SPIRITUAL DIVERSITY IN

SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

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SPIRITUAL DIVERSITY IN
SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
The Heart of Helping

Second Edition

Edward R. Canda
Leola Dyrud Furman

1
2010
3
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Canda, Edward R.
Spiritual diversity in social work practice : the heart of helping / Edward R. Canda
and Leola Dyrud Furman. — 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-19-537279-3
1. Social service—Religious aspects. 2. Social workers—Religious life. 3. Spiritual life.
4. Spirituality. I. Furman, Leola Dyrud. II. Title.
HV530.C27 2010
361.3′2—dc22
2009006897

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper
I dedicate this work to my wife and partner in all things, Hwi-Ja Canda; to my
parents, Frank and Anne Canda, who set me on the spiritual path; to my siblings
Frank (in memorium), Tom (in memorium), Nancy and Greg; and to the well-
being of all who are touched by this book.
- Edward R. Canda

I dedicate this work to my grandchildren Yara and Philip Furman, to my sons, Erik
and Jon Furman and their spouses, to my four brothers, Chet, Loiell, Connely, and
Clark Dyrud, and their spouses, and to the memory of my late husband, Philip J.
Furman.
- Leola Dyrud Furman

v
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 acknowledgments

I thank the Shumaker Family Foundation of Kansas for generous funding that
supported the development of this second edition. I offer special appreciation to
Shantivanam, Forest of Peace House of Prayer, in Easton, Kansas, for providing
me with an inclusive Catholic contemplative community of support. I am very
grateful to all my teachers who have inspired me along my spiritual path of ser-
vice, especially those whose guidance directly influenced this book: Joan Halifax
Roshi of Upaya Zen Center in Santa Fe, New Mexico; Korean Percussion Master
Byong-Sup Kim (in memorium); Professor Daniel B. Lee at Loyola University,
Chicago; Seung Sahn Dae Seon Sa Nim, founder of the Kwan Um School of
Zen (in memorium); and Dong Jun Yi, Professor Emeritus of Sungkyunkwan
University, Seoul, Korea. Thanks to Professor Daniel B. Stevenson, Chair of the
Department of Religious Studies at the University of Kansas (KU), for many
years of friendship and interdisciplinary collaborations that have fed this book.
Thanks likewise to my longtime friend and colleague, Professor Michael Yellow
Bird of Global Indigenous Nations Studies of KU, for advice about the con-
tent on Indigenous religions. Sachiko Gomi, doctoral student in social work at
KU, deserves special recognition for her extensive help as my research assistant
on this book project. I am grateful to Orville Milk for the gift of his drawing
(Illustration 2.4) and Amanda Blackhorse for the gift of her grandmother’s weav-
ing (Illustration 4.1). Most of all, I thank my wife, Hwi-Ja Canda, for continu-
ous support and encouragement and for her social work practice wisdom that
infuses this book.
- Edward R. Canda

vii
viii acknowledgments

I thank the following people: Perry W. Benson, database manager/analyst

at the University of North Dakota School of Medicine and Health Sciences,
Department of Clinical Neuroscience, National Study of Health and Life
Experiences of Women (NSHLEW): A 20-year National Study, for editorial
assistance, statistical consultation and analysis, website design, and for pre-
paring the web version of the survey instrument; Cordell Fontaine, Director,
Social Science Research Institute, University of North Dakota, for assistance
with data design, mailing, coding and data entry; John Hoover, Associate Dean
of the College of Education, St. Cloud State University, for assistance in rede-
signing the original 1997 survey instrument and for his consultation regard-
ing statistical analysis; Mari-Ann Zahl (in memorium), formerly Associate
Professor of Social Work, Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
Department of Social Work and Health Science, Trondheim, Norway for man-
aging our survey in Norway and for spearheading the Spirituality and Social
Work movement in Norway and Northern Europe; Cordelia Grimwood, faculty
member in social work at the University of East London in Dagenham, Essex,
United Kingdom, for managing our survey there; Blair Stirling, Doctoral can-
didate, Lecturer and Tutor in Social Work, within the Department of Social
Work and Community Development at the University of Otago, Dunedin,
Aotearoa New Zealand, for modifying the survey to meet demographic dif-
ferences in New Zealand and for conducting our survey there; Bernard Moss,
Professor of Social Work Education and Spirituality, Staffordshire University,
UK, for his diligence and enthusiasm in promoting spirituality and religion in
social work practice across the United Kingdom and for encouraging our work;
Gale Valtinson, Clinical Psychologist, St. Paul, Minnesota, for her consultation
regarding religion, spirituality, and professional ethics. All of these people pro-
vided great help and inspiration.
- Leola Dyrud Furman

We are very grateful to Maura Roessner and Lynda Crawford at Oxford

University Press for their encouragement of this project and for their skill
guiding the book through production. We thank all the OUP and Newgen
editorial staff who worked so quickly and proficiently.

Permissions’ Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Michael J. Sheridan, Ph.D., Research Associate Professor and

Director of Research, Center for Spirituality and Social Work, National Catholic
School of Social Service, Catholic University of America in Washington, DC, for
her pioneering survey studies on spirituality in social work and for allowing us
to build on her work in developing our survey instruments.
acknowledgments ix

We gratefully acknowledge permission to revise and adapt material from the

following works:
Canda, E. R. (1988). Conceptualizing spirituality for social work: Insights from
diverse perspectives. Social Thought, 14(1), 30–46.
Canda, E. R. (1988). Spirituality, religious diversity, and social work practice.
Social Casework, 69(4), 238–247. Reprinted with permission from Families in
Society (FamiliesInSociety.org), published by the Alliance for Children and
Families.
Table 9.2. Ethical considerations for using spiritually based activities in social
work, from Canda, E. R. (1990). An holistic approach to prayer for social work
practice. Social Thought, 16(3), 3–13.
All figures, including photographs, are by Edward R. Canda.
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 preface

In the 10 years since we (EC and LF) wrote the first edition of this book, we have
been gratified at the many positive comments we have received about it. We are
also amazed at the growth of interest about spirituality in social work and allied
helping professions around the world. During that time, both of us extended our
commitments to cross-cultural and international networking and collaborations.
This second edition retains the major organization and content of the first edi-
tion, since that has seemed to work well. However, in order to reflect growth in
ourselves and the profession, we revised and expanded the book significantly.
The main new features of the second edition are:

• Slight reorganization of content to enhance flow of ideas and guide-

lines for practice
• More illustrations, figures, and tables to amplify major points
• More attention to the empirical evidence base for practice and debates
about the nature of evidence in the study of spirituality
• More attention to meso- and macropractice
• More examples from social work practice, teaching, and daily life
• More content on ecophilosophical approaches to social work
• More detailed guidelines for use of spiritual assessment, meditation,
ritual, and forgiveness in practice
• More exercises to engage the reader in personal and professional
growth

xi
xii preface

• Major increase of interdisciplinary knowledge applicable to social

work
• Major increase of international knowledge and worldwide view
• New sections on Confucian and Indigenous North American
approaches to social work
• New information from our 2008 replication of the first edition’s U.S.
national survey on religion and spirituality in social work as well as
surveys in Aotorea New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom
• New appendix with list of professional standards, publications, and
websites for addressing spirituality in social work generally and
within nine fields of practice
• Extensive use of internet-based resources

We hope that students, practitioners, researchers, and educators in social work

and allied helping professions around the world will find this book useful as a
trail guide on your spiritual paths of service. But, as the adage attributed to the
anthropologist Gregory Bateson goes, “the map is not the territory.” If the map
offers guidance, carry it forward. If it leads you astray, disregard it. On the basis
of your experience, redraw the map to help others coming later. And with each
step, pay attention to the amazing view along the trail.
 contents

A Note to the Reader xvii

Part I Central Values and Concepts for Spiritually

Sensitive Social Work
1 Guiding Principles 3
Why Bother with Spirituality?
Principles That Guide the Writing of This Book
Preview of Chapters
Exercises

2 Compassion, the Call to Service, and Ethical

Principles for Social Work 30
The Virtue of Compassion in Professional Social Work
Symbols of Compassion in Religious Traditions
A Common Heart of Compassion
Ethical Principles for Spiritually Sensitive Social Work
Conclusion
Exercises

3 The Meaning of Spirituality 59

The Challenges of Defining Spirituality
The Concept of Spirituality in the Helping Professions
Definitions and Models Related to Spirituality

xiii
xiv contents

Key Issues in Research about Spirituality

Conclusion
Exercises

Part II Exploring Spiritual Diversity for

Social Work Practice
4 Human Diversity, Spirituality, and Social Work Practice 101
History of Spiritual Diversity in the United States
Ethnic Diversity and Spirituality
Women and Spirituality
Homosexuality, Sexual Orientation Diversity, and Spirituality
Conclusion
Exercises

5 Religious Perspectives on Social Service and Their

Insights for Social Work Practice 143
Buddhism and Social Service
Christianity and Social Service
Confucianism and Social Service
Hinduism and Social Service
Indigenous Religions of North America and Social Service
Islam and Social Service
Judaism and Social Service
Conclusion
Exercises

6 Nonsectarian Spiritual Perspectives, Comparisons,

and Implications for Cooperation 185
Existentialism and Social Service
Transpersonal Theory and Social Service
Comparison of Spiritual Perspectives on Service
Engaging in Dialogue and Cooperation Across Spiritual Perspectives
Conclusion
Exercises

Part III Spiritually Sensitive Social Work in Action

7 Creating a Spiritually Sensitive Context for Practice 213
The Helping Relationship and Process
A Holistic Approach to Social Work Practice
Stage 1: Understanding
Stage 2: Designing
Stage 3: Implementing
Stage 4: Evaluating
contents xv

Stage 5: Integrating
Conclusion
Exercises

8 Understanding and Assessing Spiritual Development 243

Spiritual Development and Everyday Life
Spiritual Emergence and Emergencies
Spiritual Emergence throughout the Life Cycle
Assessing Spiritual Experiences and Development
Conclusion
Exercises

9 Ethical Guidelines for Spiritually Sensitive

and Culturally Appropriate Practice 286
Ethical Guidelines for Using Spiritually Oriented Activities
The Ethical Mandate for Cultural Competence
Transcultural Teamwork for Spiritually Sensitive Practice
Conclusion
Exercises

10 Spiritually Oriented Transformational Practice 314

Social Work Practice as a Transformational Process
An Example of a Transformational Helping Process
Spiritual Growth Oriented Helping Activities
Practicing Mindfulness and Meditation
Engaging Ritual and Ceremony
Practicing Forgiveness
Conclusion
Exercises

11 A Worldwide View 359

Spiritually Oriented Helping Activities Revisited
Spirituality in Fields of Practice
A Worldwide View of Spiritually Sensitive Practice
Conclusion
Exercises

Appendix A: Discussion Guide for Detailed Spiritual Assessment 379

Appendix B: Methodological Summary for the 2008 National
Survey of NASW Members (U.S.A.) on Spirituality
and Religion in Practice 385
Appendix C: Resources for Addressing Spirituality in Various
Fields of Practice 389
References 399
Index 441
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 a note to the reader

Welcome.
Please enter
the reading of this book
as a journey of discovery and growth.

May you test

what you find herein
by your deepest wisdom,
by the guidance of those you respect, and
by your daily experiences
on the spiritual path of service.

xvii
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 PART I

Central Values and Concepts for

Spiritually Sensitive Social Work
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 1

Guiding Principles

Human beings live not on bread alone.

Matthew 4:4, Christianity (Jerusalem Bible)

Spirituality is the heart of helping. It is the heart of empathy and care, the pulse
of compassion, the vital flow of practice wisdom, and the driving energy of ser-
vice. Social workers know that our professional roles, theories, and skills become
rote, empty, tiresome, and finally lifeless without this heart, by whatever names
we call it. We also know that many of the people we serve draw upon spirituality,
by whatever names they call it, to help them thrive, to succeed at challenges, and
to infuse the resources and relationships we assist them with to have meaning
beyond mere survival value. We all have many different ways of understanding
and drawing on spirituality. And in social work practice, all these ways come
together, knowingly or unknowingly. In this book, we provide a framework of
values, knowledge, and skills to bring together the many religious and nonreli-
gious forms of spirituality together in a creative helping process.
Spirituality and religion have become very popular topics in the general
public. For example, news media often have stories about the competing reli-
gious views and affi liations of politicians; moral and social policy debates over
abortion, homosexuality, and human cloning; religiously motivated war and ter-
rorism; breakthroughs in holistic forms of healing and therapy in medicine and
psychotherapy; and inspirational spiritual lives of world leaders such as the Dalai
Lama of Tibetan Buddhism and former South African President Nelson Mandela.
In the publishing industry, spirituality is a major sector of the market. Movies
and TV documentaries carry stories about angels, near death experiences, sexual
abuse by clergy, quasi-religious encounters with extraterrestrial beings, miracles,
and extra-sensory phenomena. In this new millennium of the information age,

3
4 central values and concepts

the Internet is replete with videos, music, and informational websites about vir-
tually every spiritual tradition, fad, and controversy. Indeed, for the first time
in human history, nearly all religions, cultures, and secular worldviews are in
contact—sometimes harmoniously and sometimes confl ictually. Yet all this talk
about spirituality and religion can cast as much shadow and confusion as light
and understanding.
Within North American social work and allied helping professions, there
are movements to shed light on the many ways that spirituality impacts indi-
viduals, society, and world. Recently, these movements have begun to connect
across disciplines such as social work, medicine, nursing, psychology, psychia-
try, anthropology, pastoral counseling, sociology, and religious studies. There are
international movements emerging as well. Th is is an exciting time of innovation
and expansion as social workers stretch farther the reaches of human nurture
(Canda, 2005a). As we shall explain, there is mounting empirical evidence and
practice wisdom that a person’s sense of positive spiritual meaning, purpose,
and connectedness along with participation in supportive aspects of religious
communities are associated with enhanced well-being. Yet, while momentum
for spiritually sensitive social work has grown rapidly in the past 15 years, many
practitioners, students, educators, and researchers remain unaware or suspicious
about it.
This book draws on a wide range of interdisciplinary and international
insights to present the state of the art of spiritually sensitive social work that is
respectful and competent in response to the diverse forms of spirituality that is
expressed in clients’ lives and communities. It weaves this wide and scattered
material into a comprehensive framework for practice. It builds on our profes-
sional heritage, from our roots in religious ideologies and institutions of social
service to the most current work in cross-cultural study of religions, transper-
sonal theory, spiritually oriented psychotherapy, and social and environmental
activism. It draws on insights from a wide range of religious, philosophical, sci-
entific, and human service perspectives. While the focus of the book is on social
work in the United States, wisdom about spiritually sensitive practice from other
countries is included to encourage a worldwide view.
The book also incorporates ideas concerning spirituality and religion from
social workers in direct practice, based on our national and international surveys.
In 2008, we conducted a national survey of members of the National Association
of Social Workers (NASW) who are engaged in direct practice (hereafter referred
to as the National Survey). This is a replication of our original 1997 national
survey, which was reported in the first edition of this book (Canda & Furman,
1999). Appendix B presents technical details about the study methodology. These
comprehensive national surveys of NASW on spirituality show their attitudes
and range of relevant practices across a span of more than 10 years. We also
draw on findings from international replication surveys we conducted with col-
leagues in the United Kingdom, Norway, and New Zealand.
Guiding Principles 5

At the outset, please be assured (or forewarned, depending on your view-

point) that this book does not advocate for a religious sectarian view of spiri-
tuality or social work. It is not about proselytizing or converting anyone to any
particular religious faith or spiritual path. Nor is it about stereotyping or putting
down any particular religious faith. As will be explained with detail in Chapter 3,
our use of the term spirituality refers to a universal quality of human beings and
their cultures related to the quest for meaning, purpose, morality, transcendence,
well-being, and profound relationships with ourselves, others, and ultimate real-
ity. Spirituality expresses in diverse religious and nonreligious forms that are
crucial to understand for contemporary social work. So this book is about social
workers self-reflecting, searching for meaning, and sincerely striving to link our
spiritual paths (of whatever kind) to professional values and settings. It is about
learning to respond sensitively to the diverse religious and nonreligious forms
of spirituality found among the individuals, families, groups, and communities
whom social workers have dedicated to serve. In a nutshell,

spiritually sensitive practice is attuned to the highest goals, deepest meanings,

and most practical requirements of clients. It seeks to nurture persons’ full
potentials through relationships based on respectful, empathic, knowledgeable,
and skillful regard for their spiritual perspectives, whether religious or non-
religious. It promotes peace and justice for all people and all beings. (Canda,
2008d, pp. x–xi)

This book proposes a guide for social work practice. However, it is only a
proposal. We hope that the reader will reflect carefully and critically on our
framework and then do the most important work of all—develop a personal
framework that is congruent with your own values, professional commitments,
and areas of practice. This book can be considered a success only if it helps the
reader to accomplish this.

Why Bother with Spirituality?

Attending to spirituality can help us put clients’ challenges and goals within the
context of their deepest meanings and highest aspirations. Since social workers
are committed to a whole person in environment perspective, we need to take a
bio-psycho-social-spiritual view. On a pragmatic level, by considering the reli-
gious and spiritual facets of clients’ lives, we may identify strengths and resources
that are important for coping, resilience, and optimal development. Most soci-
eties include religions with pervasive influence on personal health, family rela-
tions, economics, and politics. Most Americans (and most people in the world)
are concerned with matters of religion and spirituality. Many clients raise issues
pertaining to religion and spirituality (Canda & Furman, 1999; Kvarfordt &
Sheridan, 2007). People’s sense of spiritual well-being and their participation in
6 central values and concepts

religious communities and practices influence their health, mental health, and
social relations for better or worse (Koenig, 2007). This book explains how we
can be prepared to respond to spirituality in a professional manner.
There are some objections to addressing spirituality in social work and the
helping professionals (see Canda and Furman, 1999 and Moss, 2005 for detailed
discussions). Opponents tend to assume that there are defects in the nature of
religious institutions and individuals (Clark, 1994; Sullivan, 1994; Weisman,
1997). They view connection of religion and spirituality to social work as prob-
lematic. Moreover, they identify logistical and practical difficulties of dealing
with spirituality and religion in practice or education as discouraging or insur-
mountable. For example, some people view religion as inherently conservative
and oppressive or spirituality as a personal preoccupation that diverts attention
from issues of justice. Some are concerned about inappropriate proselytization,
confusion between personal and professional boundaries, blurring role distinc-
tions between clergy and social workers, inappropriate moralistic judgments, and
separation of church and state in governmentally sponsored social welfare. Some
people mistrust religious or philosophical understandings of human behavior
(Canda, 2008a, 2008b). Some are concerned that there is insufficient and contra-
dictory empirical evidence about the helpful and harmful effects of religion and
spirituality (Powell, Shahabi, & Thoreson, 2003; Sloan, et al., 2000; Thyer, 2007).
In contrast, this book recognizes challenges surrounding spirituality and
responds to them by building knowledge and skills for practice within the con-
text of professional values and ethics. We recognize the positive contributions of
religion and spirituality that should be engaged in the helping process. We also
recognize the ways spirituality and religion can express in harmful ways, so that
social workers can be prepared to prevent, ameliorate, or overcome unhealthy,
discriminatory, or oppressive impacts. Indeed, as you will discover throughout
this book, American and international standards for professional social work in
general and for practice in many American fields (e.g., health, mental health)
recognize the importance of religion and spirituality (see Appendix C).
In Table 1.1, we summarize concerns about studying religion and spiritu-
ality along with our responses. This provides a summary of our rationale for
addressing this topic. The reader could reflect on the concerns and responses in
order to identify his/her own position and also to formulate responses to objec-
tions one might encounter from clients, colleagues, supervisors, professors, and
members of the general public.
Our contention that spirituality is relevant to practice is well supported
by the 2008 National Survey (NS) findings. Most social workers in our study
believed that it is appropriate to raise the topic of spirituality in a nonsectarian
manner with clients on every issue we explored, but especially regarding ter-
minal illness, bereavement, substance abuse, and suffering effects of a natural
disaster (see Table 1.2). Most respondents also believed that it is appropriate to
raise the topic of religion in cases of terminal illness, bereavement, adoptive and
foster parenting, substance abuse, and suffering the effects of a natural disaster.
Table 1.1. Resolving the Debate about Studying Religion and Spirituality (R/S)
in Social Work.
Opposing Views Supporting Views

Inherent Deficiencies of R/S Responding to Challenges and Strengths

Institutional Problems of R/S
• Sectarian views are too limiting or Institutional Challenges
biased for the profession • Use inclusive view of spirituality and
• Rigidity, dogmatism, and religion (s/r)
judgmentalism of religions are • Engage diverse ideological and spiritual
worrisome perspectives in dialogue; avoid negative
• Religions are basically status quo stereotyping
maintaining • Address the role of s/r in both restricting
• Spiritual perspectives are overly focused and promoting well-being and justice
on personal issues rather than macro • Identify both micro and macro implications
justice of s/r perspectives
Personal Deficits Personal Strengths
• Religion is an expression of • Identify the role of s/r in both restricting
psychopathology and promoting mental health
• Spirituality is inherently personal and • Compare diverse s/r perspectives for similar-
idiosyncratic ities, differences, and mutual understanding
Religion and Spirituality Are Religion and Spirituality
Inconsistent with the Nature of the Express the Nature of the
Profession Profession
Professional Boundary Concerns Domain Implications
• Religion and social work are separate • Religion, spirituality, and social work are
and mutually exclusive domains interrelated and can be complementary
• S/r are not important for understanding • Evidence shows that s/r are crucial for
clients understanding many clients and their cultures
• Addressing s/r would undermine the • Addressing s/r competently enhances the
status of the profession status of the profession
• S/r are the responsibility • Prepare workers to address s/r or refer and
of clergy collaborate with clergy as client prefers
Value Conflicts Value Dilemmas
• Involving religion increases the danger • Address s/r in a manner consistent with
of proselytization and violation of professional values and ethics
clients’ self-determination • Support church/state separation,
• Addressing religion weakens church/ freedom of religious practice, and
state separation respect for diversity
• Social work should be value free or objective • Social work is inherently value based
• S/r are inconsistent with a scientific base • Addressing spirituality is consistent with
for practice current scientific evidence
• Social workers tend to be irreligious or • Social workers are often religious and
uninterested always spiritual
Logistical Problems Logistical Solutions
Inadequate State of the Art Emerging State of the Art
• Concept of spirituality is too vague • Create clear definitions and conceptual
for use models
• Efforts to combine s/r and social work • Utilize extensive available knowledge for
are not adequately developed linking s/r to service
• Supporting evidence is not yet adequate • Explore extensive interdisciplinary research
• Workers are unprepared to address, so and expand social work research
better to ignore or refer • Enhance education of workers
(continued)

7
8 central values and concepts

Table 1.1. Continued.

Opposing Views Supporting Views

Curriculum Concerns Curriculum Opportunities and

• Curriculum is already too crowded to Responsibilities
include s/r • Implement both infusion and
• Educators are unprepared to teach, so specialization in curriculum
better to ignore • Engage educators in continuing
education and curriculum development

Table 1.2. Appropriate to Raise Topic of Religion/Spirituality by Client Issue.

Raise Topic of Religion/Spirituality Religion Spirituality
with . . .
% Agree —
x S % Agree —
x S

Terminal illness 74.9 3.81 1.06 86.1 4.15 0.92

Substance abuse 53.1 3.37 1.10 72.8 3.84 0.99
Foster parent 56.8 3.43 1.09 63.6 3.66 1.03
Adoptive parent 58.2 3.45 1.10 64.7 3.67 1.03
Difficult child or adolescent 37.5 3.09 1.06 55.2 3.51 1.02
development
Sexual abuse 46.6 3.24 1.11 64.6 3.67 1.05
Partner violence 44.4 3.20 1.09 61.9 3.62 1.04
Suffering effects of natural disaster 56.3 3.43 1.08 71.2 3.78 1.02
Bereaved 72.1 3.75 1.03 81.9 4.05 0.91
Chronic mental disorder 36.5 3.06 1.08 52.2 3.45 1.06
Loss of job 37.1 3.08 1.06 54.0 3.48 1.05
Difficulty in family relations 43.7 3.19 1.05 59.6 3.56 1.01
Criminal justice 37.5 3.09 1.07 52.8 3.46 1.03

Note: A t-test of means showed a significant difference between religion and spirituality with cli-
ents presenting the same problem, with p < 0.001. Respondents were significantly more likely to
believe it is appropriate to raise the topic of nonsectarian spirituality than religion.

However, for every issue, fewer believed it was appropriate to raise the subject of
religion than nonsectarian spirituality. These findings indicate that many social
workers recognize the importance of spirituality and religion while also making
a distinction in applying them to practice.
Social workers in the 2008 National Survey were asked new questions to
indicate their level of agreement regarding the appropriateness of raising the
topic of religion and spirituality with clients from vulnerable populations (see
Table 1.3). A large majority of respondents agreed that it is appropriate to raise
the topic of spirituality with clients who are dealing with oppression. Although
fewer believed it was appropriate to raise the subject of religion than nonsec-
tarian spirituality, a large majority of respondents agreed that it is appropriate
to raise the topics of religion and spirituality with clients who are experiencing
religious oppression.
Guiding Principles 9

Table 1.3. Appropriate to Raise Topic of Religion/Spirituality with Vulnerable

Populations.
Raise Topic of Religion/Spirituality Religion Spirituality
with . . .
% Agree —
x S % Agree —
x S

Race, ethnicity, or national origin 42.7 3.18 1.09 59.2 3.56 1.03
Gender 40.6 3.13 1.09 56.1 3.51 1.05
Sexual Orientation 45.2 3.21 1.11 59.8 3.56 1.06
Older adulthood 42.7 3.17 1.11 60.1 3.58 1.04
Political beliefs 34.6 3.03 1.07 50.7 3.41 1.05
Religious beliefs 79.8 4.00 1.01 82.2 4.05 0.93
Disability 40.7 3.14 1.10 58.5 3.55 1.05
Poverty 39.3 3.10 1.10 55.9 3.51 1.03

Note: A t-test of means showed a significant difference between religion and spirituality with cli-
ents presenting the same issue, with p < 0.001, except for religious beliefs (p < 0.05). Respondents
were significantly more likely to believe it is appropriate to raise the topic of nonsectarian spirituality
than religion.

