION
Personal & Family Nutrition
Regardless of one’s future career plans, the study of nutrition should first be directed to oneself.
Many young men & women today live alone & are solely responsible for their own Nutritional
well-being. Physical & Mental health are essential assets to meet the continuous & sometimes
arduous requirements of one’s life work. Those who aspire to help other people to achieve
better health through nutrition must themselves be enthusiastic living examples of the benefits of the
application of Nutrition knowledge.
Nutrition education applied to the individual also reaches the family. This is especially important
for young men & women as they establish their own families. In most families the wife & mother is
still the principal decision maker concerning the family’s food, and it is them who prepare the meal
as well. In some families men are assuming more responsibility for meal planning, food purchasing
& preparation. Thus, the prevailing attitudes & practices of both parents are significant in helping
children to form good food habits.

7
Professional Opportunities in Nutrition

Registered
Dietitian Certified
University (RD) Clinical
Faculty Nutritionist
(CCN)
BS or MS in Physician
Nutrition Nutritian
without Specialist
internship (PNS)

Types of Certified
Nutrition Nutrition
Nutrition
Educators Specialist
Professionals (CNS)

Certified in
Food Holistic
Service Nutrition
(CHN)
Nutrition Diplomate
Scientist Amer Clin
and Public Board of Nutr
Researcher Health (DACBN)
Nutritionist

Professional people in any discipline related to health are engaged in activities related to education,
prevention, & therapy.
Health promotion focuses on changing human behavior – getting people to eat healthy diets, be
active, get regular rest, develop leisure time hobbies for relaxation, strengthen social networks with
family and friends, and achieve a balance among family, work and play.
Nutrition education in schools: Education of the population holds promise of long range benefits to
greatest numbers. Teachers, nurses, nutritionists, dietitians, home economists, and physicians assume
varying responsibilities for individual and group education. The elementary and secondary schools
afford the single best opportunity for helping the child to establish attitudes and practices concerning
food selection that will lead to a more healthful, productive life. Nutrition education must begin in
the kindergarten and continue through the twelfth grade if it is to achieve maximum effectiveness.
It is the responsibility of the elementary teacher as well as teachers of home economics, health and
physical education.
The school nurse, physician and dentist have many opportunities to note lapses in health that
suggest the need for improved nutrition; they can influence children to change their food habits,

8
provide learning in the classroom, and lend their support to school food service and Nutrition
Education Programs.
The school breakfast and lunch (Whether served by the school or educating the parents for providing
the right kind of Food items) demonstrate that good nutrition and good food are, in fact, partners.
School dietitians serve as teachers and also as consultants to teachers.
Nutrition programs for the public: Voluntary and governmental agencies together with the
industry are accepting responsibility for promoting nutrition programs. The focus of the nutrition
programs is on maintaining wellness by avoiding excesses as well as protecting against deficiencies.
The researcher in nutrition and food sciences is comfortable in all areas: be it the laboratories of
a food company, a university, a hospital, or in the public health domain. Nutritionists, dietitians,
and home economists, depending upon their education and particular interests, are the experts who
interpret the product of a company; develop new uses for a food; advice mothers and children
concerning their diets in a clinic; serve as consultants to a public health team; supervise food health
service in a college dormitory, industrial cafeteria, or a hospital; assist individuals and group in healthy
food selection; and teach in nursing schools, colleges, and universities.
Nutrition and Health Care: The concern of today’s health worker is for the maintenance as well as
the restoration of health. Traditionally, health care has been directed to the patients only .Today, health
care includes the concept of continuity of care.
Preventive Health Care is given a lot of emphasis these days. Why should an individual gradually
approach the “Curative and Care Stage”? Three powerful steps are the way to “Healthy Aging” – Eat
Smart, Move More, Start Early.
1. Eat Smart: Nutrition shares responsibility with other lifestyle factors for maintaining good health.
2. Move More: WHO developed the “Global Recommendations on Physical Activity for Health” with
the overall aim of providing national and regional level policy makers with guidance on the dose-
response relationship between the frequency, duration, intensity, type and total amount of physical
activity needed for the prevention of NCDs.
In adults aged 18-64, physical activity includes leisure time physical activity, transportation
(e.g. walking or cycling), occupational (i.e. work), household chores, play, games, sports or
planned exercise, in the context of daily, family, and community activities.
The recommendations in order to improve cardio respiratory and muscular fitness, bone health,
reduce the risk of NCDs (Non Communicable diseases) and depressions are:
a. Adults aged 18–64 should do at least 150 minutes (30 minutes 5 times a week) of moderate-
intensity aerobic physical activity throughout the week or do at least 75 minutes of vigorous-
intensity aerobic physical activity throughout the week or an equivalent combination of
moderat and vigorous-intensity activity.
b. Aerobic activity should be performed in bouts of at least 10 minutes duration.

9
 c. For additional health benefits, adults should increase their moderate intensity aerobic physical
activity to 300 minutes per week, or engage in 150 minutes of vigorous- intensity aerobic
physical activity per week, or an equivalent combination of moderate - and vigorous-intensity
activity.
d. Muscle-strengthening activities should be done involving major muscle groups on 2 or more
days a week.
3. Start Early: A person who practices good health habits can expect to delay the onset of even
minimal disability by several years, compared with a person who practices few or none of them.
Your nutritional health can be controlled and it deserves your conscientious attention.
For those requiring “Cure and Care”, the health worker soon learns that there must be concern for
the patients who makes the transition from the hospital to the home. To implement continuity of
care with respect to nutritional needs, the patients may require counseling in the proper choice of
foods in the market, assistance in planning for the best use of money allocated to Food, and practical
suggestions for food preparation with meager facilities or in the face of physical handicaps. The
assistance provided is a team effort – nurse, dietitian, doctor, counselor – each has an important
part to play.

Assignment
1. What is Food?
2. What is Nutrition?
3. Describe the physiological functions of food.
4. Difference between macronutrients and micronutrients. Cite examples
5. What are the three powerful steps towards “Healthy Aging”?

10
 UNIT-II

CARBOHYDRATES
The Body’s Need for Carbohydrates
The primary role of carbohydrates is to provide the body with energy (calories), and for certain
body systems (e.g. the brain and the nervous system), carbohydrates are the preferred energy source.
Carbohydrates are the ideal fuel for the body.
The brain and nervous system are sensitive to the concentration of glucose in the blood. Normal blood
glucose levels are important for a feeling of well being. When the blood glucose level becomes too
high, we get sleepy; when the concentration falls too low, we get weak and shaky.
Only when blood glucose is within the normal range, can one feel energetic and alert. Accordingly,
one should make the effort to eat so as to maintain the blood glucose levels in the normal range.
Out of the two alternative calorie sources: Protein rich foods are usually expensive, Fat rich foods
might be less expensive but fat cannot be used efficiently as fuel by the brain and nerves and fat
loaded diets are associated with many chronic diseases.
Definition
Carbohydrates are chemical compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are very
diverse organic molecules and are the single most abundant source of dietary energy comprising
50-70% of the total energy intake in different populations.
Carbohydrates are either simple or complex, and are major sources of energy in all human diets. They
provide energy of 4 kcal/g. The simple carbohydrates include naturally occurring sugars: glucose
and fructose are found in fruits, vegetables and honey, sucrose in sugar and lactose in milk. They can
also be added sugars in concentrated form such as in honey, corn syrup or sugar in the sugar bowl.
Complex polysaccharides include Starch and Fiber. Starches are found in cereals, millets, pulses and
root vegetables and glycogen in animal foods. The other complex carbohydrates which are resistant
to digestion in the human digestive tract are cellulose in vegetables and whole grains, and gums
and pectins in vegetables, fruits and cereals, which constitute the dietary fibre component. In India,
70-80% of total dietary calories are derived from carbohydrates present in plant foods such as cereals,
millets and pulses.
Dietary fibre delays and retards absorption of carbohydrates and fats and increases the satiety value.
Diets rich in fibre reduce glucose and lipids in blood and increase the bulk of the stools. Diets rich
in complex carbohydrates are healthier compared to low-fibre diets based on refined and processed
foods.
Classification
All carbohydrates are composed of single sugars known as “Monosaccharides” – alone or in various
combinations and all carbohydrates but fiber can quickly be converted to glucose in the body.

11
1. Monosaccharide
The word Monosaccharide comes from mono, meaning “one”, and saccharide, meaning “sugar”.
Common monosaccharides are glucose (also called dextrose), fructose, and galactose. Except for
fructose, they are typically high on the glycemic index, which means that, when digested, they
cause a rapid rise in blood-glucose levels.
Glucose (derived from the Greek word for “sweet”) is the primary form of sugar stored in the
human body for energy. Probably the most common source of glucose is table sugar (sucrose).
We also obtain glucose from starch, the major storage form of carbohydrate in plants. Most cells
depend on the glucose for their fuel to some extent, and the cells of the brain and rest of the
nervous system depend almost exclusively on glucose for their energy.
Fructose is the sweetest of the sugars. Sources of fructose (fruit sugar) include fruit, honey and
high-fructose corn syrup.
We get Galactose from lactose in milk. After being absorbed by the body, fructose and galactose
are converted into glucose by the liver and then used as fuel
Facts about Fructose
As fructose is present in fresh fruits, many people consider fructose “natural,” and assume that
all fructose products are healthier than other types of sugar. Fructose has a low glycemic index,
meaning it has minimal impact on blood glucose levels. This has made it a popular sweetener with
people on low-carbohydrate and low-glycemic diets, which aim to minimize blood glucose levels in
order to minimize insulin release. But the glycemic index is not the sole determining factor in whether
a sweetener is “healthy” or desirable to use.
Because fructose is very sweet, fruit contains relatively small amounts, providing your body with just
a little bit of the sugar, which is very easily handled. If people continued to eat fructose only in fruit
and occasionally honey as our ancestors did, the body would easily process it without any problems.
Unfortunately, the diets have become extremely high in fructose, which is present in many processed
foods, soda pop, baked goods, crackers, canned goods, and many others. The result is a toxic load.
The problem with fructose is that when you consume large amounts of it in its concentrated form
(agave, crystalline fructose, high-fructose corn syrup - HFCS), it goes straight to your liver, avoiding
the gastrointestinal tract altogether. This places a heavy toxic load on your liver, which must work
very hard to process it, sometimes resulting in scarring. Additionally, fructose is converted by the
liver into glycerol, which can raise levels of triglycerides. High triglycerides are linked to increased
risk of heart diseases.
High fructose intake has been associated with:
• Increased levels of circulating blood lipids
• Obesity
• Fat around the middle
• Lowered HDL

12
• Increased levels of uric acid (associated with gout and heart disease)
• Liver scarring (cirrhosis)
• Fatty liver
• The formation of AGE’s (advanced end glycation products), which can lead to wrinkling and
other signs of skin aging
Bottom line: A little fruit is just fine – it contains small amounts of fructose the body can easily
metabolize. Concentrated fructose in HFCS, agave, and crystallized fructose on the other hand, can
cause a real health problem and should be avoided
2. Disaccharides
Disaccharides, meaning “two sugars”, are commonly found in nature as sucrose, lactose and
maltose. They are a type of carbohydrate which have high glycemic index, which means that,
when digested, they cause a rapid rise in blood-glucose levels.
Sucrose is found in table sugar(other sources being candy, cakes, pastries, frostings, cookies,
presweetened ready to eat cereals and other concentrated sweets) and is made up of glucose and
fructose. This is usually obtained by refining the juice from sugar from sugar beets or sugar cane
to provide the brown, white, and powdered sugars available in the supermarket, but it occurs
naturally in many fruits and vegetables.
Another double sugar, Maltose, consists of two glucose units. It occurs in sprouting seeds and
arises during the digestion of starch in the human body. Like Galactose, Maltose is not commonly
found in nature.
Lactose comes from milk and is made up of glucose and galactose. Lactose has a complex
molecular structure, which means that some people (lactose intolerant) are unable to digest it
properly.
3. Oligosaccharides
The term Oligosaccharides is derived from “oligo” - meaning, a few- and “saccharide” - meaning,
sugar. An Oligosaccharide is a complex carbohydrate containing three to six units of simple
sugars (monsaccharides).
Most of the few naturally occurring oligosaccharides are found in plants. Important
oligosaccharides are raffinose (trisaccharide composed of galactose, glucose, and fructose. It can
be found in beans, cabbage, brussels sprouts, broccoli, asparagus, other vegetables, and whole
grains) and stachyose. They are typically low glycemic index foods, and help to maintain stable
blood glucose levels when eaten as part of a meal.
4. Polysaccharides
Most natural carbohydrates are polysaccharides. Like oligosaccharides, polysaccharides are also
complex carbohydrates.

13
 Starch is the main polysaccharide used by plants to store glucose and is the most common form
of edible polysaccharide. When a person eats the plant, the body splits the starch into glucose
units and uses the glucose for energy. Grains, legumes, root vegetables are rich sources of starch.
Glycogen is a storage form of energy in animals
Fiber
Dietary fibers are the structural parts of plants and thus are found in all plant derived foods–
vegetables, fruits, whole grains and legumes .In addition to cellulose, fiber include the
polysaccharides hemi cellulose, pectin, gums and mucilage’s as well as the non polysaccharide
lignin’s. Cellulose is the main constituent of plant cell walls, so it is found in all vegetables, fruits and
legumes. Hemi cellulose is the main constituent of cereal fibers. Pectins are abundant in vegetables
and fruits, especially citrus fruits and apples. The food industry uses pectin to thicken jelly and keep
the salad dressing from separating. Lignins are the tough, woody parts of plants.
Fibers are divided into two general groups by their physical and chemical properties.
1. Soluble Fibers:
• Dissolve in water
• Are viscous
• Easily digested by bacteria in the human digestive tract
Examples : barley, fruits ,oats ,vegetables
• Lowers the risk of chronic diseases
2. Insoluble Fibers:
• Do not dissolve in water
• Are not viscous
• Good for constipation
Examples: Whole grain etc.
RDA
Ref- Nutrient Requirements and Recommended Dietary Allowances for Indians - A Report of the
Expert Group of the Indian Council of Medical Research 2009 , NIN
An intake in excess of 60 g of fiber over a day can reduce the absorption of nutrients and may cause
irritation in the bowel and also lead to diarrhoea.
The intake of 40 g/ 2000 kcal may be rationalized in different groups based on recommended
energy intake. Did u know: Evidence suggests that people consuming diets rich in whole grain
foods, including fiber rich cereals, have improved insulin sensitivity and are less likely to develop
“Metabolic Syndrome”,a clustering of risk factors associated with the development of Type 2
Diabetes and Heart Disease.

14
Different Types of Carbohydrates

S. No. Class Examples Component Sources

1. Monosaccharide Glucose - Fruits, honey, Milk

Fructose and its products
Galactose

2. Disaccharide Maltose Glucose+ Glucose Glucose syrup,

Lactose Milk and its products
Glucose + Galactose
Sucrose Sugarcane, sugar
Glucose+ Fructose

3. Trisaccharide Raffinose Glucose, Fructose Chick peas, legumes

Functions Of Carbohydrate
1. Source of Energy: Glucose is the major source of energy for all the body cells. One gram of
carbohydrate provides 4 kcal. Under normal circumstances glucose is the sole source of energy
for the brain. Similarly glucose is important for the heart muscles. Glycogen in cardiac muscle
is an important source of contractile energy. In a damaged heart, poor glycogen stores or low
carbohydrate intake may cause cardiac symptoms of angina.
When carbohydrates are consumed, the body turns them into glucose, which provides sufficient
energy for everyday tasks and physical activity. If the body produces too much glucose, it will be
stored in the liver and muscle cells as glycogen, to be used when the body needs an extra burst of
energy. Any leftover glycogen that isn’t stored in liver and muscle cells is turned into fat.
2. Protein Sparing Effect: Carbohydrates help in regulating the protein metabolism. Presence
of sufficient carbohydrates to meet energy demands prevents the diversion of too much protein
for this purpose and hence allows the major portions of protein to be used for its basic structural
purpose of tissue building. Therefore, patients who are unable to eat are temporarily administered
5% glucose solution intravenously.
3. Antiketogenic Effect: Presence of carbohydrates is necessary for normal fat metabolism. In the
absence of sufficient carbohydrates, larger amounts of fat are used for energy than the body is
equipped to handle. This results in incomplete oxidation and accumulation of ketone bodies.
This may lead to acidosis, sodium imbalance and dehydration. In extreme conditions like
starvation (carbohydrates are inadequate) and uncontrolled diabetes (carbohydrates are
unavailable for energy needs), ketoacidosis is a common complication.
4. Excretion of Toxins: Metabolites of glucose combine with chemical and bacterial toxins and
some normal metabolites in the liver and thereby help in their excretion.
5. Role as Precursors: Carbohydrates and their derivatives serve as precursors to important
compounds such as nucleic acid, connective tissue matrix etc.

15
6. Overall Positive Health
Non starch polysaccharides like cellulose are beneficial for the functions and physiology of
gastrointestinal tract and thus have a positive effect on the overall health.
Plants Sources
Cereals: Rice, Wheat, Corn, Barley, Bajra, Ragi, and Millet etc contain large amounts of starch. They
also contain some proteins, minerals and vitamins. Whole grain and enriched sources also contain
iron, B-Complex vitamins and some fiber.
Vegetables: Roots, tubers and seeds contain large amounts of carbohydrates. Starchy legumes, beans,
peas, yam, tapioca and potatoes contain a large amount of carbohydrates whereas dark green leafy
vegetables contain low levels.
Fruits: These contain simpler forms of carbohydrates like monosaccharide and disaccharide. Dry
fruits contain large amounts of carbohydrate. Starch is present in some raw, immature fruits and is
slowly converted to simple sugar.
Sweets: The ordinary table sugar, ground sugar, honey are concentrated sources of sugars but do not
supply significant amount of nutrients in addition to calories
Animal Sources
There are no important animal sources of Carbohydrates except milk which supplies lactose.
Glycogen or animal starch is stored in the animal’s liver but it rapidly degrades hence only a small
amount of glycogen may be found in meat, poultry and fish.
ARTIFICIAL SWEETENERS
Nutritive vs. Non Nutritive Sweeteners
Nutritive sweeteners provide a sweet taste and a source of energy; nonnutritive sweeteners are sweet
without providing energy. The claim that nutritive sweeteners have caused an increase in chronic
disease (e g, obesity, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, dental caries, and behavioral disorders) is not
substantiated but many consumers want the taste of sweetness without added energy.
Nutritive sweeteners include sugar sweeteners (e.g., refined sugars, high fructose corn syrup,
crystalline fructose, glucose, dextrose, corn sweeteners, honey, lactose, maltose, various syrups,
invert sugars, concentrated fruit juice) and reduced-energy polyols or sugar alcohols (e.g. sorbitol,
mannitol, xylitol, isomalt, and hydrogenated starch hydrolysates).
Nonnutritive sweeteners (e.g. saccharin, aspartame, acesulfame-K, and sucralose, Stevia- Natural
Sweetener) offer no energy, and as they sweeten with little volume, they can also be referred to
as high-intensity sweeteners. Both polyols and nonnutritive sweeteners can replace sugar
sweeteners and are therefore termed macronutrient substitutes, sugar substitutes, sugar replacers,
or alternative sweeteners. The acceptable daily intakes of non nutritive sweeteners are 50 mg / kg
body weight.

16
Some sweeteners are considered Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) ingredients and others are
considered food additives.
Did you know?
Is it true that small amounts of saccharin cause cancer?
While it is true that some studies of Saccharin have found that it can cause bladder Cancer in
laboratory rats, this assumption has never been proven. It is still a controversial topic
Does Aspartame cause headaches?
Not in most people. Although the U.S Food and Drug Administration has received numerous
complaints from consumers who claim to suffer from headaches, nausea, anxiety and other symptoms
after consuming aspartame containing foods or beverages, scientific studies have never confirmed
that the sweetener is truly the culprit.
Is Splenda, a safe sweetener?
Splenda (Sucralose) is billed as the sweetener that is “made from sugar so it tastes like sugar”. It is a
sweetener 600 times sweeter than regular sugar and provides no calories.
Because Splenda is stable, even when used at extremely high or low temperatures, it can be used in a
variety of frozen and cooked foods unlike other sweeteners available in the market.
Isn’t true that sugar free chewing gum doesn’t contain any calories?
Not so- some sugar free chewing gum is sweetened with certain alternative sweeteners such as
Xylitol and Sorbitol, also known as sugar alcohols. Although sugar alcohols impart a sweet taste
and supply calories (about 8 per stick), unlike sucrose, they do not promote tooth decay. Xylitol may
actually inhibit the production of tooth damaging acid by the caries producing bacteria in the mouth
and prevent them from adhering to the teeth.
Metabolism of Carbohydrates
Glucose is quantitatively the most important carbohydrate available to the body whether it is by
absorption from the diet or by synthesis within the body. Galactose and Fructose from the diet or from
endogenous sources are rapidly synthesized to glucose in the liver. Glucose metabolism consists of
an interrelated series of biochemical reactions that are assisted by enzymatic activity and it cannot be
completely separated from the metabolism of fats and proteins. Proteins and fats are potential sources
of glucose and conversely glucose can be converted to fatty acids, glycerol and certain amino acids.
A number of points in the sequence of glucose metabolism are also the cross roads for amino acid and
fatty acid metabolism and in some respects one nutrient can substitute for another e.g. a decrease in
carbohydrate metabolism is accompanied by an increase in fatty acid oxidation.
Trace elements of magnesium, iron and other mineral elements and several of the B complex vitamins
are essential for enzyme activity. Thus, the metabolism of the nutrients is interdependent and the lack
of any one of them affects the total metabolism of the organism e.g. when there is a deficiency of any
one of the vitamins, the result is a failure of the reaction to take place at the point where that vitamin
is essential.

17
 CARBOHYDRATE IN FOOD

Digestion & Absorption

LIVER

via bloodstream

glucose MUSCLE

glucose
glycogen fatty acids

glycogen
triglycerides (storage) pyruvate

via bloodstream
lactate TCA cycle

ADIPOSE TISSUE via bloodstream

used in triglyceride synthesis
(supplies glycerol)

other tissues
(Inc. Liver)

Liver in Carbohydrate Metabolism

Following absorption from the small intestine, the monosaccharides are carried by the portal vein to
the liver. The liver converts galactose and fructose to glucose. It synthesizes glycogen (Glycogenesis)
from glucose, stores it and reconverts it to glucose (Glycogenolysis) according to need. It deaminizes
amino acids so that the carbon skeletons can be used for the synthesis of glucose (Gluconeogenesis)
if the glycogen stores are depleted. It can transform excess glucose into fatty acids (Lipogenesis) and
can also use the glycerol fraction of lipids to form glucose. Many carbohydrate compounds that have
a regulatory function throughout the body are synthesized by the liver. The liver can also synthesize
non essential amino acids from carbon skeletons donated by carbohydrate.
Blood Glucose
By means of the blood circulation, glucose is made continuously available to each and every cell of
the body as a source of energy and for the synthesis of a variety of substances. The glucose taken
from the circulation by the cells is constantly replaced by the liver so that the blood glucose level is
maintained within relatively narrow limits.
In the fasting state the blood glucose concentration is normally 70 to 110 mg per 100 ml. Shortly
after a meal it rises to about 140 - 150 mg per 100 ml but within a few hours the concentration will
have returned to the fasting level. Once the blood sugar levels reach 160 to 180 mg per 100 ml some

18
glucose will be excreted in the urine (Glucosuria).This level varying from one individual to another is
known as the Renal Threshold for Glucose. The regulation of the blood sugar level by the liver is so
efficient that glucosuria does not normally occur.
A blood sugar concentration in excess of normal levels is known as Hyperglycemia; that is
characteristic of Diabetes Mellitus. A glucose concentration below normal levels is known as
Hypoglycemia and may occur in certain abnormalities of liver function or when insulin is produced
in excessive amounts by the pancreas.
Regulation of the Blood Sugar level
The liver is the only organ which is able to supply glucose to the circulation and it also participates
in the removal of glucose not immediately needed. Glucose is made available to the circulation by
(1) the absorbed sugars from the diet (2) glycogenolysis (3) gluconeogenesis (4) and to a lesser
extent by the re -conversion of pyruvic and lactic acids formed in the glycolytic pathway. Several
hormones bring about an increased supply of glucose to the blood. Thyroid hormone increases the
rate of absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. Glucagon, a hormone secreted by the cells of the
pancreas indirectly initiates glycogenolysis. Epinephrine, produced by the adrenal gland under
conditions of stress, increases the rate of glycogen breakdown. Steroid hormones accelerate the
catabolism of proteins thus bringing about gluconeogenesis. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is
antagonistic to the action of insulin and thus prevents the blood sugar level from dropping.
Removal of glucose from the blood
Six pathways are available for the removal of glucose from the blood: (1) the continuous uptake
of glucose by every cell in the body and its oxidation for energy (2) the conversion of glucose to
glycogen by the liver (Glycogenesis): (3) the synthesis of fats from glucose (Lipogenesis): (4) the
synthesis of numerous carbohydrate derivatives: (5) glycolysis in the red blood cells: (6) elimination
of glucose in the urine when the renal threshold has exceeded.
The amount of glycogen that can be formed is limited, but there is no limit to the amount of fat that
is formed. Glycogen reserves are maintained at their maximum level by diets high in carbohydrate. A
diet high in protein and relatively low in carbohydrate will result in moderate glycogen reserves but a
diet high in fat and low in carbohydrate and protein will result in poor glycogen reserves.
Insulin
Only one hormone is known to lower the blood sugar. An increase in the concentration of blood
glucose stimulates the release of Insulin. Insulin lowers the blood glucose by several actions:
(1) facilitation of the synthesis of glycogen in the liver; (2) the active transport of glucose across cell
membranes: and (3) the conversion of glucose to fatty acids.
Oxidation of glucose
Within each of the billions of cells of the body, the oxidation of glucose is continuously taking place.
The end products of this oxidation are carbon dioxide, water and energy. The cell utilizes energy
efficiently by releasing a small amount of it at a time in a series of steps. The energy liberated in

19
these steps is trapped in the form of Adenosine Tri phosphate (ATP). ATP is sometimes called the
“currency” or the “legal tender” for energy of the living organism, because like coins of money, it is
the convenient form for small bursts of energy.
Lactic acid: A compound pyruvic acid can proceed anaerobically to form lactic acid, which is utilized
for muscle contraction under conditions when the energy need exceeds the supply of oxygen. Thus an
athlete can continue beyond his / her capacity to supply oxygen to muscles. Under normal conditions
only a small amount of lactic acid is formed. About one fifth of the lactic acid produced in the muscle
is further oxidized through the citric acid cycle: the rest enters the blood circulation and is synthesized
to glycogen by the liver.

Assignment
1. Explain the functions of carbohydrates?
2. Write difference between soluble and insoluble fibers?
3. Classification of carbohydrates?
4. Sucrose is made up of _________ and __________.
5. Is HFCS good or bad and why?
6. ________ is an example of artificial sweetener.
7. Is Splenda, a safe sweetener?
8. What is Glycemic Index?
9. How Blood Sugar level is regulated

20
 UNIT-III

PROTEIN AND AMINO ACID

The proteins are perhaps the most highly respected of the three energy nutrients and the roles they
play in the body are far more varied than those of carbohydrate or fat.
Definition and Introduction
The term protein is derived from the Greek word ‘Protos’ which means to occupy first place. All the
basic functions of life depend on proteins.
A protein is a complex, high-molecular-weight organic compound that consists of amino acids joined
by peptide bonds. Many proteins are enzymes or subunits of enzymes.
Proteins are primary structural and functional components of every living cell. Almost half the
protein in our body is in the form of muscle and the rest of it is in bone, cartilage and skin. Proteins
are complex molecules composed of different amino acids.
Certain amino acids which are termed “essential” have to be obtained from proteins in the diet since
they are not synthesized in the human body.
Other non-essential amino acids can be synthesized in the body to build proteins. Proteins perform
a wide range of functions and also provide energy (4 Kcal/g).
Protein requirements vary with age, physiological status and stress. More proteins are required by
growing infants and children, pregnant women and individuals during infections and illness or stress.
Animal foods like milk, meat, fish and eggs and plant foods such as pulses and legumes are rich
sources of proteins.
Animal proteins are of high quality as they provide all the essential amino acids in right proportions,
while plant or vegetable proteins are not of the same quality because of their low content of some of
the essential amino acids. However, a combination of cereals, millets and pulses provides most of the
amino acids, which complement each other to provide better quality proteins.
Proteins are chemical compounds that contain the same atoms as carbohydrates and lipids–Carbon,
Hydrogen, and Oxygen but proteins are different as they also additionally contain Nitrogen atoms.
Amino Acids are linked to each other with the help of peptide bonds. About 20 different amino acids
may appear in proteins.
Classification of Protein
1. Classification based on Chemical Nature
Simple Proteins: are those which contain only amino acids or their derivatives and no prosthetic
group e.g. Albumin in egg, globulin in peanuts, glutelin in wheat, fibrous protein like collagen and
elastin in skin.

21
 Conjugated Proteins: are those which additionally contain some non protein substances like
Glycoprotein containing sugar, lipoproteins containing lipids, nucleoproteins containing nucleic
acids.
Derived Proteins: are the derivatives of the protein molecule either by slight alterations in
primary protein derivatives or as the products of further breakdown of the protein molecule in
secondary protein derivatives.
2. Classification based on Amino Acid Content
Nutritionally, amino acids are classified on the body’s ability to synthesize them as:
Essential Amino acids: which are indispensable and cannot be synthesized in the body e.g.
Methionine, Tryptophan, Valine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Phenylalanine, Lysine, Threonine, Arginine
and Histidine (only for infants)
If the diet does not supply them, the body cannot make the protein it needs to do its work. This
makes it necessary for people to eat protein food sources every day.
Non-Essential Amino acids: which are dispensable and can be synthesized in the body e.g.
Glutamic acid, Alanine, Proline, Hydroxyproline, Glycine
Proteins lacking in one or more of the essential amino acids cannot be utilized to meet the protein
requirements of the body hence they are not good quality proteins. The nutritive value of a protein
will be high if the amino acid make up is very similar to that of the body proteins and will be low
if it lacks partially or completely any one of the 10 essential amino acids.
3. Classification based on their nutritive values
Based on their nutritive value or amino acids make up, proteins are therefore classified as:
Complete Proteins: like egg proteins. These proteins promote growth and provide all the
essential amino acids.
Partially Complete Proteins: like wheat proteins. These promote moderate growth and partially
lack one or more essential amino acids.
Incomplete Proteins: like gelatin or zein. They do not promote growth and completely lack one
or more essential amino acids.
4. Classification on the basis of shape
Globular proteins are a highly diverse group of proteins that are soluble and form compact
spheroidal molecules in water. All have tertiary structure and some have quaternary structure
in addition to secondary structure. Fibrous proteins are elongated molecules in which the
secondary structure forms the dominant structure. They have regular repeating structures. They
are insoluble and play a structural and supportive role in the body. They are also involved in
movement (as in muscle)

22
Functions of Proteins
Each of the various proteins in the body serves a specific function in the maintenance of life. Any
loss in body protein means a loss in cellular function. Proteins have no true body reserve in contrast
to carbohydrates and lipids. When human beings are deprived of or insufficiently supplied with
protein, they compensate for this dietary deficiency by breaking down some but not all of their tissue
functionality.
On the contrary, when more protein is eaten than the body needs, it is not stored in the body (the way
fat is stored), so it must be eaten every day to avoid protein depletion.
1. Body Building Functions of Proteins: The primary function of proteins is tissue growth and
maintenance. Proteins contain amino acids –the building blocks that our body uses to build and
maintain muscles, bone, skin, blood and other organs. They are required throughout our life span.
2. Protein as an energy source: Proteins contribute to the body’s energy need. If the diet does not
furnish enough calories from carbohydrates and fats, proteins are broken down to give energy.
One gram protein yields 4 kcal.
3. Protein as enzymes: Living cells use oxygen and metabolize fuel right from conception to
death. Cells synthesize new products, degrade others and an ongoing process of metabolism
continues. For these processes to occur, catalysts are needed to speed up each of the thousands
of reactions occurring in the cell. These catalysts called ‘enzymes’ are proteins. Enzymes consist
of specific sequences of amino acids. The catalytic function of an enzyme is specific to its amino
acid sequence.
4. Protein as Carriers: A large variety of compounds are carried in the blood between tissues and
organs of the body. Some of the compounds require specific protein for their transport and also for
their protection from further reactions that take place during the transport process.
5. Proteins as regulators of water balance: The protein hormone particularly Anti Diuretic
Hormone (ADH) plays a role in controlling water balance. The edema of protein deficiency
may also be the result of the body’s inability to regulate ADH. The effect of protein is on the
distribution of water amongst the various body compartments than on the total body water.
6. Proteins as biological buffers: Proteins have the ability to accept or donate hydrogen ions, hence
serving as biological buffers.
7. Proteins as Structural elements and Structural Units: The liver cell membrane contains
50- 60% protein, muscle contains 20% protein, keratin is the protein which forms hair, nails etc,
melanin is the derivative which provides the pigmentation or characteristic colour to the skin.
8. Proteins as lubricants: surrounds the joints. It is also present as mucous in the respiratory tract,
oral cavity, vaginal tract and the rectal cavity thereby reducing the irritation which might be
caused by materials moving through these passages.
9. Proteins in the immune system: Proteins in the form of immunoglobulin protect the body against
foreign cells.

23
Dietary Protein Requirement and Allowances
The FAO/WHO Committee expressed the protein requirements in terms of egg or milk proteins. The
committee defined safe level of protein intake as “the amount necessary to meet the physiological
needs and maintain the health of nearly all the individuals in a specified age/sex group”
Amino Acid Requirements: Data regarding the essential amino acid requirements of infants, children
and adults are given in terms of egg protein and cow’s milk protein (g/kg/day) required to meet the
amino acid needs.
Essential amino acid requirements

S. No. Age Group Egg Protein (g) Cow’s milk(g) Protein

1. Infants 1.6 2.0

2. Children (10-12 years) 0.9 0.9

3. Adults 0.18 0.28

a. Women
b. Men

The FAO/WHO Committee assumed that the proteins of milk or eggs are utilized to the same extent
in children and they gave a protein score of 100 to egg and milk proteins.
Factorial Method: The Nitrogen (N) requirements have been calculated by a factorial method
suggested by various expert groups.
R=U+F+S+G
Where R = N requirements
U = Loss of endogenous N in urine
F = Loss of endogenous N in faeces
S = Loss of N through skin i.e. sweat and integumental losses and
G = N required for growth
Factors affecting Protein Requirement
The term protein requirement means that ‘amount of protein which must be consumed to provide
the amino acids for the synthesis of those body proteins irreversibly categorized in the course of the
body’s metabolism’. The intake of nitrogen from protein must be sufficient to balance that excreted
and this basic concept is called as Nitrogen Balance.
Protein requirement is greatly influenced by the following factors:
1. Age: When a new tissue is being formed, the protein in excess of maintenance needs is required.
Certain age periods, when growth is rapid, require more dietary protein than other periods. As

24
 the human completes his growth, the need for protein decreases until it arrives at a level called
the ‘maintenance level’. It is at this level that the concept of body protein replacement by dietary
protein applies.
2. Environmental Temperature: Humans maintain a specific body temperature through
Thermoregulation and with any rise or fall of environmental temperature; they begin to increase
their caloric expenditure. In environments that are too warm, vasodilation occurs along with
sweating and increased respiration to cool the body and all require an increase in the basal energy
requirement expressed as per unit of body surface area. In cool environments, vasoconstriction
and shivering occurs in an effort to warm the body and prevent undue heat loss. Again, an increase
in basal energy requirement is observed. Studies have shown that 2 mg nitrogen was required for
every basal kilocalorie required when the energy requirement was expressed on a surface area
basis. Thus any increase in basal energy needs due to a change in environmental temperature
will be because of the relationship between protein and energy. An increase in energy needs is
accompanied by an increase in the protein requirement for maintenance. Profuse sweating that
occurs in very warm environments carries with it a nitrogen loss which must be accounted for in
the determination of minimal protein needs.
3. Previous Diet: refers to the kind of diet consumed by people in the past. It has been observed
during research studies that if subjects were poorly nourished prior to the initiation of the study,
their retention of the protein during the study will be greater than would be observed in subjects
who have been well nourished prior to the initiation of the study. Malnourished people have a
higher protein requirement than well nourished subjects.
4. Physical Activity: It has been observed through research that as the energy requirement is
increased to support the increase in muscular activity so too is the protein requirement in much the
same equation as is seen with the effect of temperature.
METHODS OF DETERMINING PROTEIN QUALITY
Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER)
This method was developed by Osborne and Mendal. This method is based on growth and body
weight changes.
The albino rats are taken and they were fed with the diet containing10% protein for 4 weeks. Then
gain in body weight was observed with protein intake of rats.
Gain in body weight (g)
PER =
protein intake (g)
PER of Egg: 4.7
PER of Wheat flour: 1.5
PER of Gelatin: 0.2

25
Net protein Utilization (NPU)
This method was given by Mitchell. NPU helps in calculation of the net available protein of the diet.
The two groups of albino rats are taken. One group is fed on non-protein diet while the other group
is fed on a test diet which contains different protein up to 10% for 10 days. After that food intake
of animal are measured. The animals are killed after study. The body nitrogen is calculated of dried
carcass.
Nitrogen Consumed by non-protein group
NPU = × 100
Nitrogen consumed by test group
Chemical score
This is based on the chemical analysis of the protein for the composition of essential amino acids
which is then compared with a reference protein (egg protein). The chemical score is defined as the
ratio between the quantities of most limiting essential amino acid in the test protein to the quantity
of the same amino acid in egg protein.
mg of the limiting amino in 1g of test protein
Chemical score = × 100
mg of the same amino acid in 1g of references protein (egg protein)
Chemical score of Egg - 100
Chemical score of Meat - 70
Chemical score of Rice - 60
Chemical score of Gelatine - 0
The chemical score of egg protein, for any one of the essential amino acids is taken as 100 and the
rest of the protein are compared.
Net Dietary Protein Calorie Percentage (NDP = Cal %)
This represents the proportion of dietary calories supplied by proteins. It is expressed as a total
calories intake. It relates the protein quality to the energy intake. This dietary protein is expressed
as % of total calorie.
Calorie from protein
NDPCal% = × 100
Total calorie intake
Any diet which provides less than 5% calories, will not meet the needs of protein of an individual.
Biological Value
It is a measurement of protein quality expressing the rate of efficiency with which the protein is used
for growth.
Nitrogen Digested–Nitrogen lost in metabolism
Biological Value = × 100
Nitrogen Digested

26
On a scale with 100 representing highest efficiency, the following table presents the biological values
of proteins in several foods.

FOOD ITEMS BIOLOGICAL VALUE

Whole Egg 93.7

Milk 84.5

Fish 76

Beef 74.3

Soybeans 72.8

Rice, polished 64

Wheat, whole 64

Corn 60

Beans, dry 58

The nutritive value of a protein can be improved in two ways:

1. Mutual Supplementation
Improvement of cereal proteins: Cereals are generally limiting in lysine and threonine while
legumes, milk, meat and fish are good sources of the amino acid. Hence the proteins of legumes,
milk, meat and fish supplement effectively cereal proteins.
Soyabean and sesame proteins: Soyabean proteins are good sources of lysine but are deficient
in methionine while sesame proteins are good sources of methionine but are deficient in lysine.
Hence the proteins of sesame supplement those of soyabean.
Improvement of cereal diets with legume and milk proteins: The proteins of poor diets based on
different cereals are limiting in lysine and threonine and their quality can be improved effectively
by including legumes, soyabean or milk proteins in the diet.
Examples of few combinations:
• Cornflakes and Milk
• Rice with pulses and legumes
• Baked beans and bread
• Rice / wheat with tofu
• Bread and peanut butter

27
 • Indian food like Idli / Dosa and Sambhar
• Lentils and bread
• Pasta / Pizza and low fat cheese
2. Supplementation with individual amino acids
a. Improvement of cereal diets by supplementation with lysine and threonine: Cereal diets
supplemented with lysine alone or a mixture of lysine and threonine markedly increases the
PER of cereal proteins or proteins of poor cereal diets.
b. Improvement of soybean and cow’s milk protein with methionine: The proteins of soybean and
cow’s milk are deficient in methionine. Supplementation with methionine increases the PER
of the diet from 2.0 to 2.9 and 3.0 to 4.0 for milk proteins.
c. Improvement of sesame and sunflower seed proteins with lysine: Supplementation with the
limiting amino acid lysine increases the PER of sesame proteins from 1.7 to 2.9 and sunflower
seed proteins from 1.2 to 1.8.
Sources of Protein
The important sources of proteins in the diets of low income groups are cereals and legumes. The
important sources of proteins of high biological value are meat, fish, eggs and milk. Some rich
potential sources of proteins are oilseeds, oilseed meals and soy.
Generally, proteins derived from animal foods (meats, fish, poultry, milk, eggs) are complete.
Proteins derived from plant foods (legumes, seeds, grains, and vegetables) are often complete as well
(examples include chickpeas, black beans, pumpkin seeds cashews, cauliflower, quinoa, pistachios,
turnip greens, black-eyed peas and soy Some plant foods tend to have less of one or more essential
amino acid. Some are notably low, such as corn protein, which is low in lysine and isoleucine
Effect of Protein Excess
Bone loss, osteoporosis, kidney damage, kidney stones, immune dysfunction, arthritis, cancer
promotion, low-energy, and overall poor health are the real consequences from overemphasizing
protein. Protein serves as raw material to build tissues. Protein consumed beyond our needs is a
health hazard as devastating as excess dietary fat and cholesterol. Research has shown that “Protein
decomposition products are a constant menace to the well- being of the body; any quantity of proteid
or albuminous food beyond the real requirements of the body may prove distinctly injurious. Further
with the constant strain upon the liver and kidneys and the possible influence upon the central and
peripheral parts of the nervous system, by these nitrogenous waste products, the body ordinarily gets
rid of them as speedily as possible.” Once the body’s needs are met, then the excess must be removed.
The liver converts the excess protein into urea and other nitrogen-containing breakdown products,
which are finally eliminated through the kidneys as part of the urine.
1. Excess Protein Burdens the Kidneys and Liver: Processing the excess dietary protein – as
much as 300 grams (10 ounces) a day –causes wear and tear on the kidneys; and as a result, on
average, 25% of kidney function is lost over a lifetime.

28
2. Excess Protein Damages the Bones – Osteoporosis: Worldwide rates of hip fractures (and
kidney stones) increase with increasing animal protein consumption including dairy products.
Osteoporosis is caused by several controllable factors; however, the most important one is the
foods we choose – especially the amount of animal protein and the foods high in acid. In human
beings, diets high in animal protein necessitate higher intakes of calcium as well, because such
diets promote calcium excretion. Excess protein may also create an increased demand for Vitamin
B6 in the diet, which the body requires to utilize the protein.
The high acid foods are meat, poultry, fish, seafood, and hard cheeses – parmesan cheese is
the most acidic of all foods commonly consumed. This acid must be neutralized by the body.
Carbonate, citrate and sodium are alkaline materials released from the bones to neutralize the
acids. Fruits and vegetables are alkaline and as a result, a diet high in these plant foods will
neutralize acid and preserve bones.
3. Formation of Kidney Stones: Once substances are released from the solid bone, the calcium
and other byproducts move through the blood stream to the kidneys where they are eliminated
in the urine. In an effort to remove the overabundance of waste protein, the flow of blood through
the kidneys increases and the result: calcium is filtered out of the body. Naturally, the kidneys
attempt to return much of this filtered calcium back to the body; unfortunately, the acid and
sulfur-containing amino acids from the animal foods ruin the body’s attempts to conserve
calcium. Plant proteins (plant food-bases) do not have these calcium and bone losing effects under
normal living conditions. Once this bone material arrives in the collecting systems of the kidney
it easily precipitates into solid formations known as kidney stones
Effect of Toxic Sulphur containing amino acids
Even though sulfur-containing amino acids are essential for our survival, an excess of these amino
acids beyond our needs places a critical burden upon our body and detracts from our health in six
important ways:
1. Amino acids, as the name implies are acids; the sulfur-containing amino acids are the strongest
acids of all, they breakdown into powerful sulfuric acid. Excess acid is a primary cause of bone
loss leading to osteoporosis and kidney stone formation.
2. Methionine is metabolized into homocysteine – animal foods are the major source of the
amino acid, homocysteine. In people consuming more meat in the diet, the blood level of
homocysteine is much higher. A diet high in fruits and vegetables lowers the levels of this amino
acid. Epidemiological and clinical studies have proven homocysteine to be an independent risk
factor for heart attacks, strokes, closure of the arteries to the legs (peripheral vascular disease),
blood clots in the legs (venous thrombosis), thinking problems (cognitive impairment), and even
worse mental troubles, like dementia, Alzheimer’s disease, and depression.
3. Sulfur feeds cancerous tumors. Cancer cell metabolism is dependent upon methionine being
in the diet. This methionine dependency has been demonstrated for breast, lung, colon, kidney,

29
 melanoma, and brain cancers. Increasing methionine in the diet of animals promotes the growth
of cancer.
4. Sulfur from sulfur-containing amino acids is known to be toxic to the tissues of the intestine and
to have deleterious effects on the human colon, even at low levels. The consequence of a diet of
high-methionine (animal) foods may be a life-threatening inflammatory bowel disease, called
Ulcerative Colitis.
5. Sulfur restriction is known to prolong life.
6. Possibly a stronger motivation to keep protein, and especially methionine rich animal protein, out
of your diet is foul smelling odors, body odor and noxious flatus – akin to the smell of rotten eggs.
RDA, 2010 for Protein
Protein requirement for Normal Indian Adults (Men & Women)
Men - 60gm/day
Women- 55gm/day
Effects of Protein Deficiency (Protein Energy Malnutrition)
Classification and Etiology
Clinically, PEM has three forms: dry (thin, desiccated), wet (edematous, swollen), and a combined
form between the two extremes. The form depends on the balance of non protein and protein sources
of energy. Each of the three forms can be graded as mild, moderate, or severe.
The dry form, Marasmus, results from near starvation with deficiency of protein and non protein
nutrients. The marasmic child consumes very little food--often because his mother is unable to
breastfeed--and is very thin from loss of muscle and body fat.
The wet form is called Kwashiorkor, an African word meaning “first child-second child.” It refers to
the observation that the first child develops PEM when the second child is born and replaces the first
child at the breast. The weaned child is fed a thin gruel of poor nutritional quality (compared with
mother’s milk) and fails to thrive. The protein deficiency is usually more marked than the energy
deficiency, and edema results. Children with kwashiorkor tend to be older than those with marasmus
and tend to develop the disease after they are weaned.
The combined form of PEM is called Marasmic Kwashiorkor. Children with this form have some
edema and more body fat than those with marasmus.
The Protein Link
As blood circulates in the body, it exerts pressure in the blood vessels that can force fluid out into the
tissues. Albumin, a protein in blood, generally prevents the fluid from leaking out and accumulating in
the tissues. However, if serum albumin levels are low, it cannot carry out its function of maintaining
fluid balance, so fluid escapes into the surrounding tissue. As we stand or sit during the day, the fluid
tends to build up in the lower extremities. This results in swollen ankles and feet.

30
Epidemiology

Kwashiorkor Marasmus

Protein deficiency and Energy deficiency go hand in hand so often that public health officials have
given the pair a nickname: PEM – Protein Energy Malnutrition
The two diseases and their symptoms overlap all along the spectrum, but the extremes have their own
individual names: Protein deficiency is “Kwashiorkor” and Energy deficiency is “Marasmus”.
Kwashiorkor is the Ghanian name for “the evil spirit that infects the first child when the second child
is born”. In countries where Kwashiorkor is prevalent, parents customarily give their newly weaned
children watery cereal rather than the food eaten by the rest of the family. The child has been receiving
the mother’s breast milk, which contains high quality protein designed to support growth. However,
when a new baby is born, the child is weaned and suddenly is fed only a weak drink with scant protein
of very low quality. Hence the just weaned child becomes sick when the new baby arrives.
Marasmus is the predominant form of PEM in most developing countries. It is associated with the
early abandonment or failure of breastfeeding and with consequent infections, most notably those
causing infantile gastroenteritis. These infections result from improper hygiene and inadequate
knowledge of infant rearing that are prevalent in the rapidly growing slums of developing countries.
Kwashiorkor is less common and is usually manifested as Marasmic Kwashiorkor. It tends to be
confined to parts of the world (rural Africa, the Caribbean and Pacific islands) where staple and
weaning foods--such as yam, cassava, sweet potato, and green banana--are protein deficient and
excessively starchy.
In Marasmus, energy intake is insufficient for the body’s requirements, and the body draws on its
own stores. Liver glycogen is exhausted within a few hours, and skeletal muscle protein is then

31
used via gluconeogenesis to maintain adequate plasma glucose. At the same time, triglycerides in
fat depots are broken down into free fatty acids, which provide some energy for most tissues, but
not for the nervous system. When near starvation is prolonged, fatty acids are incompletely oxidized
to ketone bodies, which can be used by the brain and other organs for energy. In kwashiorkor,
relatively increased carbohydrate intake with decreased protein intake leads to decreased visceral
protein synthesis. Fat mobilization and amino acid release from muscle are reduced, so that less
amino acid substrate is available to the liver.
In protein deficiency, adaptive enzyme changes occur in the liver, amino acid synthesizes increase,
and urea formation diminishes, thus conserving nitrogen and reducing its loss in urine. Growth,
immune response, repair, and production of some enzymes and hormones are impaired in severe
protein deficiency.
Signs and Symptoms
Marasmic infants have hunger, gross weight loss, growth retardation, and wasting of
subcutaneous fat and muscle. Kwashiorkor is characterized by generalized edema; “flaky paint”
dermatosis; thinning, decoloration, and reddening of the hair; enlarged fatty liver; and retarded
growth. Alternating episodes of under nutrition and adequate nutrition may cause the hair to have a
dramatic “striped flag” appearance. Almost invariably, infection occurs in all forms of PEM, with a
variety of bacteria producing pneumonia, diarrhea, genitourinary disease, and sepsis. Infection occurs
because of decreased immunity that resembles, in part, AIDS due to HIV infection. However, unlike
the immuno defect in AIDS, the defect in primary malnutrition can be reversed by nutritional therapy.
Marasmus (severe wasting) is an intake of adequate protein, but insufficient calories.
Kwashiorkor (swelling of arms and legs, and skin and hair changes) is an intake of adequate calories,
but insufficient protein
Comparison of the features of kwashiorkor and marasmus

Feature Kwashiokor Marasmus

Growth failure Present Present

Wasting Present Present, marked

Edema Present (sometimes mild) Absent

Hair changes Common Less Common

Mental changes Very common Uncommon

Dermatosis, flaky-paint Common Does not occur

32
 Appetite Poor Good

Anemia Severe (sometimes) Present, less severe

Subcutaneous fat Reduced but present Absent

Face May be edematous Drawn in, monkey-like

Fatty infiltration of liver Present Absent

Kwashiorkor
• Curly hair suddenly straightens • Hairs are easily pluckable without pain
• Flag signs on hair • Oedema on body
• Protruding belly • Moon face
• Enlargement of liver • Tissues are wasted but are marked by oedema
Marasmus:
• Diet is deficient in protein and energy • Unhygienic upbringing
• Lack of cleanliness • Occurs in first year of life
• Edema is absent • Marked muscle wasting
• Old man’s face
Treatment of Kwashiorkor and Marasmus
The treatment of both Kwashiorkor and Marasmic children requires care and caution. As their
enzymes for digestion and protein absorption and transport systems are less active, feeding these
children with large quantities of good quality protein would be harmful.
Their diets must gradually be enriched with these proteins to allow their body sufficient time to
develop the metabolic pathways to handle a better diet.
Metabolism of Proteins and Amino Acids
The metabolism of proteins is the metabolism of the amino acids. Each cell within the body utilizes
the available amino acids to synthesize all the numerous proteins required for its own functions and
also makes use of amino acids to furnish energy. In addition, some specialized cells, such as those
of the liver, also synthesize proteins and non protein nitrogenous substances that are required for the
functioning of the body as a whole.
Dynamic Equilibrium
The liver is the key organ in the metabolism of protein. As amino acids are absorbed, the
concentration in the portal circulation rises considerably. The liver rapidly removes the amino acids
from the portal circulation for the synthesis of its proteins and for many of the specialized proteins

33
such as lipoproteins as well as non protein nitrogenous substances such as creatinine. The liver is also
the principal organ for the synthesis of urea.
Amino acids are transported throughout the body by the systemic circulation and are rapidly
removed from the circulation by the various tissue cells. Likewise, amino acids and products of
amino acid metabolism are constantly added to the circulation by the tissues. The amino acid pool
available to any given tissue at any given moment thus includes dietary sources (exogenous) and
tissue breakdown (endogenous). Body proteins are not static structures but there is a continuous
taking up and release of amino acids. In the adult the gains and losses are about equal and the state is
known as dynamic equilibrium. The rate of turn over varies widely in body tissues.
Protein reserves
Although the body does not store protein in the sense that it stores fat or glycogen or Vitamin A,
certain reserves are available from practically all body tissues for use in an emergency.
Anabolism or Catabolism: Whether an amino acid is utilized for the synthesis of new proteins or is
deaminized and used for energy, depends upon a number of factors.
1. The “all or none law”: All the amino acids needed for the synthesis of a given protein must be
simultaneously present in sufficient amounts. If a single amino acid is missing, the protein cannot
be constructed. If a given amino acid is present only to a limited extent, the protein can be formed
as long as the supply of that amino acid lasts. The amino acid in short supply is known as the
limiting amino acid. If one or more amino acids are missing from the pool, the remaining amino
acids are unavailable for later synthesis and will be catabolized for energy.
2. Adequacy of calorie intake: For protein synthesis to proceed at an optimum rate, the calorie
intake must be sufficient to supply the energy needs. A deficiency of calories necessitates the use
of some dietary and tissue proteins for energy.
3. The nutritional and physiologic state of the individual: The rate of synthesis is high during
growth and in tissue repletion following illness or injury. In the adult, synthesis just balances
tissue depletion when the calorie intake is adequate. Protein catabolism is greatly increased
immediately following an injury, burns and immobilization because of illness. It is also increased
as result of fear, anxiety or anger.
4. Development of specific tissues: Some tissues may be synthesized even though the overall
nitrogen balance might be negative. Thus the fetus and maternal tissues may be developed at the
expense of the mother when her diet is inadequate.
5. Hormonal Controls: The pituitary growth hormone has an anabolic effect during infancy and
childhood and the estrogens and androgens exert an anabolic effect during preadolescent and
adolescent years. By bringing about normal carbohydrate metabolism, insulin has an indirect
anabolic effect by reducing the breakdown of proteins to supply glucose. In normal amounts
thyroid hormones also stimulates growth.