Although the same general patterns emerged in the 2008 National Survey
as in 1997, the respondents were significantly less likely (p < 0.05, based on mean
ratings) to feel that it is appropriate to raise the topic of religion with certain
client issues than in 1997: terminal illness, foster parenting, bereavement, and
difficult family relations. On the other hand, 2008 respondents were significantly
more likely (p < 0.001) to view raising the topic of religion with substance abuse
issues as appropriate. Overall, 2008 respondents were significantly less likely
(p < 0.05) than 1997 respondents to believe that it is appropriate to raise the topic
of spirituality with all client issues except for substance abuse and chronic mental
disorder. This might be because social workers have become even more cautious
about imposing their agendas on clients (since this question involved raising the
topic rather than responding to the client’s initiative), which would be a develop-
ment consistent with professional ethics (Canda, Nakashima, & Furman, 2004).
In any case, it is clear that most social workers are positively disposed toward
addressing spirituality and religion in practice.
Unfortunately, our 2008 National Survey showed that nearly 65% of respon-
dents did not receive content on spirituality or religion in their social work
education. On a positive note, this was 8% less than the 73% who reported no
educational content in 1997. Among those who had received educational content
on religion and spirituality in 1997 (27%) and 2008 (35%), there were few differ-
ences between the two groups regarding raising the topic of religion. A major-
ity of the 2008 National Survey responders agreed that social workers should
become more knowledgeable about spiritual matters (66.1%, n = 1,167) and reli-
gious matters (51.3%, n = 906). Nearly 25%, however, agreed that workers do
not have the skill to assist clients in religious and spiritual matters. This finding
is much lower than the 39% reported in 1997, which might reflect a promising
trend of increased sense of competence. Yet it appears that many social work
10 central values and concepts

practitioners do not feel adequately prepared to address religion or spirituality,

even though they recognize the importance.
It should be noted, however, that given the mean age of 58 for 2008 respon-
dents, many received their education and training before religion and spiritu-
ality were acceptable subjects in the social work curriculum. It is perhaps not
surprising then that respondents at or above the mean age of 58 had significantly
lower mean ratings on all of the issues related to raising the topic of religion
and of spirituality, except for raising the topic of religion with foster and adop-
tive parenting, than those respondents below the mean age. Th is reinforces the
inference that over the past 10 years, openness to spirituality in social work has
increased.
Imagine the following practice scenario. It illustrates the importance of pre-
venting mistakes in practice due to neglect of spiritual and cultural factors. We
are confident that you will have increased sense of competence and confidence
to address this and other issues of spirituality by the time you complete reading
this book
Several years ago, a mental health consumers’ advocacy group in Kansas
discovered that a Mexican American woman had been kept in a psychiatric hos-
pital for more than 10 years, without adequate review of her case. The woman
originally had been taken to the hospital by police, who found her rummaging
in a garbage bin and acting strangely. Hospital staff considered her to have a
severe and persistent mental disorder, as evidenced by semi-incoherent speech,
repetitive walking motions and gestures, unsociability, and bizarre beliefs and
perceptions. The diagnosis had been confi rmed by a Spanish-speaking psychi-
atrist. Upon further investigation, the advocates discovered a series of cultural
and religious misunderstandings by helping professionals. They learned that
the woman was wandering the streets due to poverty and severe grief after the
death of her husband; she had no social support system. The psychiatrist who
diagnosed her was Cuban American; he could not correctly understand the
woman, who spoke a blend of Mexican Spanish, Tarahumara (an Indigenous
language), and English. Some of the woman’s initial disorientation was due
to being overwhelmed by adversity and grief. Some of the ongoing suppos-
edly bizarre beliefs and behaviors were rooted in her Tarahumara religious
tradition and practices for self-protection. The woman’s mental health sta-
tus was reassessed. Th rough cooperation with the Mexican embassy, she was
assisted to return to her home village in Mexico. If you were a social worker
at the hospital, how could you have prevented these cultural and religious
misunderstandings?

Principles That Guide the Writing of This Book

Seven principles have guided our writing: demonstrating value clarity, respect-
ing spiritual diversity, being reflective, supporting strengths and empowerment,
Guiding Principles 11

Table 1.4. Guiding Principles.

1. Demonstrating Value Clarity
• Self-reflection
• Appropriate self-disclosure
• Dialogue
• Inclusive and transcendent perspective
2. Respecting Diversity
• Appreciation of all types of human diversity
• Nondiscrimination
• Interreligious, interdisciplinary, and international collaboration
• Affirmation of human rights and responsibilities
• Provisional approach to spiritually sensitive practice
• Engagement with locality-specific and culturally specific approaches
3. Being Reflective
• Introspection and reflection between self and world
• Silent mindfulness
• Transformational learning
4. Supporting Strengths and Empowerment
• Relating to people as whole beings
• Emphasizing strengths, resources, capacities, aspirations
• Overcoming personal, interpersonal, and structural obstacles
• Action for well-being and justice
• Considering helpful and harmful impacts of religion and spirituality
5. Taking a Holistic Perspective
• Understanding person/environment wholeness
• Engaging thinking, feeling, sensing, intuiting, and relating
• Focusing on direct practice within wider systems and transpersonal view
• Connecting local and global
6. Applying Best Practices
• Competence
• Evidence from an expanded view of inquiry
• Multiple ways of knowing
• Theoretical sophistication
• Grounding in professional mission and values
• Client-centered determination of “best”
7. Comparing within and between Vantage Points on Spirituality and Religion
• General or universal aspects of human experience and culture
• Particular religious and nonreligious expressions of spirituality
• Underlying assumptions, strengths, and weaknesses of views
• Process of reflection and communication

taking a holistic perspective, applying best practices, and comparing within and
between vantage points on spirituality.

Demonstrating Value Clarity

In our writing, we do not claim or wish to be value free or bereft of moral stan-
dards, nor do we wish to impose our own values as absolute or superior truths.
We promote another way that we call value clarity. First, value clarity means
that each of us must be clear about our own values and how they shape us. Only
12 central values and concepts

in this way can we engage in conscientious self-reflection and growth. Second,

whenever relevant and appropriate, we need to make our value positions explicit
to colleagues and clients so that we can engage together in dialogue, sorting out
the value dilemmas and possible conflicts involved. Through dialogue, our for-
mation of values, ethics, and morals can be enriched, broadened, and refi ned.
When educators and practitioners make their value positions explicit, then
students, clients, and colleagues can scrutinize them and make choices about
whether to agree or disagree. Only then is informed consent possible. In this
way, we can examine how our values may affect the course of research, teach-
ing, or practice, and we can take steps to engage them constructively or to
change them.
This does not mean we should engage in self-revelation merely for our own
purposes, out of self-preoccupation or grandiosity. As in all social work practice,
we should engage in self-disclosure at times and in ways that are appropriate to
the needs and circumstances of those we serve. However, not to self-disclose at
all, or to hold major areas of who we are in secrecy, restricts our participation
in helping as full human beings. In addition, it replaces the danger of openly
imposed agendas with the danger of subtly imposed hidden agendas.
Discussion of religious and spiritual matters intensifies concerns about value
openness precisely because people sometimes claim ultimate and absolute truth
status for their religiously or ideologically based opinions. For social work pur-
poses, absolutism is inappropriate. Social workers are not trained as theologians,
philosophers, or metaphysicians; nor are they authorized by their profession or
society to dictate absolute truths to clients. Although absolutism stems from a
praiseworthy desire to know what is true, it is unworkable for professional help-
ers because it is based on an unrealistic and conceited assumption that the helper
knows all and knows what is best for everyone. It excludes alternatives that may
be important to the well-being of clients and their communities. It precludes
dialogue and mutual understanding. For example, a social worker who believes
that his or her religion proclaims with absolute authority that homosexuality is
merely a matter of choice for people (and a sinful choice at that) likely will not
be amenable to dialogue and revision of the value position. Scientific evidence or
professional admonishments notwithstanding, the social worker might believe it
is her or his duty to so-called fi x the gay or lesbian client through religious con-
version or psychotherapeutic manipulations.
This kind of rigid thinking is not the exclusive province of religion. Value
rigid positions can be found among ideologues of every stripe, whether political,
theoretical, or religious. The clinician who fervently believes in the dictates of
Erik Erikson’s stage theory of human development might try to evaluate every
client in terms of developmental tasks achieved and ego functions mastered, no
matter what gender, ethnic background, sexual orientation, or type of ability or
disability. The Bowenian family therapist who is inattentive to cultural variation
might misinterpret the Confucian fi lial piety of a Korean American eldest son
and his wife, who live in an extended family household, as a form of immature
Guiding Principles 13

enmeshment. The community organizer who is a strict classical Marxist might

ignore or denigrate the potentially empowering spiritual and religious aspects of
community life.
Another value pitfall appears at first to be the opposite of absolutism, that
is, relativism. Relativism is more typical of certain secular ideologies, such as
extreme forms of postmodernism, than religions. By this we mean a stance that
social workers should hold no value positions or morals and should not judge cli-
ents on any basis, because (it is claimed) there are no universally valid values and
no universal qualities of human beings. Relativism stems from a praiseworthy
desire to avoid imposing irrelevant or harmful beliefs and standards on diverse
clients, cultures, and varied situations (Mullaly, 2006). However, strictly speaking,
relativism is unworkable for social work because it implies that it is impossible to
understand, evaluate, or help across differences of culture, gender, religion, and
other human variations. It inhibits the search for common ground and solidar-
ity within and between groups working toward well-being and social justice. By
focusing exclusively on situation-specific rights and empowerment, it sheds little
insight on universal human rights and responsibilities. When difference and sep-
aration are overly emphasized, empathic connection is hampered. By confound-
ing judgment with judgmentalism and discriminating thinking with negative
discrimination, the exercise of careful discernment and assessment fails.
In fact, relativism is another variety of absolutism because it claims as abso-
lute truth that there are no absolute or universal truths. Indeed, as the integral
theorist Ken Wilber (2000a & b) pointed out, an extreme postmodern posi-
tion that no perspective is better than any other is a self-contradiction in that
it claims itself to be better than absolutism and other perspectives. Further, to
claim that there is no absolute truth is a self-contradicting absolute claim of
truth. Practically speaking, social workers are necessarily involved in matters
of values and (at least provisional) truth claims, such as in professional codes
of ethics, human rights accords, laws for public rights and responsibilities, and
uses of helping practices supported by empirical research. Social workers must
find common ground with clients in order to communicate and collaborate. We
must be able to “step into others shoes,” to take their perspectives, and to con-
nect our minds and hearts with clients if we are to have rapport in the helping
relationship. We need to be able to assist clients in many kinds of discernment
such as strengths assessment, mental health diagnosis, and identifying counter-
productive client behaviors, and oppressive environmental conditions. We need
to assist clients when they wish to examine the helpful and harmful influences
of religions and nonreligious spiritual perspectives. For example, Shim (in press)
critiqued the so-called cultural defense used by some abusive Asian American
men to legitimize abuse of their wives. This defense did not take into account
the wives’ perspectives on what is appropriate, nor did it examine the philosoph-
ical foundations (such as Confucianism) claimed to support wife abuse. Indeed,
original Confucian teachings emphasize reciprocal care and responsibilities in
families, not violence.
14 central values and concepts

Lines of dialogue
leading to an
inclusive and
transcendent
perspective

.............................................
Relativism:
Every point
is true in its
own context Absolutism:
Only this
point is true
for every
context

Figure 1.1. Transperspectival view: transcending absolutism and relativism.

We wish to avoid the extremes of absolutism and relativism. We also accept

the importance of seeking truth, appreciating the contextual nature of truth
claims, and avoiding the unjust domination of certain views over others. So
we recommend the alternative of value clarity: to be clear and open about our
various value positions, to continuously reflect within ourselves, and to engage
in ongoing respectful dialogue (commune-icating) with others (Figure 1.1). In
addition, we need to do this in a way that encourages mutual growth. Thus we
can learn to appreciate the various truths of clients and their communities and
we can facilitate collaborative connection in the helping process. We can move
to a vaster perspective that includes the positive contributions of a variety of
truths, while transcending their limitations. Th is book is designed to encourage
readers’ development toward such a widely inclusive perspective for spiritually
sensitive practice.
This is consistent with the wisdom of a great social activist, Mahatma
Gandhi. While he believed that there is a divine truth that transcends yet
informs all cultures and religions, he felt that this truth is beyond the ability of
anyone to know completely, given our limitations as human beings. Humility
was a virtue he praised. He believed that every person and every human group
is seeking truth, but that no one has exclusive possession or full understanding
of truth. Even in conflict with oppressors, Gandhi sought to discover the oppo-
nents’ understanding of truth. He avoided dehumanizing anyone, even when he
was unjustly persecuted. His philosophy of nonviolence was made dynamic by
Guiding Principles 15

the principle of satyagraha, or Truth Force. If each person strives continually to

understand the truth, and opens up to others and helps others in their search for
truth, we can all move closer to realization of truth (Erikson, 1969; Fischer, 1950;
Gandhi, no date; Walz & Ritchie, 2000). This is spiritually sensitive and peace
promoting social activism.
While we do not claim to achieve this profound level of value clarity, we
commit ourselves to strive toward it. We hope that our own self-disclosures and
our juxtapositioning of many different spiritual perspectives will help the reader
on his or her own search for truth.
In order to encourage value clarity, we will use two literary devices in our
writing style. One literary device is the traditional academic style of third person.
This allows us to present ideas without making personal comments about them.
It helps us present the thinking of others in their own terms and also to adhere to
the rigors of academic scholarship. The other literary device is the narrative style
of first and second person. Sometimes we will make explicit where we are giving
voice to our joint personal views (we) or the views of just one of us (I). When
writing in the first person, we will specify our initials (EC or LF). For example,
it seems to us rather awkward and artificial to write “the authors believe . . . ” It
is more direct to say “we believe.” We include autobiographical accounts of our
personal and professional experiences for two reasons. First, we do this to illus-
trate how we strive to integrate spirituality into our lives and work. We do this
also to expose aspects of our backgrounds and assumptions that shape this book
and should be available for critical scrutiny. You will notice that we have simi-
larities and differences between our spiritual perspectives. Our writing models
dialogue and collaboration by honoring differences and finding commonalities.
We hope this encourages you to work out your own integration between the per-
sonal and professional aspects of your lives.

Respecting Diversity
The social work profession promotes appreciation for all aspects of human diver-
sity. Diversity is often discussed in the social work literature in terms of race, eth-
nicity, national origin, culture, religion, social class, gender, marital status, sexual
orientation, political belief, and variations of ability. In particular, the Council
on Social Work Education’s (CSWE) Educational Policy and Accreditation
Standards (2001 and 2008, retrieved from www.cswe.org on August 9, 2008) iden-
tify that education and practice should reflect nondiscrimination on the basis of
religion and that students learn about religion as an aspect of human diversity
as well as spiritual development. The National Association of Social Workers’
(NASW) Code of Ethics is opposed to discrimination on the basis of religion or
creed and expects social workers to obtain education and understanding about
religion (Ethical Standards 1.05.c and 4.02, 1999). The International Federation
of Social Workers’ (IFSW)/ International Association of Schools of Social Work
(IASSW) “Ethics in Social Work, Statement of Principles” (Principle 4.2, 2005,
16 central values and concepts

retrieved from www.ifsw.org on August 9, 2008) states that social workers should
not engage in negative (i.e., harmful) discrimination on the basis of spiritual
beliefs. Many different spiritual perspectives shape American society, the global
community, and the clients and communities whom social workers serve; there-
fore, social workers must be prepared to understand and relate with them in a
respectful manner (e.g. Bullis, 1996; Canda, 1988a & 1988b; Canda & Chambers,
1994; Coates, Graham, Swartzentruber, & Ouellette, 2007; Crompton, 1998;
Lindsay, 2002; Loewenberg, 1989; Moss, 2005; Nash & Stewart, 2002; Patel, Naik,
& Humphries, 1997; Van Hook, Hugen, & Aguilar, 2001). Genuine respect is
more than just tolerance. Respect for diversity should extend to a genuine appre-
ciation for diversity and to a competent response to the diverse backgrounds and
situations of clients.
This raises a difficult issue. Some religions and secular ideologies propose
that their way is the only true and correct way. From these exclusivist per-
spectives, spiritual diversity is seen as a problem. Variations from their beliefs
are viewed as heresies, dangerous deceptions, or at best, misguided views that
should be corrected. From an exclusivist view, the only acceptable kind of social
work would be one that is sectarian, based on one’s own religious or ideological
beliefs.
This is not our position. We are committed to inclusiveness in spiritually
sensitive social work and we encourage interreligious, interdisciplinary, and
international dialogue and cooperation for human service. Exclusivists may not
be comfortable with this, but we submit our position for consideration by all.
Perhaps our greatest challenge is how we can be inclusive of exclusivist spiritual
perspectives. For example, there has been a debate within the Council on Social
Work Education about whether social work programs in certain religiously affi l-
iated schools should be able to apply for an exemption from the requirement
of nondiscrimination against people on the basis of sexual orientation (Parr &
Jones, 1996; Van Soest, 1996). More recently, there have been claims and coun-
terclaims that the social work profession systematically discriminates against
people of conservative religious views in education and practice due to a pre-
dominance of elitist, liberal, and secular views (e.g., see Hodge, 2002 and subse-
quent letters to the editor in Social Work, 2003, volume 48, number 2).
Our position affirms social work professional standards of nondiscrimina-
tion as well as international human rights accords, such as the United Nations
Universal Declaration on Human Rights, while realizing that concepts of ethics
and human rights are continuously unfolding and that they must be adapted and
developed situationally (Ife, 2001). We appreciate Ife’s broad statement of moral
principles for social work: “Act so as always to affirm and realize the human
rights of all people. Do nothing to restrict, deny or violate the human rights of
anyone” (p. 111). At the same time, we recognize the importance of responsibil-
ities and reciprocity, which, we believe, are relevant to all cultures, but are espe-
cially emphasized in more communalistic (rather than individualistic) cultures
(Yip, 2004). For example, we do not support any form of discrimination against
Guiding Principles 17

gay or lesbian people or any other groups. And we also do not support restric-
tion of religious freedom, discrimination on the basis of religion or creed, forced
religious conversions, or discrimination against nonreligious people. The right to
engage in religion goes together with the right of not engaging in religion. Thus,
religious and nonreligious people have a responsibility to respect those who dif-
fer from them and to promote the common good of society and world. Therefore,
our approach is to encourage discussion and debate in a respectful manner about
such contentious issues and dilemmas. We will return to this complex issue in
the next chapter.
Further, while we advocate our approach to spiritually sensitive practice as
a provisional guide for social work, we emphasize that practitioners need to con-
sider carefully what may or may not be relevant to particular clients’ situations,
locales, and cultural contexts. Population-specific, locality-specific, and cultur-
ally specific approaches to social work need to be developed from the ground
up; they also need to be connected in mutual affirmation and scrutiny (Gray &
Fook, 2004). Indeed, we have pulled together many of these context-specific
insights with insights from general theories and cross-cultural and interdisci-
plinary views to form our approach. However, we realize that our approach, as
all approaches, is limited. Please adapt what is useful and throw away what is
not. We hope that this book spurs dialogue and collaborations within and across
many approaches to social work.

Being Reflective
In writing the two editions of this book, we have engaged in a long process of
self-reflection in order to link our own personal and professional experiences
with others’ work and to cull out implications for spiritually sensitive practice.
In doing so, we changed and grew. Personal engagement in learning is a trans-
formative experience that requires reflectivity, the practice of introspective self-
reflection, and reflection about how one’s inner life and the outer world reflect on
each other. The capacity for reflection is necessary for the development of insight
into self and others and to form empathic and intuitive connection with others.
Our responsibility is to present this book in a way that encourages and
catalyzes the reader’s continuing development through reflectivity (Ashencaen
Crabtree, Husain, & Spalek, 2008). This can only be successful if there is a will-
ingness by each reader to approach the reading of this book as an opportunity
for growth. We have written this book with a stance of value clarity in a format
that encourages reflectivity in the reader. We include our own self-reflections in
autobiographical passages and provide exercises for the reader to engage in self-
reflection and critical thinking in response to the text. In addition, we wish to
offer here some suggestions for how to read this book in a reflective manner.
The prerequisite for reflective reading is silence. Silence means quieting in
order to know oneself, the inner stirrings of the heart, and the discerning wis-
dom of the intellect. This is the starting place for the cultivation of intuition and
18 central values and concepts

practice wisdom that make social work an empathic connection with clients,
rather than mere technical manipulation and rule enforcement (Keefe, 1996;
Koenig & Spano, 1998; Krill, 1990). Intuition and practice wisdom involve the
ability to respond spontaneously at just the right moment in just the right way to
a client. This requires clear awareness focused in the moment.
Reflective silence does not necessarily require absence of external noise or
internal mental chatter. But it does require a willingness to become introspec-
tive, to “get centered,” and to pay gentle consistent attention to oneself and one’s
situation. The Vietnamese Buddhist meditation teacher, Thich Nhat Hanh (1987,
p. 14), refereed to this as mindfulness:

Keep your attention focused on the work, be alert and ready to handle ably
and intelligently any situation which may arise—this is mindfulness. There is
no reason why mindfulness should be different from focusing all one’s atten-
tion on one’s work, to be alert and to be using one’s best judgment. During
the moment one is consulting, resolving, and dealing with whatever arises, a
calm heart and self-control are necessary if one is to obtain good results . . .
Mindfulness is the miracle by which we master and restore ourselves . . . it is
the miracle which can call back in a flash our dispersed mind and restore it to
wholeness so that we can live each moment of life.

Therefore, we invite you to pause for a moment before sitting to read this
book. Take a gentle breath, relax, center yourself, and prepare to read with a
quiet and clear mind.
Mindful, reflective reading opens the possibility of discovering passages
that seem to jump out at us, as if they were meant just for the reader. It allows
readers to reflect sincerely and intelligently on the implications of the reading for
personal and professional development. In effect, mindful reading can become a
dialogue between ourselves and the text in which we discover important insights
about ourselves and our work with clients.
This is quite contrary to a common academic way of reading. Often when
we read a book for purposes of academic study, we read as if we are doing a
heavy chore. We sift the text for facts, analyze and categorize, and try to pick out
what we need to know for a class test or a professional licensing exam. Analytical
reading is necessary but not sufficient for growth. If we read with brain but no
heart, then we can master the facts but miss the implications for our own per-
sonal and professional transformation.
The Confucian tradition of East Asia emphasizes scholarship as a means
of cultivating wisdom to apply to social service (Canda, 2002a). The traditional
Chinese concept of mind (shim) combines the Western ideas of thinking mind
and feeling heart. The Korean Neo-Confucian sage T’oegye (lived 1501–1570)
said, “What is the meaning of ‘thought’? It is seeking the matter out in one’s own
mind-and-heart and having a personal experience and grasp of it.” (quoted in
Kalton, 1988, p. 108). Kalton summarized the Neo-Confucian ideal of learning
this way: “This reminds us once again that learning in this context is a spiritual
Guiding Principles 19

project, and the essential exercise of the mind is not speculative knowledge but
personal transformation through a profound personal understanding and appro-
priation of what is studied” (p. 108).
Reflectivity requires discerning the difference between our own projected
biases, fantasies, and assumptions and the world as it is given to us. Therefore,
reflection offers both peril of distortion and promise of insight. For example,
when I (EC) was a young boy, I was both fascinated and frightened by look-
ing from my bright room at reflections in dark windows at night. Sometimes
I thought I saw surreal and frightening faces looking back at me. Looking closer,
I realized that I was seeing my own distorted reflections mixed with others.
“This was an important lesson, because it alerted me to be wary of distorted
reflections of myself, seen in the faces and actions of clients and students, loved
ones, and acquaintances. What is menacing is not the reflection itself, but rather
my mistaking the reflection for reality. Just like the dark window reflection, our
perception of clients is often a confused mix of their reality and our reflections”
(Canda, 1995b, p. 3).
But mysterious reflections can also be wonderful. My colleague and friend,
Professor Seung-Hee Park of Sungkyunkwan University in Seoul, Korea, trav-
eled and taught me and my students during four study abroad trips. Often, when
we visited a lovely palace or temple pond, he would exclaim enthusiastically to
the students: “Look at the water! See the reflections—aren’t they beautiful? Fish
are swimming in the clouds! What is real? What is real?”
This book presents beliefs and helping practices from many spiritual per-
spectives. It advocates for particular values and questions others. It raises con-
troversies and dilemmas. There is surely something here for everyone to feel:
agreement or disagreement, comfort or discomfort, as well as confusion and
clarity. In reflective reading, your reaction is not a matter of right or wrong. It is
crucial first to be aware of your reaction. Second, you need to reflect on where
the reaction comes from. A reaction is as much a result of what one brings to the
reading as whatever is in the book. So pay gentle but keen attention to your reac-
tions. What do they tell you about your own personal history, professional expe-
rience, biases, assumptions, spiritual beliefs and commitments, strengths, and
limitations? Each strong reaction, favorable or unfavorable, is a message to pay
attention to whatever it is in oneself that gives rise to the reaction. When this is
understood, the third step is to consider what one’s reaction implies for contin-
ued personal and professional growth. If a limitation of attitude, skill, or knowl-
edge is identified, what can one do to correct the limitation and move beyond it?
If a strength or resource within oneself or the environment is newly identified or
the appreciation is heightened, how can it be used more effectively in practice?