34
Among the hormones that increase the catabolism of body tissues are adrenocortical hormones which
stimulate the breakdown of tissue proteins to yield glucose. An excessive production of thyroxin
also increases the breakdown of proteins.
Synthesis of Proteins: Each cell is capable of synthesizing an enormous number of proteins. Some of
the proteins remain with the cell to carry out cellular functions.
Disposal of ammonia: Most of the ammonia released through deamination is synthesized to urea. A
small amount of ammonia may be used in the formation of new amino acids or purines, creatinine and
other important non protein nitrogenous substances.
The liver is the primary organ for the synthesis of urea. This is an essential mechanism for the disposal
of ammonia, which is highly toxic if it enters the systemic circulation. When the function of the liver
is seriously impaired, ammonia enters the circulation and produces harmful effects on the central
nervous system.
The excretion of urea and other nitrogenous products in the urine entails an obligatory excretion of
fluid as well. In the absence of sufficient fluid, the work of the kidney will be increased.

Assignment
1. Outline the difference between globular and fibrous protein giving an example of each?
2. Can amino acid supplements and protein powders build muscles?
3. Out of 20 Amino acids _________ are essential and _________ are non essential.
4. A high level of _________ amino acid is related with heart diseases and stroke.
5. Write differences between Kwashiorkor and Marasmus?
6. Consumption of _________ % of total calories from protein is considered too high.
7. Cereals lack _________ amino acid and pulses lack _________ amino acid.
8. _________ is wet form while _________ is dry form of PEM.
9. _________ has the highest biological value.
10. _________ is the end product of protein metabolism.
11. What are the causes of Marasmus?
12. How does excess of protein causes Osteoporosis?
13. What is the protein link between Protein deficiency and Oedema?
14. Differentiate between Kwashiorkor and Marasmus.

35
 UNIT-IV

LIPIDS
Lipids are more commonly called Fats and Oils. The most obvious dietary sources of fat are oil,
butter, margarine and shortening. Other food sources that provide fat to the diet are meats, nuts,
mayonnaise, salad dressings, eggs, bacon, gravy, cheese, ice cream and whole milk.
Fats are a concentrated source of energy providing 9 Kcal/g, and are made up of fatty acids in
different proportions. Dietary fats are derived from two sources viz. the invisible fat present in plant
and animal foods; and the visible or added fats and oils (cooking oil). Fats serve as a vehicle for
fat-soluble vitamins like vitamins A, D, E and K and carotenes and promote their absorption. They are
also sources of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids. It is necessary to have adequate and good quality
fat in the diet with polyunsaturated fatty acids in adequate proportions for meeting the requirements
of essential fatty acids. The type and quantity of fat in the daily diet influence the level of cholesterol
and triglycerides in the blood.
Diets should include adequate amounts of fat particularly in the case of infants and children, to
provide concentrated energy since their energy needs per kg body weight are nearly twice those of
adults. Adults need to be cautioned to restrict intake of saturated fat (butter, ghee and hydrogenated
fats) and cholesterol (red meat, eggs, organ meat). Excess of these substances could lead to obesity,
diabetes, cardiovascular disease and cancer.
Characteristics
Fats are a storage form of concentrated fuel for the human energy system. They back up
carbohydrates, the primary fuel, as an available energy source.
They are a heterogeneous group of compounds that include the ordinary fats and oils, waxes and
related compounds found in foods and the human body. They have the common properties of being
1. Insoluble in water
2. Soluble in organic solvents such as chloroform and
3. Capable of being used by living organisms.
Types of Fats
Any diet comprises of visible fat and invisible fat. Visible fats are the fats and oils used as such at the
table or for cooking e.g. vegetable oils, ghee, salad dressing, mayonnaise, butter, cream etc. Invisible
fats are present naturally as an integral component of different foods e.g. flesh foods, whole milk,
peanuts, soybean, nuts and oilseeds, spices etc
Classification of Fats and Fatty Acids
Chemically, lipids are the organic molecules poor in oxygen content and insoluble in water. They are
classified as:

36
1. Simple lipids: are fatty acid esters of glycerol, called triglycerides and they are the major form of
lipids present in human dietaries.
2. Compound lipids: are the simple lipids which combine with proteins (lipoproteins),
carbohydrates (glycolipids), phosphates (phospholipids) etc
3. Derived lipids: refer to fatty acids, glycerol, cholesterol and other derived compounds including
fat soluble vitamins, hormones and bile. Man can synthesize cholesterol in the body but some
amount also comes from the diet. Cholesterol is present only in foods of animal origin.
Nature of fatty acids present in the triglyceride determines the physiochemical properties and
biological significance of the lipid. Triglycerides made up of saturated fatty acids are solids at
room temperature and are called fats. If unsaturated fatty acids are present, they are liquid at room
temperature and are called oils.
The Fatty Acids are broadly classified as:
• Saturated and Unsaturated
• Short chain, medium chain and long chain
• Essential Fatty Acids
• Trans Fatty Acids
Essential Fatty Acids (EFA)
The human body can synthesize all the fatty acids it needs from carbohydrates, fat or protein,
except two. These are linoleic (Omega 6) and linolenic acid (Omega 3) .They are known to be cardio
protective and are also present in fish oil. They are part of vital body structures, perform important
role in immune system, formation of cell membrane and produce hormone like compounds which are
regulators of vital body functions like blood pressure, child birth ,blood clotting, immune response,
inflammatory response and stomach secretions.
Fortunately Essential Fatty acids are readily stored in the adult body, making deficiencies unlikely.
However those deprived of these acids, have deficiency symptoms like skin rash and in children –
poor growth
Trans Fatty Acids
Trans fatty acids are produced when vegetable oils are hydrogenated to make margarines,
vanaspati etc. Hence, major sources of trans fatty acids to human diets are commercially baked
products, deep fried snacks in vanaspati and sweets. Metabolically, trans fatty acids and saturated
fatty acids raise blood cholesterol levels and are bad for cardiovascular health. Some studies also
showed that a diet high in trans fatty acids may be linked to a greater risk of Type 2 Diabetes. Trans
fatty acids work to increase LDL, or “bad” cholesterol, and they also increase inflammation and
decrease HDL cholesterol, which is “good” cholesterol. This means that the fats in hydrogenated oil
are far more damaging than even saturated fats, which medical professionals have already determined
to be harmful.

37
Trans fat can make food taste good, last longer on grocery-store shelves and are more hazardous for
your heart. Some common sources of Trans Fatty acids are French fries, some pies and pie crust, some
pancakes and waffles, ice creams, non dairy creamers, some cookies and biscuits, frozen dinners etc
Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation is a process by which hydrogen gas is bubbled at the double bonds of liquid oil at
a high pressure, in the presence of catalyst, nickel, to become saturated or partially saturated. In
practical cooking terms, hydrogenation converts unsaturated vegetable oil, into a solid form.
Hydrogenated oils are generally less expensive than using saturated fats and have a longer shelf life.
As the level of hydrogenation increases, the level of saturated fat increases and the level of
unsaturated fat decreases. Example – Corn oil, polyunsaturated oil is hydrogenated to make a
spreadable margarine. This spreadable margarine is more saturated than the original oil but not as
saturated as butter.
Functions of Fats and Oils
1. Fats contribute to texture, flavour, and taste and increases palatability of the diet. They provide an
effective medium of heat transfer in deep frying and transfer of flavours from Indian spices.
2. Fats have highest heat energy density of 9 kcal/g. It is the major storage form of energy in body
requiring least space and minimum water of hydration. Adipose cells are 80% lipid and only 20%
water and protein.
3. Fats are essential for meeting nutritional needs of essential fatty acids. SFA, MUFA and
cholesterol can be synthesized in the body, hence the diet only adds on to their total amount avail-
able in the body. Excessive intake of SFA and cholesterol in diets can therefore be harmful.
4. Fats promote absorption of fat soluble vitamins like vitamin A, D, E and K.
5. Fat intake ensures satiety. It imparts a feeling of fullness and satisfaction and thus delays onset of
hunger.
6. Fats serve as a thermal insulator in the subcutaneous tissues and certain organs. The body hair
stands erect to trap air, protect against Heat loss and stimulate insulation Hair traps air adjacent to
the skin to provide an invisible, insulating layer.
7. Some dietary fats contain antioxidants which provide stability to the oil and prevent rancidity.
Summary of Functions
1. Functions of Fats in the Body
Fat is the body’s chief storage form for the energy (or calories) from food eaten in excess of
immediate need.
Fat serves as an energy reserve. Whenever you eat, you store some fat and within a few hours after
a meal, you take the fat out of storage and use it for energy until the next meal. Both glucose and
fat are stored after meals and both are released later when needed as energy to fuel the cells’ work.

38
 However, whereas excess carbohydrate and protein can be converted to fat, the process does not
work in reverse. Fat cannot be converted back into protein and carbohydrate. Fat can serve only
as an energy fuel for cells equipped to use it.
The body has scanty reserves of carbohydrate and virtually no protein to spare, but it can store fat
in practically unlimited amounts.
2. Functions of Fats in Foods
Fat is a nutrient found in many foods. High fat foods deliver many unneeded calories in only a few
bites to the person who is not expending much physical energy.
Fats in foods also provide satiety by slowing the rate at which the stomach empties.
Fats carry many dissolved compounds that give foods their aroma and flavor. This accounts for
the aromatic smells associated with foods that are being fried, such as onions or French fries.
Sources

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids

Saturated Fatty Monounsaturated
Acids Fatty Acids Linoleic Acid LinolenicAcid
Omega 6 Omega 3*

Ghee / Butter Olive Low Mustard

Coconut Canola Red Palm oil Canola

Palm Kernel Groundnut Palmolein Soyabean

Palm Oil Rice Bran Olive Rice Bran

Vanaspati Sesame Medium

Palmolein Groundnut

Red Palm Oil Rice Bran

Sesame

High

Safflower

Sunflower

39
 Cottonseed

Soyabean

Sesame

Corn

*Other sources of omega 3 fatty acids are wheat, bajra, black gram, cowpea, rajmah, soybean, green
leafy vegetables, fenugreek seeds, mustard seeds, flax seeds, chia seeds and fish.
Nutritional Requirements of Fats and Oils
It is generally recommended that 15 – 20% of the total Caloric intake should come from fats and oils.
However recent research highlights the role of DNA based Weight loss Diets where the percentage of
Carbohydrate, Fat and Protein is different as per individual DNA in order to attain faster and sustained
Weight loss.
Choice of Cooking Medium with reference to Omega 3 and Omega 6 Fatty Acid ratio in Indian Diets:
Most experts agree that the omega 6:3 ratio should range from 1:1 to 5:1
ICMR (1998) has given dietary guidelines to maintain n-6 / n-3 ratio of 5-10, and PUFA / SFA of
0.8 -1.0 which ensures long term health. Hence the choice of cooking oil should be.
1. Moderate linoleic acid content oils like groundnut oil, rice bran oil or sesame oil
Or
Soybean oil (containing both linoleic and linolenic acid) and
2. Combination of two oils in approximately equal proportion:
Use high linoleic acid oils like sunflower oil, safflower oil and Cottonseed oil with palm oil (low
linoleic acid)
Or
Mustard Oil (containing alpha linolenic acid) along with any other Cooking oil
Excessive Fat Intake
Contemporary Indian society shows nutrition transition and access to fast foods and fried snacks
while eating out / ordering food from outside has become a fashion and lifestyle related trend as well.
This leads to an increased intake of saturated fatty acid, milk and milk products, flesh foods and sugar
at the cost of whole cereals, millets and pulses. The total calories are also high, especially if alcohol
consumption is also on a rise. Hence it is important to draw the upper limit of fat intake, as excess
intake is closely linked with increased risk of developing obesity, heart diseases, cancer and other
associated Medical conditions.

40
Recommendations for dietary fat intake in Indians

Group Sedentary Moderate Heavy

Men 25g/day 30g/day 40gm/day

Women 20g/day 25g/day 30g/day

Metabolism of Fats and Lipids - How does the Body handle Fat?
Blood is the means of transportation of lipids from one site to another and the liver and the
adipose tissues are the specialized organs that control lipid metabolism. The synthesis of new lipids
(Lipogenesis) and the catabolism of lipids (Lipolysis) are taking place continuously. These reactions
are catalyzed by specific enzymes under the control of nervous and hormonal mechanisms.
Blood Lipids: The level of cholesterol and of triglycerides in blood serum are frequently determined
in the clinical laboratories and provide clues to the presence or absence of hyperlipidemia.
Triglyceride levels vary widely during the day.
When trimming calories and/or increasing exercise during weight loss, the enzyme hormone-
sensitive lipase, located within fat cells, responds to hormonal messages and disassembles
triglycerides into their component glycerol and fatty acids. These components then slip out of the fat
cells and into the bloodstream, where they are accessible to tissues throughout the body. The liver
preferentially absorbs the glycerol and some of the fatty acids--the remainder of which is taken in by
muscle.
However, cholesterol and triglycerides do not exist in the free state in the circulation. Since fats are
insoluble in water, proteins provide the mechanism for their transport in the aqueous medium of the
blood. These protein – lipid complexes are known as lipoproteins.
Very low density lipoproteins (VLDL) contain a high proportion of triglycerides and a small
amount of protein. When this class is elevated, there is a presumption of carbohydrate induced
hyperlipidemia.
Low density lipoproteins (LDL) are the chief carriers of cholesterol and are relatively low in
triglycerides. The concentration of this group increases with age and when diets are rich in
saturated fatty acids and to a lesser extent when diets contain substantial amounts of cholesterol.
High density lipoproteins have a protective effect i.e., it reduces the risk of coronary heart disease.
Persons who exercise regularly, who do not smoke and who are of normal weight have higher levels
than those who are sedentary and obese.
Free Fatty acids (FFA) also designated as non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) are the principal
source of fatty acids made available to the cells for energy. The concentration of FFA in the blood
at any given time is quite low but the rate of turnover is so rapid that several thousand calories are
transported daily in the circulation in this way. The concentration of free fatty acids is somewhat

41
higher in the circulation during fasting, thus indicating more rapid release from adipose tissues. It is
somewhat lower when carbohydrate is being absorbed, which indicates that carbohydrate is being
used for energy as well as synthesized to fat.
Adipose Tissue and Fat Metabolism
The adipose cell is a specialized cell that provides for the synthesis, storage and release of fats. It
contains less water and as the cell size increases with the storage of fat the water content decreases.
It has enzymes that bring about lipogenesis and lipolysis. Fat synthesis and breakdown take place
continuously but they are in equilibrium when the energy needs of the body are exactly met.
The number of adipose cells increases rapidly during infancy and childhood. The number usually
remains constant during adult life, regardless of weight status. If the energy supplied to the body
exceeds the body’s needs, lipogenesis takes place and the cells enlarge (weight is gained) regardless
of whether the calories were derived from fats, carbohydrates or proteins. For the synthesis of fat,
insulin is required.
When a calorie deficit exists, the adipose tissue will be catabolized more rapidly than it is being
synthesized (weight is lost). The release of fatty acids from adipose tissue is accelerated by the
same hormones that increase glucose breakdown, epinephrine, nor epinephrine, glucagon, growth
hormone etc.
The liver and fat metabolism
The liver is the key organ in the regulation of fat metabolism. The liver hydrolyzes the triglycerides
brought to it, reforms new triglycerides and again releases them to the circulation. It also synthesizes
triglycerides from free fatty acids, glucose or the carbon skeletons of amino acids. Phospholipids
and lipoproteins are synthesized and released to the circulation or removed from the circulation thus
maintaining control over blood levels.
The liver is probably the chief regulator of the total body content of cholesterol and of the circulating
blood cholesterol. It governs the endogenous synthesis of cholesterol, the removal of cholesterol from
the circulation, the production of bile acids and the excretion of cholesterol and bile acids by way of
the bile into the intestine.
Certain Lipotropic Substances must be present to prevent the accumulation of fat in the liver.
Synthesis of Fat
Triglycerides are synthesized by the epithelial cells of the intestinal mucosa, by the adipose tissue and
by the liver.
Oxidation of Fatty Acids
All cells of the body except those of the central nervous system and red blood cells can oxidize fatty
acids to yield energy. Although glucose is normally the only source of energy for the central nervous
system, the brain cells after a period of total starvation can adapt to the utilization of ketone bodies
derived from fat and amino acids.

42
Ketogenesis
Within the liver two molecules of acetyl coenzyme A can condense to form acetoacetyl coenzyme A,
which in turn yields acetoacetic acid, beta hydroxyl butyric acid and acetone. These compounds are
known as Ketone Bodies and the process as Ketogenesis. The ketone bodies are normally produced
in small amounts by the liver. Although the liver cells do not possess the enzymes necessary for their
further oxidation, muscle and other cells can utilize them to yield energy.
During rapid weight reduction using a starvation regimen or a low calorie diet consisting of protein
and fat but little if any carbohydrate, ketones are produced more rapidly than the tissues can utilize
them. The carbohydrate metabolism is greatly reduced while the production of acetyl coenzymeA
is sharply increased. The liver synthesizes vastly increased amounts of the ketones – far beyond the
ability of the tissues to oxidize them. The principal effect of the increased production is a disturbance
of the acid – base balance.
In uncontrolled Diabetes Mellitus, ketosis occurs because of lack of insulin for the metabolism of
carbohydrate. It is a serious complication that can lead to coma and even death and prompt measures
are required to correct the acidosis and to restore normal carbohydrate metabolism.
Cholesterol Metabolism
The liver and intestine are the chief sites of cholesterol synthesis but all cells are able to produce
some cholesterol. The endogenous production of cholesterol has been variously estimated at 800 to
1500 mg daily and is apparently independent of the dietary supply. Acetyl coenzyme A is the direct
precursor of cholesterol and thus any donor of acetyl coenzyme A – fatty acids, glucose and some
amino acids – is a potential source of cholesterol.
Cholesterol is transported in the blood through the various types of lipoproteins. The body is unable
to break down the cholesterol nucleus but the liver converts it by enzyme action to bile acids. This is
apparently rate limited and therefore any excess supply poses problems of disposal. Cholesterol as
such and bile acids are constituents of bile and excretion occurs from the intestine

Assignment
1. What is the difference between Saturated and unsaturated fats?
2. What is the RDA for fats for an adult man and adult woman for all the 3 categories (Sedentary,
Moderate and Heavy workers)
3. What are Trans –fatty acids and justify if they are harmful / non harmful?
4. What are the sources of Omega-3 and Omega- 6 fatty acids?
5. Write the difference between essential and non essential fatty acids?

43
 UNIT-V

WATER
Introduction
Water is often referred to as the “Forgotten Nutrient” but it is very essential for sustenance.
Total Body Water (TBW) constitutes 50 - 60 % of the Body Weight.
Distribution
60 % of the body weight of a male is water whereas in females it is 55- 57%. This is b
ecause they have a higher proportion of lean tissue and a lower proportion of fat. Lean tissue
comprises of muscle, bone and 65-75% water. On the other hand water amounts to less than 25% of
the weight of fat. This also explains why Muscular people have a higher proportion of water than the
less muscular or obese people. There is also a steady fall in the proportion of water as we age due to
the increased deposition of fat in the body as well as loss of muscle mass with age.
Bone is more than 20 % water, muscle is 75% water and teeth are about 10% water.
Functions
1. Water is a universal solvent: It is the medium of all cell fluids including digestive juices, lymph,
blood, urine and perspiration. It carries nutrients to the cells and removes the waste products to
the lungs, kidneys, gut and skin.
2. Water as a lubricant: Water based fluids act as lubricants in various parts of the body especially
within joints. This makes movements easier and minimizes the wear and tear in cartilage and
bone.
3. Temperature Regulator: Water plays an important role in the distribution of heat throughout
the body and the regulation of body temperature. Heat is produced in the body due to hard work,
exposure to heat, fever or by the metabolism of energy yielding nutrients. Heat is effectively lost
from the body through the evaporation of water as perspiration from the skin surface. Insensible
perspiration occurs under normal circumstances when the body is continuously cooled by the
evaporation of perspiration from the surface of the skin.
4. Source of Dietary Minerals: Water is composed of only oxygen and hydrogen, however the
water we drink or use in food preparation can contain significant amounts of minerals such as
calcium, magnesium, zinc, copper and fluoride depending on the source of water and any water
treatment e.g. Hard water usually comes from shallow ground and contains relatively high levels
of minerals, primarily magnesium and calcium whereas soft water generally flows from deep in
the earth and has a higher concentration of sodium.
5. Water enters into many essential reactions, such as hydrolysis that occurs in digestion. It is an end
product in the oxidation of energy yielding nutrients.

44
From a health standpoint, hard water seems to be a better alternative. One reason is that the excess
sodium, carried in soft water, even in small amounts, adds more of the mineral to our already sodium
laden diets. Also soft water dissolves potentially toxic substances such as lead from pipes. Hence,
people who install water softeners in their homes for the purpose of getting cleaner laundry and better
mileage from soap would do well to connect them only to their water lines. This way, they can use hot,
soft water for washing and bathing and use cold, hard water for drinking and cooking.
Water being an effective solvent, may carry significant amounts of toxic compounds like lead,
cadmium, pesticides and other industrial waste products. Regular monitoring of water supply to check
for contamination and the filtering of water at the household level becomes an imperative action to
safeguard our health.
Sources of Water Intake
Preformed water – is the one we consume as water or as beverage and includes both preformed
water in fluids and in foods. The amount of fluids consumed as beverages depends on the climatic
conditions and individual habits e.g. people living in warm regions consume more water as also those
who engage in strenuous physical activity.
Preformed water in foods: Foods are the second most important sources of water for the body. Most
foods contain 50% water, but milk has the highest amount of water (85-95% water), followed by fruits
and vegetables. Fats and oils do not contain any water. The water in confectionary is relatively low.
Water of oxidation: This is the water that arises from the oxidation of foods within the body. This
source contributes only 10% of the total water input. Glycogen molecules act as reserves of energy in
the liver and muscle. As glycogen molecules contain water, this act as an additional source of water
when glycogen reserves are utilized for energy during intense physical activity.
Requirement of Water
The body has no provision for water storage, therefore the amount of water lost every 24 hrs must be
replaced to maintain health and body efficiency. The requirements in relation to body weight varies
in a general way with age; the younger the individual, the greater his/her requirements for water per
unit body weight.
In Adults - 35 ml/kg
Children - 50-60 ml/kg
Infants - 150 ml/kg
Exercise, high temperature, low humidity, high altitude and a high fiber diet increase fluid needs.
Alcoholic beverages and those containing caffeine such as coffee, tea and sodas, however are not
good substitutes for water: both alcohol and caffeine act as diuretics, causing the body to lose fluids.
Daily Losses of Water
Water is lost from the body by four routes: kidneys, skin, lungs and intestine.
1. Renal Loss: Normal adult kidneys excrete about 1-2 liters of urine daily. The water in this total
volume is made up of two portions – Obligatory and Facultative.

45
2. Obligatory water excretion: The kidney is obligated to excrete some water to rid the body of its
daily load of urinary solutes. The average adult obligatory water excretion is about 900 ml.
3. Facultative water excretion: An additional 500 ml, more or less water is excreted for
maintaining water balance.
4. Skin: The water loss from the skin is through perspiration, which could be insensible and/or
visible.
5. Insensible perspiration: Insensible perspiration are relatively constant amount of water loss
that is proportional to the surface area of the body. The name signifies that the water loss is not
noticeable as the evaporation takes place from the skin immediately.
6. Visible perspiration: Visible perspiration are highly variable water losses. Whenever a great deal
of water is lost by perspiration, body water is conserved by the elimination of more concentrated
urine.
7. Intestine: A small quantity of water is normally lost in faeces but this exceeds in diarrhoeal
episodes.
8. Lungs: The air expired from the lungs also contains water. Conditions that would increase the
rate of respiration, such as fever increases the water loss by this route. An individual involved in
strenuous activity will lose more water by this route compared to a sedentary person.
Daily Water Balance

SOURCE INPUT (ml) SOURCE OUTPUT (ml)

Food 800 - 1000 Insensible loss 800 - 1000

Oxidation of Food 300 - 400 Sweat 200

As water 1000 - 2000 Faeces 100 - 200

Urine 1000 - 2000

TOTAL 2100 - 3400 2100 - 3400

Inspite of the water output, the total body water is maintained.

Disturbances in fluid Balance
Dehydration: is defined as the excessive loss of body water. It may occur because of inadequate
intake, or abnormal loss of body water or a combination of both. Fluid loss secondary to diarrhea
has been responsible for thousands of deaths of children in developing countries. Oral rehydration
therapy (ORT) with a simple mixture of water, salts and sugar has been highly effective in reducing
the mortality rate.

46
Oedema: In some pathological conditions the body is in a positive water balance; that is the intake
of fluids is greater than the excretion. Oedema results when the body water is increased to the levels
of 10% or more above normal.

Assignment
1. Write at least 5 functions of water?
2. How do we lose water from the body?
3. What do you understand by the term dehydration and oedema?
4. What is the percentage of Body water in Males and Females?
5. List few conditions in which the fluid needs are increased?

47
 UNIT-VI

ENERGY METABOLISM
Energy in simple terms may be defined as the ability, or power, to do work. Energy is released
by the metabolism of food and the potential energy value of foods is expressed in terms of the
kilocalorie (Kcal). A kilocalorie is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
1 kg of water through 1 degree Celsius. Internationally, the unit of energy measurement commonly
used is the Joule (J). It is the physical unit of energy and expresses the amount of energy expended
when 1 kg of a substance is moved 1 meter by a force of 1 Newton. The conversion factors are
1 kilocalorie = 4.184 kilojoules 1KJ=0.239kcal
1000kcal = 4.18MJ
1MJ = 239kcal
The amount of heat energy per gram that can be made available to the body by each of the
energy-yielding macronutrients is as follows:
1g of carbohydrates yields 4 Kcal
1 g of fat yields 9 Kcal
1 g of protein yields 4 Kcal
Definition and Components of Energy Requirement
The level of energy intake from food that balances energy expenditure when the individual has a
body size and composition and level of physical activity ,consistent with long term good health, also
allowing for maintenance of economically essential and socially desirable activity is called as energy
requirement.
Basal Metabolic Rate is defined as that fraction of total energy expenditure that is needed to maintain
the vital involuntary processes of the body like heart beat, kidney function etc. In other words, Basal
Metabolic Rate is the minimal caloric requirement needed to sustain life in a resting individual. It is
expressed as kilocalories per 24 hours.
A closely related term used now is Resting Metabolic Rate (RMR). RMR is measured with the subject
in a supine or sitting position in a comfortable environment several hours after a meal and without any
significant activity. RMR is slightly higher than BMR but the difference is small.
Components of Energy Requirement
Human beings need energy for the following:
1. Basal Metabolism: The amount of energy used for synthesis, secretion and metabolism of
enzymes and hormones, the maintenance of body temperature, uninterrupted work of cardiac and
respiratory muscles and brain function comprises the basal metabolism. BMR represents 45 to 70
per cent of daily total energy expenditure and is governed by various factors.

48
2. Metabolic response to food: Eating requires energy for the ingestion and digestion of food
and for the absorption, transport, interconversion, oxidation and deposition of nutrients. These
metabolic processes increase heat production and oxygen consumption and are known as ‘Dietary
induced thermo genesis’/ ‘specific dynamic action of food’ and ‘thermic effect of feeding’. If the
diet consumed is a mixed diet, this component increases total energy expenditure by about 10
percent of the BMR
3. Physical Activity: After BMR, this is the second largest component of daily energy expenditure.
Humans perform Obligatory and Discretionary physical activities. Obligatory activities include
occupational work, daily activities such as going to school, tending to the home and family and
other demands made on children and adults by their economic, social and cultural environment.
Discretionary activities include the regular practice of physical activity for fitness and health,
the performance of optional household tasks and the engagement in individually and socially
desirable activities for personal enjoyment, social interaction and community development.
Physical activity ratio
It is expressed as the ratio of the energy cost of an individual activity per minute to the cost of the
basal metabolic rate per minute.
PAR = Energy cost of an activity per minute /Energy cost of basal metabolism per minute
Thus, Total Energy Expenditure (TEE) over a 24 hour period is the sum of BMR, Dietary induced
Thermo genesis and the energy for physical activities.
Additional energy is required for the following conditions:
1. Growth: The energy cost of growth has two components comprising of the energy needed to
synthesize growing tissues and the energy deposited in these tissues. The energy cost of growth
declines with age.
2. Pregnancy: To meet the requirements of the growing child and the changes in the maternal
metabolism, extra energy is needed by the expectant mother.
3. Lactation: Well nourished lactating women derive part of the additional requirement for feeding
the child from body fat stores accumulated during pregnancy.
Factors Affecting BMR
BMR is the largest component of the daily energy demand representing 45 to 70 percent of the daily
total energy expenditure. The factors affecting BMR are:
1. Body Size: The BMR is closely related to the body surface area as basal heat production is
directly proportional to surface area.
2. Age: The BMR is highest during the first 2 years of life. It declines gradually during
childhood and increases slightly during adolescence. It gradually declines in adulthood with a
greater decline in later years.

49
3. Sex: Women have a 6-10% lower BMR than men.
4. Body Composition: BMR is directly related to the lean body mass. People with well developed
muscles like athletes have a higher BMR than obese people whose body has a higher percentage
of adipose tissue.
5. Sleep: The BMR in sleep is about 5% less than in the basal metabolic state.
6. Fever: The BMR is raised in fever conditions. For every 1 degree Fahrenheit rise in body
temperature, BMR is increased by about 7%
7. Fear, Anxiety, Nervous Tension: Such emotions tend to elevate BMR
8. Under nutrition and Starvation: Prolonged under nutrition or starvation causes a reduction of
about 10 – 20% in BMR
9. Hormonal Imbalance: Conditions like Hypothyroidism decreases BMR while Hyperthyroidism
increases the BMR. The thyroid hormone is a key BMR regulator; the more thyroxin is produced,
higher is the BMR.
Increase in adrenaline secretion, associated with highly emotional states, temporarily increases the
BMR
Measurement of Basal Metabolic Rate
BMR can be calculated directly using the predictive equations proposed by ICMR or the FAO/WHO/
UNU expert consultations.
Equations for predicting BMR (Kcal/24 hr)

SEX AGE (Yrs) PREDICTION EQUATION

Proposed by FAO/WHO/ Proposed by ICMR Expert

UNU(2004) Group for Indians

Male 18 - 30 15.3*B.W(kg)+679 14.5*B.W(kg)+645

30 - 60 11.6*B.W(kg)+879 10.9*B.W(kg)+833

> 60 13.5*B.W(kg)+487 12.8*B.W(kg)+463

Female 18 -30 14.7*B.W(kg)+496 14.0*B.W(kg)+471

30-60 8.7*B.W(kg)+829 8.3*B.W(kg)+788

> 60 10.5*B.W(kg)+596 10*B.W(kg)+565

50
Harris Benedict Equation
Males: 66 + (13.7*W) + (5*H) – (6.8*A)
Females: 655+ (9.6*W) + (1.7*H) – (4.7*A)
Where
W = actual weight in kg (weight in lb/2.2 lb/kg)
H = Height in cm (height in inches*2.54 cm/in)
A = Age in years
Body Composition Analysis / Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
This is a rapid, non invasive and relatively inexpensive method for evaluating body composition in
field or clinical settings.
The technique is based on the assumption that tissues that are high in water content will conduct
electrical currents with less resistance than those with little water. Adipose / Fat tissue contains
little water and is a relatively poor conductor of electricity; hence fat will impede / resist the flow
of electrical current. Fat free tissue is a better conductor of an electrical current (contains water and
electrolytes) than fat tissue. The report generated depicts parameters like total weight, BMR, BMI,
Fat Weight, Fat Free Mass, total body water, target weight and fat to lose.
Some commonly used BCA are Tanita and Inbody BCA.Depending on the model, Tanita unit is
available as 2 or 4 electrodes.
Energy Balance – Positive / Negative
Energy Balance is achieved when Input (Dietary energy Intake) is equal to Output (Total energy
Expenditure).When energy balance is maintained over a prolonged period, an individual is
considered to be in a steady state.
Positive Energy Balance is the condition in which Intake is greater than Output. Negative Energy
Balance is the condition in which Intake is less than Energy Expenditure

Assignment
1. Define BMR & RMR?
2. Define Energy Balance?
3. What are the factors that affect the BMR?
4. What is the Harris Benedict Equation for calculating BMR?
5. What is PAR?

51
 UNIT-VII

VITAMINS
Definition
A substance can be classified as vitamin if it satisfies 2 criteria:
It must be a vital, organic dietary substance, which is neither a carbohydrate, fat, protein nor mineral
and is necessary in only very small amounts to perform a specific metabolic function.
It cannot be manufactured by the body and therefore must be supplied by the diet.
Vitamins are organic compounds found in food which are essential for growth and maintenance of
life. They are classified into two groups—
1. Fat soluble (Vitamins A, D, E, K)
2. Water soluble (The B complex Vitamins and Vitamin C)
Fat soluble vitamins dissolve in fat before they are absorbed in the blood stream to carry out
their functions. Excesses of these vitamins are stored in the liver and because they are stored, they
are not needed every day in the diet. By contrast, water soluble vitamins dissolve in water and are not
stored. They are eliminated in urine. A continuous supply of water soluble vitamins is required in the
diet.
Introduction
Vitamins participate in many metabolic reactions in the body which take place as food is being
utilized. The fat soluble vitamins act as regulators of specific metabolic activity and the water
soluble vitamins function as coenzymes. Coenzymes combine with a protein to form enzymes which
promote, release and utilize energy. The energy comes from mainly carbohydrate, fat, and protein
respectively but not from the vitamins.
Nearly all foods contain a mixture of vitamins. However, specific foods are known to be very good
sources of some vitamins e.g. citrus fruits contain large amounts of vitamin C, but they also supply
small amounts of other vitamins and minerals. Milk has been advertised as nature’s most perfect food,
but milk supplies virtually no iron or vitamin C.A balanced supply of all vitamins would be available
when the diet consists of a variety of different foods.
The Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) - provide scientific and accurate information on
vitamin requirements.
Vitamins are easily lost from the food sources. Some vitamin loss occurs when the food is harvested.
Modern methods of harvesting, storage, transportation, processing and preparation minimize these
losses. Vitamin loss occurs by oxidation, by light, by heat, by exposure to acids and alkali and by
leaching into water.

52
Food preparation methods to prevent vitamin loss are:
• Peel vegetables and fruits thinly or cook some vegetables with the skin if palatable like small
potatoes, bitter gourd etc
• Cut vegetables into large pieces
• Use minimum amount of water for cooking
• Cook the vegetables with the lid on
• Serve food immediately
• Cook until just tender but not mushy
• Store food covered tightly in refrigerator or freeze

VITAMIN A
Introduction
Vitamin A includes several bioactive compounds known as retinoids as well as precursor forms of the
vitamin (provitamin A) known as carotenoids.
Retinoids (retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid) are preformed vitamin A obtained primarily from foods
of animal origin and are also found in some fortified foods.
Carotenoids are yellow-orange pigments found only in foods of plant origin. The primary and most
effective carotenoid is the beta carotene. Considerable amount of Vitamin A can be stored in the liver
and made available for use as the need arises.
Physiological Functions
Vitamin A is an essential nutrient needed in small amounts by humans for the normal functioning of
the visual system, growth and development and maintenance of epithelial cellular integrity, immune
function and reproduction.
1. Role in visual perception and function: Vitamin A plays a critical role for maintaining normal
vision. Vitamin A deficiency is the leading cause of preventable severe visual impairment and
blindness and the most vulnerable are preschool children and pregnant women. Deficiency of
Vitamin A in the diet leads to impairment in the vision particularly at night or when dark. This is
referred to as ‘night blindness’ when the individual cannot see in dim light. Difficulty in reading
or driving a car in dim light, progresses to inability to see the objects in dim light.
2. Role in growth and cellular differentiation: The growth and differentiation of epithelial
cells throughout the body are especially affected by vitamin A deficiency. These are
generally the tissues that line the openings, skin, and mucous membranes. Classical symptoms of
xerosis (drying or non wetability) and desquamation of dead surface cells as seen in ocular tissue
(Xerophthalmia) are the external evidence of the changes also occurring to various degrees in
internal epithelial tissues.

53
3. Role in immune response: Vitamin A is essential to normal immune function and regulation.
With Vitamin A deficiency there is a decline in mucous secretions and loss of cellular integrity and
this reduces the body’s ability to resist invasion from potentially pathogenic organisms. Pathogens
can also compromise the immune system by directly interfering with the production of some types
of protective secretions and cells.
4. Integrity of epithelial tissues: Vitamin A is essential for the integrity of the mucous secreting
cells. Vitamin A maintains the health of epithelial cells that line internal and external surfaces of
the lungs, intestines, stomach, vagina, urinary tract and bladder, eyes and skin. These cells act as
important barriers to bacteria. Certain epithelial cells secrete mucous to keep the skin, eyes and
other mucous membranes moist. In deficiency, the epithelial tissues are keratinized. The tissues
affected are salivary glands, respiratory tract, eyes, and skin and sex organs.
5. Role as antioxidant: Some carotenoids, in addition to serving as a source of vitamin A are
known to function as antioxidants. Antioxidants protect our cells against the effects of free
radicals. Free radicals can cause cell damage that may contribute to the development of
cardiovascular disease and cancers. Thus, vitamin A and related nutrients may collectively be
important in protecting against conditions related to oxidative stress such as ageing, air pollution,
arthritis, cancer, cardiovascular disease, cataracts, diabetes mellitus and infection.
6. Bone and nerves: Research is being conducted on the role of vitamin A in bone formation and the
association of its deficiency with the degeneration of the myelin sheath.
7. Role in protein metabolism and growth: Severe Vitamin A deficiency interferes with growth.
Hence vitamin A is also called as the growth hormone. Also, absorption and mobilization of
vitamin A is impaired in protein malnutrition.
8. Role in reproduction: Deficiency of vitamin A leads to infertility in males and failure of females
to conceive or abortion of the fetus.
Food Sources of Vitamin A
Palm fruit and red palm oil are the richest source of beta carotene and dark green leafy vegetables,
ripe fruits such as mango, papaya, apricots and yellow/orange vegetables like carrot, pumpkin and
sweet potato are rich in beta carotene.
Although vitamin A requirements are given in mg of retinol equivalents (RE), vitamin A content of
foods appears on the label in International Units (IU). The conversion of IU to retinol equivalents is
made using conversion factors that depend on the source.
1 IU Vitamin A activity = 0.3 mcg retinol
= 0.6 mcg beta carotene
Vitamin A or retinol is found only in foods of animal origin such as milk, cheese, cream, butter, ghee,
egg, fish, kidney and liver, liver oils of fish such as halibut, cod and shark.
Retention of Vitamin A
Vitamin A can be lost from foods during preparation, cooking, or storage. To retain vitamin A:

54
• Serve fruits and vegetables raw whenever possible.
• Keep vegetables and fruits covered and refrigerated during storage.
• Steam vegetables and braise, bake, or broil meats instead of frying. Some vitamin A is lost in the
fat during frying.
• Low fat and skim milk are often fortified with vitamin A because it gets removed from milk along
with the fat. Margarine is fortified to make its vitamin A content the same as butter.
WHO’s goal is the worldwide elimination of Vitamin A Deficiency (VAD) and its tragic
consequences, including blindness, disease and premature death. To successfully combat VAD,
short-term interventions and proper feeding in infancy must be backed up by long- term sustainable
solutions like combination of breastfeeding and vitamin A supplementation, coupled with enduring
solutions, such as the promotion of vitamin A-rich diets and food fortification.
Deficiency of Vitamin A
WHO defines VAD as tissue concentrations of vitamin A low enough to have adverse health
consequences even if there is no evidence of clinical Xeropthalmia. The early stages of vitamin A
deficiency are characterized by impaired dark adaptation that will progress, if uncorrected, to
nyctalopia (night blindness) and xerophthalmia (dryness of the eye) which is characterized by
abnormalities of the conjunctiva and cornea of the eye.
Changes in skin (follicular hyperkeratosis) and salivary
gland atrophy are also noted in early stage deficiency of
the vitamin. The eyes are obvious indicators of vitamin A
deficiency. One of the first symptoms is night blindness;
Other eye indicators of vitamin A deficiency include dry,
itchy, and inflamed eyeballs, Susceptibility to colds, flu,
bacterial and viral infections, especially of the respiratory
and urinary tract. Sinusitis and abscesses in ears and mouth
are also common symptoms, as well as general repeated
infections like acne; rough, dry, scaly, prematurely aged skin, sensitivity to light and reproductive
difficulties.
Other effects of Vitamin A deficiency include impaired wound healing, abnormal skeletal
development in children, and increased risk of infection, particularly of respiratory origin.
Toxicity
Because vitamin A is fat soluble and can be stored, primarily in the liver, routine consumption of
large amounts of vitamin A over a period of time can result in toxic symptoms including liver
damage, bone abnormalities and joint pain, alopecia, headaches, vomiting and skin
desquamation. Symptoms that occur due to intakes in excess of those recommended over a
prolonged period are referred to as symptoms of hypervitaminosis. Hypervitaminosis A appears to
be due to abnormal transport and distribution of vitamin A and retinoids caused by over loading of
the plasma transport mechanisms. Very high single doses can cause transient acute toxic symptoms

55
that may include bulging fontanelles in infants, headaches in older children and adults and vomiting,
diarrhea, loss of appetite and irritability in all age groups. Rarely does toxicity occur from ingestion
of food sources of preformed vitamin A and when it does occur, it usually results from very frequent
consumption of liver products. Toxicity from food sources of provitamin A, chiefly carotenoids is not
reported except for the cosmetic yellowing of skin.
Requirement and Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for Vitamin A
Recommendations for adequate Vitamin A intake are based on the amounts needed to correct night
blindness among Vitamin A deficient subjects and to raise plasma levels in Vitamin A deficient
individuals to a normal level. The intake recommended for pre-schoolers and older children are equal
to that recommended for adult man and woman as this age group has a high prevalence rate of clinical
vitamin A deficiency. RDA for Male is 1000 ug, Females 800 ug, Pregnant 800 ug, Lactating Females
1st to 6 months 1300 ug, 7 to 12 months 1200 ug.

GROUP AGE VITAMIN - A B-CAROTENE

Men 600 4800

Women 600 4800

Pregnant Women 800 6400

Lactating Women 950 7600

Infants 0-6 months 350

6-12 months 350 2100

Children 1-6 yrs 400 3200

7-9 yrs 600 4800

Adolescent 10-17 yrs 600 4800

Assignment
1. What are the food sources of Vitamin A?
2. What is the co-relation between Vitamin A and retinol?
3. What are the best means to retain Vitamin A in the food?
4. List the functions of Vitamin A.
5. List the deficiency symptoms of Vitamin A.

56
 VITAMIN D
Introduction
Vitamin D can either be made in the skin from cholesterol like precursor by exposure to sunlight or
can be provided pre-formed in the diet. The version made in the skin is referred to as Vitamin D3
whereas the dietary form can be either Vitamin D3 or a closely related molecule of plant origin known
as Vitamin D2.

Functions
Vitamin D is required to maintain normal blood levels of calcium and phosphate which are in
turn needed for the normal mineralization of bone, muscle contraction, nerve conduction and general
cellular functions in all cells of the body.
1. Mobilization of bone calcium and phosphorus: Vitamin D3 is metabolized first in the liver
and subsequently in the kidneys to produce a biologically active hormone. The functions of
Vitamin D are mediated by this vital Vitamin D hormone by a homeostatic mechanism which
involves the hormone acting on the intestines, kidney and bone to increase serum calcium
and phosphorus levels. Also intestinal absorption of calcium and phosphate is stimulated and
mobilization of calcium and phosphate occurs by stimulation of bone resorption.
2. Mineralization and formation of new bone: Vitamin D plays a role in the synthesis of a
prominent non collagenous protein found in the bone matrix and dentine and is associated with
new bone formation.
3. Bone growth and development: Vitamin D participates in metabolic processes associated with
bone growth and development. It is involved in calcification of osteoid tissues. Osteoid is a
protein mixture and when it mineralizes, it becomes bone.

57
4. Formation of enzymes: Vitamin D is essential for the formation of enzymes involved in calcium
transport and collagen formation in bone matrix.
5. Regulation of amino acid levels in the blood: Vitamin D helps to prevent loss of amino acids
through the kidney and hence regulates the amino acid level and citric acid level in tissues and
bones.
6. Participation in muscle formation and metabolism: Vitamin D takes part in muscle function
and metabolism.
7. Inhibition of cancer cell proliferation and growth: Vitamin D diminishes spreading of
abnormal intestinal, lymphatic, mammary and skeletal cells and provides a potential for the
treatment of skin diseases such as psoriasis.
8. Role in the immune system: The natural steroid hormone formed in the healthy body as the
biologically active form of Vitamin D helps in the inhibition of immune responses that are
mediated by T cells.
9. Regulation of blood pressure: Adequate Vitamin D levels may be important for decreasing the
risk of high blood pressure.
Importance and Sources of Vitamin D
Vitamin D, also called as the Sunshine Vitamin is easily manufactured in the skin on exposure to
sunlight, regardless of the dietary consumption. It is called the sunshine vitamin because the liver uses
cholesterol to make a vitamin D precursor, which is converted to Vitamin D with the help of the sun’s
ultraviolet rays. The liver alters the molecule and the kidney alters it further to produce the active
form of the vitamin.
This is why diseases affecting either the liver or the kidneys, which in turn upset vitamin production,
may ultimately lead to bone deterioration.
Small amounts are present in dairy products such as milk, cheese, butter, margarine and cream, egg
yolk, liver, oyster and certain varieties of fish.
Retention of Vitamin D
Vitamin D is a stable compound. Neither cooking nor long-term storage significantly reduce vitamin
D levels in food.
Deficiency of Vitamin D
Infants constitute a population at risk for Vitamin D deficiency because of relatively large
vitamin D needs brought about by their high rate of skeletal growth. Breast fed infants are
particularly at risk because of the low concentrations of Vitamin D in human milk. This problem
is further compounded in some infants who are fed human milk by a restriction in exposure to
ultraviolet (UV) light for seasonal, latitudinal, cultural or social reasons.
Dietary absence of Vitamin D or lack of UV (sunlight) exposure causes the bone disease called rickets
in infants / children and osteomalacia in adults.

58
The following characteristics are seen in fully developed cases of rickets
1. In case of young adults, delayed closure of the fontanelles
SIGNS OF RICKETS
i.e. a soft membranous gap between the cranial bones,
Soft spot on baby's
softening and reduced mineralization of the skull head is slow to close.
(craniotabes).
2. While in older infant, sitting and crawling are delayed bony necklace
and there is bossing of skull. Also there are soft,
fragile bones, bow shaped legs, enlargement of the curved bones
costochondral junction (a cartilage that attaches the front
of the ribs to the breastbone) with rows of knobs or beads big lumpy joints

forming the Rachitic Rosary, pigeon chest and spinal bowed legs
(knees bent out)
curvature.
3. Enlargement of wrist, knee (knock knees) and ankle joints.
4. Poorly developed muscles, lack of muscle tone, pot belly being the result of weakness of
abdominal muscles, weakness with delayed walking.
5. Restlessness and nervous irritability
6. Low inorganic blood phosphorus, normal or low serum calcium
7. Tetany characterized by low serum calcium, muscle twitching, cramps and convulsions.
8. Delayed dentition and malformation of the teeth, permanent teeth more subject to decay.
Symptoms of ‘adult rickets’ i.e. Osteomalacia
Osteomalacia occurs when there is a lack of Vitamin D and calcium, in women who have had many
pregnancies, who subsist on a meager cereal diet with little exposure to sunshine.

The following changes are seen:

1. Softening or demineralization of the bones leading to deformities of legs, spine, thorax and pelvis.
2. As the bones soften, weight may cause bowing of the long bones, vertical shortening of the
vertebrae and flattening of pelvic bone.
3. Rheumatic pain in bones of the legs and back.

59
4. General weakness with difficulty in walking.
5. Spontaneous multiple fractures.
6. Normal child birth is difficult due to sacrum and rib deformities.
Toxicity
The adverse effects of high Vitamin D intakes include hypercalciuria (excessive urinary calcium
excretion) and hypercalcaemia (high concentration of calcium in blood).Excessive amounts of
vitamin D are not normally available from Dietary sources, hence cases of vitamin D intoxication
are rare.
Toxicity may occur in individuals on excessive amounts of supplemented vitamins, e.g. drinking milk
fortified with inappropriately high levels of vitamin D3.The signs and symptoms associated with
it are anorexia, nausea and vomiting, followed by polyuria, polydipsia, weakness, nervousness and
pruritis (itchiness).Renal function is also impaired.
Requirement and Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for Vitamin D
Vitamin D is considered more as a pro hormone than as a vitamin. It can be synthesized in the body
in adequate amounts by simple exposure to bright sunlight even for 5 to 15 minutes per day.
Under situations of minimal exposure to sunlight, a specific recommendation of a daily supplement
of 400 I.U is retained.

Assignment
1. List the functions of Vitamin D?
2. Elaborate on the edible sources of Vitamin D?
3. What is the difference between Rickets and Osteomalacia?
4. What are the symptoms of Vitamin D toxicity?
5. Why is Vitamin D called the “Sunshine Vitamin”?

VITAMIN E
Introduction
Vitamin E is known as a vitamin in search of a disease. That’s because Vitamin E is widespread in the
food supply and deficiencies of the nutrient are rare. Despite the rarity of deficiency, however Vitamin
E is one of the most popular vitamin supplements. As the evidence to support the claim of Vitamin E
supplementation is limited, the nutrient should not be self prescribed as a treatment.
Vitamin E is the generic term for tocopherols and tocotrienols. Vitamin E is a powerful antioxidant
that works to protect cells in the body from damage caused by free radicals. Free radicals are highly
reactive substances that result from normal metabolism as well as from exposure to factors in the

60
environment like cigarette smoke and ultraviolet light. They cause damage to body cells by
attacking the cell’s membranes, proteins and DNA and ultimately contribute to the development of
health problems such as heart disease and cancer.
Functions
The main role of Vitamin E and the biological activity of tocopherols are due to its antioxidant
property. This antioxidant property of vitamin E is useful for various body processes and substances.
1. Protection of poly unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) from oxidative damage: The major
biological role of Vitamin E is to protect PUFA and other component of cell membranes and low
density lipoprotein (LDL) from oxidation by free radicals.
2. Protection of erythrocytes: Vitamin E protects erythrocytes from breakdown.
3. Protection of cell membrane: Vitamin E protects the cell membrane from getting damaged from
naturally occurring peroxides and toxic free radicals formed from fatty acids and oxidative tissue
damage.
4. Protection against poisoning: Vitamin E protects liver from injury.
5. Protection of both vitamin A and carotene: It protects vitamin A and carotene from destruction
by oxidation, especially in the alimentary tract, thus sparing the supply of vitamin A available in
the body.
6. Synthesis of enzymes and proteins: It serves as a co-repressor in the synthesis of certain
enzymes and plays a specific role in the synthesis of haem proteins.
7. Protection of mitochondria: It protects the mitochondrial function of the muscles and cardiac
tissue.
8. Reduction of free radical generation: The antioxidant role of vitamin E together with selenium
protects against cardiovascular diseases.
9. Regulation of the enzyme activities: Vitamin E regulates the activity of enzymes.
10. Prevention of diseases: Because of its anti-oxidant function and its role in inhibiting cell
proliferation of smooth muscles, vitamin E can be used for prevention / treatment of diseases.
Epidemiological studies suggest that dietary Vitamin E influences the risk of cardiovascular
disease. It has also been suggested that vitamin E supplementation may be appropriate
therapeutically to moderate some aspects of degenerative diseases.
Sources
Vitamin E is present in almost all foodstuffs. It is found in wheat germ, corn, nuts, seeds, olives,
spinach, asparagus and other green leafy vegetables and vegetable oils like groundnut, soy, cotton
seed and safflower are rich sources. The vitamin E content of edible oils is usually proportional to the
amount of polyunsaturated fatty acid content of the oils.