Supporting Strengths and Empowerment

We support strengths perspective on social work in general and spirituality in
social work in particular (Saleebey, 2009). Strengths based social work means
20 central values and concepts

that people are viewed as whole beings, with inherent capacities for resilience
and creativity. When they seek help for problems, they are never reduced to
those problems. Problems are just one facet of their situation, not the defining
facet. Problems are opportunities for growth and challenges for creativity. For
example, if a person has a disability, the disability is one aspect of his or her situ-
ation. It is not the whole person. The client should never be reduced to a pathol-
ogy or deficit label or negative expectations that come along with it. To define a
person or situation only in terms of problems, defects, barriers, or deficiencies is
to dehumanize and to dull our awareness of the strengths, resources, capacities,
and resiliencies the person has used successfully to deal with having a disability.
These inner strengths, environmental resources, and empowering actions need
to be the focus of helping in order to support the actualization of people’s goals
and aspirations (Kim & Canda, 2006).
We also believe that empowerment is an important complement to the
strengths perspective (Gutierrez, Parsons, & Cox, 2003; Lee, 2001; Saleebey,
2009). Empowerment requires that people become aware of obstacles to indi-
vidual hopes and collective justice. This awareness then becomes shared with
others in solidarity, so that mutual support and collective wisdom and action
can lead to proactive response. Action for personal and social change is the next
step. Awareness is not enough. Ironically, if a person only ventilates painful feel-
ings about injustice, the feelings of hurt and anger may dissipate leading to tem-
porary relief but no lasting benefit. So empowerment requires developing and
implementing an action plan for change in oneself and the environment.
Respecting diversity and demonstrating value clarity and reflectivity are
crucial ingredients for identifying strengths and empowering action. This is why
we suggested in the previous section that the reader should engage in a reflec-
tive process of reading that moves from self-awareness of strengths and limita-
tions and aspirations to actions supporting personal and professional growth.
We encourage you to discuss your growth process with family, friends, and col-
leagues, to the extent it is comfortable and secure to do so. Make the most of
any spiritual support group or religious community in which you already par-
ticipate or develop new ones. Work out explicit plans for further implementation
of learning in social work practice. Where obstacles or injustices are identified,
perceive them as challenges and opportunities for creative transformative action.
Make common cause and cooperation with others as you work for peace and jus-
tice through spiritually sensitive practice.
In writing this book, we focus on the strengths and resources available by
incorporating spirituality and religion into social work practice. We also con-
sider the obstacles and pitfalls that they may involve for people. As with any
aspect of human life, religion and spirituality can be used to support or impede
individual fulfi llment and social justice. For example, I (EC) once visited the
Catholic basilica in Mexico City. For me, this basilica was an intense symbol
for the complexity of religion and spirituality. The beautiful religious artwork
and architecture were inspiring. The images of Christ’s compassion and the
Guiding Principles 21

gentleness of his mother Mary, especially as Our Lady of Guadeloupe, patron

saint of the Americas, illustrate virtues to which I aspire. Indeed, Our Lady
of Guadalupe is believed to have appeared to Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin, an
Aztec convert, in 1531, and is therefore regarded by some as a sign of respect
for Indigenous peoples. However, at the same time, there is something terrible
about the history of the basilica. The guide explained that the original basilica
was built upon the ruins of Aztec sacred temples, destroyed by the conquista-
dors, in order to show the might and victory of the Spanish colonialists and their
church. The very people who were subjugated by this colonization were forced to
build this church on the remains of their desecrated sites. The beauty and gran-
deur of the basilica cannot be denied and neither can the inhumanity and injus-
tice of its origin. Both of these qualities coexist in the history of the Catholic
Church and pose a dilemma for the Catholic faithful, as the contemplative activ-
ist monk, Thomas Merton (1968a) pointed out. As a member of the Catholic
tradition myself, I must confront this paradox openly and honestly. Indeed, the
late Pope John Paul II, in an effort to promote reconciliation, made apologies on
behalf of the church for more than 100 forms of oppression and abuse, includ-
ing of Indigenous peoples, during his pontificate (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Pope_John_Paul_II#Apologies, Retrieved August 9, 2008).
In various ways, we all face this paradox. It is not unique to the Catholic
Church. I have seen similar situations in every ideology and religious tradition
I have explored around the world. Within every country there are religious and
spiritual experiences, practices, and groups that provide great solace, strength,
beauty, wisdom, and empowerment; there are also the harmful manifestations of
religion and spirituality gone awry (Demerath, 2007; Derezotes, 2006; Koenig,
2007). In this book, we acknowledge both, seeking to actualize the strengths and
resources of people and communities, while striving to transform problems and
obstacles into challenges and opportunities for working through to ever-greater
levels of well-being and justice.

Taking a Holistic Perspective

In social work, we often say that we wish to understand the whole person-in-the-
environment. It is necessary to learn about the roles of religion and spirituality
if we are to have such an understanding. In our conceptualization of spiritual-
ity, we will address the inextricable interrelationship between spirituality and
the biological, psychological, social, and larger ecological dimensions of human
experience (Coates, 2007; Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 2006).
We also wish to engage the whole person in the process of learning about
spirituality and social work. For this reason, we present features of this book that
engage thinking, feeling, sensing, intuiting, and relating with ourselves and oth-
ers, human and nonhuman. We encourage analytical, critical thinking. We evoke
feelings using images, metaphors, and self-reflection exercises. We provide guid-
ance for practices that help to cultivate intuition, such as meditation and empathy
22 central values and concepts

when relating with clients. We review current developments for practice in a

variety of fields and with a wide range of populations. Although the main focus
is on direct practice, we consider larger meso and macro social systems as well.
We focus on spiritually sensitive practice in the United States and inter-
weave it with insights and concerns of the wider social and planetary envi-
ronment. The United States is like a microcosm of the world in that it includes
people representing many of the languages, cultures, and religions of the world.
American social workers can learn from social workers around the world how to
enhance practice with this internal diversity, work with refugee and immigrant
groups, and collaborate in international social welfare efforts. Likewise, there
may be lessons to learn around the world from American social work successes
and failures. This connection of local and global perspectives extends to human/
nature interdependency as informed by ecophilosophy and spiritual traditions
of service that respect the Earth and all beings. Finally, we consider how various
spiritual perspectives understand the nature of ultimate reality, in theistic, non-
theistic, animistic, atheistic, or other terms and the implications for human ser-
vice. All of this includes appreciation for spiritual experiences and transpersonal
development that bring people through and beyond limitation to the individ-
ual body-ego into profound connection and compassion with other people, all
beings, and the ground of being itself, however understood and beyond under-
standing (Canda & Smith, 2001; Wilber, 2006).

Applying Best Practices

A major concern in social work and related helping professions is how to know
whether our helping practices are effective. Practitioners wish to engage the prac-
tices that best benefit our clients. The NASW Code of Ethics rightfully mandates
that social workers must be competent in their areas of practice. We concur that
spiritually sensitive practice implies that social workers must accurately evalu-
ate their qualifications to employ specific practices and further, they must assess
whether the processes and outcomes of their work genuinely serve the purposes
of clients. The most prevalent current manifestation of this concern for best prac-
tice is empirically based practice or evidence-based practice (Petr & Walter, 2005),
influenced by medical and social scientific research. Indeed, empirical research
is showing through hundreds of studies in several disciplines that positive sense
of spiritual meaning and religious participation are related to reduced levels of
depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and risk behaviors along with an increased
sense of well-being and mutual support (Koenig, 2007; Koenig, McCullough, &
Larson, 2001; Miller, 1999; Miller & Thoreson, 2003; Pargament, 2007; Richards
& Bergin, 2005; Sperry & Shafranske, 2005). Specific spiritually based practices,
such as forgiveness, meditation, and spiritually oriented cognitive-behavioral
therapy are also showing promise.
However, we do not limit ourselves to common narrow assumptions of empir-
ically or evidence-based practice. We wish to remain true to our professional
Guiding Principles 23

values, tradition, and perspective even as we draw on methods and knowledge

from other disciplines. As Petr and Walter (2005) point out, empirically based
practice is often construed to mean practice that is restricted to activities that
have been supported as effective by specific types of quantitative research designs.
Although the word “empirical” simply means “based on experience,” the type of
evidence allowed in conventional empirically based research is limited to sensory
perception, logic, and rationality within a positivist worldview (Lincoln & Guba,
1985; Patton, 2002; Rodwell, 1998; Wilber, 1998). “Evidence-based practice” is
often given a slightly wider meaning that emphasizes the importance of linking
empirically derived evidence (which may supplement quantitative methods with
qualitative) with client concerns, professional discretion, and professional ethical
priorities. Petr and Walter make the helpful recommendation to expand inquiry
to include even greater involvement of qualitative studies, consumer perspec-
tives, practice wisdom, program descriptions, professional standards of practice,
and consideration of whether practices are accessible, affordable, accountable,
and linked to other services in the community.
We suggest that the concept of useful evidence be expanded further to
include information from any systematic and disciplined form of inquiry, the
methods and results of which are subject to scrutiny by others, and for which
there is sufficient current support to merit application in practice and further
study. As we will explain in Chapter 3, the concept of spirituality includes cer-
tain quantifiable and measurable aspects (such as frequency of church attendance
or level of self-assessed sense of meaning); various processes, experiences, and
systems that are best explored through qualitative methods of observation (such
as the subjective experience of meditation or the communal patterns of mutual
support in religious groups); and certain transpersonal experiences and levels of
consciousness that can best be explored through contemplative and transper-
sonal methods (Braud & Anderson, 1998). While we recognize the utility of the
scientific method as it has derived from European and American cultures, we
also respect the forms of knowledge and wisdom found among the elders, men-
tors, and adepts of religious traditions and culturally specific healing systems
around the world. We value understanding that comes from a convergence of
sensory, rational, emotional, and intuitive ways of knowing. For a truly integral
approach, we need to combine inquiry approaches that address both the subjec-
tive and objective dimensions of individual and collective phenomena of spir-
ituality (Wilber, 2006). Further, there are many metaphysical claims about the
nature of reality, sacredness, and the divine that we make no attempt to either
support or refute, since they are beyond our purview as social work researchers
and educators. However, we respectfully convey many of these claims in the con-
text of particular spiritual perspectives, so that you may understand adherents’
views.
Research methods and evidence are formed by people who hold world-
views and theoretical assumptions that shape their research questions, methods,
and resultant evidence. Therefore, we also consider how practices connect with
24 central values and concepts

theoretical frameworks that are attentive to spirituality. To adapt the criteria for
evaluation of theories set out by Robbins et al. (2006), we appreciate a range of
spiritually oriented practices that (1) take into account the whole person in rela-
tionship; (2) foster positive development through the life span; (3) promote well-
being for individuals, families, organizations, institutions, communities, and
world; (4) are consistent with social work values and ethics; (5) are consistent
with a holistic view of the person-in-environment; and (6) emphasize strengths
and resources in attaining full human potential while addressing intrapersonal
and environmental barriers.
It is beyond the scope of this book to discuss these research issues in detail.
Although empirical research on spirituality in social work and allied fields is
still relatively new, it is growing quickly. We have drawn on the latest findings
on best practices from many fields, using our broad understanding of evidence
and research. Please keep in mind, though, that what is considered “best” should
always change as more information comes to light and as practitioners identify
through client feedback exactly what is or is not working in a particular situa-
tion. We ask the reader to look to our extensive references to fi nd more informa-
tion about the practices and their support by formal research, practice wisdom,
client/consumer views, theory, and professional value and ethical standards. We
also refer you to the Spiritual Diversity and Social Work Resource Center (www.
socwel.ku.edu/canda/). This online resource center includes extensive informa-
tion about spirituality in relation to social work and health, including links to
other websites with information on relevant scientific research.

Comparing within and between Vantage Points

The prior six principles lead us to our seventh and fi nal principle: comparing
within and between vantage points on spirituality and religion in social work
(Canda, 1989a). Th roughout this book we weave comparison of spiritual per-
spectives and practice approaches from a variety of vantage points so they can
shed light on each other (Sharma, 2005) in relation to social work. The fi rst
vantage of comparison examines religion and spirituality as general or univer-
sal aspects of human experience and culture. For example, in Chapter 3, we
will consider general conceptions of spirituality and religion, from many dif-
ferent disciplines. From the second vantage, we consider particular religious
and nonreligious expressions of spirituality as they effect social work practice.
For example, in Part II we consider how various contrasting religious and non-
sectarian spiritual traditions provide frameworks for social service. From the
third vantage, we step back from both general theory and particular accounts
of spirituality to examine their underlying assumptions, strengths, and weak-
nesses, and how these relate to practice. For example, Maslow (1968) critiqued
the ways religions can promote or impede peak experiences and optimal
human development. Part III presents detailed guidelines for understanding
and applying spiritually relevant practices. From the fourth vantage, we reflect
Guiding Principles 25

on the assumptions, values, implications for practice, and communication

dynamics that underlay the reflective process itself. For instance, at the end of
each chapter, we offer suggestions for various experiential and self-reflective
exercises that promote insight of the reader and constructive communication
dynamics when this book is used within courses or workshops.

Preview of Chapters

This book is organized in three parts. Part I (Chapters 1–3) presents key values
and concepts for spiritually sensitive practice. Part II (Chapters 4–6) explores
diverse spiritual perspectives on service and their implications for social work.
Part III (Chapters 7–11 and Appendices A and C) offers conceptual under-
standing and practical guidelines for spiritually sensitive social work helping
activities.
In the remainder of Part I, Chapter 2 explores fundamental values and eth-
ical principles to guide spiritually sensitive practice. Chapter 3 offers definitions
and conceptual models of spirituality.
In Part II, Chapter 4 reviews the history of spiritual diversity and related con-
troversies in the United States and the social work profession. Chapter 5 presents an
introduction to seven types of religious traditions of service: Buddhist, Christian,
Confucian, Hindu, Indigenous, Islamic, and Judaic. Chapter 6 introduces nonsec-
tarian existentialist and transpersonal/ecophilosophical spiritual perspectives on
service. It also compares all nine perspectives and offers suggestions for finding
commonality and engaging in dialogue across spiritual perspectives.
In Part III, Chapter 7 explains how to create a spiritually sensitive context
in the helping relationship and process, and in human service organizations.
Chapter 8 provides a theoretical basis and practical tools for assessing spiritual
development of individuals throughout the life span. Chapter 9 offers guidelines
for ethical use of religious or spiritual support systems and activities. Chapter
10 provides conceptual understanding and detailed practical suggestions for
employing specific spiritually oriented helping activities, such as meditation, rit-
ual, and forgiveness. Finally, Chapter 11 considers future directions for spiritu-
ally sensitive practice within a worldwide view.
This book is intended to be thought provoking and soul searching. It is
designed to promote personal and professional growth in the reader. In doing
so, it will be challenging, sometimes uncomfortable, but also exciting. The mind,
heart, and action of the reader will be engaged. This book raises profound spiri-
tual questions in religious and nonreligious guises. They are questions that every
social worker must face somehow. Therefore, this book is not just about a spe-
cialized area of practice or theory. It is about the nature of the helping situation
itself. Every social worker is involved in a spiritual journey, in his or her own
private life, as well as in the course of professional work. This book is about that
journey, that way of compassion.
26 central values and concepts

EXERCISES

.. What Is Your Position?

You may be reading this book for many different reasons. Perhaps you already
have a strong interest in spirituality and you want to learn more about apply-
ing this to practice. Perhaps you are unsure about the relevance of spiritual-
ity, but you are willing to consider it. Alternatively, you might believe that it is
not appropriate to address spirituality in social work, but you are reading this
because of a class requirement or because you want to find out what your pro-
spirituality colleagues are thinking. In any of these cases, it is important for you
to clarify your position, both in your own mind and in being able to articulate
your views to people who disagree with you.
Look back to Table 1.1 which lists the rival positions. Review each position,
con and pro, and consider the extent to which you agree. Th ink of an example
and an explanation, based on your own personal and professional experience, for
each point that strikes you as especially important. Then write a short essay that
articulates your position. If the position you had before you read this chapter
remains the same, explain why. If it has changed, also explain why. Once your
position is well formulated, have a conversation about this with a trusted social
work colleague who is likely to have a different position from yours. Try to reach
mutual understanding, whether or not you end up agreeing.

.. How Well Does This Fit?

This first chapter presented seven principles that guide our approach to writing
the book. Reflect back on your reactions to these principles in Table 1.4. How do
they fit with your own views? Did you have any strong reactions of agreement
or disagreement? Whatever your reactions, consider what it is about yourself
that predisposes you to have these reactions. What does this indicate about your
personal experience, professional training, cultural background, and religious
or spiritual perspective? Based on these reactions, become aware of what your
expectations are for the rest of this book. Do you expect to enjoy this? Do you
expect to feel a sense of conflict with our approach? Write a brief essay about
these reflections and expectations. Finally, put all these expectations aside and
promise yourself that you will read with an open mind.

.. Journaling about Spirituality and Social Work

When quiet time and attention are set aside for regular self-reflection, personal
and professional growth can be enhanced significantly. One method for doing
this is to keep a growth journal. Journaling provides a format for dialogue with
yourself about reactions to the reading, insights and implications about spiritual
growth, and actions you take to support growth. A journal can be informal and
unstructured, consisting of a free flowing dialogue with yourself. This has the
advantage of spontaneity and flexibility. However, some structure can encourage
Guiding Principles 27

regularity, consistency, and self-discipline. Following is a suggested structure for

journaling in response to reading this book. The structure should provide con-
sistency, but it should not hamper creativity. So feel free to modify it as needed.
The main purpose of this format is to encourage systematic self-reflection
that moves all the way from awareness of reactions to actions planned or imple-
mented to support growth. It is important to start with an accurate reading of
the material, but reflective journaling is not just a matter of restating what was
said. Reflective journaling incorporates intellectual analysis, but it should not
be limited to detached, unfeeling thinking. Thinking, feeling, sensing, intuiting,
and acting should all be joined.
After reading each chapter, relax and center yourself. Take a few minutes
to page back through and recall your reactions, especially reactions of strong
agreement or disagreement or any strong feelings and opinions. Identify which
aspects of the chapter struck you as having the most significance for your per-
sonal and professional growth. If you made notes or underlined text, review
those to refresh your memory. Then, take 15–30 minutes to write a commentary
about your reactions and implications for growth.
A fictitious example will be given for each step. Since this example is fic-
titious, there is not as much personal detail as would be likely in a real journal
entry. In addition, there will be great variation of style and content for each per-
son. Find your own style of comfort with this journal process. Use the following
format:

1. Title of the chapter, date read, and date of journal entry

2. Insight in the Reading

Summarize one idea contained in the reading of most significance to you.

Choose this as your focus for the journal entry. Be sure this is an accurate
summary of what you read. Keep it brief, not more than about 50 words.
Example: In the introduction, the authors mentioned that one of the great-
est challenges to an inclusive approach to spirituality in social work is how to
include people who have an exclusive viewpoint and do not wish to dialogue
or are not open to change.

3. Self-Reflection

Explain in detail how this is significant to you. Include the following levels of
reflection.

a) What was your immediate reaction at the time of reading? What is your reac-
tion as you think back on it now?
Example: When I first read this, I wondered if they were talking about people
like me, a committed Christian. I felt angry and defensive, as though they
were insulting me. Now that I think about it, I recall they said rigid exclusiv-
ist thinking could apply to any spiritual perspective or ideology, so they were
28 central values and concepts

not singling Christians out. I realize that my feelings are easily hurt when the
subject of religion or spirituality comes up in social work settings.

b) Explain what it is about you that predisposes you to this reaction. For exam-
ple, what is the relevance of this insight to your personal and professional
interests; special strengths and talents; any prejudices, biases, or lack of
knowledge; significant faith or value commitments; religious or nonreligious
upbringing; cultural heritage and patterns?
Example: I became a born-again Christian 4 years ago. This made a tremen-
dous impact on changing my life for the better. In addition, after my conver-
sion, I felt called to follow Christ’s example by serving others in social work.
However, I’ve sometimes been stereotyped and insulted by other social work-
ers as a right-wing fundamentalist. They imply that I should not be a social
worker if I have such a strong Christian commitment.

c) Identify specific strengths and limitations of your personal and professional

development that are revealed by this self-reflection.
Example: My Christian commitment and support from my church are impor-
tant sources of strength for me. They give me the energy and motivation to
live a life of service. However, some of my fellow social workers do not share
the same beliefs as me. I can see that this difference is sometimes hard to get
past, both for them and for me. I understand why I feel defensive, considering
my past hurts. However, I should not let this get in the way of communicating
well with others. I need to figure out how to build on the strength of my faith
and also how to join this with the values, ethics, and ways of communicating
within the social work profession.

d) For each strength or limitation identified, list an implication for further growth.
Example: My strength is my faith. I need to explore more how to join my faith
with social work.
My limitation is my defensiveness. I need to avoid assuming negative inten-
tions when I receive constructive criticism. If someone raises questions about
my faith, I need to learn how to relax and respond clearly. I need to learn how
to listen to their concerns with empathy and learn from their position. I also
need to learn how to encourage them to listen to me. Th is way we could have
a dialogue and learn from each other. This after all is consistent both with my
commitment to Christian love of neighbor and to the social work professional
principle of “starting where the person is.”

e) For each implication, list a specific action that you could take to support your
growth.
Example: For strength: I could explore the website of the North American
Association of Christians in Social Work (NACSW, www.nacsw.org) and then
Guiding Principles 29

decide whether to attend their meetings and join. I could also read articles
and books about the history of Christian social work and the professional
dilemmas and conflicts that sometimes arise around religion and social work.
I could also learn about a different religious approach to social work, and talk
with social workers of this religion, to help me broaden my perspective.
For limitation: When I meet other Christian social workers, we could
form a support group to discuss our experiences in social work, positive and
negative. This would provide interesting conversation, mutual support, and
an opportunity to work through my feelings. When I meet with the social
worker from another religious background, we could discuss how we each try
to connect our spiritual ways to social work and find not only the differences
but also the commonalities between us.

f) Select at least one action that you commit to carrying out within the next
month. Make a promise to yourself in writing to do this. Make a practical
plan for how it can be accomplished.
Example: Based on my review of the NACSW website, I decided to join within
the next 2 weeks. I will find out the schedule for the next regional or national
conference and make plans to attend. I will also invite my colleague who
practices conservative religious Judaism to join me for lunch during the next
week. We have already developed a friendly working relationship and gone to
lunch a few times. However, the next time, I will ask if it would be all right to
talk about our religious backgrounds and how we relate them to social work.

g) After this action is carried out, create an entry in your journal that discusses
what happened, how you felt about it, and what you gained. If new areas for
growth are identified from this, repeat the process of taking new actions and
reporting to yourself about the results.
Example: I joined NACSW and eagerly await the conference scheduled for
next month. I have already read their online materials and plan to order some
of their publications. I felt affirmed to find out about the ways social work can
be linked to church settings. I am excited to learn more about this. I am espe-
cially interested to explore how to abide by professional ethics while practic-
ing as a Christian social worker.
This afternoon, I had lunch with my Jewish friend. She was surprised that
I brought up the topic of religion, but she said she was glad. We had a good
conversation. Although we have different faith commitments, we also discov-
ered many commonalities of belief and experience as religiously committed
social workers. We plan to discuss this more in the near future.
 2

Compassion, the Call to Service, and

Ethical Principles for Social Work

Strive constantly to serve the welfare of the world;

by devotion to selfless work one attains the supreme goal
of life.
The Bhagavad Gita 3:19, Hinduism
(trans. Easwaran, 1985)

In this chapter, we explore spiritually sensitive service as a matter of heart, as a

vocation of compassion. Compassion literally means passion-with-others. It is
commiseration in empathy with others. It is solidarity of response to suffering.
Spiritually sensitive social work is a courageous (literally, from French, “of the
heart”) commitment to a spiritual path of action to promote the well-being of
all people and all beings. This chapter reflects on the deep motivations that lead
people into social work and considers some inspirational religious symbols of
compassion. Finally, we use these insights about compassion to elaborate upon
ethical principles for spiritually sensitive social work practice.
The theme of compassionate heart to heart connection in service is well
expressed in traditional Chinese philosophy. The primary virtue emphasized in
Confucianism is ren (Chinese) which means benevolence or humaneness. This
Chinese character is formed by adding two strokes, signifying connection, to
the symbol for “person.” This means that to be a genuine human being (i.e. a
true person) is to be connected (Canda, 2002a, 2002b). As we grow in sense of
connection and responsibility with other people, other beings, and the ground
of being, we have a natural drive to search for ways to help and heal ourselves
and the world. All spiritual traditions and all people struggle with experiences
of suffering, injustice, mortality, and death. Moreover, all seek means of remedy
and transcendence.
The Chinese Confucian sage, Mencius (lived 372–289 BCE) said that every-
one has a heart that cannot bear to see others suffer. “Suddenly seeing a baby
about to fall into a well, anyone would be heart-stricken with pity . . . without

30
Compassion and Ethical Principles 31

a heart of compassion we aren’t human” (trans. Hinton, 1998, p. 55). In fact,

the Chinese character for mind is shaped like a heart, indicating that human
mind is a font of feeling, thought, and caring concern (Lee, Ng, Leung, Chan,
& Leung, 2009). Fittingly, the Center for Behavioral Health at the University of
Hong Kong, which promotes a holistic East/West integrated approach to social
work, has adapted this character for its logo (Figure 2.1).
Dass and Gorman (1985) said that when we let natural compassion express
in our work, there is a mutual benefit to ourselves and to others. “The reward, the
real grace, of conscious service, then, is the opportunity not only to help relieve
suffering but to grow in wisdom, experience greater unity, and have a good time
while we’re doing it” (p. 16). The insights to come in this chapter remind us, as
professionally trained social workers, to reflect back on the fundamental human-
ity and compassion that were already within us before the imposition of our
learned rules, roles, theories, eligibility requirements, diagnostic schemes, and
professional boundaries. By returning to this and cultivating this, we can keep
our service full of vital energy and inspiration. Th is requires consistent atten-
tion to our personal and professional growth. Indeed, an empirical study showed
that those who were more religiously or spiritually engaged rated higher in com-
passionate love for strangers and humanity in general (Sprecher & Fehr, 2005).
Underwood’s studies (2002) identified key aspects of compassionate love: freely
choosing to care for the other; cognitively understanding the situation, includ-
ing religious and nonreligious frameworks; knowing oneself; valuing others for
their inherent worth; being open and receptive, including to inspiration; and
responding from emotions, not just thinking. Trappist monks advise that it is
important for people to engage in a sustained spiritually attuned way of life,
including regular practices like prayer, in order to deepen understanding of self
and given situations, and to integrate thinking and feeling for the expression of
compassionate love (Underwood, 2005).