61
As vitamin E is naturally present in plant based diets (whole grain cereals, dark green leafy
vegetables, pulses, nuts and oilseeds and animal products(such as egg yolk, butter and liver) and is
often added by manufacturers to vegetable oils and processed foods, intakes are probably adequate to
avoid overt deficiency in most situations.
Retention of Vitamin E
Exposure to air and factory processing can be particularly damaging to the vitamin E content of
food. In wheat, for example, where most of the vitamin E is found in the germ layer, commercial
processing removes 50-90% of the food’s vitamin E. To help protect their vitamin E content,
vegetables oils like olive oil, sunflower seed oil, and peanut oil should be kept in tightly capped
containers to avoid unnecessary exposure to air.
Deficiency of Vitamin E
Vitamin E deficiency in human is extremely rare. This may probably be due to its wide occurrence
in natural foods. Evidence of deficiency is seen in individuals with chronic fat malabsorption.
Changes occurring in severe deficiency include disorders of reproduction, abnormalities of muscle,
liver, bone marrow and brain function, defective embryogenesis, increased haemolysis of red blood
cells, skeletal muscle dystrophy may occur , accompanied by cardiomyopathy.
Vitamin E deficiency is also a cause of impaired neuromuscular function and symptoms include poor
reflexes, impaired locomotion, decreased sensation in the hands and feet and changes in the retina.
Muscle and neurological problems are also a consequence of human vitamin E deficiency.
Toxicity
Vitamin E is relatively non toxic. Adults tolerate doses as high as 100 to 1000 IU per day. However
due to indiscriminate ingestion of excessive amounts of vitamin E over long periods of time, adverse
effects occur such as muscle weakness, fatigue, nausea, diarrhea, double vision, elevation of serum
lipids, impaired blood coagulation and reduction of serum thyroid hormones.
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for Vitamin E
The requirements for vitamin E are expressed in terms of tocopherol equivalents (TE) – 8 mg for
females and 10 mg for males.
It has been seen that the adequacy of RDA varies with PUFA content significantly; increased intakes
necessitate larger amounts of vitamin E in the diet.

Assignment
1. Why is the occurrence of Vitamin E deficiency rare?
2. Write a short note on functions of Vitamin E?
3. What are the symptoms of Vitamin E toxicity?

62
 VITAMIN K
Introduction
The “K” in Vitamin K stands for the Danish word koagulation (coagulation or clotting) Vitamin K
is an essential fat soluble micronutrient. Vitamin K is found in nature in two forms – phylloquinone,
found in plants and vitamin K2, also called menaquinone, which can be synthesized by many bacteria.
Vitamin K3, menadione, is a synthetic form of this vitamin which is manmade.
Functions
The functions of vitamin K are both physiological and biochemical. These include:
1. Blood Coagulation: The primary function of vitamin K in the body is in the maintenance of
normal blood coagulation. The vitamin K dependent coagulation proteins are synthesized in the
liver and comprise Prothrombin. Prothrombin is converted to its active form thrombin which in
turn is necessary for the formation of fibrin, a protein that is the basis for a blood clot. Vitamin K
also acts as a cofactor for an enzyme in the liver which undergoes a reaction prior to the active
functioning of prothrombin.
2. Vitamin K dependent carboxylation: Vitamin K acts as a cofactor in the synthesis of
compounds required for the normal coagulation of blood.
3. Vitamin K dependent proteins: Vitamin K is important for certain proteins to function actively.
4. Prevents bone loss: Vitamin K is known to inhibit bone loss.
Sources
In plants, the only important molecular form of Vitamin K is phylloquinone. The highest
values (normally in the range 400 – 700 mg /100 g) are found in green leafy vegetables (such as
spinach, cauliflower, cabbage and lettuce).The next best sources are certain vegetable oils
(e.g. soybean, rapeseed and olive) which contain 50-200 mg/100 g, other vegetable oils such as
peanut, corn, sunflower and safflower however contain much lower amounts of phylloquinone
(1-10 mg/100 g). Other good sources include animal foods such as egg yolk, milk and organ meats
like liver.
Importance of Intestinal Bacterial Synthesis as a source of Vitamin K: Intestinal microflora
synthesizes large amounts of menaquinones which are potentially available as a source of vitamin K.
Retention of Vitamin K
Vitamin K availability varies directly with fat intake and any condition of fat malabsorption reduces
its bioavailability. Cooking has no effect, but addition of fat increases absorption multifold.
Deficiency of Vitamin K
Adults are usually protected from a lack of vitamin K because vitamin K is widely distributed in plant
and animal tissues, the vitamin K cycle conserves the vitamin and microbiological flora of the normal

63
gut synthesizes menaquinones. Also a normal diet contains about 300 to 500 mcg vitamin K daily and
hence supplies at least three times the amount of recommended vitamin K.
Vitamin K deficiency leads to a lowered prothrombin level and increased clotting time and thereby
haemorrhages. Factors leading to vitamin K deficiency are:
1. Marginal Dietary intake if one undergoes trauma and extensive surgery.
2. Inadequate intake of vitamin K by the mother leads to hemorrhagic disease in the newborn with
low prothrombin level.
3. Inadequate intestinal absorption (in diseases of the liver and intestine) leads to deficiency in
adults. Large amounts of vitamin A and E may interfere with the absorption or metabolism of
vitamin K. In severe disease of the liver, the synthesis of the clotting factors is impaired even
though the source of vitamin K is adequate.
The population that is most at risk for vitamin K deficiency are newborn infants and people who have
been injured and have renal insufficiency.
Vitamin K deficiency bleeding (VKDB): This deficiency syndrome is traditionally known as
hemorrhagic disease of the newborn and occurs in infants up to 6 months age. Studies have shown
that the occurrence of disease may be due to exclusive human milk feeding and the failure to give any
vitamin K prophylaxis. Human milk has relatively low concentrations of vitamin K compared with
formula milk.
Toxicity
Vitamin K does not produce any toxic effects in doses (10-20 mg) normally used for the treatment
of subjects suffering from disorders of liver or intestines. Vitamin K administered to premature
infants produce toxicity attributed to increased breakdown of red blood cells (hemolytic anemia),
hyperbilirubinaemia etc
Adults who must pay attention to the amount of Vitamin K in their diet are those who take
anticoagulant drugs designed to prevent the blood from clotting and possibly causing a stroke or heart
attack. People taking such medications are advised to keep their consumption of vitamin K fairly
constant from day to day because large fluctuations can limit the effectiveness of the anticlotting
drugs.
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for Vitamin K
FAO/WHO suggested an RDA of 7.5-1.0 mg alpha tocopherol and 55 mcg of vitamin K/d for
adults.

Assignment
1. Write a short note on functions of Vitamin K?
2. What are the sources of Vitamin K?
3. What are the symptoms of Vitamin K toxicity?

64
 B COMPLEX VITAMINS
THIAMIN (VITAMIN B1 OR ANEURIN)
Introduction
Thiamin is one of the earliest recognized vitamins. It is also called as Vitamin B1 or Aneurin. The
thiamin ingested in food is available in the free form or bound as thiamin phosphate or in a
protein-phosphate complex. The forms are split in the digestive tract, after absorption takes place.
Functions
Thiamin has a key metabolic role in the cellular production of energy, mainly in glucose
metabolism and it helps the body cells convert carbohydrates into energy. Thiamin is also essential for
the functioning of the heart, muscles and nervous system.
1. Regulator of enzyme activity: Thiamin regulates the enzymes involved in carbohydrate
metabolism
2. Coenzyme in enzyme catalyzed reactions: Thiamin functions as the coenzyme TPP (Thiamin
Pyrophosphate) in the metabolism of carbohydrates and branched amino acids.
3. Coenzymes of Thiamin are vital for the nerves and cardiac tissues: These coenzymes are
involved in carbohydrate metabolism. When there is insufficient thiamin, the overall decrease
in carbohydrate metabolism and its interconnection with amino acid metabolism has severe
consequences such as a decrease in the formation of compounds required for neural function.
Thus deficiency in the tissues affects energy metabolism in nervous tissue and cardiac muscle.
4. Role in the conversion of carbohydrate to fats: Thiamin helps in the conversion of
carbohydrate to fat for storage of potential energy.
Sources
Thiamin is present in many food products and depending on the amount of vitamin present, the foods
are categorized as rich, good and fair sources.
Rich Sources: Rice polishings, wheat germ, dried yeast, yeast extract. Although brewers yeast and
wheat germs are rich sources, they do not form an important part of most diets.
Good Sources: Whole cereals, whole wheat, millets, raw and hand pounded or par boiled rice, pulses,
soybean, dried beans, oilseeds and nuts.
Fair Sources: Meat, fish, eggs, milk, vegetables and fruits. The meat group supplies approximately
one fourth of the daily intake of thiamin. The thiamin in egg, a fair source, is concentrated in the yolk.
Although the concentration of thiamin in vegetables and fruits is low, the quantities of these foods
eaten may be such that important contributions are made to the daily total. Milk is likewise a fair
source because of the amounts taken in the daily diet and because milk is not subjected to treatment
other than pasteurization, which does not reduce the thiamin level.

65
Retention of Thiamin
Thiamin is lost in cooking and is depleted by use of coffee, tannin from black teas, nicotine and
alcohol; hence intake of thiamin should be optimal.
Uncooked fishes contain Thiaminase, an enzyme that splits the thiamin molecule, thereby
inactivating it. However this presents no problem, since cooking inactivates thiaminase. Tea and a
few other foods contain compounds that act as thiamin antagonists.
Losses are considerable when rice is washed before cooking and when it is cooked in a large volume
of water that is later drained off. Losses are minimized if rice is cooked in just enough water so that
all of it is absorbed by the grains.
Deficiency of Thiamin
Thiamin deficiency causes the disease Beri Beri in human beings and it has been classically
considered to exist in dry (paralytic) and wet (oedematous) forms.
The early clinical features are anorexia and dyspepsia (indigestion) associated with heaviness and
weakness of the legs. There is tenderness of the calf muscles on pressure with complaints of ‘pins
and needles’, pain and numbness in the legs. The knee jerks are usually sluggish but occasionally
slightly exaggerated. The subjects feel weak and get easily exhausted while working. If not treated,
the subjects may develop polyneuritic beriberi (inflammation of many or all of the peripheral nerves)
Wet Beriberi
Oedema is the important feature in wet beriberi. It develops rapidly and involves the legs, face and
trunk. There is presence of Palpitation and breathlessness. The calf muscles are frequently tense,
slightly swollen and tender on pressure. The veins of the neck are distended and show visible
pulsations. The diastolic blood pressure is low and systolic is high. The pulse is fast and bouncing.
The heart becomes weak and death occurs due to heart failure.
Dry Beriberi
Early symptoms are similar to those found in wet beriberi. The muscles become progressively wasted
and weak and walking becomes difficult. The emaciated person needs the help of sticks to stand and
walk and finally becomes bed ridden. If untreated, the patient will die.
Infantile Beriberi
Beriberi occurs in human milk fed infants whose nursing mothers are deficient. Infantile Beriberi is
commonly seen in many South East Asian countries where the diets consist mostly of ‘polished rice’
and are deficient in thiamin. Two types of Infantile Beriberi are known:
1. Cardiovascular type (Wet): It manifests itself in babies between the ages of 2 and 4 months.
Death may occur in a matter of few hours.
2. Neuritic type (Dry): It is also referred to as Wernicke Korsakoff syndrome or cerebral beriberi.

66
Thiamin deficiency has also been observed in people with chronic alcoholism, patients who are
hyper metabolic, is on parenteral nutrition, is undergoing chronic renal dialysis or has undergone a
gastrectomy.
Treatment: Because beriberi is a complex vitamin deficiency disease, patients make the greatest
improvement when B- complex vitamins, rather than thiamin alone. In addition to the B-complex
concentrates, it is customary to prescribe a diet that is high in protein and calories.
Toxicity
Thiamin toxicity is not a problem as renal clearance of the vitamin is rapid. Adequate daily intake of
thiamin is essential as the body stores of thiamin are low.
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for Thiamin
The requirement for Thiamin increase as the energy expenditure increases, hence thiamin
requirements are expressed as ratios to food energy. As thiamin facilitates energy utilization, its
requirements have been expressed on the basis of energy intake which can vary depending on activity
levels.

Group Sedentary Moderate Heavy

Men 1.2mg/d 1.4mg/d 1.7mg/d

Women 1.0mg/d 1.1mg/d 1.4mg/d

Assignment
1. What are the sources of thiamine?
2. What is the RDA for thiamine for a sedentary Man and Woman?
3. Write a short note on beri- beri?
4. Write minimum five functions of Thiamine?

RIBOFLAVIN (VITAMIN B2)

Introduction
Riboflavin, a water soluble vitamin was discovered in milk as a pigment possessing a yellow
green fluorescence. The name ‘riboflavin’ was given to this vitamin due to its similarity of a part
of its structure to that of the sugar ribose and because of its relation to the general group of flavin
compounds.
Functions
Riboflavin takes part in various metabolic processes and in maintaining good health.

67
1. Precursor of co-enzymes: The major function of riboflavin is to serve as the precursor of certain
coenzymes which are widely distributed in metabolism.
2. Role in respiratory chain: Riboflavin catalyzes numerous oxidation – reduction reactions in the
metabolic pathways and in energy production via the respiratory chain.
3. Drug and lipid metabolism: Flavoproteins catalyze various reactions involved in the drug and
lipid metabolism.
4. Antioxidant activity: Flavoproteins function as precursors to certain coenzymes due to their
powerful antioxidant activity.
5. Protective role: Riboflavin helps in the prevention of lesions of the skin, eye and nervous system.
It also improves cardiac damage and has anti malarial effects.
6. Regulatory function: Riboflavin is also involved with the regulatory functions of some
hormones involved in carbohydrate metabolism.
7. Other functions: Riboflavin interrelates with other B vitamins such as Niacin and Vitamin B6 as
it plays a major role for the formation and conversion of these vitamins into their active forms.
Sources
The food sources of riboflavin include:
Rich Sources: Liver, dried yeast, egg powder, milk powder
Good Sources: Whole cereals, millets, pulses, green leafy vegetables, oilseeds and nuts, meat, fish,
eggs and milk.
Fair Sources: Milled cereals and cereal products, roots and tubers, other vegetables and fruits.
Retention of Vitamin B2
Riboflavin is sensitive to light. It is not stored in the body and a major part is excreted in urine and the
rest is broken down in the tissues.
Because Riboflavin can be destroyed by the ultraviolet rays of the sun or by fluorescent lamps, milk
is usually sold in protective cardboard or opaque plastic containers rather than in transparent glass
bottles.
Deficiency of Vitamin B2
Riboflavin deficiency results in the condition of hypo–or ariboflavinosis, with sore throat,
hyperaemia (condition in which the blood collects in a part of the body), oedema of the pharyngeal
and oral mucous membrane, cheilosis (cracking of the corner of the mouth), angular stomatitis
(inflammation at the corner of the mouth), glossitis (inflammation or the infection of the tongue),
dermatitis and normocytic anaemia. Riboflavin deficiency occurs almost invariably in
combination with a deficiency of other B complex vitamins; hence some of the symptoms like
glossitis and dermatitis may result from other complicating deficiencies.

68
The major cause of hyporiboflavinosis is inadequate dietary intake as a result of limited food
supply, which is sometimes worsened by poor food storage or processing. Riboflavin deficiency
also manifests itself when gastrointestinal infections are prevalent, lactose intolerance, tropical
sprue, celiac disease, malignancy, inborn error of metabolism etc. Also at risk are infants receiving
phototherapy for neonatal jaundice, those with inadequate thyroid hormone and children infected
with hookworm.
Toxicity
Riboflavin toxicity is not a problem because of the limited intestinal absorption of this vitamin.
Recommended Dietary Allowance
Negative nitrogen balance reduces riboflavin requirements and excretion. Physical activity reduces
urinary riboflavin excretion. Hence, the dietary requirement is increased by exercise and increased
physical activity.

Group Sedentary Moderate Heavy

Men 1.4mg/d 1.6mg/d 2.1mg/d

Women 1.1mg/d 1.3mg/d 1.7mg/d

Assignment
1. Write down the functions of Riboflavin.
2. List the sources of riboflavin.
3. Riboflavin is sensitive to light. True or false. Elaborate.
4. What are the deficiency symptoms of Riboflavin?
5. What is the RDAfor a moderate worker – Woman?

NIACIN
(VITAMIN B3/NICOTINAMIDE/NICOTINIC ACID)

Introduction
Nicotinic acid was first isolated from rice polishing and shown to be a component of coenzyme I and
coenzyme II and several transporting enzymes in the tissues.
Functions
Following are the functions of nicotinic acid:
1. Protective role: Nicotinic acid is vital to the normal functioning of the skin, intestinal tract and
nervous system. It protects the tissues from pellagrous lesions.

69
2. Coenzyme activity: Nicotinamide plays an important role in DNA repair, calcium mobilization,
intracellular respiration, fatty acid and steroid synthesis etc
3. Metal chelating ability: This explains its biological interactions with essential trace metals e.g.
it is a part of a complex that may potentiate insulin response in man.
Sources
Niacin is widely distributed in plant and animal foods.
Rich Sources: Dried yeast, rice polishing, peanuts, liver Good Sources: Whole cereals, legumes,
meat and fish
Fair Sources: Milled cereals, maize, roots and tubers, other vegetables, milk and eggs
Although we can prevent Niacin deficiency, by eating a diet rich in Niacin itself, consuming plenty
of protein also staves off the problem. That’s because the essential amino acid tryptophan, which is
a component of protein, can be converted to niacin in the body. In fact, 60 mgs of tryptophan yields
1 mg of Niacin.
Retention of Vitamin B3
Whole cereals are good sources of niacin but the removal of the bran in the milling of wheat
reduces the niacin content of white wheat flour to a low level. Niacin is readily soluble in water, but
it is resistant to heat, oxidation and alkalies. It is one of the most stable vitamins.
Deficiency of Vitamin B3
Niacin (Nicotinic acid) deficiency classically results in Pellagra which is a chronic wasting
disease associated with a characteristic dermatitis that is bilateral and symmetrical, dementia –
after mental changes including insomnia and indifference preceding an obvious encephalopathy and
diarrhoea resulting from inflammation of the intestinal mucous surfaces. The disease is therefore
characterized by 3 D’s – Dermatitis, Diarrhoea and Dementia. It affects the various organs and organ
systems in the following manner:
1. Digestive System: Predominant symptoms are glossitis (inflammation of the tongue) and diarrhea.
Glossitis, Cheilosis (Cracking at the corners of the mouth) and Stomatitis (inflammation of the
mouth) may vary from mild redness, soreness and smoothness of the tongue and mouth to extreme
inflammation with fiery red mucosa and tongue, ulceration and secondary infection of the tongue.
Nausea and vomiting are also seen. Diarrhoea with blood and mucous may range from a few to
several stools a day.
2. Skin: Dermatitis is the characteristic feature of the disease and is symmetrical in distribution.
Bright red, sunburn like erythema occurs over the exposed parts of the body. With improvement,
the skin becomes dry, less red and the surface desquamates. The dermatitis is precipitated with
exposure to sunlight.
3. Nervous System: In acute pellagra, Delirium (confusion) is the most common mental
disturbance. In chronic cases, Dementia is more frequently seen. In mild cases, mental

70
 disturbances consisting of irritability, peripheral neuritis, paralysis, change in disposition,
inability to concentrate and poor memory are more common.
Cases of niacin deficiency have been found in people suffering from Crohn’s disease (inflammatory
disease of GI tract)
Toxicity
Administration of chronic high oral doses of nicotinic acid can lead to hepatotoxicity as well as
dermatologic manifestations.
Recommended Dietary Allowance
Niacin requirements depend on energy utilization, body size and dietary tryptophan.

Group Sedentary Moderate Heavy

Men 16mg/d 18mg/d 21mg/d

Women 12mg/d 14mg/d 16mg/d

Assignment
1. What is the co-relation between Niacin and Protein intake?
2. Which are the three D’s of Pallegra?
3. Though deficient in niacin why is milk considered its fair source?
4. What are the effects of deficiency of niacin on the digestive system?
5. Which GI tract disease can cause Pellagra?

VITAMIN B6 (PYRIDOXINE)

Introduction
Vitamin B6 is also called as Pyridoxine. Vitamin B6 comprises of a triad of closely related
compounds that in free form are called pyridoxine, pyridoxal and pyridoxamine.
Functions
The three different forms of pyridoxine serve as coenzymes to a number of enzymes involved in the
metabolism of amino acids and various other metabolisms.
1. Formation of Amines: Vitamin B6 is vital for the formation of several amines that are functional
in nervous tissue, for the biosynthesis of haem and phosphorylation (addition of phosphate) of
glycogen.
2. Growth purposes: Vitamin B6 is essential for the growth of infants and prevents degeneration of
the nerves.

71
3. Coenzyme activity: Vitamin B6 acts as a coenzyme in various reactions like decarboxylation
(removal of carbon dioxide), conversion of tryptophan to niacin etc. Niacin is not formed in
pyridoxine deficiency.
4. Synthesis of Porphyrin: Vitamin B6 is required for the synthesis of certain intermediate
compounds which are further involved in the synthesis of porphyrin and haem nuclei.
5. Neurohormones: Vitamin B6 is essential for the formation of several neurohormones such as
serotonin etc
6. Anti-atherosclerotic effect: Vitamin B6 deficiency precipitates hypercholesterolemia and
atherosclerosis.
7. Immune Bodies: Vitamin B6 deficiency is associated with impairment in immunity.
Sources
Raw foods contain more of this vitamin than cooked foods.
Rich Sources: Rice polishing, wheat bran, wheat germ, dried yeast and liver
Good Sources: Whole cereals, legumes, nuts and seeds, milk powder, meat, egg, leafy vegetables
Fair Sources: Milled cereals, vegetables and fruits
Retention of Vitamin B6
Long storage, canning, roasting or stewing of meat, food processing techniques, use of alcohol are
destructive to this vitamin.
Deficiency of Vitamin B6
A deficiency of vitamin B6 alone is uncommon because it usually occurs in association with a deficit
in other B complex vitamins. Symptoms start with early biochemical changes including decreased
levels of plasma and urinary Vitamin B6 compounds, followed by decrease in synthesis of some
enzymes required in amino acid metabolism. Hypovitaminosis B6 may often occur with riboflavin
deficiency as riboflavin is needed for the formation of Vitamin B6 compounds.
Infants are especially susceptible to insufficient intakes and this can lead to epileptic form
convulsions, skin changes include dermatitis with cheilosis and glossitis. There is a decrease in
circulating lymphocytes and sometimes a presence of microcytic anaemia.
Vitamin B6 deficiency is also associated with nervous system dysfunction, impairment of the immune
system and it can be a consequence of several medical conditions.
Vitamin B6 and PMS (Pre-Menstrual Syndrome): Some people have claimed that a deficiency of the
Vitamin goes hand in hand with imbalances of hormones (particularly estrogen), which cause the
depression, mood swings and other symptoms characteristic of PMS. Although this theory has never
been proven to be scientifically sound, women have taken megadoses of B6 as much as 2000 times
the RDA in some cases in an effort to treat PMS.

72
Toxicity
Though toxicity related to pyridoxine intake are rare but use of high doses of pyridoxine for the
treatment of pre-menstrual syndrome, carpal tunnel syndrome (compression of a nerve of the wrist
resulting in numbness, tingling, weakness in the hand and fingers) and some neurologic diseases has
resulted in neurotoxicity.
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)
The ICMR 2010 recommendations for individual intake of pyridoxine for adult males and females
are the same – 2.0 mg/day. During increased demands of the body i.e. pregnancy and lactation, the
recommended level of intake is 2.5 mg/day.

Assignment
1. Which are the 3 forms of Vitamin B6?
2. What is the link between Vitamin B6 and Pre Menstrual Syndrome (PMS)?
3. List factors which can destroy Vitamin B6.
4. Pyridoxine toxicity is common. Justify if it’s true or false
5. Deficiency Vitamin B6 occurs commonly with which other vitamin deficiency?

FOLATE (FOLIC ACID)

Introduction
Derived from the word foliage, folate occurs naturally in fresh green, leafy vegetables, but it is easily
lost when foods are overcooked, canned, dehydrated or otherwise processed.
Folate is also called as Vitamin B9 or Vitamin M.
Folic acid refers to the oxidized synthetic compound used in dietary supplements and food
fortification, whereas folate refers to the various tetrahydrofolate derivatives naturally found in food.
Functions
Folate is essential for good health.
1. Important for reactions: Folate requiring reactions include those involved in phases of amino
acid metabolism and DNA biosynthesis.
2. Reduces risk of certain diseases: Folate, specially helps in reducing the risk of heart disease
and stroke by lowering the level of the amino acid homocysteine in the blood. At high levels,
homocysteine can damage coronary arteries or make it easier for blood clotting cells to clump
together and form a clot. This can increase the risk of heart attack or stroke.
3. Important for nerve cells: Methionine enzymes are dependent on folate for their functioning.
One particularly important methylation is that of myelin basic protein which acts as insulation for

73
 nerve cells. When the methylation cycle is interrupted, as it is during Vitamin B12 deficiency, one
of the clinical consequences is the demyelination of nerve cells resulting in a neuropathy which
leads to ataxia (lack of coordination), paralysis and if untreated, ultimately death.
4. Importance during pregnancy: Low blood levels of folate during pregnancy can cause neural
tube defects. People with anaemia or at risk of anaemia should also consume adequate folate.
Sources
Folate occurs naturally in foods. Although folate is found in a wide variety of foods, it is present in
low density except in liver. Diets that contain adequate amounts of fresh green vegetables (in excess
of three servings per day) will be good folate sources.
Rich Sources: Liver, dried yeast, leafy vegetables, wheat germ and rice polishing
Good Sources: Whole cereals, dried legumes (pulses have twice as much folic acid as cereals), nuts,
fresh oranges, green leafy vegetables
Fair Sources: Milled cereals, other vegetables, milk and fruits
Natural folates found in foods are in a conjugated form, which reduces their bioavailability by as
much as 50%. Also, natural folates are much less stable.
Retention of Folate
Considerable folate losses occur during harvesting, storage, distribution and cooking. Folate derived
from animal products is subject to loss during cooking. Fortification of foods such as breakfast cereals
and flour can add significant amounts of folic acid to the diet.
Deficiency of Folate
1. Effect on metabolism: A decrease in dietary folate leads to a reduction in DNA biosynthesis and
cell division. This results in increased susceptibility to infection, a decrease in blood coagulation
and intestinal malabsorption.
2. Effect on pregnancy: Pregnant women are at a higher risk of developing folate deficiency
because of increased demand for folate. In addition to megaloblastic anaemia, inadequate
folate intake is associated with poor pregnancy outcomes. Impaired folate status is associated with
increased risk of pre-term delivery, infant low birth weight and foetal growth retardation.
3. Congenital abnormalities: Folate deficiency is associated with Neural Tube Defects (NTDs).
Between days 21 and 27 post conception, the neural plate closes to form what will eventually be
the spinal cord and cranium. The most common congenital abnormalities associated with folate
deficiency result from improper closure of the spinal cord and cranium.
Incomplete closing of the bony casing around the spinal cord that causes partial paralysis is called
“Spina Bifida” and Anencephaly is a condition in which the major parts of the brain are missing.
Folate status is also related to other birth defects such as cleft lip and palate, limb deficiencies and
defects of the heart.

74
4. Cancer of the colon: Low folate status has been associated with an increased risk of colorectal
cancer (cancerous growth in colon, rectum and appendix)
Toxicity
The possibility of consuming excess dietary intake of natural folate and hence posing a risk of
toxicity has not been proven. This however does not apply to folic acid given in supplements or
fortified foods. The main concern with fortification of high levels of folic acid is the masking of the
diagnosis of pernicious anaemia, because high levels of folic acid correct the anaemia allowing the
neuropathy to progress undiagnosed to a point where it may become irreversible even upon treatment
with Vitamin B12.
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)
The individual requirements of folate for both the sexes recommended by ICMR 2010 are
200 mcg/day which increases in conditions of pregnancy and lactation to 500mcg/day and
300mcg/day respectively.

Assignment
1. What are the different names assigned to Folate?
2. What are the functions of Folate?
3. List the factors which can destroy folate.
4. What is the prescribed intake of folate during child-bearing age?
5. List rich, good & fair sources of folate.
6. What is Neural Tube Defect?
7. What happens in deficiency of folate?
8. How does folate help in reducing heart diseases?

VITAMIN B12 CYANOCOBALAMIN

Introduction
Vitamin B12 is a unique vitamin in human nutrition, since its malabsorption leads to the fatal
syndrome of pernicious and megaloblastic anemia’s. Vitamin B12 is the largest of the B complex
vitamins. It contains cobalt at the center of its structure in the form of a ring. Vitamin B12 is the only
B vitamin our body can store. The average adult body contains 2 to 5 mg of Vitamin B12 with 80
percent of this stored in the liver.
Functions
1. Blood cells: Vitamin B12 is required for the manufacture and normal functioning of blood cells.
2. Metabolism: Vitamin B12 is also essential for the metabolism of fats and carbohydrates and the
synthesis of proteins.

75
3. Folate: Vitamin B12 is essential for the transport and storage of folate in cells and for conversion
to its active form.
4. Bone Marrow: Vitamin B12 is majorly required for the rapidly dividing cells such as those in the
epithelium and bone marrow. It also acts on other bone marrow elements and increases WBC and
platelet count.
5. Health: Vitamin B12 stimulates the appetite and general health of the subject.
6. Pernicious anaemia: Vitamin B12 cures neurological symptoms of pernicious anaemia. It is
involved in the manufacture of the myelin sheath, a fatty layer which insulates nerves.
7. DNA: It is necessary for the production of nucleic acids which make up DNA, the genetic
material of the cell.
8. Coenzyme: It functions as a coenzyme for many reactions
Sources
Vitamin B12 is mostly found in foods of animal origin but is not generally present in plant products.
Rich Sources: Liver (goat, sheep, ox, pig)
Good Sources: Meat, fish, egg, kidney, brain
Fair Sources: Fresh milk, milk powder and cheese
Most microorganisms, including bacteria and algae, synthesize Vitamin B12 and they constitute
the only source of the vitamin. The Vitamin B12 synthesized in microorganisms enters the human
food chain through incorporation into food of animal origin. In many animals, gastrointestinal
fermentation supports the growth of these vitamin B12 synthesizing microorganisms and
subsequently the vitamin is absorbed and incorporated into the animal tissues. This is true for the
liver, where Vitamin B12 is stored in large concentrations. Products from herbivorous animals, such
as milk, meat and egg, thus constitute important dietary sources of the vitamin. Humans therefore
derive dietary Vitamin B12 almost exclusively from animal tissues or products (milk, butter, cheese,
eggs, meat, and poultry) .Vegetarians are advised to increase their milk intake or take Vitamin B12 as
a supplement.
Retention of Vitamin B12
Factors that destroy this vitamin are sunlight, alcohol and oestrogen –the female hormone. Calcium
and protein rich foods greatly help the absorption of this vitamin in the intestine.
Deficiency of Vitamin B12
The most important condition resulting in Vitamin B12 malabsorption is the autoimmune
disease called pernicious anaemia. This may occurs either due to lack of production of intrinsic
factor or due to lack of binding of Vitamin B12.The principal signs and symptoms of pernicious
anaemia are:

76
Blood: The RBC count is low, abnormal circulating red cells undergo excessive destruction with a
consequent increase in the serum bilirubin content. The haemoglobin content is low.
Bone marrow: The overacting bone marrow in pernicious anaemia shows megaloblastic hyperplasia
(increase in number)
Stomach: The cells which secrete acid and enzymes are atrophied (malnourished)
Nervous System: Parasthesia (numbness and tingling) occurs in fingers and toes. Occasionally, there
are objective signs of involvement of the spinal cord (Vitamin B12 neuropathy)

Vitamin B12 deficiency in Vegetarians

Because plants do not synthesize Vitamin B12, individuals who consume diets completely free
of animal products (Vegan diets) are at risk of Vitamin B12 deficiency. This is not true of lacto - ovo
vegetarians, who consume the vitamin through eggs, milk and other dairy products.
Persons living exclusively on vegetarian diets (vegans) have low serum levels of Vitamin B12 and
develop specific symptoms such as sore tongue, parasthesia and signs of degeneration of the of the
long tracts of the spinal cord as a result of low intakes of Vitamin B12.
Vitamin B12 deficiency in the Elderly
An estimated 20% of seniors in their sixties and 40% of those in their eighties develop “Atrophic
Gastritis”, an age related condition characterized by the stomach’s inability to produce enough acid,

77
which in turn hampers the body’s ability to use Vitamin B12. In severe cases, the condition also
limits the stomach’s inability to make Intrinsic Factor. Vitamin B12 deficiencies resulting from atrophic
gastritis appear to be easily treated with Vitamin B12 supplements or injections.
Toxicity
Intake of 1000 mcg Vitamin B12 has never been reported to have any side effects. Similar large
amounts have been used in some preparations of nutritional supplements without apparent ill
effects. Such high intakes represent no benefit in those without malabsorption and should probably
be avoided.
Recommended Dietary Allowance
Vitamin B12 deficiency is common in true Vegans who can be treated with small doses since the
daily requirement is only 1.0 mcg/day. The requirements increase in pregnancy by 1.2mcg/day and in
lactation by 1.5 mcg / day.

Assignment
1. What are the functions of Vitamin B12?
2. Elaborate on Vitamin B12 deficiency in the Elderly.
3. What are the food sources of Vitamin B12?
4. What are the deficiency symptoms of Vitamin B12?
5. What is the RDAof Vit B12 for a lactating mother?
6. Which factors can destroy Vitamin B12?

BIOTIN
Function
Biotin, a water-soluble B vitamin, acts as a coenzyme during the metabolism of protein, fats, and
carbohydrates.
Sources
Good dietary sources of biotin include organ meats, oatmeal, egg yolk, soy, mushrooms, bananas,
peanuts, and brewer’s yeast. Bacteria in the intestine produce significant amounts of biotin, which is
probably available for absorption and use by the body.
Deficiency of Biotin
Certain rare inborn diseases can leave people with depletion of biotin due to the inability to
metabolize the vitamin normally. A dietary deficiency of biotin, however, is quite uncommon, even

78
in those consuming a diet low in this B vitamin. Nonetheless, if someone eats large quantities of raw
egg whites, a biotin deficiency can develop, because a protein in the raw egg white inhibits the
absorption of biotin. Cooked eggs do not present this problem. Long-term antibiotic use can
interfere with biotin production in the intestine and increase the risk of deficiency symptoms, such as
dermatitis, depression, hair loss, anaemia, and nausea. Long-term use of anti-seizure medications may
also lead to biotin deficiency. Alcoholics, people with inflammatory bowel disease, and those with
diseases of the stomach have been reported to show evidence of poor biotin status.
Toxicity
Excess intake of biotin is excreted in the urine; no toxicity symptoms have been reported.

Assignment
1. What happens if we eat raw eggs?
2. What are the good sources of Biotin?
3. List the functions of Biotin.
4. Which factors can cause Biotin deficiency?
5. What are the symptoms of Biotin deficiency?

PANTOTHENIC ACID
Function
Pantothenic acid, sometimes called vitamin B5, is involved in the Krebs cycle of energy
production and is needed to make the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. It is also essential in
producing, transporting, and releasing energy from fats. Synthesis of cholesterol (needed for
vitamin D and hormone synthesis) depends on pantothenic acid. Pantothenic acid also activates the
adrenal glands. Pantethine, a variation of pantothenic acid has been reported to lower blood levels of
cholesterol and triglycerides.
Sources
Liver, yeast, and salmon have high levels of pantothenic acid, but most other foods, including
vegetables, dairy, eggs, grains, and meat also provide some pantothenic acid.
Deficiency of Pantothenic Acid
With Vitamin B5 in short supply symptoms like fatigue, headaches, nausea, tingling in the hands,
depression, personality changes and cardiac instability have been reported. Frequent infection,
fatigue, abdominal pains, sleep disturbances and neurological disorders including numbness,
paresthesia (abnormal sensation such as “burning feet” syndrome), muscle weakness and cramps are
also possible indications that this nutrient is in short supply. Biochemical changes include increased
insulin sensitivity, lowered blood cholesterol and decreased serum potassium.

79
Toxicity
Toxicity has not been reported at supplemental doses. Very large amounts of pantothenic acid
(10 gm per day) can cause diarrhea.

Assignment
1. Which type of pantothenic acid has been reported to lower blood levels of cholesterol and
triglycerides?
2. What are the good sources of Pantothenic Acid?
3. List the functions of pantothenic acid.
4. What are the symptoms of its deficiency?
5. What amount of pantothenic acid taken in a day can cause diarrhoea, indicating its toxicity?

VITAMIN C (ASCORBIC ACID)

Introduction
Vitamin C is also known as ascorbic acid. Humans are unable to synthesize Vitamin C. Hence,
when there is insufficient Vitamin C in the diet, humans suffer from the potentially deadly deficiency
disease – Scurvy.
Functions
Vitamin C is involved in several physiological and biological functions in the body.
1. Enzyme function: Vitamin C plays a major role in the functioning of certain enzymes required
for various metabolisms.
2. Protective role as an antioxidant: Vitamin C acts as a powerful antioxidant.
3. Synthesis of hormones: Vitamin C provides stability to hormones such as thyrotropin releasing
hormone, oxytocin etc
4. Formation of collagen and inter cellular cement substance: The vitamin is required in the
formation of collagen and in the formation of intercellular cement substances for capillaries, teeth,
bones etc. These tissues are not formed fully when there is Vitamin C deficiency.
5. Absorption of iron: A common feature of Vitamin C deficiency is anaemia. The antioxidant
properties of vitamin C may stabilize folate in food and in plasma. Vitamin C promotes absorption
of one form of iron. The amount of dietary vitamin C required to increase iron absorption exceeds
25 mg and is dependent largely on the amount of inhibitors present in the meal e.g. phytates.
6. Reduced cancer risk: Epidemiological studies indicate that diets with high vitamin C content
have been associated with lower cancer risk, especially for cancers of the oral cavity, oesophagus,
stomach, colon and lung.

80
7. Bone formation: Vitamin C is vital for bone formation. In vitamin C deficiency, formation of
bone matrix and ground substance is defective though calcification is unaffected.
8. Wound Healing: Vitamin C deficiency delays wound healing as collagen formation is affected
and rapid wound healing requires the formation of strong connective tissue on the scar.
9. Cholesterol metabolism: Vitamin C plays a protective role in diseases resulting from
atherosclerosis through its effect on cholesterol metabolism.
Sources
Rich Sources: Amla and guava
Good Sources: Drumstick leaves, other leafy vegetables and fruits such as berries, pine apple and
tomatoes.
Fair Sources: Apples, banana and grapes
Citrus fruits and juices are particularly rich sources of vitamin C but other fruits including
cherries, kiwi fruits, mangoes, papaya, strawberries, tomatoes and water melon also contain
variable amounts of vitamin C. Vegetables such as cabbage, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, bean sprouts,
cauliflower, mustard greens, red and green peppers, peas and potatoes may be more important sources
of vitamin C than fruits.
Retention of Vitamin C
The vitamin C content of food is strongly influenced by season, transport to market, length of time on
the shelf and in storage, cooking practices and the chlorination of water used in cooking. Heating and
exposure to copper or iron or to mildly alkaline conditions destroys the vitamin and too much water
can leach it from the tissues during cooking. Blanching and lowering the pH (making it acidic) helps
to retain vitamin C whereas cutting or bruising the produce leads to loss of vitamin C.
Deficiency of Vitamin C
Severe Vitamin C deficiency results in the development of Scurvy. There are three manifestations of
Scurvy – Gingival changes, pain in the extremities and hemorrhagic manifestations precede edema,
ulcerations and ultimately death. The disease occurs in adults and infants.
In infantile scurvy, the changes are mainly at the sites of most active bone growth. There is extreme
pain on movement and the presence of swelling and hemorrhages of the gums surrounding erupting
teeth.
Symptoms of scurvy in adults include
1. General weakness: The first symptoms are weakness, easy fatigue and listlessness. These
are followed quickly by shortness of breath, pain in bones, joints and muscles of the
extremities.

81
2. Swollen and tender joints and hemorrhage in various tissues: Hemorrhages occur deep in
muscle, particularly in calf, thigh, buttocks and forearm, causing pain in surrounding tissue.
Hemorrhages may also occur in joints, causing swelling and pain.
3. Bleeding gums and loose teeth: As Vitamin C deficiency advances, the gums become swollen,
blue red, spongy and very friable. They may become infected by bacteria and the teeth loosen in
the bone.
The populations at risk of Vitamin C deficiency are those for whom the fruit and vegetable supply is
minimal. Epidemics of scurvy are associated with famine and war, when people are forced to become
refugees and food supply is small and irregular.
Toxicity
Excessive doses of supplemental vitamin C cause potential toxicity due to intra intestinal events
and to the effects of metabolites in the urinary system. Intakes of 2-3 g/day of vitamin C produce
unpleasant diarrhea due to the unabsorbed vitamin in the intestinal lumen in most people.
Further Oxalate is an end product of Vitamin C catabolism and plays an important role in Kidney
stone formation.
Vitamin C may also precipitate haemolysis in some people.
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for Vitamin C
The ICMR recommendation is 40 mg /day for both adult males and females. The requirements
increased to 60mg/day in pregnancy and 80mg/day in case of lactation.

Assignment
1. List the rich sources of vitamin C.
2. What is the RDA for Vitamin C for an adult Man and a pregnant lady
3. What are the deficiency symptoms of Vitamin C?

82
 UNIT-VIII

MINERALS
Introduction
Humans require several mineral elements for optimal functioning. These mineral elements are
broadly divided into two classes’ i.e. macro & micro minerals. Macro minerals also referred to as
major minerals are distinguished from micro minerals by their occurrence in the body. Thus macro
minerals constitute at least 0.01% of the total body weight or occur in minimum quantity of 5g in a 60
kg body. They are required in amounts greater than 100 mg per day. On the other hand, requirement
of micro minerals varies from a few milligrams to micrograms per day.
Functions
Different minerals perform their own respective specialized functions & have a variety of role to
perform. The varied functions of minerals can be grouped under four general physiologic roles viz:
1. Structural: They form an integral part of structures such as the bones/skeleton, blood etc.
2. Catalytic: Certain minerals are required as constituents of enzymes, co enzymes in various
metabolic pathways.
3. Cellular: Some are necessary for membrane stability, as well as, inter & intra cellular transport
mechanisms.
4. Others: They play an important role in muscle contraction, nerve transmission etc.
Macro minerals largely perform structural functions e.g. 99% of body calcium, 85% of
phosphorus and 50-60% of magnesium is in the bone & is calcified tissue. Besides this,
phosphorus is an important component of phospholipids & phosphoproteins that form important
structural component of cell membranes. Some macro minerals, in addition to their structural role,
are involved in catalytic function e.g. magnesium exerts catalytic & regulatory role in number of
biochemical reactions. Calcium functions as a messenger in signal transduction in nerve & muscle
cells. Phosphorus is involved in the regulation of enzymes.
Micro minerals are found in small quantities (parts per million or parts per billion) in tissues
& cells function primarily as a part of enzymes. They are present at the active site or are
regulators of enzymatic activity. As component of enzymes, they often participate in redox
reactions (i.e. oxidation/reduction reactions) and function as the electron carrier. Metalloproteins and
metalloenzymes containing iron (Fe), selenium (Se), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn) function in a
variety of redox and respiratory chain enzymes and proteins. Certain micro minerals provide binding
sites for the enzyme-substrate combination e.g. zinc.
A major portion of the iron in the body is present in haemoglobin, and a smaller proportion as
component of several enzymes. Similarly, zinc besides its catalytic role exerts a structural role in
protein synthesis. Particularly as zinc finger protein which is involved in gene transcription.

83
Although macro minerals are mainly involved in structural role while micro elements are involved in
catalytic role, there seems to be some overlap, for some minerals.
Absorption and Metabolism of minerals: All minerals in the diet are not equally absorbed.
Also different compounds and complexes of same mineral are absorbed with different degree of
efficiency. The fraction of the dietary intake of minerals absorbed and utilized for specific functions
is defined as the bioavailability of the minerals. In addition to the chemical form in which minerals
are present in the diet, factors such as age, sex, general health, and other constituents of the diet affect
bioavailability of minerals.
Upon absorption across the intestinal mucosa, minerals enter their metabolic pool. They are
transported in the blood by specific transport protein(s) to their storage site or to the active
physiologic/biochemical site.
The physiologic effects of minerals depend on the level of intake. There is a range of intake, known
as safe and adequate range which provides optimal function. If the intake is progressively below this
range there is a gradual decrease in the respective function of minerals until overt signs of deficiency
appear. On the other hand, when the intake exceeds the upper limit of safety (i.e. upper tolerable limit)
signs of toxicity begin to appear. In fact, all the essential minerals are toxic if consumed in excess;
however the concentration at which toxicity occurs varies widely as long as a mixed diet is the only
source of minerals, and toxicity is most unlikely to occur.

CALCIUM
Introduction
Among minerals, calcium (Ca) is the most abundantly present in humans, representing 52% of the
body’s mineral content and amounting to 1.2% of body weight.
In the elementary composition of the human body, calcium ranks fifth after oxygen, carbon, hydrogen
and nitrogen, and it makes up 1.9% of the body by weight. Nearly all (99%) of total body calcium is
located in the skeleton. The remaining 1% is equally distributed between the teeth and soft tissues,
with only 0.1% in the extra cellular fluid (ECF).
Functions
Calcium salts provide rigidity to the skeleton and calcium ions play a role in many metabolic
processes.
Mineralization of bones: Bone is a unique living tissue as it is rigid and strong and at the same time
light enough to be moved by coordinated muscle contractions.
Two-third of the weight of bones is due to minerals and the remaining one-third is due to water
and collagen. Bone is continuously resorbed (dissolved) and formed through out life and there are
three major types of bone cells that play an important role in this process. The osteoblasts are actively
involved in the synthesis of matrix components of bones (i.e. collagen) and in the transport of calcium

84
and phosphate involved in the mineralization of collagen crucial to bone formation. Once the protein
matrix is laid down and mineralization begins; the osteoblasts are transformed into osteocytes, the
second type of bone cells. The main function of the osteocytes is to translocate the minerals from
surface to in and out of the bone until the bone formation is complete. The third type of cells,
osteoclasts have all the enzymatic components which when secreted will solubilize the matrix and
release all the calcium and phosphorus that are added to the blood, travelling via the ECF.
In children and adolescents, skeletal turnover occurs such that formation of bone exceeds
resorption. Ca accumulates in the skeleton at an average rate of 150 mg/day. In adulthood,
skeleton turn over continues such that activities of osteoblasts and osteoclasts are in balance. From 50
years in men and from menopause in women, bone balance becomes negative.
Other functions
1. Clotting of blood
2. Nerve conduction
3. Muscle contraction
4. Enzyme regulation
5. Membrane permeability
Our body requires considerable quantities of calcium in order to create and maintain skeletal
structures and perform other important functions such as clotting of blood. Adequate intake of
calcium is this important to maintain a good physiological status.
Food Sources
Dairy products are the primary sources of calcium followed by grains and pulses. Among the millets,
ragi contains substantial amount of calcium. The bio-availability of calcium from different dietary
sources is variable e.g. Phytates in whole grain cereals inhibit calcium absorption. Fermentation, on
the hand, reduces phytate content and improves calcium absorption.
Factors Affecting Calcium Absorption
The amount of calcium that we eat need not to be the amount of calcium that gets absorbed. The
difference between the two is primarily due to certain factors which may hinder/enhance the
absorption or bioavailability of calcium. Thus, the bioavailability of calcium can be defined as
the fraction of dietary calcium that is potentially absorbable by the intestine and can be used for
physiological functions, particularly bone mineralization or to limit bone loss. Lower the intake,
higher the percentage of calcium absorbed.
Age is the factor which influences the absorption of calcium. Fractional absorption of calcium is
highest in infancy i.e. 60%, followed by the early pubertal period.
Several dietary constituents have effects on calcium absorption. The differences in fractional
absorption from different foods can be partly explained by their constituents. Calcium is poorly
absorbed from foods that are rich in oxalic acid or phytic acid. Phytates, present in the husk of many

85
cereals, as well as, in nuts, seeds, and legumes, can form insoluble calcium phytates salts in the
gastrointestinal tract. Excess oxalates can precipitate calcium in the bowel. In comparison to calcium
absorption from milk, calcium absorption from phytic acid rich grains is one half and from spinach it
is only one tenth. This is so because spinach is high in oxalic acid. Among the dietary factors, which
increase calcium absorption, lactose is prominent. In fact all metabolizable sugars have shown to
increase absorption.
Calcium Supplements: Calcium supplements are universally recommended for post menopausal
women. When taken with a meal, the absorption is greatest when calcium is taken in doses of 500 mg
or less.
Deficiency
Dietary calcium intake above or below the requirements can result in the eruption of several signs of
deficiencies and excess.
If there is continued inadequate intake or poor intestinal absorption of calcium, plasma calcium
concentrations will be maintained from increased bone resorption. The cumulative effect of calcium
depletion on the skeleton over many years contributes to the increasing frequency of fractures with
age. Prolonged inadequate calcium intake in young growing children will reduce the rate of growth
of the skeleton and may prevent the attainment of the genetically determined maximal bone mass. In
extreme cases, Ca deficiency can give rise to rickets in children.
Calcium and Osteoporosis: Gain in bone mass occurs throughout childhood; however, during
adolescent growth spurt, the gain in bone mass, as well as, calcium retention is accelerated two to
three times more than at younger ages in both boys and girls. The bone mineral content continues to
increase beyond the growth spurt into the middle of the third decade.
Research shows that increased calcium intakes in children beyond their habitual intakes could
increase bone mineral density. The other factor of importance contributing to increased bone mineral
density and peak bone mass is weight bearing exercise. The current recommendations in fact focus on
adequate dietary calcium intakes and exercise to promote acquiring of peak bone mass and density.
Accelerated bone loss occurs earlier in women than in men as decreased oestrogen production in
menopause is associated with accelerated bone loss in women, estimated at 3% per year in the first
five years after menopause. Supplements of calcium can have beneficial effect in slowing the rate
of bone loss in post menopausal women. Women with calcium intakes below 400 mg per day may
benefit by increasing their dietary intakes or by taking supplements of calcium. The other nutrient in
relation to calcium absorption and bone mineral density is Vitamin D.
Calcium and Hypertension: Chronic inadequate intake of calcium may play some role in etiologies
of hypertension. Calcium deficiency has been linked to hypertension.
Research has shown an inverse relationship between Ca intake and blood pressure. Ca
supplementation (medium intake 1g of Ca) resulted in reduction in systolic blood pressure in selected
hypertensive patients. People who appear to benefit from calcium therapy are those who have low
calcium intakes.