Figure 2.1. Logo, Centre

for Behavioral Health,
Hong Kong, Chinese
character for mind.
32 central values and concepts

The Virtue of Compassion in Professional Social Work

The Profession’s Historical Commitment to Compassion

Social work is a caring profession, a vocation, guided by explicit values, morals,
and codes of ethics (Graham, Coholic, & Coates, 2007; Reid & Popple, 1992).
Insofar as moral and value systems constitute one of the main components of
spirituality, we can say that social work is fundamentally a spiritual profession—
one that sets its reason for existence and its highest priorities upon service
(Siporin, 1986). In most of the world, core professional morals, values, and ethics
are stated in nonsectarian terms without reference to concepts of the sacred or
divinity. However, some social workers link their personal religious and spiritual
values to these professional values (Brackney & Watkins, 1983; Coughlin, 1970;
LeCroy, 2002; Sherwood, 2002; Spano & Koenig, 2007).
Jewish and Christian values of love of neighbor, charitable service, and jus-
tice directly shaped the formation of the profession’s values in North America
and in many other parts of the world influenced by the Judeo-Christian heritage
(Boddie, 2008; Coates et al., 2007; Constable, 1983; Leiby, 1985; Lindsay, 2002;
Moss, 2005; Siporin, 1983). In North America and in other parts of the world,
the profession has also been influenced by the virtue of compassion (karuna,
Sanskrit) found in Buddhism; benevolence found in Confucianism; the respon-
sibility of almsgiving (zakat, Arabic) in Islam (Nadir & Dziegielewski, 2001);
the value of harmony among people, the earth, and Creator among Indigenous
peoples (Beatch & Stewart, 2002); and all the myriad other expressions of the
true heart. Our profession’s commitment to compassion could be reinforced
through greater acknowledgment of and solidarity between the wide range of
cultures and spiritual traditions in North America and around the world. This
is exemplified by the bicultural Code of Ethics of the Aotearoa New Zealand
Association of Social Workers which fully engages respect for the indigenous
Maori worldview (http://www.anzasw.org.nz/excerpt-from-code-of-ethics.html,
retrieved August 11, 2008).
The social work professional value system is promulgated through education
of students and enforced through procedures of professional certification, licen-
sure, and ethical adjudication (Reamer, 2001). This demonstrates a very high
level of organizational commitment to moral and ethical reflection and action.
Indeed, the social work profession can be considered to be a nonsectarian spir-
itual community. While professional bonds and mutual understanding of val-
ues are likely to be most strong within a given country, efforts of international
organizations such as International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) and
International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW) are encouraging a
global professional view.
The preamble to the current National Association of Social Workers’ Code
of Ethics (1999, p. 1) states:
The mission of the social work profession is rooted in a set of core val-
ues. These core values, embraced by social workers throughout the profession’s
Compassion and Ethical Principles 33

history, are the foundation of social work’s unique purpose and perspective:
• service
• social justice
• dignity and worth of the person
• importance of human relationships
• integrity
• competence
This mission, the core values, and the ethical standards that flow from them
require the social worker to move beyond the bounds of egotism, prejudice, and
ethnocentrism (Siporin, 1983). They even require putting the needs and interests
of clients and the general welfare of society above one’s own needs, as in support
for client self-determination. They mandate that people are regarded as having
inherent dignity and worth. They call for professionals to place a priority on the
interests of the oppressed and to enhance social justice. All these commitments
imply a stance of compassion with a transpersonal, that is, egotism—transcend-
ing orientation—a profound and challenging spiritual ideal.
Early in the history of the American profession, under the influence of reli-
gious charitable organizations and the Charity Organization Society, the reli-
gious and spiritual implications of this were explicit (Reamer, 1992). Indeed, there
was a struggle between different views of compassion or charity. Unfortunately,
sometimes charity was (and is) associated with condescending pity, moralis-
tic judgmentalism, and paternalistic control. How far this is from its biblical
meaning as love (caritas, Latin): “Love is patient and kind; love is not jealous or
boastful; it is not arrogant or rude. Love does not insist on its own way; it is not
irritable or resentful; it does not rejoice at wrong, but rejoices in the right. Love
bears all things, believes all things, hopes for all things, endures all things” (1
Corinthians 13: 4–7, Revised Standard Version).
Already in 1967, Salomon cautioned that social workers should not abandon
a moral view of life, but also should not fall into moralistic prejudice and judg-
mentalism. Rather, she recommended that we relate with clients through a spir-
itual encounter of whole person to whole person, so that both worker and client
will experience change and healing. Siporin (1982) said that we need to regain
moral vision and idealism, whether expressed in religious or secular terms, that
combine concern for individual and social well-being. Constable (1983) summa-
rized the ideal as reciprocity between values of social justice, freedom and oppor-
tunity for choice by individuals, and unconditional love and mutual respect.
Reamer (1992) warned about the lures of prestige, wealth, and power or sim-
ply a survival-based defensive emphasis on inter-professional competition and
turf protection. These lures have grown as the profession increased its social
acceptance and pressure by federal and state policies, insurance reimbursement
regulations, and economic incentives from private clinical practice. In a reli-
gious context, these might be called temptations. So Reamer said, “To reclaim
its enlightened view of the public good, social work must once again resem-
ble a (secular) calling. One serves—primarily because one cares deeply about
34 central values and concepts

matters of social justice—those who are disadvantaged and oppressed, and those
who are at risk. Gratification is primarily derived from knowing that one has
responded to one of life’s principal duties to others” (p. 28). He cautioned that
social workers should keep their focus on our core values rather than on mere
self-protecting ethical risk management (e.g. following rules to avoid litigation).
We should delve more into virtue theory, “which entails analysis of core profes-
sional virtues such as honesty, respect, trust, fairness, responsibility, autonomy,
nonmalfeasance, beneficence, justice, fidelity, faithfulness, forgiveness, generos-
ity, compassion, and kindness” (Reamer, 2005, p. 27).

Social Workers’ Personal Commitments to Service

Although there are many reasons that motivate service (Coles, 1993; LeCroy, 2002),
those who make a commitment for a long time and are able to avoid the pitfalls of
cynicism and self-promotion are likely to have a compassionate orientation. This
makes sense not only because of the professional values social workers espouse for-
mally, but also because of personal motivations to join the profession. Why should
we commit ourselves to a profession often derided in media portrayals? Why are
we often willing to work long hours in stressful conditions with caseloads beyond
belief? What motivates us to a path of service when we live in a society driven
largely by consumerism and glorification of economic profit or political power?
We invite readers to reflect on your own experience and to consider how it matches
this discussion of social work as a vocation expressing the virtue of compassion.
Compare the following scenarios with your own experience.
***
My older brother died from AIDS 2 years ago. He was a gay activist, well
known in his community for championing the rights of gay and lesbian
people. As he drew close to death, his courage and continued caring for
others inspired me and many other people. Although he was severely ill
physically, he had a remarkable sense of spiritual vitality. His family and
friends offered much support, but it really seemed more like he was help-
ing us. I decided that I would like to carry on his example by becoming a
social worker, with a special interest in hospice programs.
***
As my meditation practice deepened, I found a quality of peace and clar-
ity that soothed my grief and pains and gave me the capacity to respond
to life’s challenges with greater energy and compassion. I realized that my
own struggles are mirrored in the struggles of all people and all living
beings. In my Buddhist tradition, we take a vow “to save all beings from
suffering.” In some small way, I hope that my practice as a social worker
can help others to find their way from suffering to peace and joy.
***
Compassion and Ethical Principles 35

When I was a teenager, my parents divorced. My father was abusive and

alcoholic. Our family fractured under the strain. At the time, I felt my
life was coming to an end. But support from members of my Christian
church helped me get through it. Eventually, I found a source of inner
strength and resilience that helped me to put the broken pieces of my life
back together in a way that is healthier than I ever had as a child. There
is something mysterious to me about this “resurrection” experience, but
my religious teachings and community support made it possible. Now I
would like to help other people fi nd meaning and resiliency through dif-
ficult times.

These stories, though fictional, are similar to the accounts we have heard from
social workers in private conversations, classroom discussions, and in autobio-
graphical statements within applications to enter social work programs. Some
surveys of social workers show not only that we are more likely than the general
public to have experienced abuse, mental disorders, or substance abuse within
our families of origin, but also that many of us have seen a way through this, a
way toward personal recovery and service for others (Black, Jeff reys, & Hartley,
1993). Sometimes a life event or situation wakes a person up to the prevalence
of human suffering and generates a drive to help relieve it, not only in oneself
but also in others. This may be something positive, like inspiration from loving
parents who demonstrate a commitment to public service. It might be a situation
that is painful at first, like a crisis that shatters the foundations of meaning and
security, but that leads eventually to positive personal growth. Some people come
to this awareness through a gentle inner stirring, a gradual heightening of aware-
ness and empathy. A person may develop a keen realization of suffering and the
possibility of transformation that awakens the motivation to help others.
Some of us use religious ideas and metaphors to explain this vocation; some
do not. But we expect that this theme of awakening from egotism and defeatism
and then feeling called to a path of service and justice may not be uncommon
among social workers. This is a spiritual developmental process that puts us in
touch with our deepest insights into the meaning and purpose of life. Thus we
respond to a calling. In traditional Christian and Judaic terms, a vocation is a stir-
ring of the heart by the divine to go beyond the limits of the little ego and ordinary
social conventions in order to follow a more profound way of life. A vocation is the
use of one’s talents, abilities, and assets in one’s life to do the work that is consistent
with God’s will (Canda, 1990b; Singletary, Harris, Myers, & Scales, 2006).
Social work in its best sense can be considered a spiritual vocation. This
does not mean that all social workers follow the beliefs of the Judeo-Christian
tradition or that they are religious. Rather, it means that there is an awareness
of suffering and the possibility of transformation. It means that there is a motive
of compassion to work together with other people to help everyone to overcome
obstacles and to achieve aspirations. In addition, it means that spiritually sen-
sitive social workers practice unconditional positive regard for clients and live
36 central values and concepts

by hope in the possibilities of resiliency, reconciliation, and realization of social

justice. Of course, it is difficult to “walk this talk.”
In a qualitative study, 18 social work scholars discussed the values that
motivated their work in the profession (Canda, 1990b). The interviewees identi-
fied themselves as being influenced by seven spiritual perspectives, which were
combined for some people: atheist, Christian, existentialist, Jewish, shamanic,
theistic humanist, and Zen Buddhist. Three main motivations were expressed:
sense of a mandate to serve; a personal desire to promote social justice; and a
quest for personal fulfi llment.
Ten respondents said they have a feeling that they are mandated to serve.
Some derived this sense of mandate from learned religious or cultural values,
such as the Zen Buddhist commitment to help all beings attain enlightenment,
Jewish community values for mutual support and social justice, Christian gos-
pel values of love and service, and traditional First Nations Indigenous values of
cooperation, sharing, and mutual helping. Some added that this mandate came
from a transpersonal or divine source. For example, a Zen practitioner said
that compassion and an imperative to help others arises naturally from med-
itative experiences of one’s interconnectedness with other beings. Two Jewish
respondents said that they felt mandated to serve out of the awareness that God
appointed humanity as custodians of the earth. Four Christians said that they
felt a sense of calling from God, sometimes at an early age. One respondent put
it this way: “I am impelled not by my own volition, not on making a conscious
choice, but that is the way the Lord wants, to use me” (Canda, 1990b, p. 12).
Many respondents mentioned that they had a strong personal concern for people
who are distressed and oppressed and that this impelled them to action.
All of the respondents said that their experience of personal fulfi llment
from service motivates them to persevere. Personal satisfactions are derived
from meeting religious and cultural expectations for service, from viewing the
beneficial changes in clients’ lives as a result of service, and also from having a
career that provides sustenance for their own families. In the experience of these
social work scholars, compassionate service creates a situation of mutual benefit
for themselves, their clients, and the larger society.
LeCroy’s (2002) interviews with 34 social work practitioners revealed the
prevalence of compassion and spirituality in their work. Many found value in
connectedness with clients, their communities, and the larger universe. Many
felt privileged to be invited into the intimacy of clients’ lives, their troubles,
and joys. Daily work encounters with suffering, crime, violence, and injustice
evoked questions of the meaning and purpose of life. Many were committed to a
spiritual lifestyle and felt that social work helped fulfi ll their spiritual goals and
explore moral issues. He says that, “Compassion and caring can be promoted
by the social workers who have accepted this as an important value in pursuing
their purpose in life” (p. 158). Consider some other examples of social work-
ers’ call to service. Interviews with 10 Christian social work students illustrate
how this is expressed in a particular faith context (Singletary et al., 2006). Some
Compassion and Ethical Principles 37

students said that their decision to enter social work reflected their desire to fol-
low God’s direction for their lives or to follow the example of Jesus who helped
the poor, oppressed, the sick, and the dying. For some, this was a developmental
process while early in the social work major. One student said that the immer-
sion in the program brought up more dreams and passions in the heart and a
sense of “. . . God moving me and calling me to do it” (p. 194).”
Nakashima (1995) became fascinated with death and dying as a teenager
in Japan when her aunt and grandmother died unexpectedly, not long apart.
Buddhist, Confucian, and Shinto beliefs influenced her view that there is a soul
that reincarnates. However, she began to wonder about the purpose of reincar-
nation. Later experiences and study in Japan and the United States showed her
that many older people faced challenges preparing to die and many died feeling
unfulfi lled. She saw that peaceful resolution of life issues requires introspection,
a search for meaning, and acceptance of life. This led her to become a hospice
worker and then to research the role of spirituality in positive ways of preparing
for death (2007).
Kreutziger (1995) journeyed in and out and back again to Christianity along
her path of social work. Her journey was shaped by membership in the United
Methodist Church and its concern for the social responsibility message of the
gospels. “This is the call to act on behalf of others in response to God’s unre-
lenting love and action in our lives. . . . I had tried for a while to ignore ‘my Jesus
thing.’ I went into social work because it allowed me ‘to save the world’ as a
secular missionary during a long period in early adulthood as I rotated among
cycles of agnosticism/atheism/agnosticism” (p. 29). But she said she was not a
good atheist because,

I couldn’t quit going to church. Despite my best efforts to disengage, I still

loved the feel of the church: the rituals, the symbolism, the music, the peo-
ple, the fellowship, the shared values, “the going into perfection”. . . . My patients
forced me to confront my own existential anxieties in order to help them face
theirs. I had to move beyond my youth and inexperience and wobbly religious
faith in order to fortify my practice and knowledge for their benefit. . . . Most of
all, I had to learn to support the courage that comes from staying the course
minute by minute, day by day, just as the accumulated wisdom of my religion
teaches me to do (p. 34).

Banerjee’s (2005) path into social work was shaped by her childhood grow-
ing up as a Hindu in India, especially through her cousin’s and grandmother’s
teachings about spirituality within everyday life. She said, “Granny taught us to
pray to different Gods and Goddesses—Shiva, Vishnu, Krishna, Rama, Durga,
Lakshmi, Saraswati, Kartika, Ganesha, and Kali, as well as any and every God
or Goddess that may exist!” (p. 49). She learned how the Gods and Goddesses
bestow virtues such as strength, love, kindness, mercy, wisdom, justice, peace,
and prosperity. She learned that religion and spirituality are together integral to
living. Later, she tried to reconcile this with the scientific and materialist view of
38 central values and concepts

Western thinking. After moving to the United States, study of the Bhagavad Gita
helped her in an ongoing process of reconciling these different sides through the
teaching of karma yoga (Sanskrit, action for union) to unify wisdom with action
and to focus and dedicate oneself to one’s work without egotistic attachment to
results. These teachings helped prepare her for social work research into the role
of spirituality as a source of strength for women of various religions who deal
with poverty in both India and the United States.
Nelson-Becker (Letendre, Nelson-Becker, & Kreider, 2005) described a
repeated experience during childhood in which she “felt a warmth that quickly
glided through the core of my body, leaving me with an inner peace and a sense
of relatedness to something Transcendent” (pp. 12–13). Such experiences and
her upbringing and ministry in a Christian faith with a history of persecution,
have shaped her life, her sensitivity to diversity, and her approach to teaching
social work. She tries to remain open to the presence of Spirit permeating life as
she opens her mind to relate with students of varied backgrounds in her classes.
These stories illustrate that the call to service is a call to a continuing spiri-
tual journey of growth. As social workers help clients, we are also being helped.
The expression of empathy and compassion makes us stretch ourselves into cli-
ents’ worlds of suffering and meaning and thereby our own worlds are changed.
To the extent that we remain alert to this continuing call to service as a spiritual
journey, we retain a sense of purpose, excitement, and vitality. This is a very per-
sonal and compelling reason to keep the connection between spirituality and
social work alive and well within our work as students, practitioners, educators,
and researchers. Mother Teresa put this simply and directly: “The fruit of love is
service. The fruit of service is peace” (Vardey, 1995, p. xxxviv).
Next, we would like to tell you some stories about our own spiritual journeys
into social work. In part, this is to give you additional examples of the routes people
may take and the roles of religion and spirituality. Also, we want you to be aware
of the spiritual perspectives that shape us, because they also shape this book. You
can then make better-informed analyses of how our perspectives aid or limit the
inclusive approach to spiritual diversity that we promote. You will see that we have
different personal and professional backgrounds. In writing this book we have con-
tinued a dialogue that engaged the contrasts, as well as the commonalities, between
our spiritual perspectives. We hope that this exemplifies the ideals of respect and
nonjudgmentalism that are so critical in spiritually sensitive social work.

A Call to Social Work

I (LF) became a social worker because of my religious upbringing and my per-
sonal faith. My Lutheran heritage provided clear messages to guide me. I was
put on earth to serve God and humanity and not to waste time about it. My
vocation was to do the will of God and no excuses. “And from every one who has
been given much shall much be required” (Luke 12:48, New American Standard
Bible).
Compassion and Ethical Principles 39

Although my family of origin in northern Minnesota did not have a great

deal of material goods, I knew even when I was young that I was privileged simply
because of having loving parents with a strong religious faith, along with a large
extended family who were concerned about my spiritual, physical, and emotional
well-being. I realized that there were many who did not have their childhood
needs met. I had been given much so I must return it. But I wondered how.
I saw my family’s faith lived out every day unchanging and each Sunday
that same faith was emphasized by others. I remember as a little girl hearing
my uncles or great-uncles, and long-time family friends present sermons that
spoke of heeding the call of God, even if it takes you “to the remotest part of the
earth” (Acts 1:8, NASB). Indeed, many of these clergy had heeded the call of God
that took them to remote places. A great-uncle and his wife were missionaries
in mainland China. My mother’s best friend from college was also a missionary
teacher in China, and an uncle and his nurse wife were missionaries and health
care workers in Madagascar. These clergy friends and relatives wrote often, their
letters bearing colorful stamps from around the world. They brought slides of
these countries when they were home for visits and told of political upheavals
and cultural aspects of the people they served. They provided a rich education
regarding human diversity, common human needs, and cross-cultural religious
awareness.
As a child, I would sit in the church pew in a little log church that my immi-
grant Norwegian grandparents helped to build on the Minnesota prairie. I kept
wondering when my call from God would come and what it would be. Would
I too be called to go to the ends of the earth, learn another language, eat strange
food, say goodbye to Mother and Father, and come back to the United States by
ship only every 7 years like these clergy? I shivered at the thought!
My call came while I was attending a summer Bible Camp. There was a
special session on careers. Social work was defined as a profession that served
the poor, people of color who are experiencing prejudice, children having prob-
lems in schools, adults having troubled marriages and job loss, and those with
physical or mental illnesses. Christ’s teaching became clear to me: “Truly I say
to you, to the extent that you did it [charity] to one of these brothers of Mine,
even to the least of them, you did it to Me” (Matthew 25:40 NASB). I had seen
the evidence of compassion in my family home and through the experiences of
missionary relatives and friends. At 12 years of age, my call came to become a
social worker.
When I attended Augsburg College in Minneapolis, Minnesota, I was over-
whelmed by this call and wondered if I could accomplish this task as well as
my heart and soul wanted. My family, my church, and my college showed me
that the source of power to follow this call was not in myself (“Do not lean on
your own understanding,” Proverbs 3:5, NASB), but in my faith in God (“I can
do all things through Christ who strengthens me,” Philippians 4:13). It was at
this point that Martin Luther’s call to vocation became clear to me (Wingren,
1994). Alternatively, in the words of the present President of Augsburg College,
40 central values and concepts

Paul Pribbenow (2008), “We believe we are called to Serve Our Neighbor” (p. 1).
Pribbenow explains that our belief grounds our faith in a “deep and confident
Christian and Lutheran faith” (p. 1). The theological concept of vocation or call-
ing is central to how I was educated at Augsburg College, where this concept was
articulated repeatedly. The gifts of faith and call lead us to serve our neighbor in
the city, country, and around the world.
Since my first awareness of my call to compassionate service, I obtained
MSW and PhD degrees. I worked in direct practice in school social work, psy-
chiatric and medical social work, and family and marriage counseling. Then I
felt a call that brought me to the academic world to teach and conduct research
about religion, spirituality, and social work practice, first on the state level, then
nationally, and finally internationally. I was also called to serve my neighbor on
the policy level. In 1992, I was a University Summer Fellow in the Washington
DC office of North Dakota Senator Kent Conrad, where I researched national
health care and mental health treatment for potential legislation.
A little over a decade ago, however, this deep sense of compassion was
tested. My faith was challenged to further growth as I encountered compassion
firsthand as its recipient during a “once-in-two-hundred years” flood that inun-
dated the town of Grand Forks, North Dakota, where I lived at the time. In 1997,
swollen by winter snowstorms and April snowmelt, the Red River of the North
inundated Grand Forks. The water forced all 50,000 people from their homes.
Up to that point in time, no other major city in the history of the United States
had been forced by a natural disaster to evacuate its entire population. There
was no time for good-byes or for closures with school friends or graduations.
We all experienced temporary homelessness, scattering to 50 states and two for-
eign countries. Everything closed, including the hospital, a vital link for any
community.
Safe from the flood in my brother’s home, I sat glued to the television think-
ing that we had seen the worst. Then I saw that the downtown was burning.
I watched in horror as building after building burned. I saw my bank building
in flames, then my attorney’s office; the newspaper headquarters was next. The
firefighters could not extinguish the fires because there was no pressure in the
fire hydrants, and the fire engines could not get through the flooded streets. How
ironic to be in the middle of so much water and not to have water available to
put out a fire.
The call to compassion during this flood was answered by people in many
different ways. Family and friends offered words of consolation. One of my
brothers called and left me this Japanese haiku: “Now that my barn has burned
down; I can see the moon more clearly.” In other words, when you lose material
things, you have a clearer view of what is really important in life. That message
was brought home to me by my son Jon’s call. He said, “Mom, don’t forget you
still have your faith, your family, and your friends.” His words were comforting.
It was also comforting that he had incorporated my value system and was now
reminding me of what I had always deemed to be important in life.
Compassion and Ethical Principles 41

Over and over, the people of Grand Forks experienced great compassion
from the world. One day as I was cleaning, my doorbell rang, and there stood
two of my former graduate social work students whom I had taught about com-
passion in our classes. They had been hired as outreach social workers who went
door to door to every home to inquire about social, psychological, and financial
needs. Their visit was comforting and placed me in the new position of receiving
their compassion and their services.
A headline in the Grand Forks Herald read: “Goodness of God Flows into
Grand Forks Churches.” Area religious organizations handled flood relief dona-
tions exceeding $11 million, which helped people rebuild their lives, their homes,
and their places of worship. B’nai Israel Synagogue received support from Jewish
congregations in 49 states. Regional and national church bodies made donations.
Distribution was directed through an interfaith coalition within Grand Forks.
Banding together, this interfaith coalition supported a Billy Graham Crusade
and door-to-door volunteers who were available to listen to people’s concerns
and to help them with their spiritual struggles. Never once did they proselytize.
“Receiving so much help has been overwhelming,” said many clergy and church
members. “It’s a wonderful display of God’s great goodness to us.” They voiced
the feelings of all. Although we gladly helped each other—and every neigh-
borhood had stories of kindness and pitching in together—it was humbling to
receive from other hands.
The safety deposit box with my property deeds, kept at my bank, was fi lled
with mud from the floodwaters. Even after experts tried to salvage the deeds,
they looked like a tattered heap of brittle paper ready to crumble at the least
touch. They represented the fragility of material things, and that is the real les-
son I learned from this flood. Money, position, and power meant little the night
we all evacuated. The only real treasures we have are spiritual ones. The one con-
stant for me was my faith in the abiding presence of God. When I would look at
my property deeds in a heap on a chair in my living room, awaiting a new safety
deposit box, I would be reminded: “But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven,
where neither moth nor rust destroys” (Matthew 6:20, NASB).
The grace of God gives me hope to endure and to adjust. It gives me com-
passion to help others. It also provides me the opportunity to receive compassion
from others with humility. This flood gave me a deeper understanding of com-
passion—not just good works to help others but compassion that dignifies the
recipient. Since the occurrence of that flood, millions of Americans have been
affected by natural disasters as bad as, or worse than, what I experienced. For
myself and many others, our individual and collective faith has helped us adjust
to the dramatic changes that such events engender.

An Awakening of Compassion
I (EC) was raised within a devout Roman Catholic Czech American family. My
parents have attended daily Mass and have been active workers, volunteers, and
42 central values and concepts

supporters in their parishes as long as I can remember. In my family, being a

Catholic meant a life style and worldview much more than just performing a set
of religious obligations or attending church on Sunday. I was raised to put spir-
ituality as the first priority in life and to shape my decisions and relationships
accordingly.
My family’s spiritual perspective emphasized the importance of discerning
a vocation through which I could use my talents for the benefit of others and for
the glory of God. My parents modeled an ideal of service through their atten-
tive child raising, by their assistance for the parish, and in care for their own
parents as they became ill. Through religious education from my parents and
my Catholic elementary school, I also learned to admire the life of Jesus and the
saints who gave of themselves selflessly.
I have a vivid memory of an event from the second grade of elementary
school that awakened a keen sense of compassion. As a young boy, I sometimes
played games with violent content, from imitation war to contact competitive
sports to killing bugs for fun. To that point, I had little compunction about these
things, except for occasional pangs of guilt or admonitions from my mother.
My second grade teacher, a Catholic nun, had taken a special liking to me
and made special efforts to draw me out of my shyness. What she said and did
made a strong impression on me. One spring day, the classroom windows were
open. Flies were buzzing around the room, providing distraction and entertain-
ment. Some boys were trying to catch or swat the fl ies. The sister interrupted the
class not so much to complain about our misbehavior as to give us a life lesson.
She asked us not to harm the flies, because they were her friends. That quite sur-
prised me—that someone could regard these ugly little irritating bugs as friends
and serve as their protector. Suddenly I realized that they were living things that
merit caring treatment. The sister’s friendly pleading woke me up to a sense of
compassion that extended out beyond my family and friends to all creatures. The
biblical teaching that God made the world and saw it was good suddenly struck
home deep in my heart. From that day on, I began to look at things differently.
Much later, when I turned 16 years old, I had another awakening to compas-
sion. By this time, I had begun to explore the philosophical teachings of many
religious traditions, hoping they would help me understand the nature of things
and the purpose of life more broadly than my Catholic upbringing. I was also
quite upset about the violence of the Vietnam War, the injustices exposed by the
civil rights movement, and the materialistic consumerism I saw rampant around
me. Readings of Western and Eastern mystics guided me to develop a personal
meditation practice which helped me to obtain some sense of peace in the midst
of this. The writings of Thomas Merton (1961, 1968a, 1968b), who was a Catholic
contemplative monk committed to social justice and interreligious dialogue,
were especially important to me.
My Catholic high school economics teacher assigned us to write a paper
based on some current economic issues. I chose to read a book by the NeoMarxist
psychoanalyst, Erich Fromm, Marx’s Concept of Man (1966). This book contained
Compassion and Ethical Principles 43

Karl Marx’s Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts. Considering that Marx

was avidly opposed to conventional religions, I was surprised to find a descrip-
tion of communism as an ideal that fit well my sense of Christian love applied
to social justice. Marx described the ideal of communism as a society in which
all forms of alienation and exploitation between human beings and humans and
nature would be overcome. This sounded to me like heaven on earth, or the real-
ization of Christ’s beatitudes. Ironically, Marx’s words spurred me in a direction
that did not fit either the conventional thinking of Marxists or capitalists.
One evening, I sat in meditation on my bed, facing a portrait of the Sacred
Heart of Jesus. In this picture, Jesus is portrayed with heart exposed, aflame with
compassion. I posed the question to myself, “What would it be like for every form
of alienation and exploitation to be transcended?” Suddenly my mind opened to
a sense of profound communion with the universe in which all separations dis-
appeared. There was a sense of all pervasive love.
When I pondered this experience soon afterward, it was clear to me that my
life and cultural conditioning were far from this ideal. I examined the problems,
prejudices, and obstacles in my thinking, feelings, and relationships in order to
bring myself more into congruence with this sense of union with others. Since
society is characterized by many forms of separation, alienation, and suffering,
I felt that I should begin to work toward actualizing this unity through social
service. But I did not have any practical guidance about how to do this. I was a
young person, confused in many ways, groping toward a light.
This sense of a call to service prompted me to begin volunteer work during
summer vacations. For the last two summers of high school, I assisted children
with severe developmental disabilities in a nearby residential hospital and war
veterans at a Veterans Administration psychiatric facility. I was also active in
socially concerned student activism at my high school.
In college at Kent State University in Ohio, I majored in cultural anthro-
pology, especially anthropology of religions, in order to explore how people in
various cultures have come to understand the nature of reality and the mean-
ing of life. When I was a senior, an anthropology professor who specialized in
Korean culture and religion connected me with a graduate exchange study pro-
gram at Sungkyunkwan University in Seoul, so that I could study East Asian
philosophy and religion there immediately after graduation. My Korean teachers
exposed me to the 2500-year long Confucian tradition that links scholarly study
with political action and social administration. I also studied about Buddhism
and shamanism. After 15 months, I returned to the United States to complete
a Master’s degree in religious studies focusing on East Asian religions at the
University of Denver.
Throughout these studies, I saw a common theme among religious tradi-
tions East and West. All identified suffering as a fundamental problematic fea-
ture of human existence and all recommended remedies for this problem, that is,
some form of helping, healing, salvation, or enlightenment. But it struck me as
odd that in the academic study of religion, few scholars went beyond description
44 central values and concepts

and analysis of religious phenomena to actually apply these various approaches

to helping in direct service.
After a year of discernment, I realized that the study of religions was not
sufficient to meet my calling to a life of service. For this reason, I changed fields
to study social work. Throughout my MSW and Ph.D. programs at The Ohio
State University, and my direct practice, I brought the cross-cultural study of
religion and spirituality into social work.
Social work has been a wonderful way for me to link my spiritual call to ser-
vice with a profession and tradition of service-oriented scholarship. But I found
that many other social workers were struggling with a similar desire to link their
spiritual vision into professional helping and that there was little guidance in
education for how to do so. Once I realized that, I found a way I could be of ser-
vice to the profession itself. As a professor at the University of Iowa (1986–1989)
and the University of Kansas (1989–present), I dedicated my scholarly research,
teaching, and community service to developing a spiritually sensitive approach
to social work that would be inclusive and respectful of diverse spiritual perspec-
tives. It has been extremely satisfying to find many other kindred souls around
the world and to work together from our various spiritual and professional views
on this common goal.

Symbols of Compassion in Religious Traditions

In this section, we begin to examine particular religious traditions through their

symbols of compassion. This is not to say that people from these traditions always
behave in a compassionate manner, as that would be very unrealistic; but it is to
say that religious traditions identify ideals for compassion that are offered to
their adherents. Here, we only touch on these symbols from three widely influ-
ential religious perspectives; there is much more depth and detail and variation
in these symbols and how they are used. We explore more information about
specific religious and nonsectarian forms of spiritually-based service in Part II.
We hope that these religious symbols of compassion will stir readers’ rec-
ollections and meditations on symbols and ideals of compassion that motivate
and inspire you. Consider how you respond to each of these symbols. If you
feel a sense of comfort and resonance, consider why. What other symbols are
important to you? Reflect also on the extent to which you keep symbols vital to
inspire and sustain your practice. If you feel discomfort or unfamiliarity, also
consider why. This kind of reaction suggests opportunities for you to explore
greater understanding by connecting with people from these religious perspec-
tives. By working through feelings of discomfort and by addressing gaps in our
knowledge, we can deepen our capacity to empathize with people for whom
these symbols are important.
We present symbols from contrasting religious perspectives: Buddhist,
Christian, and shamanistic. Buddhism, from Asian origins, can be considered
Compassion and Ethical Principles 45

nontheistic in that it does not maintain belief in God in the sense of a personal
supreme being; but neither is it concerned to deny it. Christianity, of Middle
Eastern origins, is a monotheistic religion that shares with Judaism and Islam
belief in a personal supreme being and certain scriptures (i.e. the Pentateuch).
Shamanism is the name for a wide range of animistically oriented religious sys-
tems of spirit-guided healing found throughout the world, especially in many
Indigenous cultures. The word “shaman” was adapted from the Tungus lan-
guage of North Central Asia and generalized cross-culturally by anthropologists
and scholars of religion (Eliade, 1964). These three types of religious traditions
share ideals of compassion, but each has a different nuance. By reflecting on
the differences and commonalities, we can expand our own understanding of
compassion.

Kuan Yin, The Bodhisattva of Compassion

Mahayana Buddhism is the most common form of Buddhism found in East Asia
(especially China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam). One of the most widely known
schools of Mahayana in the West is Zen (aka chan, Chinese or seon, Korean; see
de Bary, 1969; Canda, 2001; Sheng-Yen & Stevenson, 2001). The term Mahayana
means literally, Great Vehicle, meaning it is a vehicle large enough to move all
beings toward enlightenment. In Mahayana, many Zen practitioners take a vow
of great compassion: “Sentient beings are numberless; I vow to save them all.” This
vow encompasses a commitment to serve all beings, human and nonhuman.
Bodhisattvas have deeply awakened to their true nature, but postpone enter-
ing Nirvana so that they can help others until all beings are enlightened. Thus,
devotees may regard them as divine beings and appeal to them for help in spe-
cial circumstances of need, such as a time of death or crisis. In the Zen context,
Bodhisattvas can be considered symbolic expressions of the Buddha-nature of
virtue and enlightenment inherent within each person (Sheng-Yen & Stevenson,
2001; Venerable Chong Mu, personal communication, Seoul, Korea). Reflection
on the ideal and symbol of a Bodhisattva should inspire a person to realize that
quality within himself or herself and to express it in action (Cheng Yen, 1999).
One of the most popular Bodhisattvas is Kuan Yin, also named Kuan Shi
Yin (Chinese; Gwanseum, in Korean), the Bodhisattva of Compassion (Blofeld,
1988; Canda, 1995a). The name of this Bodhisattva means literally, “to perceive
the sound of the world.” The Korean Zen Master, Seung Sahn (personal com-
munication), said that this represents the ideal of having a mind and heart clear
and open to perceive the cries of all suffering beings so that we can respond with
help. Kuan Yin is an East Asian adaptation of an earlier Indian figure named
Avalokitesvara who is portrayed with male gender (Schumacher & Woerner,
1994). Since at least the 10th century, Kuan Yin has been portrayed variously
as male, female, or androgynous. In essence, the Bodhisattva is beyond gender
distinctions or any conceptions, but may manifest in various forms as needed to
help people.
46 central values and concepts

Sometimes Kuan Yin is depicted as having a thousand eyes and hands. This
symbolizes a compassionate mind that perceives all suffering and is able to reach
out in all directions with help. Kuan Yin is also sometimes shown with 12 heads
depicting various aspects of compassion. Often there are 11 faces on a crown
above the main face of the Bodhisattva (Figure 2.2). According to one explana-
tion, three faces symbolize praise for people of good heart (Canda, 1995a). Three
faces represent rightful anger toward those who do harm. Three faces smile with
encouragement and praise for people who do good. One face in the middle indi-
cates nonjudgmental acceptance of all kinds of people. And one face (often a
standing figure on the forehead or crown of the head) represents the Buddha of
Infinite Light or unlimited consciousness, which is the culmination of spiritual
development. These 11 faces are above the main face of Kuan Yin, which rep-
resents the face of wisdom beyond any of the other conditional compassionate
reactions. The ideal here is that compassion may be expressed in many different
ways and circumstances, but the direction should always be to help others in a
nonjudgmental way. In fact, Kuan Yin is sometimes used to illustrate the ideal of
social work in Korean Buddhist settings (Canda, Shin, & Canda, 1993).

Figure 2.2. Eleven headed

Kuan Yin Bodhisattva,
Korea.
Compassion and Ethical Principles 47

The Passion of Jesus

The passion of Jesus is one of the most common devotional themes in Christian
theology and art. Christians regard Jesus Christ as God incarnate, joining the
fullness of divinity with a complete experience of human suffering and death
(Nielsen, Hein, Reynolds, & Miller, 1993; Smith, 1995). In the context of the
Trinitarian doctrine, Jesus’ incarnation represents the boundless love of God for
human beings, since God sent his only son, knowing that Jesus would be cru-
cified as an atonement for the sins of humanity. The conjunction of the glory
of God with the abject suffering of human beings is itself a main theme of the
passion of Jesus.
Various Christian traditions of iconography depict the passion of Jesus in
many ways (Gieben, 1980; van Os, 1994; Weitzmann, 1978). In portrayals of the
crucifi xion, Jesus is often shown with explicit marks of pain and torture, such
as starvation exposed ribs, nails in hands and feet, and blood and water flowing
from the sword wound in his side. The divinity of Jesus is also portrayed, such
as God looking on or weeping angels hovering above. Often the cross is shown
with no figure at all, or with a resplendent Jesus figure, in order to emphasize
the resurrection of Christ. When Christians contemplate these symbols of the
suffering Jesus, they may immerse themselves vicariously in his pain in order to
work through to a catharsis in the mystery of Jesus’ resurrection from the dead.
During the season of Lent and Easter, Christian communities follow the various
stages of Jesus’ passion, death, and resurrection. Th is is both a commemoration
of past events and a process linking individuals’ and communities’ experiences
of suffering and mortality into the redemptive model, so that hope and heal-
ing may be experienced. This refreshes Christians’ understanding of the rite of
communion (or Eucharist), which commemorates the Passover meal that Jesus
shared with his disciples shortly before his crucifi xion. In the rite of commu-
nion, the community shares bread and often wine, representing the body and
blood of Jesus.
Jesus’ suffering, death, and resurrection were the culmination of many gos-
pel stories about his compassion for people. Jesus defied social conventions to
care for the sick, the poor, and disrespected members of society, such as tax col-
lectors and prostitutes. Jesus’ compassion for the poor and oppressed has been
the primary model for Christian-based medical and social services. A popular
Catholic depiction of Jesus’ compassion is the Sacred Heart (Figure 2.3) as men-
tioned in my (EC) story of a call to service.

The Shaman as Wounded/Healed Healer

Shamanism is not the name of a particular religion, as Buddhism or Christianity.
Rather, shamanism is a name made up by anthropologists and religious studies
scholars for a set of religiously based themes and practices that are found in many
distinct cultures on all continents and in Oceania (Bowie, 2006; Canda, 1983;
48 central values and concepts

Figure 2.3. Sacred heart of

Jesus Street Mural, Chicago.

Walsh, 1990). Shamanism is connected to a worldview that honors connected-

ness between humans, nature, and the spiritual qualities within and around us
(Figure 2.4). This will be explained further in Part II. For now, our focus is the
shaman, a person who learns culturally prescribed ways of communicating with
spiritual beings and forces in order to heal people of afflictions, to overcome crises,
and to maintain or restore personal, social, and cosmic harmony. A shaman uses
intensified, ecstatic states of consciousness in order to communicate with these
spiritual forces and to engage in healing with their guidance (Eliade, 1964).
In many cultures, a person becomes a shaman through a process of ini-
tiation in which the initiate is symbolically wounded, dismembered, sickened,
or killed by envisioned spirits so that he or she can be reconstructed beyond
the ordinary limits of social roles and conventions as a healer (Halifax, 1982).
A period of spontaneous sacred calling and disruption is followed by rituals
of transformative death and rebirth, as well as training by master shamans, in
order to help the initiate learn how to use trance and to communicate with spir-
its in a culturally prescribed and disciplined manner. In some cultures, people
who eventually become shamans have often gone through severe experiences of
illness, oppression, or mistreatment that fracture their psychosocial status quo
and open them up to spirit influences. Thus, the shaman is able to use the learn-
ing from his or her own experiences of crisis and resolution as a pattern for the
process of helping other people.
The Korean myth of Princess Pari illustrates this pattern (Canda, 1982,
1995a). In a version of the Seoul area, the princess was born as the seventh daugh-
ter in a royal family long ago. Given the patriarchal context, the king was angry
Compassion and Ethical Principles 49

Figure 2.4. Untitled, by

Orville Milk, Lakota, gift
from the artist.

that he had not yet had a son to inherit the throne, so he locked the princess in a
box and cast her out to sea. Miraculously, she was discovered by a loving couple
who adopted her. As a young woman, she learned of her true identity. But her
royal parents were gravely ill. Despite their mistreatment of her, she decided to
seek a magic cure for them which could only be found in the Western Paradise
by a heroic journey through mountains full of dangerous monsters. With the
help of spirit beings, she found the cure and returned, only to find her parents
dead. Nonetheless, the medicine restored them to life. In the process, Princess
Pari’s suffering was resolved through reconciliation with her parents and fulfi ll-
ment of the role of healer.
Th is theme of the wounded/healed healer may inspire potential shamans
as well as general members of the community. For example, the sweat lodge
purification ritual is one of the most widely shared spiritual practices among
First Nations peoples of North America (Lyon, 1996; Schiff & Pelech, 2007). It
is used to help people clarify and purify themselves, often in preparation for
other ceremonies, to gain insight into one’s life purpose and mission, or to gain
wisdom and strength to deal with personal or community crises. The sweat
lodge is usually constructed of saplings bowed over and tied to form a dome
shaped support structure. The frame is covered with hides or blankets so that
the inside is completely dark, even during daylight. Th is lodge is the sacred
womb of the earth to which people return to be renewed and reborn. Red-hot
rocks are brought from a sacred fi re and placed in a pit in the middle of the
lodge. Water and sometimes healing herbs are placed on the rocks to release
their hot healing steam. The structure of the lodge and the sacred materials
50 central values and concepts

used in the ritual all reflect a prayerful recognition of the participants’ con-
nection with all things, and an invocation of healing and help from the spirit
powers of earth and sky.
These stones share their hot purifying energy as people pray and sing for
the well-being of themselves, loved ones, the community, and all things. The hot
steam may cause some suffering, but when the suffering is offered to help others,
it becomes a sacrifice of compassion that also heals oneself. Literally, from the
Latin roots, the word sacrifice means “to make sacred.”
Black Elk, who was a Lakota shaman and Catholic catechist, shared this
prayer from a sweat lodge (Brown, 1971, p. 40). “O Wakan-Tanka, Grandfather,
above all, it is thy will that we are doing here. Through that Power which comes
from the place where the giant Waziah lives, we are now making ourselves as
pure and as white as new snow. We know that we are now in darkness, but soon
the Light will come. When we leave this lodge may we leave behind all impure
thoughts and all ignorance. May we be as children newly born! May we live
again, O Wakan-Tanka!” In the Lakota tradition, when people enter or leave the
lodge, they say “All my relatives.” This is a prayer to honor all the beings and
powers that support us and to share the benefit of the ritual for all.

A Common Heart of Compassion

The religious views implied in these symbols might seem to be vastly differ-
ent, even irreconcilable. Certainly, in the understanding of many adherents,
this would be the case. But there is also a deep commonality. As social workers
striving to develop a moral and ethical framework that honors diversity while
fi nding common ground, we should consider whether there might be a com-
mon heart of compassion underlying the differences. Th is is not something
that can be discerned scientifically, but it is a philosophical and moral question
about which we need to take a clear position as a basis for formulating general
ethical principles for spiritually sensitive social work. In order to do this, it is
helpful to return to the study of social work scholars’ diverse spiritual perspec-
tives (Canda, 1990c).
Although there were significant contrasts in the content of beliefs among
the participants, there was a surprising commonality of core values. Participants
from atheist, humanist, Christian, Buddhist, existentialist, Jewish, and shaman-
istic perspectives agreed that each human being has inherent dignity and worth
and deserves unconditional positive regard. They agreed that social workers
should strive to complement both individual well-being and social justice. They
also indicated that human beings should extend care and responsibility to the
nonhuman world, because of our interdependence with it, or because it is seen
as an expression of God’s creativity, or because it is understood that all things
are alive with their own personality and sacred power. All agreed that people
should cultivate a moral perspective that goes beyond egotism, ethnocentrism,
Compassion and Ethical Principles 51

and human exploitation of the environment. Respondents of all perspectives felt

a basic congruence between professional values and their personal values, but
also felt points of tension where professional ideals of justice and service to the
poor and oppressed seemed to be eroding.
This commonality of core values among people of diverse spiritual perspec-
tives is probably related to the fact that they were all American social workers.
It suggests that when social workers of diverse spiritual backgrounds enter into
dialogue and share their deepest commitments and ideals, it may be possible to
find our common heart of compassion. This humane heartedness can become a
point of mutual respect and cooperation as we dialogue and collaborate, even
when dealing with very different and conflicting details of spiritual beliefs, val-
ues, and practices. This common humane heartedness can be found by look-
ing deeply into each of our own hearts and by communicating deeply with each
other heart to heart. Huston Smith (1991) has extensively studied the similarities
and differences among the world’s major wisdom traditions. He concludes that
we must all listen to each others’ understandings of truth, religious and secular,
because we live in an interconnected global community.

Those who listen work for peace, a peace not built on ecclesiastical or political
hegemonies but on understanding and mutual concern. For understanding, at
least in realms as inherently noble as the great faiths of humankind, brings
respect; and respect prepares the way for a higher power, love—the only power
that can quench the flames of fear, suspicion, and prejudice, and provide the
means by which the people of this small but precious Earth can become one to
one another . . . So we must listen to understand, but we must also listen to put
into play the compassion that the wisdom traditions all enjoin . . .” (p. 390).