86
A positive calcium balance is required throughout growth, particularly during the first two years of
life and during puberty and adolescence. These age groups therefore constitute populations at-risk
for calcium deficiency, as do pregnant women (especially in last trimester), lactating women, post
menopausal women and possibly, elderly men.
Calcium Toxicity
Elevated blood calcium can occur in association with high parathyroid hormone, hyper or
hypothyroid conditions, and bone metastasis, Vitamin D toxicity, excess intake or absorption of
calcium etc. High blood calcium may be asymptomatic or can cause constipation, nausea and
vomiting, increased urination, thirst, muscle weakness, kidney failure, irritability, confusion,
psychosis and coma. Since the efficiency of absorption from large doses is poor, no adverse effects
have been found with calcium supplements providing up to 2400mg/day. However, at such high
levels, iron absorption is reduced and risk of iron deficiency increases. Supplements of calcium do
not carry the risk for renal stones in normal individuals but can increase the risk in patients with renal
hypercalciuria. Dietary calcium may protect against renal calculi because it binds dietary oxalate and
reduces oxalate excretion.
Toxic effects of high calcium occur when the calcium is given as the carbonate form in very high
doses; this toxicity is caused as much by the alkali as by the calcium and is due to precipitation of
calcium salts in renal tissue (milk-alkali syndrome). However, in practice, an upper limit on calcium
intake of 3 g is recommended by the FAO/WHO 2004.
Dietary Calcium Requirements
Requirements for calcium depend upon the rate at which calcium is incorporated into bone. It is hence
highest during periods of growth especially during infancy and adolescence and fall after peak bone
mass is achieved at about 25 years of age.
Calcium requirement is 600 mg/d for both sexes and during pregnancy and lactation its 1200mg/day.
Assignment
1. What are the food sources of Calcium?
2. Write the functions of calcium.
3. Explain the role of Vitamin D in calcium absorption.
4. Which hormones regulate Calcium absorption?
5. What are the factors that affect calcium absorption.

PHOSPHORUS
Introduction:
Phosphorus is the second most abundant element in the human body, comprising 30% of the total
mineral content. An adult human body contains approximately 600g of phosphorus. Most phosphorus
like Ca is stored in the bone and teeth. The remaining 15% is distributed in soft tissues.

87
Functions
Distribution of phosphorus in body clearly explains that it functions as a structural component, as well
as, has a role in metabolic reactions. Also both organic and inorganic forms are important.
1. Inorganic phosphorus: The major functions of inorganic phosphorus include:
a. Structural component of bones and teeth
b. Acid base balance: Within cells, phosphate is the main intracellular buffer.
Organic Phosphorus: It is involved in the following reactions/components:
2.
a. Structural functions of nucleic acids: It is important component of DNA& RNA.
b. Component of cell membrane
c. Component of coenzymes like NADP.
d. Phosphorus is of vital importance in intermediary metabolism of the energy nutrients
contributing to temporary storage and transfer of energy in the form of ATP.
e. Many enzymatic activities are controlled by alternating phosphorylation of
dephosphorylation.
Calcium, phosphate metabolism is also regulated by three hormones. These include:
• Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
• 1, 25 dihydroxyvitamin D (1, 25-(OH)2 D3) and
• Calcitonin
The PTH exerts its regulation primarily by way of the kidney. When respiration of bones occurs,
under the influence of increased PTH, the calcium is added to the blood while the phosphates are
excreted in the urine.
Vitamin D stimulates intestinal absorption and enhances bone resorption. The increase in calcium
mediated by Vitamin D3 suppresses PTH secretion and enhances phosphate reabsorption.
Sources
Phosphorus is widely distributed in food. Food phosphorus is a mixture of both organic and
inorganic forms although the relative amounts vary with the type of food. Both animal and plant foods
are important sources and include meat, fish poultry, egg milk and its products, nuts, legumes and
cereals. 80% of phosphorus in grains is bound with phytic acid. In milk, 33% is in the inorganic form.
Deficiency
Inadequate phosphorus intake results in abnormally low serum phosphate levels (hypophosphatemia).
The effects of hyphosphatemia may include loss of appetite, anaemia, muscle weakness, bone pain,
rickets (in children), osteomalacia (in adults), increased susceptibility to infection, numbness and
tingling of the extremities, and difficulty in walking. Severe hypophosphatemia may result in death.
Because phosphorus is so widespread in food, dietary phosphorus deficiency is usually seen only
in cases of near total starvation. Other individuals at risk of hypophosphatemia include alcoholics,

88
diabetics recovering from an episode of diabetic ketoacidosis and starving or anorexic patients on
refeeding regimens that are high in calories but too low in phosphorus.
Toxicity
The most serious adverse effect of abnormally elevated blood levels of phosphate (hyper-
phosphatemia) is the calcification of non skeleton tissues, most commonly the kidneys. Such
calcium phosphate deposition can lead to organ damage, especially kidney damage. Because the
kidneys are very efficient at eliminating excess phosphate from the circulation, hyperphosphatemia
from dietary causes is a problem mainly in people with kidney failure (end stage renal disease) or
hypoparathyroidism. When kidney function is only 20% of normal, even typical levels of dietary
phosphorus may lead to hyperphosphatemia.
Phosphorus and Carbonated drinks: People who regularly consume carbonated beverages also have
high phosphorus intakes because they contain phosphoric acid. However when soft drinks replace
milk in the diet, fracture risks increase, especially for girls and women.
Dietary requirements
Phosphate requirements are fully met usually when diets provide adequate calcium as these two
minerals generally occur together in foods.
However, situations may develop when the phosphate levels in blood and other tissues may increase
or decrease beyond normal levels. Such disturbances in the phosphorus levels may develop with or
without any effects in the calcium metabolism.

Assignment
1. What are the Functions of Phosphorus?
2. Write name of the Hormones regulating phosphorus
3. Explain Relationship of phosphorus with calcium.
4. What is PTH?

MAGNESIUM
Introduction
Magnesium (Mg) ranks fourth in overall abundance in body. It is also the least abundant among
macro minerals, the total amount in the body being 25g. Like Ca and P, this mineral is also present
in the bones. Only 55-60% of the total magnesium is located in the skeleton. Another 20-25% is
found in muscles with remaining in other soft tissues. Only 1% of the total body magnesium is extra
cellular. Magnesium is closely associated with cells and is the 2nd most abundant mineral in cells
after potassium.
Functions
Where calcium stimulates the muscles, magnesium is used to relax the muscles. It is further needed
for cellular metabolism and the production of energy through its help with enzyme activity.

89
It is used for muscle tone of the heart and assists in controlling blood pressure.
Like Ca, Mg too has a role in bone formation. Soft tissue magnesium functions as a cofactor of
many enzymes involved in energy metabolism, protein synthesis, RNA and DNA synthesis and
maintenance of the electrical potential of nervous tissues and cell membranes.
Magnesium plays an important role in the metabolism of calcium and in regulating potassium
fluctuations.
Magnesium assists the parathyroid gland to process vitamin D
Sources
Magnesium is widely distributed in variety of foods and beverages. In plants, it is associated
with chlorophyll. Thus green leafy vegetables are excellent sources of magnesium. Most green
vegetables, legume seeds, beans, tea, coffee, cocoa and nuts are rich in magnesium as are some
shellfish, spices and soya flour, all of which usually contain more than 500 mg/kg fresh weight.
Although most unrefined cereal grains are reasonable sources, many highly refined flours, tubers,
fruits and most oils and fats contribute little dietary magnesium (<100 mg/kg fresh weight). Corn
flour, cassava and sago flour, and polished rice flour have extremely low magnesium contents.
Refining of whole cereals can reduce the magnesium content considerable upto 80%.
Deficiency
Deficiency of magnesium is rare for two reasons: firstly, the mineral is widely distributed in the foods;
secondly kidney is able to adjust re-absorption of filtered magnesium to body needs. However, Mg
depletion occurs in various conditions, which either impair its intestinal absorption or increase its
urinary excretion.
A decline in urinary magnesium excretion during protein energy malnutrition (PEM) is accompanied
by a reduced intestinal absorption of magnesium. The catch up growth associated with recovery from
PEM is achieved only if magnesium supply is increased substantially. Most of the early pathological
consequences of depletion are neurologic or neuromuscular defects, some of which probably reflect
the influence of magnesium on potassium flux within tissues. Thus a decline in magnesium status
produces anorexia, nausea, muscular weakness, lethargy, staggering and if deficiency is prolonged,
weight loss. Progressively increasing with the severity and duration of depletion are manifestations
of hyperirritability, hyperexcitability, muscular spasms, and tetany leading ultimately to convulsions.
Decreased Mg status has been suggested as a factor contributing to the pathogenesis of several
chronic diseases. Both dysrhythmias and myocardial ischemia have been attributed to low Mg
intakes. Hypomagnesaemia in diabetes may be one of the risk factors in the development of diabetic
retinopathy.
Toxicity
Excessive intake of Mg is not likely to cause toxicity except in people with impaired renal function.
Excessive intakes of Mg salts can lead to diarrhoea.

90
Dietary requirements
Since plant foods are particularly high in magnesium, on a vegetarian diet with plenty of green
vegetables, it is unlikely that Mg deficiency will occur. ICMR 2010 recommends 340 mg/day and
310 mg magnesium per day for adult males and females, respectively.

Assignment
1. List the sources of magnesium in our diet.
2. Write about function of magnesium as co-factor of many enzymes.
3. Why is the deficiency of magnesium rare?
4. Why catch up growth associated with recovery from PEM is achieved only if magnesium supply
is increased substantially?

IRON
Introduction
Total Body Iron – In humans, total quantity of iron in the body varies with hemoglobin concentration,
body weight, gender and the amount of iron stored in various tissues.
The amount of storage iron shall depend upon the dietary iron consumed and its bioavailability.
Functions
Iron participates in a large number of biochemical reactions. However, for iron to perform any
function, it first needs to be taken up by the cells.
When intracellular iron is scarce, cell needs to increase its iron concentration. This is achieved by
gaining plasma iron and mobilization of storage iron. Also there is a need to prioritize utilization of
iron so that iron is preferentially available for the synthesis of life sustaining iron containing proteins.
Therefore, whenever the intracellular iron concentration is low, the number of transferring receptors
(that bind iron) on the cell increases.
Iron has several vital functions in the body. It serves as a carrier of oxygen to the tissues from the
lungs by red blood cell hemoglobin, as a transport medium for electron within cells, and as integrated
part of important enzyme systems in various tissues. The general classification of the reactions in
which iron is involved includes:
• Oxygen transport and storage
• Electron transfer
• Oxidation – reduction
Iron containing molecules ensures that macromolecules like carbohydrates and fats are oxidized to
provide the energy necessary for all physiological processes and movements.
Iron is a component of many other tissue enzymes required for immune system functioning.

91
As a part of hemoglobin, iron is required for the transport of oxygen, to all cells in the body.
Thus hemoglobin is critical for cell respiration. Most of the iron in the body is present in the
erythrocytes as hemoglobin, a molecule composed of four units, each containing one haem group and
one protein chain. The structure of hemoglobin allows it to be fully loaded with oxygen in the lungs
and partially unloaded in the tissues (e.g. in the muscles). The iron containing oxygen storage protein
in the muscles, myoglobin, is similar in structure to hemoglobin but has only one haem unit and one
globin chain. As myoglobin, iron functions as a ready source of oxygen to the muscles.
Iron is thus crucial for the survival, growth and normal functioning of the human system.
Sources
Iron is found in foods in one of the two forms i.e. haem or non haem. In the human diets, the
primary sources of haem iron are the hemoglobin and myoglobin from consumption of meat,
poultry and fish whereas non haem iron is obtained from cereals, pulses, legumes, fruits and
vegetables. Dietary non haem iron accounts for about 85% of the total iron intake even among non
vegetarians. Sources of haem iron are chicken liver, chicken, eggs, salmon. Sources of non haem iron
are dried apricots, almonds, raisins, soyabeans, tofu, spinach, wheat germ, kidney beans, baked beans,
broccoli lentils.
Factors Affecting Absorption of Dietary Iron
There are mainly four factors that determine iron bioavailability/absorption from the diet. These
include:
1. Form of iron: whether haem or non haem: Haem iron is more bioavailable than non haem
iron because it is absorbed intact. Iron absorption is not affected by other dietary factors except
calcium which has been shown to depress haem iron absorption.
2. Solubility: Solubility is crucial for non haem iron absorption as the inorganic iron salts have to be
solubilized in the intestine for the iron to be taken up by the mucosal cells.
3. Inhibitors and Enhancers: Phytates and fibre from whole grain cereals, tannins and polephenols
in tea, oxalates in green leafy vegetables like spinach and excess calcium taken as supplements
can all depress non haem iron absorption significantly, by forming insoluble components. The
Indian vegetarian diet consisting predominantly of cereals and pulses, high in phytates, has a low
iron bioavailability. This is further compromised when tea is drunk with a meal, as polyphenols in
tea depress iron absorption. Iron absorption from wheat has been reported to be 5%.
Ascorbic acid is a potent enhancer of iron absorption. Addition of orange juice containing 40-50
mg ascorbic acid to a breakfast meal consisting of bread, eggs and tea was found to increase iron
absorption from 3.7% to 10%. Thus ascorbic acid can counter the inhibitory effect of tannins or
phytates, producing a 2-3 fold increase in non absorption.
Other factors known to enhance iron absorption are meat and flesh foods and some amino acids
such as cysteine.

92
 The best way to increase bioavailability of iron in Indian vegetarian diet is to consume
adequate amounts of ascorbic acid rich fruits and vegetables with the meals reduce phytate
content by appropriate home levels processes such as germination and fermentation and avoid
drinking tea with the meals.
4. Iron status of the individual: On a mixed diet with some haem iron, the overall absorption may
approximate to 10% in normal subjects while it is about 20% in iron deficient subjects.

Increase Absorption Decrease Absorption

Gastric Acidity Increased intestinal motility

Ascorbic Acid Phytates and oxalates

Certain organic acids like citric, lactic and Iron binding phenolic compounds such as
tartaric acid. ferrous pyrophosphate, ferrous citrate.

Animal proteins such as meat, fish, poultry. Calcium, phosphorus and magnesium

Sugars – Fructose, Sorbitol Zinc, manganese and copper

Physiological Factors – pregnancy and growth Tannic acid in coffee and tea

Depleted iron status High iron status

Antacids

Achlorhydria, hypochlorhydria

Poor fat digestion

Deficiency
Iron deficiency is defined as a hemoglobin concentration below the optimum value in
an individual. Normally, iron deficiency anemia is defined in terms of lower than normal blood
hemoglobin levels and at least two of the following three: i) reduced serum ferritin, ii) increased
erythrocyte protoporphyrin and iii) Increased trasferrin receptors. Iron deficiency is one of the most
prevalent nutritional deficiencies in the world today.
The progression from adequate iron status to iron deficiency anemia develops in three overlapping
stages. The first stage is depletion of storage iron with serum ferritin starting to decline. However,
the transferring saturation, erythrocyte protoporphyrin and hemoglobin are within normal limits. As
iron stores get increasingly depleted, iron deficiency develops which is the second stage. During this
stage in addition to low serum ferritin levels, transferrin saturation is also reduced and erythrocyte

93
protoporphyrin is elevated. Hemoglobin may be normal. Eventually when iron deficiency progresses
to anaemia, hemoglobin level start declining: this is the third and final stage of iron deficiency.
The functional effects of iron deficiency anaemia result from both a reduction in circulating
haemoglobin and a reduction in iron containing enzymes and myoglobin. These include:
• Fatigue, restlessness and impaired work performance
• Disturbance in thermoregulation
• Impairment of certain key steps in immune response
• Adverse effects on psychomotor and mental development particularly in children and Increase
maternal and perinatal mortality and morbidity.
In humans, about 10% of brain iron is present at birth, at the age of 10 yrs, the brain has only reached
half its normal iron content, and optimal amounts are first reached between the ages of 20 and 30 yrs.
Several groups have demonstrated a relationship between iron deficiency and attention, memory and
learning in infants and small children.
Iron deficiency also negatively influences the normal defense systems against infections.
Several studies have observed a reduction in physical working capacity in human populations with
longstanding iron deficiency and demonstrated an improvement in working capacity in these
populations after iron administration. Well controlled studies in adolescent girls show that iron
deficiency without anemia is associated with reduced physical endurance and changes in mood and
ability to concentrate.
Populations most at risk for iron deficiency are infants, children, adolescents and women of
childbearing age, especially pregnant women. The weaning period in infants is especially critical
because of the very high iron requirement needed in relation to energy requirement.
Prevention of Iron Deficiency
There is a major National programme, the National Nutritional Anemia Control Programme that
aims to prevent and treat anemia in pregnant women using a public health approach. Iron (100 mg
elemental iron) and folic acid (0.5 mg) in the form of tablets are provided to all pregnant women for
100 days during a pregnancy.
Studies have shown that consumption of fruits rich in ascorbic acids such as guavas with major meals
can improve hemoglobin levels. Drinking tea with meals should be avoided. At least a gap of ½ - 2
hours is needed between a meal and tea for better iron absorption.
Toxicity
Absorption of iron is very effectively regulated. This prevents overload of the tissues with iron from
diet/supplements in normal healthy individuals. However, an excessive body burden of iron can be
produced by greater than normal absorption from the alimentary canal, by parenteral injection or by
a combination of both. For instance, people with genetic defects develop iron overload as it occurs
in idoiopathic haemochromatosis. It is hereditary disorder of iron metabolism characterized by

94
abnormally high iron absorption owing to a failure of the iron absorption control mechanism at the
intestinal level. High deposits of iron in the liver and the heart can lead to cirrhosis, hepatocellular
cancer, congestive heart failure and eventual death.
Excess iron intake via overuse of iron supplements could pose a possible health risk. Associated
complications may include increased risk for bacterial infection, tumours, and disorders of bones,
cardiomyopathy and endocrine dysfunction.
Dietary requirements
The recommended intakes are based on iron absorption by 3% in adult men, adolescent boys and
children; 5% in adult women, adolescent girls, lactating women and 8% in pregnant women.
According to ICMR 2010, requirements are:
Adult Men: 17mg/d
Adult Women: 21mg/d
Pregnant Women: 35mg/d
Lactating Women: 25mg/d

Assignment
1. Write a short note on following:
• Functions of Iron.
• Toxicity of Iron.
• Difference between Haem Iron and non heam iron.
• Sources of Iron.
• Explain one deficiency of iron.

IODINE
Introduction
Iodine derives the nutritional importance as a constituent of thyroid hormones. The thyroid hormones
are indispensable for normal growth and development in humans. Synthesis of the iodine containing
thyroid hormones occurs exclusively in the thyroid gland.
About 15-20mg iodine is found in human body, of which 70-80% is present in the thyroid gland. The
thyroid gland weighs 15-25 grams and has a remarkable ability to concentrate iodine. In the iodine
deficient individual, enlarged thyroid gland may contain only 1 mg iodine.
Functions
Iodine is an essential constituent of the thyroid hormones: thyroxine (T4) and tri-idothyronine (T3),
which have a key role in growth and development.

95
Physiologic functions of Iodine: Thyroid hormone performs multiple functions as regulator of cell
activity and growth. The hormone has crucial metabolic roles in the foetus and in the infant post
natally. It promotes growth and maturation of peripheral tissues in the human embryo, the most
visible effect seen in the skeletal growth. Delayed bone development has been seen in hormone
deficient human embryos. Thyroid hormone influences neuronal cell growth and dendrite
development in the embryo. A major effect of foetal iodine deficiency is cretinism, characterized by
mental deficiency and deaf mutism.
Postnatally, linear growth i.e. stature and bone maturation are critically dependant on thyroid
hormone. Both are retarded when there is a deficiency of the hormone due to low iodide intakes. The
hormone plays an important role in the provision of energy to most cells in the body; the best indicator
of this is the energy available for utilization in the basal state i.e. the basal metabolic rate. In thyroid
hormone deficiency, the BMR is lower, slowing the overall cellular activities. Iron deficiency in
children is characteristically associated with goiter.
Thyroid hormones stimulate synthesis of enzymes, oxygen consumption and basal metabolic
rate (BMR) and thereby affect heart rate, respiratory rate, mobilization and metabolism of
carbohydrates, lipogenesis and a wide variety of other physiological activities. They are necessary
for the normal nervous system development and linear growth. Directly or indirectly, most organs are
under the influence of these substances.
Sources
The iodine concentration in foods is highly variable and also depends on the concentration of
iodine content of soil in that region. The iodine present in the upper crust of the earth is leached by
glaciations and repeated flooding and is carried to the sea. Seawater is therefore a rich source of
iodine.
The amount of iodine in drinking water is an indicator of the iodide content of the rocks and soils of a
region and it parallels the incidence of iodine deficiency among the inhabitants of that region. Sea fish
contain about 300-30,000 mcg iodine/kg in contrast to only 20-40 mcg iodine/kg in fresh water fish.
Also food additives used as bread dough oxidizers or conditioners can contribute to the iodine content
of the diet.
People sometimes ask if they should be sure to buy iodized salt in the grocery store to ensure adequate
iodine intake.Although most consumers now have access to fruits and vegetables grown in coastal
areas rich in iodine, health experts state the importance of using iodized salt to maintain an adequate
iodine intake.
Deficiency
Iodine deficiency affects all populations at all stages of all life, from the intrauterine stage to old
age. However, pregnant women, lactating women, women of reproductive age, and children younger
than 3 years of age are considered the most important groups in which to diagnose and treat iodine
deficiency, because iodine deficiency occurring during foetal and neonatal growth and development

96
leads to irreversible damage of the brain and central nervous system and consequently to irreversible
mental retardation. Thus its deficiency causes a wide spectrum of disorders. These include:
Mild goiter i.e. a larger thyroid gland than normal. The mildest form of goiter ranges from those only
detectable by touch (Palpation) to a very large goiter that can cause breathing problems
The most severe form is endemic cretinism, which is characterized by congenital, severe irreversible
mental and growth retardation.
Hypothyroidism, which is accompanied by low BMR, apathy, slow reflex and relaxation time
with slow movements, cold intolerance and myxoedema (skin and subcutaneous tissues are thickened
because of accumulation of mucin and become dry and swollen.
Collectively, these manifestations of iodine deficiency are termed “Iodine Deficiency Disorders”
(IDD).
The symptoms of IDD differ depending on the life stage at which iodine deficiency occurs. For
example iodine deficiency in foetus has most severe consequences and results in cretinism. There is
a severe mental retardation, deaf mutism (defects of hearing and speech), squint, disorders of stance
and gait and stunted growth.
However, varying degrees of intellectual or growth retardation are apparent when iodine deficiency
occurs in infancy or childhood and adolescence.
Apart from cretinism, hypothyroidism and goitre, other features linked to IDD are the decreased
fertility rates, increased stillbirths and spontaneous abortion rates and increased perinatal and infant
mortality.
Dietary Requirements & Toxicity
A wide range of iodine intakes is tolerated by most individuals, owing to the ability of the thyroid to
regulate total body iodine. This tolerance to huge doses of iodine in healthy iodine replete adults is the
reason why WHO stated in 1994 that (WHO states that) “Daily iodine intake of upto 1 mg i.e 1000
ug appear to be entirely safe” This statement of course, does not include neonates and young infants.
Over 2 mg iodine per day for long period should be regarded as excessive or potentially harmful to
most people. Such high intakes are unlikely to arise from natural foods, except for diets that are very
high in seafood and/or comprising foods contaminated with iodine.
Recommended daily requirements of iodine according to age group and physiological status
Ref: RDA, 2010

Age/Physiological group Upper limit (g/kg/d) RDA of Iodine (mcg/d)

Infants Breast milk 90

Young children (1+ to 5+ y) 50 90

97
 School age children (6+ to 11+ y) 50 120

Adolescents and adults (12 y) 30 150

Pregnant & Lactating women 40 200

Iodine induced thyrotoxicosis (hyperthyroidism) and toxic modular goiter may result from excess
iodine exposure in these individuals. Hypothyroidism is largely confined to those over 40 years of age
and symptoms are rapid heart rate, trembling, excessive sweating, lack of sleep and loss of weight and
strength. Individuals who are sensitive to iodine usually have mild skin symptoms.

Assignment
1. Write a short note on following:
• Food sources rich in iodine
• Functions of Iodine
• IDD
• What is the RDAof Iodine for an adolescent child?

ZINC
Introduction
Zinc is present in all body tissues and fluids. The total body zinc content has been estimated to be
2g. Skeletal muscle accounts for approximately 60 % of the total body content and bone mass, with a
zinc concentration of approximately 30%.
Functions
Zinc is an essential component of a large number of enzymes participating in the synthesis and
degradation of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins and nuclei acids as well as, in the metabolism of
other micronutrients. Zinc stabilizes the molecular structure of cellular components and membranes
and in this way contributes to the cell and organ integrity. Furthermore, zinc has an essential role in
the process of genetic expression. Zinc also plays a central role in the immune system, affecting a
number of aspects of cellular & humoral immunity. Its involvement in fundamental activities
probably accounts for the essentiality of zinc for all life forms.
Sources
Zinc is normally associated with the protein and/or nuclei acid fraction of foods. Thus, foods high in
proteins are good sources of zinc. Lean red meat, whole grain cereals, pulses and legumes provide the
highest concentrations of zinc: concentrations in such foods are generally in the range of 25-30 mg/kg
raw weight. Processed cereals with low extraction rates, polishes rice and chicken, pork or meat with

98
high content have moderate zinc content, typically between 10 and 25 mg/kg. Fish, roots and tubers,
green leafy vegetables and fruits are only modest sources of zinc, having concentrations <10 mg/kg.
Saturated fats and oils, sugar and alcohol have very low zinc contents.
Zinc is present in high amounts in nuts and red meat. Among sea food, oysters are very high in zinc.
Other good animal sources include poultry, pork and dairy products. Among the foods of plant origin,
legumes, whole grain cereals and vegetables (leafy vegetables and roots) are the good sources.
Refining of cereals reduce the content to a large extent.
Factors affecting Zn absorption
Two factors have been identified that together with the total zinc content of the diet, are major
determinants of absorption and utilization of dietary zinc. The first is the content of (phytate) in the
diet and the second is the level and source of dietary protein.
Phytates are present in whole grain cereals and legumes and in smaller amounts in other vegetables.
Fermentation which promotes extensive degradation of dietary phytates can significantly improve the
bioavailability of zinc.
The effect of phytate is, however, modified by the source and amount of dietary proteins consumed.
Animal proteins improve zinc absorption from a phytate containing diet. Zinc absorption from some
legume based diets (e.g. white beans and lupin protein) is comparable with that from animal protein
based diets despite higher phytate content in the former.
As in case of iron, absorption of zinc generally is higher from foods of animal origin as compared
to that from plant foods. Also, absorption appears to be enhanced by low zinc status, especially
carrier-mediated mechanism. This indicates that the amount of zinc absorbed is homeostatically
regulated.
Deficiency
The clinical features of severe zinc deficiency in humans are growth retardation, delayed sexual
and bone maturation, skin lesions, diarrhea, alopecia (loss of hair or baldness), impaired appetite,
increased susceptibility to infections mediated via defects in the immune system, and the appearance
of behavioral changes. The effects of marginal or mild zinc deficiency are less clear. A reduced growth
rate and impairments of immune defense are so far the only clearly demonstrated signs of mild zinc
deficiency in humans. Other effects, such as impaired taste and wound healing which have been
claimed to result from a low zinc intake, are less consistency observed.
The central role of zinc in cell division, protein synthesis and growth is especially important for
infants, children, adolescents and pregnant women; these groups suffer most from an inadequate zinc
intake. Zinc responsive stunting has also been identified in several studies.
Toxicity
The toxicity signs are nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, fever and lethargy and have been observed after
ingestion of 300 mg of zinc / day.