Ethical Principles for Spiritually Sensitive Social Work

By intention, this chapter has not proceeded in a linear analytical way. We intro-
duced themes, stories, and symbols from various personal, professional, and
religious perspectives associated with compassion and the call to service. Now,
drawing on these moral and value reflections, we would like to state a set of
broad ethical principles for spiritually sensitive social work. These build on the
principles within the NASW Code of Ethics and the IFSW/IASSW Statement of
Principles. We believe that they are consistent with the broad mission, values,
and ethical principles of the social work profession. However, these principles
are tailored to focus on spirituality.
We intend our statement of ethical principles to serve two purposes: (1) to
clarify the values and ethical principles that guide us in our particular ver-
sion of spiritually sensitive practice and (2) to raise questions and controversies
that stimulate readers to engage in your own formulation of ethical principles.
Although the principles are stated as prescriptions, they are, of course, not bind-
ing on anyone. They are meant to be encouragements and challenges for each of
52 central values and concepts

us to decide whether these are helpful for various professional settings and cul-
tural and national contexts. In agreement with Kreitzer (2006) and Yip (2004),
we hope that our principles incorporate appreciation for responsibility and rights,
social stability and change, and empowerment and interrelationship through an
attitude of dynamic exchange between the views of people with diverse spiri-
tual perspectives and social–political locations. We realize that any set of ethical
principles reflect limitations based in the culture, spiritual beliefs, and political
context of the framers. In Part III, we will consider more detailed ethical guide-
lines with regard to the application of spiritually or religiously based ideas and
helping activities in social work. The values and ethical principles stated here
shape the contents and perspective of the rest of this book.
We describe them in relation to the six ethical principles set forth in the
current NASW Code of Ethics (1999, pp. 5–6). In the Code of Ethics, the six core
values are matched with an explanatory ethical principle and a brief text that
elaborates on the principle. In our presentation, we quote the core value and eth-
ical principle from the Code and then add our own elaboration that highlights
how this principle could be expressed in the context of spiritually sensitive social
work practice. We also take into account the IFSW/IASSW principles on human
rights and dignity, social justice, and professional conduct as well as challenges
to universal standards for social work (e.g. Keitzer, 2006; Yip, 2004). Note that
original wording from the NASW Code will be italicized.
Actually, the real guide for day to day behavior is a social worker’s per-
sonal code of ethics based on her or his core values. These values are determined
through experience and personal reflection as to which teachings and values
one wishes to incorporate into one’s own worldview and to translate into one’s
behavior. Realistically, people do not accord a professional standardized code of
ethics authority over their moral and ethical decisions unless it is incorporated
into the personal code.
My students and I (LF) often get into discussions about the importance of
having a personal code of ethics and that this is necessary before one can adopt
a professional code of ethics. We discuss the influences on a personal code of
ethics, such as teachings about right and wrong given by parents, clergy, teach-
ers and peers; professional standards such as the NASW Code of Ethics; as well
as one’s own moral standards developed through our life experiences. Students
must then arrive at decisions about which of these teachings and experiences they
truly believe and wish to incorporate into their own personal code of ethics and
conduct. This way, students can make well-informed decisions about whether
they can assent to the professional code of ethics. If a student decides that she
or he cannot assent to the professional code, then a serious question arises as to
whether one should be a professional social worker or pursue another type of
helping vocation. The professional code is at a very general level. The details of a
personal code integrate professional values and apply it to the specifics of day to
day life.
Compassion and Ethical Principles 53

Value: Service
Ethical Principle: Social workers’ primary goal is to help people in need and to
address social problems.
Spiritually sensitive social workers rise above personal interests to serve and
benefit others. They recognize that serving others is itself a spiritual path that
promotes the well-being of both worker and client. Spiritually sensitive social
workers apply knowledge, values, and skills to help people attain their goals by
attending to material, biological, psychological, relational, and spiritual needs,
according to the priorities and aspirations of clients. They support clients to
utilize their personal strengths and environmental resources in a socially and
ecologically responsible manner. They work with individuals, families, groups,
communities, and the wider world to promote peace and justice.
Spiritually sensitive social workers support people who wish to clarify their
understanding of life purpose, ultimate concerns, and the nature of reality. When
clients identify religious or nonreligious forms of spiritual support, such as reli-
gious communities or sacred beings, related beliefs and practices are respected
by the worker and included in the approach to helping as relevant to clients’ own
preferences. As relevant to the client, religious and nonreligious spiritual systems
are considered for their helpful and harmful impacts. When harm is identified,
clients are assisted to change the quality of their relationship with them in a
respectful manner.
Spiritually sensitive social workers should strive to make services accessible,
affordable, and relevant. They are encouraged to volunteer time with no expec-
tation of remuneration. They continually reexamine how the conduct of their
professional roles is congruent with the virtue of compassion and their deepest
sense of calling to a life of service.

Value: Social Justice

Ethical Principle: Social workers challenge social injustice.
Spiritually sensitive social workers pursue positive social change and social jus-
tice, particularly with and on behalf of vulnerable and oppressed individuals and
groups of people, including targets of negative spiritual discrimination. Their
social change activities also address individuals and groups who are motivated
by spiritual beliefs to perpetuate harm, such as intrafamilial abuse or neglect,
negative discrimination against individuals and groups, or personal and collec-
tive violence. They promote empowerment in relation to all aspects of human
diversity, including by encouraging clients’ own proactivity and by working to
eliminate environmental barriers and harmful social policies while expand-
ing availability of and access to resources. They do not place clients in harm or
engage in activities designed to undermine the integrity of families, communi-
ties, or nations.
54 central values and concepts

Spiritually sensitive social workers recognize that social justice and human
well-being are closely interrelated with the well-being of nonhuman beings and
the total planetary ecology. Therefore, they strive to overcome environmental
racism, international social injustice, war between cultures and nations, and
human activities that are destructive to local and planet-wide ecological systems.
This concern extends to any place humans traverse, on this Earth or beyond.

Value: Dignity and Worth of the Person

Ethical Principle: Social workers respect the inherent dignity and worth of the
person.
Spiritually sensitive social workers treat everyone with compassion and respect,
mindful of individual and cultural differences, including religious and spiritual
diversity. Spiritually sensitive social workers address clients as whole persons,
applying professional roles, rules, and assessment labels in a flexible and collabo-
rative way that is responsive to the values of the client and his or her community.
They also strive to make respectful connections across differences and to find
common ground for cooperation. They honor the common and universal human
needs for a sense of meaning, purpose, morality, and fulfi lling relationships.
Spiritually sensitive social workers promote individuals’, cultures’, and
nations’ self-determination in the context of social and global responsibility.
Spiritually sensitive social workers enhance clients’ capacity and opportunity to
lie harmoniously and to change and grow, including through crises and experi-
ences of spiritual transformation.
Spiritually sensitive social workers are responsible to both clients and the
broader society and world. They seek to resolve conflicts between clients’ and
others’ interests in a socially responsible peaceful manner consistent with the
values of the profession. They do not assist inhumane practices, such as torture,
terrorism, or genocide.

Value: Importance of Human Relationships

Ethical Principle: Social workers recognize the central importance of human
relationships.
Spiritually sensitive social workers understand that healthy relationships
between and among people and other beings are important for growth. Social
workers engage people as partners in the helping process, including collabora-
tion with religious and nonreligious spiritual support systems as relevant to cli-
ents. Spiritually sensitive social workers seek to strengthen relationships among
people and other beings in order to promote, restore, maintain, and enhance
the well-being of individuals, families, social groups, organizations, communi-
ties, the global community, and all the ecosystems in which these are embedded.
They identify and respect clients’ various ways of construing social relations,
such as individuality, family centered identity, or communality.
Compassion and Ethical Principles 55

Although the primary focus of social work is on humans, spiritually sensitive

social workers recognize human interdependency with all beings and ecosystems.
The natural world and all the beings within it are granted respect for their intrin-
sic worth and not just for utilitarian purposes. Spiritually sensitive social workers
understand that many people believe in and claim to experience relationship with
sacred, supernatural, or transcendent aspects of reality. Therefore, when such
beliefs and experiences are important to clients, spiritually sensitive social work-
ers explore how clients’ relationships with these spiritual aspects may influence
their sense of well-being and the development of fulfilling relationships.

Value: Integrity
Ethical Principle: Social workers behave in a trustworthy manner.
Spiritually sensitive social workers remain aware of the profession’s values and
ethics and practice in a manner consistent with them. They promote ethical and
spiritually sensitive practices and policies in the human service organizations
with which they are affi liated.
Spiritually sensitive social workers are honest about the moral, profes-
sional, religious, theoretical, ideological, political, cultural, and other assump-
tions of themselves and their organizations that are germane to the helping
process. Whenever necessary, they provide this information to clients in a way
that encourages informed consent and freedom of choice for the client to decide
whether to maintain a professional relationship with the worker or the organi-
zation with which the worker is affi liated. Professional self-disclosure is done for
the benefit of clients, rather than for egocentric, judgmental, or discriminatory
reasons.

Value: Competence
Ethical Principle: Social workers practice within their areas of competence and
develop and enhance their professional expertise.
Spiritually sensitive social workers continually strive to increase their profes-
sional wisdom, knowledge, and skills for effective practice. Especially in regard
to explicit use of religious or nonreligious spiritual beliefs, symbols, rituals,
therapeutic practices, or community support systems, spiritually sensitive social
workers obtain relevant knowledge and skills. Social work practice across dif-
ferent spiritual traditions, communities, and cultures is performed with respect
for the values and preferences of clients and relevant members of those groups.
Spiritually sensitive social workers learn how to cooperate and collaborate with
community-based spiritual support systems, helpers, and healers in a culturally
competent manner.
Spiritually sensitive social workers should aspire to contribute to the knowl-
edge base of the profession, especially in relation to innovations in spiritually
sensitive social work practice, theory, policy, research, and education.
56 central values and concepts

Conclusion

In this chapter, we reviewed core values in the history of the profession and in
diverse spiritual perspectives of social workers. We considered common themes
and various symbolic expressions of compassion and the call to service. Finally,
we offered a framework of values and ethical principles for spiritually sensi-
tive practice by elaborating upon the NASW Code of Ethics and IFSW/IASSW
Statement of Principles. These value themes and ethical principles will pervade
the remainder of the book.

EXERCISES

.. What Does Compassion Mean to You?

During the discussion of the virtue of compassion in social work history, some
rival views were discussed. For example, compassion as unconditional love and
care was contrasted with moralistic judgmentalism and condescending pity.
Compassion as a commitment to social justice was contrasted with individual-
istic gratification. Compassion as an altruistic and generous way of service was
contrasted with professional preoccupation with prestige, profit, and personal
advantage. Consider how these different concepts of compassion play out in
your personal and professional life. What kind of value conflicts and dilemmas
occur when different motives for service come into conflict? Clarify what is your
own understanding of compassion and how this is reflected in your professional
work.

.. Writing a Vocational Autobiography

Return to the discussion of social work as a vocation, including the personal
accounts of how social work scholars and practitioners, including us, understand
the call to service. What is your reaction to these stories? Which can you iden-
tify with? Which are incongruent with your sense of vocation? What does your
reaction tell you about your own core values, motives, and developmental expe-
riences that guide you in the social work profession?
Whether you are a student, a seasoned practitioner, an agency administra-
tor, an educator, researcher, or policy analyst, think back to when this motive
to serve originated. What happened to you and within you that woke you up
to this vocation? Were there any inspiring figures in your life? Were there any
religious or moral teachings that influenced you? Did you have any experiences
of struggle and resolution that pointed you in this direction? In case you have
lost the original fresh sense of vocation, take this opportunity to recall it, to rest
in it, and to restore it. By returning to our original inspiration, we are not only
recalling, but we are being recalled. This gives us an opportunity to answer once
again, perhaps by restoring an earlier sense of vitality, or by appreciating where
Compassion and Ethical Principles 57

we are now, or even by finding new ways to live according to our deepest life
aspirations.
Now you are prepared to write an autobiography of your call to service.
Organize your insights according to a time line, dividing the phases of your life
in whatever way makes sense for you—for example early childhood, school years,
graduate education, beginning of professional practice, significant personal tran-
sitions or crises, your current situation. Tell stories to friends about important
events and people. Discuss the key themes that run through your professional
development. Consider how your present situation represents growth, stasis, or
loss of original inspiration. Then write an essay that recounts this development.

.. Symbols of Compassion

Take out three sheets of paper. Label one sheet “Early Childhood”; one sheet
“Now”; and one sheet “My Ideal for the Future.” On each sheet, use colorful
markers or other decorations to draw or depict a representation of what com-
passion means to you. First think back to your earliest childhood memories of
compassionate people or symbols of compassion from your cultural or religious
heritage. Create a picture that represents your feelings, thoughts, or symbols
about this. Next, do the same for your current understanding of compassion as
you express it in our personal and professional lives. Then imagine your ideal of
compassion as you would like to achieve it in the future. Finally, compare the
three pictures and reflect on the changes and opportunities for further growth
that they suggest. As an alternative to making pictures, write down key words or
phrases that represent your symbols of compassion at each stage of life.

.. A Common Heart of Compassion

Think of occasions in which you were involved with friendships or professional
relationships that bridged significant cultural or religious differences. What
qualities in yourself and the other person made this connection possible? If you
discovered a sense of common purpose and common humanity together with
the differences, explain what that involved. Consider how these qualities can be
applied within social work practice to enhance empathy, respect, and coopera-
tion with clients who come from spiritual backgrounds very different from your
own. Write an essay based on these insights.

.. Ethical Principles for Spiritually Sensitive

Social Work: Personal Fit
Statements of core values and ethical principles are necessarily very broad and
leave much room for interpretation. Each professional needs to consider the
extent to which they feel fit with these values and principles.
First, review each ethical principle that we presented. Consider your agree-
ment or disagreement with each principle and explain why you have this reaction.
58 central values and concepts

Consider whether you believe our principles are consistent with the social work
Code of Ethics in your country or the IFSW/IASSW Principles. Consider also
how they fit with your personal code.
Next, reflect on the social work Code of Ethics in your country or the IFSW/
IASSW Principles. Consider areas of agreement or disagreement. How do these
agreements or disagreements affect your practice as a social worker? If you feel
a basic incompatibility with the relevant Code, consider whether it makes sense
for you to continue to identify as a social worker, to change to another helping
profession, or to advocate for changes or clarifications in the Code of Ethics.
 3

The Meaning of Spirituality

The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao.

Tao te Ching, Daoism
(trans. Feng & English, 1972)

In Chinese Daoism, the term Tao (currently often spelled, Dao) means “way
of life” or the natural flow of the universe. Daoist philosophy emphasizes that
there is something mysterious about the Tao that cannot be captured in words.
The nameless Tao gives rise to all things, but it cannot be reduced to them.
Spirituality also has an irreducible dynamic and holistic quality. It connects us
with conceptions and experiences of profound, transcendent, sacred, or ulti-
mate qualities. Its deepest meaning cannot be expressed, but its expressions and
names are numerous. In this chapter, we provide definitions of spirituality and
related terms, but we also recognize its mysterious quality.
Contemporary social work scholars usually distinguish between spirituality
and religion as related but distinct concepts (Canda, 2008a). Here is a restatement
of our preliminary definitions from Chapter 1. Spirituality refers to a universal
and fundamental human quality involving the search for a sense of meaning,
purpose, morality, well-being, and profundity in relationships with ourselves,
others, and ultimate reality, however understood. In this sense, spirituality may
express through religious forms or it may be independent of them. Religion is an
institutionalized (i.e. systematic) pattern of values, beliefs, symbols, behaviors,
and experiences that are oriented toward spiritual concerns, shared by a com-
munity, and transmitted over time in traditions. Notice that spirituality (like
emotionality or physicality) is a type of word that connotes a process and way
of being.
In order to develop a framework for spiritually sensitive social work that
respects and appreciates diverse expressions, we need to refine and amplify these

59
60 central values and concepts

definitions. Sometimes disputes between colleagues or between social workers

and clients result from lack of clear definitions and unspoken but contradictory
assumptions about the nature of religion and spirituality. In order to communi-
cate clearly among helping professionals and others about spirituality, we need
to form clear explicit definitions. In order to conduct research about the impacts
of religion and spirituality on human behavior, we need to apply clearly defined
concepts in a consistent manner. In order for practitioners to do assessments of
clients’ spiritual development, strengths and challenges, we need to explain the
key concepts underlying our standards for assessment. Researchers sometimes
need to employ even more tightly defined terms.
This chapter identifies difficulties inherent in trying to define spirituality
and religion; it presents our approach to meet the challenge. It reviews the cur-
rent definitions of spirituality and related terms in social work and allied fields
and the common themes among them. By integrating these insights, we develop
formal definitions of spirituality and related terms, and amplify the meaning of
spirituality through two conceptual models. For readers who wish to be familiar
with the interdisciplinary background and resources that lead to our defi nitions,
the entire chapter is important. For those who wish to focus on final definitions
and conceptual models, you may skip to the last major section of the chapter on
Definitions and Models Related to Spirituality.

The Challenges of Defining Spirituality

A definition of spirituality that will be acceptable for the common base of the
profession needs to be inclusive of diverse religious and nonreligious expres-
sions. This poses two challenging dichotomies involved in disagreements around
this topic: the particular versus the universal and the expressible versus the
inexpressible.

Particular versus Universal

There are three strategies for defining spirituality. One is to focus on spirituality
in particular contexts, times, places, persons, and cultures. This means defin-
ing spirituality (or using the term at all) only in situation-specific ways. This is
sometimes referred to as an emic approach, which means using the insider’s or
believer’s perspective (Bowie, 2006). It emphasizes contextual understanding, or
in extreme cases, relativism, as discussed in Chapter 1. The advantage of this
approach is avoiding concepts and assumptions that are irrelevant or inappro-
priate for clients and particular communities. One can develop rich detailed
descriptions and accounts of particular beliefs, experiences, and patterns from
the ground up. As context-specific accounts from many different people and
communities are collected or brought into dialogue, people can learn about each
other on their own terms. This is consistent with the movement to indigenize or
The Meaning of Spirituality 61

localize social work, that is, to develop approaches to social work by, with, and
for particular groups, cultures, and nations (Gray & Fook, 2004).
People who support the emic approach are highly suspicious of general
defi nitions or theories of religion and spirituality because they run the risk of
oversimplification, stereotypes, and even imperialistic impositions of spiritual
assumptions and agendas. In the postmodern world of tremendous cultural
and spiritual diversity, competing value systems, and calls for the empower-
ment of disenfranchised individuals and groups, this emic approach is very
appealing (Griffi n, 1988; Scherer, 2006). For example, in clinical practice, the
client’s beliefs, behaviors, values, symbols, and rituals should be paramount
rather than any preconceptions on the part of the practitioner. In community
empowerment work, social workers should be members or allies of the com-
munity and should build upon local spiritual perspectives and priorities in
collaboration with all its constituencies, under advice from spiritual elders,
mentors, and leaders.
In contrast, the etic approach utilizes general concepts and theories that
are thought to be applicable across various cultures and situations. We can use
such general theories and concepts to describe, compare, and analyze the variety
of spiritual perspectives and common human needs and goals. They provide a
shared language for discussion among people coming from a variety of spiritual
perspectives. For example, if an atheistic social worker is assisting a charismatic
Christian client, it would be useful to have a general framework for discussing
spiritual matters that can bridge the differences and find common ground.
Some etic approaches are universalistic, that is, they claim that there is a
fundamental level of reality to which all religions and spiritual perspectives
point, such as a Supreme Being or Ultimate Truth, even if some believers don’t
recognize that (Paden, 2003). This view is suspicious of emic approaches, because
they may be ethnocentric or idiosyncratic barriers to universal human under-
standing and cooperation. Some see the search for commonality as a balm for
the postmodern situation of value relativism, moral confusion, and interreligious
conflict (Cave, 1993; Rennie, 1996). In extreme cases, the etic approach becomes
absolutism, as discussed in Chapter 1. Absolutism is prone toward chauvinism,
imperialism, and proselytism.
Our strategy in this book is a third option that includes the insights and
transcends the limitations of emic and etic approaches. We appreciate diver-
sity by remaining faithful to particular spiritual experiences and traditions and
by seeking common ground for understanding and communication. For this,
we coin the term, transperspectival approach. In other words, we bring various
particular (emic) perspectives into interaction and dialogue with each other to
affirm both the particular and the shared aspects of human experience. Claims
of universal truth or panhuman aspects of spirituality (given by others or our-
selves) are themselves recognized as particular spiritual claims. Theories of
human behavior and practice models (etic approaches) can help us to compare
spiritual perspectives and understand their impacts on clients. Yet they are also
62 central values and concepts

scrutinized for their limitations and for their relevance (or lack thereof) to par-
ticular clients and communities.
We advocate for continuing self-reflection and dialogue between helping
professionals, consumers, and community members of many spiritual perspec-
tives, so that we can move toward continuously greater mutual understanding
and cooperation. The social worker needs to have a wide mind and repertoire
of knowledge and skills in order to understand and mediate between multiple
spiritual perspectives without being stuck within any of them. This wide trans-
perspectival view is represented by the encompassing circle that we showed in
Figure 1.1.
For example, in a study of Buddhist mutual assistance associations among
Southeast Asian refugees in the United States, Canda and Phaobtong (1992) used
a general (etic) social work classification of physical, mental, social, and spiri-
tual supports to examine culture-specific community strengths and resources.
Particular (emic) Theravada Buddhist terms and practices, based on field obser-
vation and interviews within refugee communities, were presented to illustrate
this. Thus a common base for mutual understanding and cooperation between
Southeast Asian American Buddhists and others was established. As another
example, a series of studies about how adults with a chronic illness, cystic fibro-
sis, respond with resilience came from an opposite direction of analysis (Canda,
2009). It focused on particular individuals’ (emic) understandings of spiritual-
ity as a source of strength and resources in order to identify both distinctive
and shared patterns of meaning among participants and then relate them to
strengths-based social work (etic). Indeed, the search for strengths and resources
in religious communities and spiritually focused individuals is consistent with
the strengths perspective, which is an etic approach to social work that values
emic (i.e. client-based) perspectives (Saleebey, 2009).
This transperspectival approach retains an unavoidable challenge. Whenever
general definitions of spirituality are developed that can be inclusive of all pos-
sible versions, such as theism, polytheism, atheism, animism, and nontheism,
it may become vague (Canda, 1990b). When too much is included, a definition
does not aid in making important distinctions. In order to address this concern,
we develop a broad and inclusive conceptualization of spirituality, as well as a
holistic conceptual model, by taking into account insights of many spiritual tra-
ditions and scholarly disciplines. We also provide a detailed operational model
of spirituality that includes many observable and measurable components useful
for application in practice and research.

Expressible versus Inexpressible

Many scholars of religion and spirituality say that they can be studied scien-
tifically only if they can be expressed, observed, and even measured. How else
could a practitioner know when a client is being religious, exhibiting signs of a
spiritual development crisis, or is affected beneficially or adversely by a spiritual
The Meaning of Spirituality 63

practice like prayer? Other scholars and mystics emphasize that the most distinc-
tive features of religion and spirituality are ineffable, that is, beyond description,
expression, or intellectual analysis. Some scholars object that the claim of ineffa-
bility is simply a strategy to avoid critical scrutiny of truth claims and to invest
personal experiences or traditional doctrines with an aura of supreme unques-
tionable authority (Proudfoot, 1985). There are two major debates involved: the
ineffability of mystical experience and the irreducibility of the nature of religion
or spirituality.
Mystical experiences or experiences of the sacred are direct personal encoun-
ters with aspects of reality that are beyond the limits of language and reason
to express. They transcend human capacity for thinking and expression. They
are described in various religious traditions as experiences of supernatural or
paranormal powers, events, spirits, and ghosts (Hollenback, 1996); deep spiri-
tual communion with God (Johnston, 1995); or ego transcending expansions of
consciousness (Wilber, 2006). Experiencers typically claim that mystical expe-
riences are ineffable, meaning that they are so private and profound that they
cannot be communicated to another (Dupre, 1987; James, 1982). They surpass
rational understanding and the capacity of words. Further, the sacred referents
of spiritual devotion and belief, such as God or Tao, are considered ineffable in
many religious traditions, because they are supernatural, mysterious, or beyond
human understanding. As the eminent historian of religions, Mircea Eliade
(1959) said, experience of the sacred is a fundamental experience that can only
be understood through sensitivity to the sacred and its experienced qualities of
absoluteness, mysteriousness, awesomeness, and ultimate priority.
For these reasons, many scholars of religion and religious adherents claim
that the mystical, sacred, or transcendental aspects of spirituality and religion
are beyond scientific understanding or proof. This does not mean that mystical
experiences or divine realities cannot be talked about. But it means that their
reality will always be beyond whatever one says about them. It also means that
much religious and spiritual language will be paradoxical, metaphorical, poetic,
symbolic, and allegorical.
Our position is that key terms pertaining to spirituality and religion should
be defined carefully in order to encourage mutual understanding and consis-
tency of usage, which are prerequisites for research and practice about spiritu-
ality. However, the definitions are for the sake of convenience. Concepts never
should be mistaken for their referents. Referents cannot be fully captured by
labels and definitions, in regards to any phenomenon, spiritual or otherwise.
Even on a mundane level, the address is not the place. On a deeper level, one’s
love for a lover is far more than countable caresses.
As the Jewish, Christian, and Islamic traditions emphasize, the image of
God is not to be confused with God. Our definitions function like a pointing
finger. As a Zen analogy puts it, it is good to point at the moon to share the lovely
sight with your friend. But once your friend has seen the moon, the finger no
longer needs to point.
64 central values and concepts

An Open Conceptualization of Spirituality

We aim to be precise, yet open in our definition of spirituality and related terms.
For example, there are numerous competing definitions of religion in the fields
of religious studies and anthropology (Lehmann & Myers, 2001; Winzeler, 2008).
Hill and colleagues (2000) have shown that the concepts of religion and spiritu-
ality take on many different nuances in the social sciences and helping profes-
sions. Debates have continued for decades about these definitions or whether
there even should be any definitions (Braun & McCutcheon, 2000; Scherer,
2006). Exactitude and consensus remain elusive. We feel that this is not neces-
sarily a problem. It is understandable that a complex and highly diverse phenom-
enon will evade capture by limited categories and definers. In such a case, it is
better to develop an open working definition, which takes into account previous
scholarly work and invites continued dialogue and debate. Thus, definition is a
continuous process, not a final act. Open working definitions need to be clear
but not rigid.
Cox (1996) and Hick (1990) have suggested that this can be accomplished by
presenting a variety of definitions of religion and spirituality and then consider-
ing the family semblance among them. In other words, certain common patterns
and themes emerge even with difference and disagreement. In the following dis-
cussion, we will integrate insights from many disciplines in order to achieve this.
We will construct a comprehensive conceptualization of spirituality and related
terms. We will compare this conceptualization to fi ndings from national and
international surveys of social workers to consider how well it reflects actual
usage in the field.
These definitions and conceptual models are primarily for the purpose of
professional discourse. They provide a provisional set of terms and meanings for
common understanding among practitioners, educators, and researchers. They
give pointers for how to approach the topic of spirituality with clients. But social
workers should use them flexibly. We need to adapt our terms and definitions to
fit particular contexts. In fact, we do not even need to use the words “spirituality
or religion” to get at the meanings behind them. Whenever the terms or defi ni-
tions do not fit purposes well, please throw them away.

The Concept of Spirituality in the Helping Professions

Definitions of Spirituality and Religion in Social Work

Since professional social work in North America developed partially out of
religious movements for charity and community service, the early discussions
of spirituality and religion hinged on particular theological terms and beliefs,
mainly Christian and Jewish. However, social workers increasingly recognize
that spirituality should be addressed in a manner that includes diverse religious
and nonreligious expressions because of the tremendous increase of religious
The Meaning of Spirituality 65

diversity and secularization, the legal principle of church/state separation, and

the professional ethical standards of client self-determination, respect for diver-
sity, and cultural competence (Bullis, 1996; Canda, 2008a, 2008b; Crompton,
1998; Derezotes, 2006; Ellor, Netting, & Thibault, 1999; Nash & Stewart, 2002;
Van Hook, Hugen, & Aguilar, 2001).
The earliest formal attempts to define spirituality inclusively were done
by Christian social work scholars who felt that basic Christian values could be
extended universally by presenting them in nonsectarian terms. For example,
in 1945, Charlotte Towle (1965) said that a complete understanding of the per-
son should involve material, psychological, social, and spiritual aspects. She
highlighted spiritual needs as including use of church-based resources, develop-
ing a sense of meaning and purpose in life, and formation of value frameworks
and sense of social responsibility. Spencer (1956) felt that Christian values of
freedom, love, and service were fully compatible with a nonsectarian approach
to social work. Later (1961), she defined spirituality as aspects of individual feel-
ings, aspirations, and needs concerned with a search for life meaning and pur-
pose, not necessarily connected to a church or systematic beliefs and practices
(i.e. religion).
During the 1970s and 1980s, the profession generally neglected education
or research about religion or spirituality outside of religious settings for practice.
However, during the same period, prominent scholars advocated for a return of
professional attention to spirituality. In addition to Christian and Jewish per-
spectives, existentialist, humanist, Zen Buddhist, and shamanistic perspectives
joined in the effort to define spirituality in an inclusive manner (Canda, 1988a,
1988b). For example, Max Siporin (1985) said that the spiritual is a moral aspect
of the person, called the soul, which strives for relatedness with other people
and supernatural powers, seeks knowledge of ultimate reality, and forms value
frameworks. He emphasized that spirituality may be expressed inside or outside
of religious institutional frameworks. Later, he clarified that the definition of
spirituality should not be limited to ideas of God or the soul, since not all spiri-
tual perspectives share these (Siporin, 1990). Faver (1986) called for social work
to include multiple ways of knowing in research and practice in order to take
into account the roles of religion and faith in human experience. She defined
religion in terms of institutional cumulative traditions of faith. She used Fowler’s
definition of faith (see Part III) which is personal and, like Siporin’s idea of spir-
ituality, relates to a universal aspect of human beings, by which we orient our-
selves to ourselves and the universe. Joseph (1987) similarly defined spirituality
as “the underlying dimension of consciousness which strives for meaning, union
with the universe, and with all things; it extends to the experience of the tran-
scendent or a power beyond us” (p. 14).
In 1986, I (EC) completed a study of the diverse definitions of spiritual-
ity presented in American social work publications to that time (Canda, 1986,
1988a, 1988b, 1990b). In addition, I interviewed 18 authors (the most promi-
nent contributors who could be reached) to cull more detailed personal insights
66 central values and concepts

about spirituality and social work. These included participants who identified
with atheist, Christian, existentialist, Jewish, shamanistic, and Zen Buddhist
perspectives, some including more than one of these. The main purpose of this
qualitative philosophical study was to develop a comprehensive and inclusive
conceptualization of spirituality that built on all the work that had gone before.
I summarized the conceptualization as follows (1990b):

I conceptualize spirituality as the gestalt of the total process of human life and
development, encompassing biological, mental, social, and spiritual aspects.
It is not reducible to any of these components; rather, it is the wholeness of
what it is to be human. Th is is the most broad meaning of the term. Of course,
a person’s spirituality is concerned significantly with the spiritual aspect of
experience. In the narrow sense of the term spirituality, it relates to the spiri-
tual component of an individual or group’s experience. The spiritual relates to
the person’s search for a sense of meaning and morally fulfi lling relationships
between oneself, other people, the encompassing universe, and the ontological
ground of existence, whether a person understands this in terms that are theis-
tic, atheistic, nontheistic, or any combination of these.

In this definition, spirituality is distinguished from religion in that a reli-

gion involves patterns of spiritual beliefs and practices formed in social institu-
tions and traditions that are maintained by a community over time.
Carroll (1998) reviewed the various definitions in social work literature and
identified three common features of spirituality: an essential or holistic quality
of the human being that cannot be reduced to any part of a person; an aspect
of the person concerned with development of meaning and morality and rela-
tionship with a divine or ultimate reality; as transpersonal experiences, in which
consciousness transcends the ordinary limits of ego and body boundaries, such
as in mystical experiences.
Some authors emphasize that spirituality relates primarily to individuals’
inner experiences in contrast to religion as a community-based phenomenon
(Hugen, 2001). Others point out that spirituality includes both individual and
collective dimensions for several reasons (Brenner & Homonoff, 2004; Canda,
2008a, 2008b; Canda & Furman, 1999; Coates, 2007; Derezotes, 2006; Nash &
Stewart, 2002). First, the developmental thrust of spirituality is toward connect-
edness with oneself, other people, other nonhuman beings, the universe, and (for
many) the sacred or divine. Second, individuals may communicate about their
spiritual experiences with friends, relatives, and mentors. Third, most people in
the United States, and many people throughout the world, engage spirituality
in part, or primarily, within religious communities or informal spiritual sup-
port groups. Fourth, in many traditional cultures as well as mystical traditions,
spirituality infuses all of daily life and relationships. Fift h, regarding the social
work helping relationship, it is especially important to be aware of the relational
quality of spirituality as it can engage empathetic connection, understanding of
others’ perspectives, partnership, connection across diversities, and striving for
The Meaning of Spirituality 67

justice for individuals and communities. Indeed, this is what we intend by spir-
itually sensitive practice.

Practitioners’ Definitions of Spirituality, Religion, and Faith

In our series of national surveys in the United States (U.S.), the United Kingdom
(U.K.), Norway, and Aotorea New Zealand (ANZ), we explored how social work-
ers who were members of the respective national professional organizations
understood the terms spirituality, religion, and faith. We asked people to iden-
tify which of 16 descriptors (meaning, purpose, belief, ritual, meditation, organi-
zation, community, personal, morality, values, ethics, miracles, prayer, personal
relationship with higher power, sacred texts, scripture) they relate to the terms.
These findings provide insight into the fit between our use of terms and practi-
tioners’ use.
Among the top eight descriptors selected in every country, spirituality was
most often associated with “meaning, personal, purpose, values, belief, and eth-
ics.” For all countries, 60% or more or responders selected “meaning, personal,
and values.” For the U.S. responders, the top six selections (listed most to least
frequent) remained consistent from 1997 to 2008: “meaning, personal, purpose,
values, belief, personal relationship with a Divine or Higher Power.” “Meditation
and ethics” were both selected as the 7th or 8th most common descriptors in
both years in the United States. The frequencies for all eight selections remained
within 5% over these years. Interestingly, the United States (the least secular-
ized of the countries) is the only country in which the descriptor “personal
relationship with a Divine or Higher Power” was in the top six most frequent
selections.
Among the top eight descriptors selected in every country, religion was
most often associated with “belief, ritual, community, values, prayer, and scrip-
ture.” For all countries, 60% or more of responders selected “belief, ritual, val-
ues, prayer, and scripture,” with “community” being selected by at least 59%. For
the U.S. responders, the top six selections (listed most to least frequent in 2008)
remained within 5% frequency from 1997 to 2008: “ritual, belief, organization,
scripture, prayer, and community.”
Among the top eight descriptors selected for every country (excluding ANZ),
faith was most often associated with “meaning, belief, personal, values, prayer,
and personal relationship with a Divine or Higher Power.” For all countries, 60%
or more of responders selected “belief.” Interestingly, the term “faith” was omit-
ted from the ANZ survey at the advice of local consultants, who saw the term as
irrelevant to social work and biased toward a Judeo-Christian perspective that
does not reflect Indigenous views (Blair Stirling, University of Otago, personal
communication). For the U.S. responders, the top eight selections (listed most
to least frequent) remained consistent from 1997 to 2008: “belief, personal rela-
tionship with a Divine or Higher Power, personal, meaning, purpose, prayer,
values, and ethics.” The frequency of selection for “belief, personal, and personal
68 central values and concepts

relationship with a Divine or Higher Power” remained within 5% over these

years.
We can conclude from this that many social work practitioners across the
four countries would be able to relate to the contrasts and overlap between the
concepts of spirituality and religion made often in the literature and in our defi-
nitions. We can also conclude that individual practitioners vary in their defi-
nitions of these terms, even though there are common patterns. Religion had
contrasting emphases to spirituality. The descriptors “meaning and personal”
were higher for spirituality (i.e. more than 67%) and lower for religion (i.e. less
than 56%) in every country. The descriptors “ritual, scripture, and prayer” were
higher for religion (i.e. more than 66%) and lower for spirituality (i.e. less than
47% in every country). In all countries but ANZ, at least 24% more respondents
associated “community” with religion than spirituality. This may be because
Indigenous Maori worldview, which is highly integrated into social work there,
views spirituality as infused in culture and community life.
There was a high level of agreement to associate faith with “belief” in all
countries (more than 81% of responders) except for ANZ for which we were
advised not include the concept. Fift y-four percent or more in all included
countries also associated faith with “personal” and “personal relationship with
a Divine or Higher Power.” Thus, it shared similarity with religion in terms of
“belief” and “personal relationship with a Divine or Higher Power.” It shared
similarity with spirituality in terms of “belief” in all countries. It is also note-
worthy that the pattern of distinction and overlap between the concepts spir-
ituality, religion, and faith remained consistent in the 1997 and 2008 U.S.A.
National Surveys.
Interestingly, the three terms are connected by the descriptor “belief” which
was selected by at least 39% of responders in all countries (excluding ANZ). In
addition, many descriptors cut across all three terms for some respondents in
every country. For example, in every country, at least 4% of responders chose all
descriptors in relation to spirituality and religion (and faith, excluding ANZ).
These findings show that many social work practitioners would likely find our
definitions, distinctions, and interrelatedness of spirituality and religion under-
standable in the United States, United Kingdom, Norway, and ANZ even though
there are significant differences of history, language, and cultures. (We will dis-
cuss this further in the concluding chapter.)
This is even clearer for U.S. social workers, since the trend of meanings
has remained consistent for 11 years. This observation is supported by a smaller
(n = 303) national exploratory survey of USA-NASW affi liated graduate students,
in which the descriptions of spirituality and religion show distinction as well as
overlap (Hodge, 2006). Responders most commonly associated spirituality with
a “personally constructed view without reference to the transcendent” (33%) and
“belief in/experience of a higher power” (23%). They most commonly associated
religion with “organized beliefs or doctrines” (25%) and “the practice of spiritu-
ality/faith” (23%). Eleven percent or more of responders associated “personally
The Meaning of Spirituality 69

constructed,” “belief in/experience of God,” and “belief in/experience of a

higher power” for both terms. Earlier studies by Derezotes and Evans (1995) and
Sheridan and Bullis (1991) showed a similar distinction between concepts.
In my (EC) experience teaching, collaborating with scholars, and present-
ing at conferences in more than 15 countries around the world, I have found that
most social workers are able to relate usefully to the distinction between spiritu-
ality and religion, even if this is rather new to them. For example, in Japan, social
workers, educators, and mental health professionals are beginning to adopt the
word English word “spirituality,” transliterated into katagana, to make this dis-
tinction (Yoshiharu Nakagawa & Sachiko Gomi, personal communications).
My Japanese colleagues have said this is helpful because most Japanese people
do not have formal membership in a religion, though many utilize and connect
ideas and practices from Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Daoism, and
Shinto for various purposes. In the Republic of Korea, some social workers are
making this distinction as well. Some transliterate the English word “spiritual-
ity” into Korean (hangeul). Others translate it as yeong seong (literally, “sacred
or spiritual quality”) which is often contrasted with jonggyo (literally, “cen-
tral learning,” often used to mean religion). One scholar created a new word,
eulal (literally, “spiritual essence”; see Canda and Furman, 1999, translation by
Seung-Hee Park, Sungkyunkwan University Press, 2003) in order to avoid con-
notations associated with a specific religion. Th is is important for South Korea
because only about 53% of the population identified affi liation with a religion.
Among these, about 55% are Christians and 43% are Buddhists. Others are
Confucians, or practice indigenous religions like shamanism; and many blend
various religions (see www.korea.net, “Religion”, retrieved 7/1/08). My Chinese
colleagues in Hong Kong, where English is a common language, also make a
distinction between religion and spirituality (e.g. Lee, et al., 2009). Th is is useful
to accommodate religious diversity in China as well as prevalent atheism and
agnosticism.
I believe that these various international trends support the utility of the
distinctions between the concepts of spirituality and religion in social work. On
the other hand, the variability of usage in the literature and among individual
practitioners reinforces the need for clarifying the concepts.

Definitions of Spirituality and Religion in Related Fields

In health care fields, such as medicine, hospice care, psychiatry, pastoral counsel-
ing, and nursing, clinical and research interest in spirituality has accelerated sig-
nificantly in the past 15 years. Koenig (2007) gives the following reasons why
health professionals should include spirituality in patient care. Research has
shown that many patients are religious or spiritual and wish to include spiritu-
ality in health care. Religion and spirituality may influence (for better or worse)
coping with illness, use of medical treatments, mental and physical health out-
comes, and community-based supports. Indeed, JCAHO (Joint Commission for
70 central values and concepts

the Accreditation of Hospital Organizations) requires that health care organiza-

tions address spiritual issues.
Hill et al. (2000) pointed out that there has been a narrowing of the def-
inition of religion within the public and within the social and psychological
sciences, especially since the 1980s. Over this time, the concept of spirituality
has become used commonly as a broader term than religion, with distinctions
similar to those in social work. Religion is commonly associated with formal
organizations, communities, doctrines, and rituals. Spirituality is commonly
associated with the search for meaning and truth, encounter with transcendence
or the sacred, and connectedness. As in social work, scholars commonly recog-
nize that spirituality can express in religious and nonreligious forms. Hill and
colleagues recommend that the concept of spirituality should include a focus
on the sacred. In their view, “The sacred is a person, an object, a principle, or
a concept that transcends the self” and that invokes “feelings of respect, rever-
ence, devotion, and may, ideally, serve an integrative function in human person-
ality” (p. 64). This in fact is very close to what the eminent historian of religions,
Mircea Eliade (1959), said is the hallmark of religious experience. For Eliade, as
is common in the field of religious studies, the term religion has a broad mean-
ing similar to spirituality.
Miller and Thoreson (2003) point out that spirituality often implies an ani-
mating or vital principle, as reflected by the Latin meaning of spiritus, which means
breath or spirit. Religion is an institutionalized pattern that involves spirituality
as well as other economic, political, and social goals that are not necessarily spir-
itual in focus. The concept of spirituality does involve observable practices (such
as when manifested in religious participation), but it focuses on an experiential
level related to immaterial aspects. It may involve salutary qualities such as love,
well-being, and peace. Similarly, Frey, Daaleman, and Peyton (2005) agree that
spirituality may or may not express in religion and that it relates to good health
status, subjective well-being, meaningful life, self-efficacy, and personal agency.
Koenig, McCullough, and Larson (2001) conducted a massive review of studies
about spirituality and religion in relation to health. They arrived at the following
definitions: “Spirituality is the personal quest for understanding answers to ulti-
mate questions about life, about meaning, and about relationship to the sacred or
transcendent, which may (or may not) lead to or arise from the development of
religious rituals and the formation of community” (p. 18). In contrast, “Religion
is an organized system of beliefs, practices, rituals, and symbols designed to (a)
facilitate closeness to the sacred or transcendent (God, higher power, or ultimate
truth/reality) and (b) foster an understanding of one’s relationship and respon-
sibility to others in living together in a community.” They also view spirituality
as the more encompassing concept. Their review of studies shows that related
terms (such as religiosity, religiousness, and spiritual well-being) are defined and
operationalized in various ways by researchers. On an international level, the
World Health Organization’s Quality of Life Measure for assessment of spiri-
tuality, religion and personal beliefs includes eight facets: meaning of life, awe,
The Meaning of Spirituality 71

wholeness and integration, inner peace/serenity/harmony, hope and optimism,

connectedness to a spiritual being or force, spiritual strength, and faith (Moreira-
Almeida & Koenig, 2006). As Moreira-Almeida and Koenig point out, the latter
three facets may relate more directly to spirituality itself while the others may be
outcomes of spiritual involvement.
Nursing has come to make similar distinctions between spirituality and reli-
gion. An analysis of the concept of spirituality in 90 health related publications
between 1983 and 2005 (Sessana Finnell & Jezewski, 2007) found four ways of
relating spirituality with religion: (1) spirituality and religion are equivalent; (2)
spirituality refers to meaning, purpose, and connection; (3) spirituality is sep-
arate from religion; and (4) spirituality relates to metaphysical or transcendent
phenomena. They recommend improving consistent usage by defining spiritual-
ity in terms of four themes: search; meaning; unifying and integrating; and basis
for community. In this sense, spirituality may or may not be religious. Similarly,
Berry (2005) views spirituality as the broader concept, focused on experience,
and religion as related to groups and doctrines. Delgado (2005) defines spiritu-
ality as related to a belief system, search for purpose, harmonious interconnec-
tedness, and self-transcendence that may result in inner peace and successful
adaptation and good health. Buck (2006, p. 289) defines spirituality as “that most
human of experiences that seeks to transcend self and find meaning and pur-
pose though connection with others, nature, and/or a Supreme being, which may
or may not involve religious structures and traditions.” O’Brien (2008) finds no
uniformity in definitions of spirituality in the nursing literature. However, it is
associated commonly with values, meaning, purpose, transcendence, positive
virtues (such as love and compassion), ultimate concerns, sense of the sacred,
harmonious relationships, and integration of body, mind, and spirit. She views
spirituality as central to holistic nursing practice. McSherry and Cash (2004)
caution that nurses must be open to the diverse meanings to these terms given
by patients.
In a review of the field of the psychology of religion, Emmons and Paloutzian
(2003) indicate that spirituality may refer to a search for the sacred that is
dynamic and infused in daily life. They believe that spirituality and religion (or
religiousness) should not be treated as dichotomous concepts (e.g. individual vs.
collective or good vs. bad). Psychological studies address feeling states (such as
love, gratitude, devotion), virtues (such as forgiveness, hope, love, humility, wis-
dom), spiritual transcendence (such as prayer joy through divine contact, sense
of the unitive nature of life, or connectedness across groups and generations),
ultimate concerns (such as life-orienting goals and priorities), and spiritual
transformation (such as conversion or gradual and sudden changes in spiritual-
ity). The positive psychologists Snyder and Lopez (2007, p. 262) define spiritual-
ity as, “the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that fuel and arise from the search
for the sacred.” Pargament (2007) views the sacred as the core of spirituality.
The sacred relates to concepts of God, the divine, transcendent reality, and other
aspects of life that are associated with the divine or transcendence. Zinnbauer
72 central values and concepts

and Pargament (2005) emphasize that spirituality and religiousness both relate
to three key concepts: significance, search, and the sacred. Significance relates
to “valued, meaningful, or ultimate concerns.” “These concerns may be psycho-
logical (e.g. growth, self-esteem, comfort), social (e.g. intimacy, social justice),
physical (e.g. health, fitness), material (e.g. money, food, cars), or related to the
divine (e.g. closeness with God, religious experience)” (p. 33). Search refers to
the life process of discovering and conserving what is significant. The sacred, as
already described, when added to significance and search, distinguishes religion
and spirituality from other phenomena. They go on to explain how they differ
in seeing spirituality or religiousness as the broader concept, but both agree that
spirituality and religion are related.
In the field of counseling psychology, Faiver, Ingersoll, O’Brien, and
McNally (2001) associate spirituality with “a deep sense of wholeness, connect-
edness, and openness to the infi nite” (p. 2). Spirituality is an innate quality, our
vital life force, and our experience of that. It expresses in religious and nonre-
ligious forms. Frame (2003) and Miller (2003) recount defi nitions of spiritual-
ity involving a search for harmony and wholeness, connectedness with a higher
power, a growth tendency toward meaning, hope, transcendence, connectedness,
compassion, and formation of value systems. Frame summarizes, “Spirituality
includes one’s values, beliefs, mission, awareness, subjectivity, experience, sense
of purpose and direction, and a kind of striving toward something greater than
oneself” (p. 3) that may or may not be expressed through religious institutional
participation.
Ken Wilber (2000a), an integral philosopher who is also highly influential
in transpersonal psychology, summarizes five common definitions of spiritual-
ity. His Integral Institute is developing applications of integral theory for many
fields, including medicine, business, psychotherapy, and social work. Wilber’s
ideas will be explained further in Parts II and III. (1) Spirituality involves the
transpersonal (i.e. beyond ordinary limitations of body and ego) levels of human
development in any line of development, such as in cognition (transrational
intuition), affect (transpersonal love), morality (compassion for all beings), and
self-identity (the transpersonal or True Self). (2) Spirituality is the overall path of
development of the transpersonal levels. (3) Spirituality is a distinctive develop-
mental line of consciousness that moves from prepersonal to personal to trans-
personal levels. (4) Spirituality involves profound attitudes such as openness or
love. (5) Spirituality involves states or peaks of consciousness that temporarily
propels one into transpersonal awareness.
This literature review makes it obvious that the term spirituality now is used
commonly in the helping professions and health related research. Although there
is no uniformity of definitions, it is common to use spirituality as a broader
concept and to assert that it may express in religious or nonreligious forms.
However, as Praglin (2004) and Canda and Furman (1999) pointed out, within
the fields of religious studies, anthropology, and sociology, the term spirituality
is not so common. These fields study religion as a broad phenomenon of human
The Meaning of Spirituality 73

behavior embedded in history, traditions, and communities. The term spiritual-

ity is used most often in the context of Christian theology, in which it refers to
the way a person develops a personal relationship with God (Barry & Connoly,
1982; Jones, Wainwright, & Yarnold, 1986; Van Kaam, 1983). So when scholars
of religion write about spirituality it is often about particular Christian beliefs
and practices, or other meditative and contemplative practices, rather than about
a general or universal aspect of all people. They may also study people’s con-
ceptions and practices of spirituality as religious phenomena (e.g. Erricker &
Erricker, 2001).
In Greco-Roman antiquity, the Latin term religio (noun) referred to fulfi ll-
ment of duties in the state religion, while religiosus (adjective) connoted preoccu-
pation with superstition (Scherer, 2006). Cicero (1st century before the Common
Era, BCE) posited that religio referred to carefully pondering sacred matters. In
Christian antiquity, Lactantius (305 CE) shifted the meaning to reconnecting to
God and a sense of wholeness.
As Paden (2003) pointed out, the term religion in Europe grew from a nar-
rowly restricted meaning (e.g. Christianity) to become much broader since the
17th century, as Western scholars engaged in comparative religious studies and
tried to encompass tremendous variety of worldviews. For example, definitions
of religion often connect to concepts of the sacred, the transcendent, and the
supernatural. Religions abound in various, sometimes contradictory, concepts of
God, gods, spirits, ghosts, vital energies, numinous power, universal conscious-
ness, and ultimate reality (Capps, 1995; Paden, 1994, 2003; Pals, 1996). Scherer
(2006) summarizes seven dimensions of religion, based on the work of Ninian
Smart: ritual/practical, doctrinal/philosophical, mythic/narrative, experien-
tial/emotional, ethical/legal, organizational/social, and material/artistic. Some
definitions of religion focus on particular features distinctive to religions; some
focus on social and psychological functions of religions; and some deconstruct
the term as a problematic if not useless product of overgeneralization and eth-
nocentrism (Arnal, 2000).
Clearly the term religion is given a wide range of meanings in religious
studies, often with broad inclusion (e.g. pertaining to ultimate concern, tran-
scendence of ordinary limits of physical space and time, or sacredness) similar to
the variety of conceptions of spirituality (including religious expressions) in the
helping professions. Many scholars of religion examine the particular historical
and cultural forms of religion and may compare between them. It is important
to note that many scholars of religion dispute the usefulness of abstract terms,
such as religion or the sacred, because they are thought to be vague, ambiguous,
and culturally and theologically biased (Braun & McCutcheon, 2000). Studies of
religions from many disciplines will inform the remainder of this book, espe-
cially the conceptual models of spirituality in the next section of this chapter
and the accounts of various religions in Part II. Given that most people’s spiritu-
ality expresses through religion, insights from studies of religion can shed light
on spirituality and social work (Lee & Gorman, 2005; Praglin, 2004).
74 central values and concepts

Major Insights about Spirituality

To summarize insights from current thinking in the helping professions and
religious studies, we can identify 12 commonly mentioned attributes of the con-
cept of spirituality:

1. An essential quality of a person that is inherently valuable, sacred,

or immaterial. This is sometimes associated with beliefs about soul,
spirit, vital energy, life force, consciousness, true self, or core nature.
2. An innate drive of persons to search for meaning.
3. A developmental process of searching and moving toward a sense of
wholeness and connectedness in oneself and with others.
4. The contents of beliefs, values, moral frameworks, practices and rela-
tionships with self and others, including ultimate reality, involved in
this process.
5. Transpersonal levels of consciousness.
6. Particular experiences and states of consciousness of a profound,
transpersonal or sacred nature, such as out of body experiences,
revelatory visions, sense of connection with spirits, communing
with God, or cosmic consciousness.
7. Participation in spiritual support groups that may or may not be
religious.
8. Engagement in particular beliefs and behaviors that support growth
toward wholeness or contact with the sacred, such as prayer or med-
itation, in a religious or nonreligious context.
9. Central priorities that orient life toward what is considered ultimate,
sacred, or transcendent.
10. Virtues that may arise from development of spirituality, such as
compassion, love, sense of justice, forgiveness, and humility.
11. Qualities of well-being that may arise from spiritual development,
such as resilience, joy, peace, contentment, and clear life purpose.
12. A holistic quality of the entire person in relationship, not reducible
to parts, that includes yet transcends all the parts. Holistic aware-
ness may emerge as one becomes aware of all one’s aspects and rela-
tionships and works out a sense of integration and connectedness.