99
Gross acute zinc toxicity has been reported after consuming water stored in galvanized containers
where the quantity of zinc has exceeded the permissible limits. Symptoms include nausea, vomiting
and fever.
Any positive effects of zinc supplementation on growth or infectious diseases could be offset by
associated negative effects on copper related functions.
RDA: Requirements according to ICMR 2010
Adult Male: 12mg/day
Adult Women: 10mg/day
Pregnant &Lactating Women: 12mg/day

Assignment
1. List the symptoms of zinc toxicity.
2. What are the functions of Zinc.
3. List the sources of zinc

COPPER
Introduction
Copper is a constituent of several enzymes and proteins, most of which catalyze oxidation reduction
reactions. The adult body contains approximately about 80 mg Cu mainly stored in liver, followed by
brain and muscles.
Functions
Copper serves as a co-factor and in many enzymes, copper functions as an intermediate in
electron transfer. Copper plays an important function in processes fundamental to human health.
Copper plays a role in bone formation and integrity of connective tissue in the heart and vascular
system. It is required for the normal functioning of central nervous system central nervous system
and cardiovascular system. It is involved in iron metabolism. Copper plays a role in immune function.
Copper appears to influence gene expression.
Sources
Foods containing more than 1 mg copper per 1000 kilocalories are considered high in copper and
include sea foods, sunflower, green leafy vegetables, nuts, legumes, dried fruits, muscle meat and
shellfish especially oysters. Whole wheat, peanut, banana and prunes are mild sources.
Copper though present in small amounts in the food needs to be absorbed, transported, stored and
excreted efficiently so as to be able to perform its host of functions some of which are critical for other
metabolic functions in our body.

100
Deficiency
Owing to the remarkable homeostatic mechanisms, copper deficiency in humans is rare.
However, copper deficiency has been reported under special circumstances. The predisposing
factors of copper deficiency are prematurity, low birth weight and malnutrition, especially when
combined with feeding practices such as cow’s milk or total parenteral nutrition. The most
frequent symptoms are anemia, neutropenia (abnormally high levels of a type of WBC’s in blood)
and bone fractures. Other less frequent symptoms include hypo-pigmentation, impaired growth and
an increased incidence of infections and abnormalities of glucose and cholesterol metabolism.
Sub-optimal copper intakes over long periods may be involved in the precipitation of chronic diseases
such as cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis.
Toxicity
Acute copper toxicity in humans is rare and occurs due to accidental consumption of copper
salts. Symptoms include vomiting, diarrhea, and hemolytic anemia, renal and liver damage. Clinical
symptoms of chronic toxicity appear when the capacity for protective copper binding in the liver is
exceeded which include jaundice, hepatitis and liver cirrhosis.
Copper imbalance in various tissues may also develop as a consequence of genetic disturbances in the
metabolism of copper.
Dietary requirements
Safe and adequate range of copper intake is 1.5-3 mg/day. RDA for Copper is about 2 mg/d.

Assignment
1. Copper deficiency is seen most commonly in ______________ infants.
2. ______________ and ______________ are the genetic diseases involving copper metabolism.
3. The body of a healthy adult contains a little over ______________ of copper.
4. Give essential role of copper in biochemistry.
5. ______________ is the richest source of copper in food.
6. Give the pathological consequences of Wilson’s disease.
7. ______________ is important in antioxidant defense.
8. Dietary requirement of copper is ______________.
9. Give the symptoms of copper toxicity.
10. Prevalence of copper deficiency is high in infants. Why?
11. Give sources of copper in our diet.
12. Explain how Wilson’s disease progresses with copper deficiency.

101
 SELENIUM (Se)

Selenium (Se) it is a trace element essential for the normal functioning of the body but it is known to
be highly toxic. It is present at around 10mg Se/60kg body weight.
Functions
1. Selenium along with vitamin E prevents the development of hepatic necrosis and muscular
dystrophy.
2. It helps in maintaining structural integrity of biological membranes.
3. It acts as strong antioxidants thus prevent lipid peroxidation and protect the cells against the free
radicals including superoxide.
4. It binds with certain heavy metals (Hg & Cd) and protects the body from their toxic effect.
5. It containing enzyme 5- deiodinase converts thyroxin (T4) to triodothyronine in thyroid gland.
6. Selenium as Selenocystine is an essential component of the enzyme glutathione peroxidase. This
enzyme protects the cells against the damage caused by hydrogen peroxide H2O2.
Requirements
Recent FAO/WHO Committee recommended a Se intake of 26 μg/d for adult females and 36 μg/d for
adult males as normal requirement.
Sources
Inorganic and organic selenium compounds are nutritional sources of selenium.
Inorganic: Broccoli, Cucumber, Drinking Water.
Organic: Garlic & Onion, Animal Protein, Liver, Kidney, Mushroom.
Deficiency
Selenium deficiency leads to muscular dystrophy, pancreatic fibrosis and reproductive disorder. Low
serum levels are associated with increased risk of CVD and various cancers.
Toxicity
Toxicity of selenium causes Selenosis.
Manifestation of Selenosis
• Weight loss
• Emotional disturbance
• Diarrhoea
• Hair loss
• Garlic odour in breath.

102
Assignment
1. What are the functions of Selenium?
2. Name the organic and inorganic sources of Selenium.
3. Two main deficiency symptoms of Se are ______________ and ______________.
4. Toxicity of Se leads to______________, ______________ and ______________.

FLUORINE (F)
Fluorine is one of the most abundant elements of earth’s crust. It is mostly found in bone and teeth.
Function
1. Fluoride prevents the development of dental carries. It forms the acid resistant protective layer
of enamel thus prevent the tooth decay by bacterial acid.
2. Fluoride also inhibits the activity of bacterial enzymes and reduces the production of acid.
3. Fluoride is also necessary for the proper development of bones.
Requirement
An intake of less than 2 ppm of fluoride will meet the daily requirement. In other words, the
recommended intake is 3 mg / day for an adult woman and 4 mg / day for an adult man
In developed countries, fluoride is added to drinking water at a concentration of 1 ppm (parts per
million). In this way it is intaked about 1-2 mg of fluoride per day.
Sources
Fluorinated Drinking Water, Sea Salt, Sea Foods, Black Tea Leaves, Green Tea Leaves, Red Gram
Dhal, Bengal Gram, Green Gram.
Deficiency
Dental Carries: Drinking water containing less than 0.5 ppm of fluoride is associated with the
development of dental carries in children.
Toxicity
Dental fluorosis: Excessive intake above 2 ppm causes mottling of enamel and discoloration of
teeth. The mottling is characterised by minute white flecks and yellow or brown patches. These
manifestations are collectively known as dental fluorosis.
Skeletal Fluorosis: An intake of fluoride above 20 ppm is toxic thus causes skeletal fluorosis. It is
characterized by hyper calcification, increasing the density of bones of limbs, pelvis and spine and
neurological disturbances.
The lethal dose for most adult humans is estimated at 5 to 10 g (which is equivalent to 32 to 64 mg/
kg elemental fluoride/kg body weight).

103
Assignment
1. What are the functions of Flourine?
2. The requirement of fluorine is ______________.
3. Briefly write about Fluorine toxicity

CHROMIUM
Functions
1. Enhancing the action of insulin to regulate blood sugar
2. Needed for proper insulin function, impaired insulin activity is referred as insulin resistance which
means if your body becomes insulin resistance more of glucose remains in the blood and is more
likely to be stored as fat
Sources
Yeast, Eggs , Meat, Whole grains, Cheese
Deficiency
• Skin rashes
• Upset stomach and ulcer
• Respiratory problems
• Weakened immune system
• Kidney and liver damage
• Lung cancer
• Alteration of genetic material
• Death

MANGANESE
Functions
1. For healthy bones
2. For carbohydrate, cholesterol and protein metabolism
3. To activate the enzyme super oxide dismutase (SUD) sources.
Sources
• Cereal products
• Vegetables
• Tea

104
Deficiency
1. Low level of Mn in the body can lead to infertility, bone marrow formation, weakness and
seizures
2. Also deficiency is seen in diabetes (insufficient secretion of insulin) and PEM (Protein Energy
Malnutrition)
3. Pre Menstrual Syndrome (PMS)
4. Epilepsy and other symptoms of Mn deficiency include lack of co-ordination, irregular menstrual
cycles, hearing loss, poor milk production in lactating mothers, Tinnitus (ringing tones in ear).

MOLYBDENUM
Functions
1. For breakdown of proteins
2. Acts as a catalyst in several cell enzymes
3. Necessary for a number of metabolic activities
Sources
• Legumes
• Nuts
• Wholegrain products

Assignment
1. What are trace elements?
2. Content of ______________ trace elements varies with soil conditions.
3. ______________ trace element acts as a nerve cell transmitters and cell membranes.
4. ______________trace element activates the enzyme super oxide dismutase (SUD) sources.
5. Give the sources of:
a. Manganese
b. Molybdenum
6. ______________ trace element is needed for proper insulin function.
7. Impaired insulin activity is referred as ______________.
8. Write about functions of:
a. Molybdenum
b. Chromium

105
 SODIUM, POTASSIUM AND CHLORIDE
Introduction
The total body water (TBW) in a 70 kg man is 60% of the body weight i.e. about 40 liters. Two thirds
of this resides inside the cells, i.e. the intracellular fluid (ICF), while one third is in the extra cellular
compartment (ECF) that bathes the cells. A minor portion about 1 liter is present in the intestines and
anterior chambers of the eyes. The most important electrolytes in the ECF are sodium and chloride.
The concentration of potassium in the ECF is very low. However, potassium is the predominant
cation (K+) in the ICF whereas sodium and chloride in the ICF are negligible. Muscle cells have
much higher water content than the others and therefore ICF and TBW are closely related to lean
body mass.
The three macro minerals, Na, K and Cl are related to each other. Na and K are cations (ions that
carry a positive charge) while Cl is a anion (ions that carry a net negative charge) All three are known
as electrolytes as their ions are used for generating electric charge differences across the plasma
membrane of most cells.
Na constitutes 2%, K 5% and Cl 3% of the total mineral content of the body. These mineral exist as
ions in the body fluids and are principal electrolytes in the body. K is a major intracellular electrolyte
while Na and Cl are present in the extra cellular fluids.
Sodium
Sodium is the principle electrolyte in the extra cellular fluid and the principle regulator of the
extra cellular fluid volume. When the blood concentration of sodium rises, as when a person eats
salted foods, thirst prompts the person to drink water until the appropriate sodium-to- water ratio
is restored. Too much sodium can contribute to high blood pressure. The recent WHO consultation
on Global Strategy recommends 5gm of salt per day to prevent chronic diseases, particularly
hypertension, which is a major problem in India. Recommended intake of sodium is 2092mg/d in
males and 1902mg/d in females.
Chloride
The chloride ion is the major negative ion of the extra cellular fluids, where it occurs primarily in
association with sodium. Like sodium, chloride is critical to maintaining fluid, electrolytes, and acid
–base balances in the body .In the stomach, the chloride ion is a part of hydrochloric acid, which
maintains the strong acidity of the gastric fluids.
Potassium
Potassium is a principle positively charged ion inside the body cells .It plays a major role in
maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance and cell integrity. Potassium is also critical to keeping
heart beat steady. The sudden death that occurs in severe diarrhea and in children with kwashiorkor
or people with eating disorder is likely due to heart failure caused by potassium loss. Recommended
intake of potassium is 3750mg/d in males and 3225mg/d in females.

106
Functions
Most minerals participate in important functions of body as they support the activity of specific
enzymes. In striking contrast to these, Na+ and K+ mostly function by changing their location i.e. by
passing from one side of the plasma membrane to the other. These electrolytes are involved in number
of functions.
1. These electrolytes are required for maintenance of total body water and water balance.
2. They are major determinants of osmotic pressure and electrolyte balance.
3. They are involved in the maintenance of acid-base balance.
4. They are major determinants of membrane potential. As you know that sodium is present in higher
concentration outside the cell while K within the cell. This intracellular/extra cellular difference
in their concentration is responsible for the electrical potential gradient across membranes of all
cells with nerve and muscle cells having highest gradients. This is critical in signal transmission
across the nerve cells, muscle contraction and relaxation, synaptic transmission.
5. They are required for the transport of glucose, amino acids within enterocyte.
Sources
The major source of sodium and chloride is common salt added to our food in the form of
sodium chloride. Naturally occurring sources of sodium are milk, meats, eggs and most vegetables. In
addition, food additives used in processed foods such as baking powder, preservatives etc. contribute
towards dietary sodium intake. Potassium is abundant in unprocessed foods, fruits, many vegetables
and fresh meats. Also many salt substitutes contain potassium instead of sodium.
Absorption of these electrolytes is governed by several factors including body fluids, hormones and
presence of other nutrients.
Regulation and Excretion
The total content of body sodium especially the concentration in the extracellular fluid (ECF) is under
homeostatic control.
When the need for sodium by the body increases, several mechanisms such as decreased arterial
volume, low blood pressure, decreased sodium at distal tabular exchange site, low plasma levels of
sodium alert kidney. In response, specialized tissue of renal cortex release renin in the blood.
Regulation is chloride is achieved indirectly through sodium regulation. The maintenance of K
balance also depends on the kidney.
Body’s ability to conserve Na by restricting loss in the urine is more efficient than its ability to
conserve K. Also sodium is absorbed more efficiently from the gastrointestinal than K. Therefore K
deficiency will appear before sodium deficiency. However, dietary deficiency of these minerals does
not normally occur. Deficiency is more commonly caused by vomiting and diarrhea, which results in
excessive loss of these electrolytes.

107
Deficiency and Excess of Electrolytes
1. Hyponatremia and Hypernatremia: Serum concentration of Sodium is normally regulated
within the range of 135 to 145 milimole per litre (mM/L). Hyponetremia is defined as a Na level
under 130 mM/L. When plasma Na level falls below 120 mM/Lsymptoms such as headache,
confusion, seizures and coma can occur. Hyponatremia can arise from shift of water from cells
to extra cellular compartment. Hyponatremia is also induced by renal failure when kidney’s
impaired ability to excrete waste products results in build up of solutes in plasma. It can also occur
from an overall decrease in body. Na, as occurs during diarrhoea and vomiting. Rare instances of
hyponatremic dehydration have been reported in sports persons rehydrated only with water.
Hypernatremia occurs less commonly and is defined as serum sodium level above 145mM/L.
The initial symptoms include irritability, lethargy and restlessness. Seizures and death may occur
when plasma levels rise above 160 mM/L.
Hypernatremia occurs with loss of water that is disproportionately greater than sodium and is
associated with excessive sweating and hyperventilation. It can also occur when thirst mechanism
is impaired because of damage to hypothalamus.
2. Hypokalemia and Hyperkalemia: Normal serum K ranges from 3.5-5 mM/L. Hypokalemia or
low plasma K levels can occur with a net shift of K from the plasma to the cells. The shift can
occur in alkalosis. Overall depletion of body’s K which occurs in vomiting, prolonged fasting can
also results in this shift. Mild hypokalemia results in weakness and muscle cramps and can cause
arrhythmias in patients with heart diseases. Serves hypokalemia (<2.5 mM/Lof K) can results in
paralysis.
Hyperkalemia occurs when serum K levels are greater than 5mM/L. High plasma K results in
cardiac arrhythmias, cardiac arrest and death. It can also occur in severe kidney diseases where
ability to excrete K is impaired especially if K consumption is not restricted and patient is
experiencing tissue or RBC breakdown.
Electrolyte Balance
Acid Base Balance is determined by PH, which is the negative of hydrogen ion concentration
logarithm.
• Low ph-represents acidic medium
• High ph-represents alkaline medium

Maintaining ph within the normal range of 7.35-7.45 is crucial for many physiologic functions and

108
biochemical reactions. The body is able to accomplish this despite the enormous acid load generated
through diet and tissue metabolism.
Acid Generation
Acid are generated exogenously through the ingestion of foods, acid precursors and toxins; and
endogenously through normal tissue metabolism.
• Fixed acids such as phosphoric and sulfuric are produced from the metabolism of phosphate
containing substrates and sulfur containing amino acids, respectively.
• Organic acids, of which lactic acid and keto-acids are examples, typically accumulate only in
diseased states. Carbon dioxide, a volatile acid, is generated from the oxidation of carbohydrates,
amino acids, and fats.
Regulation
At the cellular level, buffer systems composed of weak acids or bases and their corresponding salts
minimize the effect on PH caused by the addition of a strong acid or base.
Proteins and phosphates are the primary intracellular buffers, whereas the bicarbonate or carbonic
acid system is the main extracellular buffer
Acid-Base Balance is also maintained through the actions of the kidney and the lungs. The
Kidney regulates hydrogen ion secretion and bicarbonate re-absorption. The Lungs control alveolar
ventilation, altering either the depth or the rate of breathing. This, in turn, alters the amount of CO2
expired.
Metabolic Acidosis
This results from increased generation and accumulation of acids (e.g. diabetic keto acidosis, lactic
acidosis and uremia) or from excessive bicarbonate loss via kidneys or intestinal tract.
Metabolic Alkalosis
This results from the administration or accumulation of bicarbonate or its precursors, excessive acid
loss or loss of ECF containing more chloride than bicarbonate (e.g- villous adenoma, diuretics)
This may result from volume depletion (decreased blood flow to the kidneys stimulates re-absorption
of sodium and water which in turn increases bicarbonate re-absorption.This is known as contraction
alkalosis.
In severe case of hypokalemia(<2 mEq/l)an alkaline state may develop.
To maintain the electro neutrality, hydrogen ions move from the extracellular to the intracellular
fluid .This produces an intracellular acidosis which increases hydrogen ion excretion and bicarbonate
re-absorption by the kidneys.
Respiratory Acidosis
This is caused by decreased ventilation and consequent carbon dioxide retention.This occurs acutely
with sleep apnea, asthma, aspiration of a foreign object and the adult respiratory distress syndrome.

109
Choosing a Vitamin / Mineral Supplement
For years, health experts have been emphasizing that most healthy people can meet their Vitamin
and Mineral needs with a good and balanced diet, still the popping of Vitamin and Mineral pills has
gained popularity.
Many major health organizations including ADA (American Dietetic Association) essentially agree
that healthy children and adults should be able to get all the nutrients they need by eating a variety
of foods. However , these organizations and other experts say that taking a multivitamin/ mineral
supplement under the guidance of a physician , maybe in order for these particular groups of people:
• People following very low calorie diets
• People with certain diseases or those taking medications that interfere with appetite, absorption or
excretion of nutrients
• Strict vegetarians, whose diets may fall short in Vitamin B12 , Vitamin D, Calcium, Iron and Zinc
• Women who are pregnant or breastfeeding, phases that bolster the need for nutrients including
iron and folate.
• Women with excessive menstrual bleeding, who may need iron supplements
• Women during their childbearing years who do not consume folate rich or folic acid fortified
foods may need more folate in their diets to prevent neural tube defects in infants.
• Anyone with lactose intolerance or who does not consume milk or other dairy products needs a
source of calcium; those with inadequate exposure to sunlight may also need Vitamin D.
• Elderly people who may have difficulty choosing an adequate diet, chewing problems or a
reduced ability to absorb and metabolize certain nutrients.
• People who are recovering from surgery, burn injuries or other illnesses that increase nutrient
needs
• People with heart disease or who are at risk for heart disease and consume diets inadequate in the
B vitamins (Folate, Vitamin B6 and Vitamin B12)
• People with chronic diseases of the digestive tract or other conditions that lead to poor intake or
deplete nutrient stores
• People with alcohol or other drug addictions are likely to have a shortage of vitamins and minerals
in their diets.
Assignment
1. Write functions of sodium, potassium and chlorine.
2. Define Hyponateramia?
3. Elaborate on the ICF – ECF Electrolyte balance.
4. What are the sources of Potassium?
5. What is Ph?
6. Define Metabolic Acidosis and Metabolic Alkalosis?

110
 UNIT-IX

PHYTOCHEMICALS AND ANTIOXIDANTS

Introduction
The wisdom of familiar advice, “eat more vegetables” stands on firmer scientific ground today then
ever before .The stimulating colors and flavors in fruits and vegetables result from thousands of
phytochemical found in edible plant foods. The word “phyto” derives from the Greek word meaning
plant. Phytochemicals are non-nutritive plant chemicals that have protective or disease preventive
properties. They are nonessential nutrients, meaning that they are not required by the human body
for sustaining life. It is well-known that plant produces these chemicals to protect them but recent
research demonstrates that they can also protect humans against diseases. There are more than
thousand known phytochemicals. Some of the well-known phytochemicals are lycopene in
tomatoes, isoflavones in soy and flavanoids in fruits. They act as antioxidants, mimicking hormones
and suppressing the development of diseases, thus rendering tremendous health benefits. People who
consume lots of vegetables ,fruits and whole grain products may be less likely to develop Heart
disease, cancer ,type 2 diabetes, premature ageing. Carotenoids in deep yellow orange and green
vegetables and fruits (broccoli, carrot, pumpkin, tomatoes, spinach etc) act as antioxidant and
possibly reduce the risk of heart disease, cancer etc. Flavonoids in berries, black tea, dark chocolate,
citrus fruit, green tea, onions, soyabean etc has profound role in scavenging carcinogens by inhibiting
conversion of nitrates to nitrosamines
How do phytochemicals work?
There are many phytochemicals and each works differently. These are some possible actions:
1. Antioxidant: Most phytochemicals have antioxidant activity and protect our cells against
oxidative damage and reduce the risk of developing certain types of cancer. Phytochemicals with
antioxidant activity: allyl sulfides (onions, leeks, garlic), carotenoids (fruits, carrots), flavonoids
(fruits, vegetables), polyphenols (tea, grapes).
2. Hormonal action: Isoflavones, found in soy, imitate human estrogens and help to reduce
menopausal symptoms and osteoporosis.
3. Stimulation of enzymes: Indoles, which are found in cabbages, stimulate enzymes that make
the estrogen less effective and could reduce the risk for breast cancer. Other phytochemicals,
which interfere with enzymes, are protease inhibitors (soy and beans), terpenes (citrus fruits and
cherries).
4.. Interference with DNA replication: Saponins found in beans interfere with the replication of
cell DNA, thereby preventing the multiplication of cancer cells. Capsaicin, found in hot peppers,
protects DNA from carcinogens.
5. Anti-bacterial effect: The phytochemical allicin from garlic has anti-bacterial properties.

111
6. Physical action: Some phytochemicals bind physically to cell walls thereby preventing the
adhesion of pathogens to human cell walls. Proanthocyanidins are responsible for the anti-
adhesion properties of cranberry. Consumption of cranberries will reduce the risk of urinary tract
infections and will improve dental health.
Examples of Phtochemicals
They are broadly classifieds as Flavonols:
Flavonols,a large group of phytochemicals known for their health promoting qualities, are found in
whole grains,vegetables, fruits, herbs, spices, teas and red wine.
• Flavonols
Gingerol: ginger.
Kaempferol: strawberries, gooseberries, cranberries, peas, brassicates, chives.
Rutin: citrus fruits, buckwheat, parsley, tomato, apricot, rhubarb, tea.
• Flavanones
Hesperidin: citrus fruits.
Naringenin: citrus fruits.
• Flavones
Apigenin: celery, parsley.
Tangeritin: tangerine and other citrus peels.
• Flavan-3-ols
Catechins: white tea, green tea, black tea, grapes, wine, apple
Anthocyanins (flavonals) and Anthocyanidins: red wine, many red, purple or blue fruits and
vegetables.
Cyanidin: red apple & pear, bilberry, blackberry, blueberry, cherry, cranberry, peach, plum.
Phytochemicals In Food
Cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, cabbage, brussels sprouts, kohlrabi, cauliflower, bok choy
contain the phytochemicals sulforaphane, indoles and other isothiocyanates. The effect of these
bolsters the ability of the body to ward off cancer by stimulating production of anti-cancer enzymes.
Garlic, onions, leeks and chives contain the phytochemical allylic sulfide, which may block action of
cancer causing chemicals.
Citrus fruits contain the phytochemical Limonene, which may help block action of cancer- causing
chemicals.
Soybeans and legumes contain the phytochemicals protease inhibitors, isoflavones, saponins and
phytoesterols. These may slow tumor growth and may help prevent colon cancer, block entry

112
of estrogen into cells, which may reduce risk of ovarian cancer and may prevent cancer cells from
multiplying.
Grains contain the phytochemical phytic acid, which may help prevent cancer-causing free radicals
from forming.
Fruits contain the phytochemicals caffic acid and ferulic acid, which my help rid the body of
carcinogens and may prevent nitrates from converting to carcinogenic nitrosamines.
Green leafy vegetables such as spinach, collard greens and kale contain the phytochemical lutein,
which acts as an antioxidant, and protects against cell damage.
Tomatoes, red grapefruit and red peppers contain the phytochemical lycopene, which acts as an
antioxidant and protects against cell damage.
Possible effects of phytochemicals and their food sources:
Capsaicin: may modulate blood clotting, may reduces the risk of fatal clots in heart and artery disease
e.g. Hot peppers
Curcumin: may inhibit the enzymes that activate carcinogens e.g. turmeric
Carotenoids: Act as an antioxidant; possibly reduces the risk of heart diseases, cancer and age related
eye diseases; e.g. Deeply pigmented fruits and vegetables
Research indicates that pure extracts of phytochemicals in supplements are less effective than
phytochemicals in whole foods. Some phytochemicals might not be metabolized in pure form and
some might not function by themselves.Thus phytochemicals have less protective power when
ingested as concentrated extracts, such as in pills.

ANTIOXIDANT
Antioxidants are substances which are both nutrients, viz. vitamins A, C, E. selenium and non
nutrients, viz. plant phenols, flavonoids, gallic acid etc. It reduces the risk of CVD. In healthy
subjects, the dietary antioxidants from a balanced diet with adequate fruits and vegetables ranging
from 500-600gm/d will probably be enough to take care of oxidant damage and repair cellular and
tissue defects. Liberal intake of vegetables, fruits, whole grains, legumes, nuts, seeds, spices, low fat
diary products to postpone ageing and fight diseases.

Assignment
1. _____________ phytochemical is present in onions.
2. ______________ phytochemical is present in tomatoes.
3. Write difference between phytochemical & antioxidant?

113