In the following section, by drawing on these insights, we develop formal

definitions of spirituality as an aspect of the person along with related terms
(such as religion and faith) and present two interrelated conceptual models of
spirituality. The first, an operational model of spirituality, deals with spirituality
as an aspect of human experience in more detail, including categories of drives,
experiences, functions, developmental processes, and contents of spiritual per-
spectives. The second, a holistic model of spirituality, deals with spirituality in
relation to the bio-psycho-social model of the person and environment.
The Meaning of Spirituality 75

Definitions and Models Related to Spirituality

Spirituality as an Aspect of the Person

As the review of definitions of spirituality showed, spirituality is most often
defined as an aspect of the person that is distinctively human, namely the search
for a sense of meaning, purpose, connectedness, and morality with special ref-
erence to what is considered sacred, transcendent, or ultimate. We concur with
most helping professional definitions that regard spirituality as a broader con-
cept than religion and that it may express in religious and nonreligious forms.
On the basis of these considerations, we propose formal defi nitions of spiritual-
ity and religion as follows.

Spirituality Is:
A process of human life and development

• focusing on the search for a sense of meaning, purpose, morality, and

well-being;
• in relationship with oneself, other people, other beings, the universe,
and ultimate reality however understood (e.g. in animistic, atheistic,
nontheistic, polytheistic, theistic, or other ways);
• orienting around centrally significant priorities; and
• engaging a sense of transcendence (experienced as deeply profound,
sacred, or transpersonal).

Individuals and groups may express spirituality in religious and nonreligious

ways. A religious or nonreligious spiritual perspective is an individual’s or group’s
worldview or ideology rooted in spirituality. Spirituality always has a private and
individual expression in a person’s life. Individuals may or may not connect their
spirituality to explicit public expression or participation in groups (such as reli-
gions or informal spiritual support groups). However, there are always implica-
tions of an individual’s spirituality for relationships. Spirituality may or may not
permeate an individual’s daily life and a group’s culture. Transcendence refers to
experiences and interpretations of events as profound, breaking through banal-
ity and limitedness by time and space. For example, transcendence could involve
a sense of divine revelation; an awareness of the sacredness immanent within the
self and nature; a breaking through the body/self boundary with expanded con-
sciousness; a sense of great clarity and wonder within ordinary activities; a deep
human engagement of intimacy with people and the physical world; or strong
dedication to ideals of peace and justice that have no divine or sacred referent.
As a universal feature of persons and cultures, everyone has spirituality, though
people vary in amount of focus on it.
Healthy spirituality encourages individuals to develop a sense of meaning-
fulness, purposefulness, personal integrity, wholeness, joy, peace, contentment,
76 central values and concepts

coherence of worldview, and overall well-being. It fosters transpersonal experi-

ences, the emergence of transpersonal levels of consciousness, and an expanded
sense of identity and connectedness. Healthy spirituality engenders individu-
als’ virtues, such as compassion and justice, as well as relational webs of car-
ing, respect, and support extending outward to other people and beings (Canda,
2008b). It encourages groups to develop mutual support, philanthropic activity,
appreciation of diversity, and actions for the common good of society and world.
Unpleasant yet authentic feelings (such as existential despair, grief, or pangs
of conscience), developmental crises or emergencies (such as disruptive trans-
personal experiences), and difficult group dynamics (such as working toward
mutual understanding and reconciliation during times of conflict) can be signif-
icant and valuable components of healthy spirituality.
Unfortunately, spirituality—like any aspect of human behavior—does not
always manifest in healthy ways (Moss, 2005 and see his paradigm at http://
www.bernardmoss.org.uk/new%20_paradigm.htm, retrieved October 17, 2008).
Spirituality can be distorted and misdirected into beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors
that are harmful to self or others, such as feelings of inappropriate guilt, shame,
and hopelessness and discrimination and oppression. On a collective level, religions
and informal spiritual groups may not help members to achieve their full spiri-
tual potential. They may be hostile and violent toward some of their members and
toward other individuals and groups who do not conform to their perspective.
Our definition of spirituality does not presume (or exclude) belief in an
incorporeal, immaterial, or supernatural realm or entities. We make no claims
about that in our capacity as social workers. However, we promote helping profes-
sionals’ respect and knowledge regarding the diverse metaphysical beliefs among
our clients and communities. The word “spirit” does not necessarily presume
that either. “Spirit” comes from the Latin, spiritus, referring to breath, spirit, and
life force. This is similar to Greek pneuma, Hebrew ruach, Sanskrit prana, and
Chinese qi (or ch’i). In contemporary English usage, people can be “inspired”
or have “team spirit” without literally being possessed or controlled by a spirit.
People can understand “spirit” literally or metaphorically to refer to that which
gives them vitality and drive for meaning and transcendence.

Religion Is:
An institutionalized (i.e. systematic and organized) pattern of values, beliefs,
symbols, behaviors, and experiences that involves

• spirituality
• a community of adherents
• transmission of traditions over time and
• community support functions (e.g. organizational structure, material
assistance, emotional support, or political advocacy) that are directly
or indirectly related to spirituality.
The Meaning of Spirituality 77

Spirituality

Religion

Figure 3.1. Spirituality including and

transcending religion.

Religion always involves some degree of both private and public community
experience for individual members of a religious group and for the group as a
whole. A religion may operate with or without centralized and bureaucratized
organizational structures. It may or may not permeate a person’s daily life and
a group’s culture. Not all individuals or societies are religious. Religiousness (or
religiosity) refers to the degree and style of someone’s religious involvement.
Healthy religiousness, as an expression of spirituality, encourages a person’s and
a religious group’s sense of well-being, coherent worldview, transpersonal devel-
opment, virtues, and relational webs of caring, respect, and support that extend
toward fellow adherents and toward community, society, and world. Unpleasant
authentic feelings (such as appropriate guilt or shame), developmental crises or
emergencies (such as severe doubt or distress during conversion), and difficult
religious group dynamics (such as holding religious leaders accountable for mis-
use and abuse of authority) can be significant components of healthy religious-
ness. However, religiousness does not always manifest in healthy ways, as we
discussed in reference to spirituality. For example, religiously based delusions,
hallucinations, low self-esteem, abuse, oppression, and violence are lamentable
expressions of unhealthy religiousness.
Given these definitions, spirituality is the source of religion, but it is not
limited to religion. Spirituality includes and transcends religion (see Figure 3.1).

Alternative Views of Spirituality and Religion

Of course, clients (and colleagues and members of the public) vary in their defi-
nitions of religion and spirituality. Professional definitions set themes for pos-
sible exploration with clients, but client’s own terms, definitions, and interests
relating to these themes should set the tone for communication in the helping
relationship. It is not necessary to use the terms religion or spirituality in order
to get at the themes explained above. Here are some alternative meanings of
spirituality and religion that can alert us to variations we may find among clients
(see Figure 3.2). Note that our definition of spirituality includes and transcends
all these alternatives.
78 central values and concepts

S R
only only

Not R
Not S

R Figure 3.2. Alternative

S R=S conceptual relations
between spirituality (S)
and religion (R).

Spirituality only.
• “I am spiritual but not religious.” This person likely does not partici-
pate in a religious group, but is concerned about matters of meaning,
purpose, and morality. This is most common among people who dis-
avow traditional forms of religion or are atheist or agnostic. In the
United States, this is most common among those in the baby boomer
generation and younger (Roof, 1993). Some people may have had neg-
ative experiences with religion and therefore reject it. Some might
view religion as inherently bad and spirituality as inherently good.
• “Spirituality is my whole life.” For this person, spirituality totally
infuses daily life. This may be more likely for those who have a fer-
vent dedication to spiritual development, such as adults who view
all of life, including dealing with adversities, as a spiritual path (e.g.
Canda, 2001, 2009).
• “Spirituality is my culture.” This is most likely in traditional and
Indigenous cultures that view all of life as sacred. For example, among
the Maori of Aotorea New Zealand, wairuatanga, (the spiritual dimen-
sion) is inseparable from collective everyday awareness and culture,
as everything is imbued with spirit (Nash & Stewart, 2002).

Religion only.
• “I am religious but not spiritual.” This person might participate in
religious activities (such as church going) but mainly for personal or
social benefits, unconcerned with deep matters of meaning, purpose,
or experience of the sacred. Or, a traditionally religious person might
view spirituality as something unfamiliar, unorthodox, or nebulous.
This latter view is more likely among American older adults (Nelson-
Becker, 2003).
The Meaning of Spirituality 79

• “Religion is my whole life.” This person might identify intensely with

a particular religious tradition and engage frequently in its activities,
such as prayer, scripture reading, and church attendance. She or he
may view all of life as a spiritual path, but name it in terms of a spe-
cific religion.
• “Religion is my culture.” This is most common in traditional or
Indigenous cultures in which all of life is viewed as sacred and in
which the sacred is associated with the concept of religion. For exam-
ple, in traditional Islam, religion and faith are infused throughout
culture and daily life, as demonstrated by submission (or dedication)
of oneself to God, daily prayers, and application of Shari’a law to
community relations (Ashencaen Crabtree, Husain, & Spalek, 2008).

Religion includes spirituality.

• “I practice spiritual prayers or meditation as part of my religion.” This
view may reflect the idea that activities directed toward the divine or
toward attaining enlightenment are spiritual and that these function
within a particular religion.
• “Religion is my whole life and spirituality is part of that.” This person
might identify with a particular religious tradition that completely
imbues daily life. Activities such as worship, prayer, or meditation
may be considered spiritual within the religious context.
• “Religion is my culture and spirituality is part of that.” This is most
common in traditional or Indigenous cultures that view all of life as
sacred and in which the sacred is associated with the concept of reli-
gion. Activities such as worship, prayer, meditation, or ritual might
be seen as spiritual within that religious and cultural context.

Religion and spirituality are the same.

• “I express my spirituality completely through my religion, so there is
no difference between them.” This person might recognize a differ-
ence of meanings between spirituality and religion, but his or her reli-
gion is a total and sufficient means for the expression of spirituality.
• “Religion is my whole life, so spirituality is not different from that.”
This person might identify with a particular religious tradition
and that tradition completely imbues daily life. He or she views all
related activities as religious so there is no useful distinction from
spirituality.
• “Spirituality and religion are one in my culture.” This is most com-
mon in traditional or Indigenous cultures in which all of life is
viewed as sacred and in which the sacred is associated with both the
concepts of religion and spirituality.
80 central values and concepts

Neither religion nor spirituality.

• “I do not consider myself to be religious or spiritual.” This statement
is most likely if a person is not interested in matters of sacredness
and is also not participating in a religious group. Some atheists or
agnostics might hold this view. However, this does not mean that the
person does not have spirituality according to our definitions; it sim-
ply means that she or he might not focus on it or might not use that
term.

Defining Faith
The term faith is not used as often as the terms spirituality or religion in the sec-
ular helping professions, except for two situations. One situation is when clients
or research participants use the term faith to describe an aspect of their spiri-
tual or religious perspective. In this case, as we have seen in our Multi-National
Surveys of social workers, the term faith is usually associated with (1) the beliefs
of one’s religion; (2) assent to those beliefs; and (3) experience of relationship
with God or other sacred powers. Ai (2006) and Williams and Smolek (2007)
use the term “faith matters” broadly to refer to spiritual practices, values, and
attitudes that are commonly related to a religion.
In popular American discourse, the term faith most commonly implies
Christianity or Judaism. In some religious contexts, the term “people of faith”
implies particular religious standards of orthodoxy or conformance with
denominational norms. Since the third meaning of the term faith is used most
commonly in theistic religions, especially in the Judeo-Christian-Islamic (i.e.
Abrahamic) traditions, it can lead to confusion when applied to other spiritual
perspectives. For example, in Zen Buddhism, it can make sense to say one has
faith or confidence in the teachings of the Buddha, in meditation techniques that
help one toward enlightenment, or in the inherent nonduality of mind—but that
has a very different connotation from a Christian faith relationship with a per-
sonal God (Sheng-yen, 1987). As another example, consultants for the ANZ sur-
vey felt that the term faith was too closely associated with the colonially intruded
religion of Christianity and was not well suited to Indigenous perspectives
The second situation in which the term “faith” is used commonly regards
so-called “faith-based human services”. These refer to social services provided
under the auspices of religiously affi liated agencies or congregations, such as
Lutheran Social Services or a local church-based soup kitchen. As we will discuss
in Part III, this term became popular due to its use in social policies promoting
greater involvement of religiously affi liated community-based programs during
the Clinton and G. W. Bush administrations. Tangenberg (2005) suggests that
the term “faith-related” more accurately captures the wide variety of settings
and styles of such programs. These range from those that have explicitly reli-
gious mission statements, affi liations, purposes, priorities, and hiring practices
The Meaning of Spirituality 81

(described as faith-permeated) to those that have implicit reference to religious

values, weaker connections to religious institutions, few religious expectations
of staff, and varied levels of support from denominations (described as faith-
background). There are also faith-secular partnerships. In our parlance, all these
programs are religiously affiliated to various degrees. This implies that religiously
affi liated programs are involved with spirituality in various ways. However, they
may or may not be spiritually sensitive or congruent with social work profes-
sional values.
In order to be consistent with our formal defi nitions of spirituality and reli-
gion, and most common usage in our profession, we subsume the concept of
faith within spirituality and religion. We also wish to avoid unintended theis-
tic connotations when referring to spirituality or religion in general. We some-
times use the term faith as defined above or in reference to authors and religious
believers who employ it.

An Operational Model of Spirituality as an Aspect of the Person

An operational model of spirituality supports more precise and practical use
of concepts in social work practice and research (see Figure 3.3). This model
depicts spirituality as an aspect of the person regarding its various religious and
nonreligious manifestations. On the basis of insights from social work and the
other disciplines related to the study of religion and spirituality, we identify five
interrelated categories of manifestations of spirituality: spiritual drives, spiritual
experiences, functions of spirituality, spiritual development, and contents of a
spiritual perspective including religious expressions. Part II introduces details
of a variety of religious and nonreligious perspectives along with social work
implications. In Part III, we consider healthy and unhealthy expressions of spir-
ituality and possible helping practices associated with these manifestations of
spirituality.

Spiritual Drives
When we acknowledge that spirituality involves a search for meaning, pur-
pose, morally fulfi lling relationships, significance, and transcendence, we imply
underlying drives for this search. We summarize these as the drive for profound
experiences that enrich, vitalize, and orient life; the drive for a sense of mean-
ing and purpose; and the drive for connectedness, integrity, and wholeness. The
ways we choose to express or inhibit these drives set our spiritual priorities and
motivations.
Human nature involves reaching out and encountering the world, not only
in banal ways but also in ways that yield a sense of intrinsic significance, author-
ity, compellingness, ultimacy, and sacredness (Davis, 1989; Eliade, 1959; Jung,
1938; Maslow, 1970; Nielsen et al., 1993). As we grow in empathic relationship
with the world, our natural sense of compassion blossoms.
 Religious
Spiritual Spiritual Contents of expressions in
Spiritual experiences Functions of development spiritual individuals
drives of spirituality processes perspectives and groups
Spirituality • For profound • Profundity • Perceiving • Experiences Transpersonal
as
experience related to experiences,
Wholeness • Transcendence • Gradual growth
transcendence conventions of
includes • For meaning
• Sacredness • Life cycle stage with numinous mentality and piety
and –of self
transitions feelings
transcends –of world • Ultimate reality Doctrinal system,
• Crises • Beliefs, self-
• For integrity • The mystical concept, cosmology
The –of self • Moment to worldview
• Interpreting
spiritual –of relations with moment clarity • Values, attitudes, Morality system
aspect –explaining
world ethics, virtues,
• Transpersonal –valuing
Which morals
levels of
includes consciousness • Patterns of Ceremonial and
all of the coping and mutual support
following • The supernatural system
• Relating adaptation
• Incorporeal –accessing
beings, vital • Patterns of Therapeutic and
connections
energies resilience and social change
–transforming
transformation system
• The ordinary in connections
connection with –just being • Patterns of
intrinsic System of relations
any of the above of inherent worth
satisfaction

Figure 3.3. An operational model of spirituality.

The Meaning of Spirituality 83

It is human nature to try to make sense of self and world. Who am I? Why
do I exist? What is my purpose? What is the nature of reality? How did things
get to be the way they are? How do I fit in the world? On what should I base my
life? Everyone struggles with these questions of meaning in various ways. Even if
we accept religious or culturally prescribed answers to these questions, at certain
points of life crisis, when our neat worlds are shattered, we ask again: Why?
We also need a sense of integration, wholeness, and connectedness within
ourselves and in relation with the world. Do I know myself? How can I reach a
place of clarity and calm within? Do I feel attuned to myself? Do I behave as if
“the right hand doesn’t know what the left hand is doing”? How do I relate with
others? How can I love and be loved? What is my place in the scheme of things?
How am I interrelated with other people, other things, and the source of exis-
tence? What is of greatest significance to me? We strive for a sense of integrity;
literally, we seek integration with ourselves, the world, and what we hold to be
most dear or sacred.

Spiritual Experiences
These drives motivate us to experience things in profound ways and to orient
our experiences around central priorities. Usually people describe experiences
as spiritual when they involve a sense of contact with powers and meanings of
profound, transcendent, transpersonal, sacred, or ultimate significance (Angel,
1994; Griffin, 1988; Grof, 1988; James, 1982; Johnston, 1995, 2004; Otto, 1950;
Roberts, 2004; Wilber, 2006; Zinnbauer & Pargament, 2005). Indeed, people can
experience any event of an ordinary or extraordinary kind as a reflection, man-
ifestation, or reminder of transcendent concerns, values, and reality. For exam-
ple, for the Zen practitioner, simply washing dishes with mindfulness can be an
experience of beautiful clarity and appreciation for the extraordinariness of the
mundane and the preciousness of each moment. There is a common Zen saying
that Zen is nothing special, or, Zen mind is ordinary mind. In other words, clar-
ity makes everything special. Agnostics and atheists do not describe the experi-
ence of transcendence in terms of divinity or supernaturalism. Nonetheless, as
we will see in the discussion of the existential spiritual perspective (Chapter 6),
there can be a sense of ultimate guiding principles that transcend egotism, such
as freedom, responsibility, compassion, and justice, rooted in profound experi-
ences of connection with humanity and the universe.

Functions of Spirituality
Spiritual perceiving. The drive for experience of ultimacy engages and edifies
all human faculties and capacities. For example, a biological imperative such
as sexual craving can express through loving communion with another per-
son. The senses can be engaged in a way that opens awareness of the wonder
of each moment or the immanent presence of the divine. Transpersonal theory
84 central values and concepts

and mystical traditions suggest there are other faculties of perception that enable
people to experience a level of reality that transcends the limits of ego, physical
boundary, space, and time (Braud & Anderson, 1998; Grof, 1988; Wilber, 1998).
Spiritual interpreting. The drive for meaning engages people’s cognitive sym-
bolizing and story-making abilities in order to explain and to grant value. We cre-
ate representations for the phenomena of our inner experience and the external
world and create myths (sacred stories) for why things are this way (Anderson,
1996; Eliade, 1959, 1963; Fowler, 1996; Lehmann & Meyers, 2001; Nielsen et al.,
1993; Paden, 2003; Pals, 1996; Proudfoot, 1985; Smith, 2001; Winzeler, 2008).
We establish priorities, goals, and systems for moral decision-making. Studies of
resilient people show that they are able to interpret crises, loss, and adversity in
terms of challenges and opportunities for meaning and transcendence (Canda,
2009).
Spiritual relating. The drive for integrity engages us in relationship with
ourselves, other beings, and the ultimate ground of reality however a person
understands it. We access and maintain connections to nourish our develop-
ment as individuals and groups, including inner resources of wisdom and outer
resources of social support and, for some, divine grace or revelation (Bellah,
1991; Johnstone, 2004; Jones, Wainwright, & Yarnold, 1986; Lehmann & Meyers,
1997; Lessa & Vogt, 1972; Roberts, 2004). We also transform connections with
ourselves and others through conflict, conflict management, growth and crises.
Natural compassion and ideals of justice shape individual’s and groups’ efforts
to advance the well-being of other people and all in the world. While these first
two functions of relating imply extrinsic goals to benefit ourselves or others, the
third function, just being, is a nonacquisitive, nonegoistic, and non-goal-oriented
way of communing and being in the moment. For example, a parent might hold
her or his baby and quietly rest in awareness of the loving bond. A person deep
in prayer can simply dwell in communion with God. A lover of the earth may sit
by a brook, just listening, and imbibe a sense of harmony.
Spiritual development. Our creativity and efforts to adapt to or make
changes in the environment and in ourselves take place through many kinds of
developmental processes that challenge and expand our established frameworks
of meaning (Barry & Connoly, 1982; Erikson, 1962, 1969; Fowler, 1996; Robbins,
Chatterjee, & Canda, 2006; Wilber, 2006). As we will discuss extensively in
Part III, spiritual development flows through periods of relatively smooth grad-
ual growth; life cycle stage transitions affected by physical maturation (such as
birth, puberty, and death) and culturally prescribed life transition points (such
as becoming an adult, marrying, and divorcing); and spiritual crises (such as
sudden loss of faith in one’s religion of upbringing). Spiritual experiences can
propel our development into peaks of insight and sometimes into pits of despair.
And our ongoing developmental challenge is to integrate all our experiences into
a sense of self as a whole person in fulfilling relations with others. As we grow
in healthy spirituality, we are more able to integrate our highest insights and
wisdom into daily consciousness, relationships, and the practical details of life
The Meaning of Spirituality 85

and death. If we derail in spiritual development, we might become lost in trivi-

ality, meaninglessness, despair, or torment. Societies also develop spiritually. In
healthy spiritual development, societies develop more and more widely embrac-
ing views of justice and human rights and responsibilities.

Contents of an Individual’s or Group’s Spiritual Perspective

Spiritual experiences, functions, and processes of development interact to form
particular contents of an individual’s or group’s spiritual perspective. The func-
tion of perceiving can yield experiential spiritual contents of transcendence, pro-
fundity, ultimacy, the supernatural, the sacred, the transpersonal, or the mystical
and the ordinary in relation with these. In a religious context, the experiential
spiritual contents relate to understandings of God, spirits, ancestors, vital ener-
gies, and consciousness upheld by an adherent’s community. Experiences of
nondual consciousness are beyond the limits of thinking, feeling, and images.
Paradoxically, such contents are empty of specific form.
Numinous feelings of profound significance, awesomeness, lovingness, mys-
teriousness, and compelling authority commonly accompany spiritual experi-
ences (Eliade, 1959; James, 1982; Otto, 1950). Individual personality and group
norms can shape spiritual feelings into certain emotional styles, such as eff usive
emotional intensity (e.g. charismatic Christian prayer) or serene nonjudgmental
awareness (e.g. Zen Buddhist mindfulness meditation). In a religious context,
these feelings and emotional styles may link to conventions of mentality, piety,
reverence, and devotion.
The interpretive function blends experiences with cognitive and emotional
responses. The cognitive explanatory component of interpretation results in
spiritual beliefs about self and world in an overall worldview and influences our
feeling reactions to spiritual experiences. Beliefs express in both literal language
and creative complex communications, such as symbols, metaphors, parables,
and many art forms. Worldview changes in response to new insights into self
and world. If this occurs in the context of religious language and institutions,
people organize doctrines and ideas about a sacred cosmology (Beane & Doty,
1975; Bellah, 1991; Hick, 1990; Johnstone, 2004; Nielsen et al., 1993; Paden, 1994,
2003). The emotive valuing component of interpretation leads to the formation
of value systems, including priorities, life goals, attitudes, ethical guidelines, and
moral positions. If this occurs in a religious context, people form a moral frame-
work, vested by a community with a sense of ultimate moral authority coming
from a transcendent source.
The relational function of accessing and maintaining connections leads
to spiritual patterns of coping and adaptation to maintain or acquire phys-
ical, mental, social, spiritual, and environmental strengths and resources for
ongoing personal and community survival and growth in accord with spiri-
tual priorities. This might include intrapersonal strategies for self-reflection
and self-understanding, such as prayer and meditation. Th is might also include
86 central values and concepts

interpersonal strategies for affi rming and protecting oneself and community
and for connecting with external supports, including family, friends, spiritual
support groups, and communication with supernatural forces. In a religious
context, the person learns ceremonies of affi rmation and celebration, patterns
of mutual help, forms of worship, techniques for prayer, magic, or medita-
tion, and ways of examining conscience that have been formed by a religious
community.
The relational function of transforming connections produces spiritual pat-
terns of resilience and transformation for breaking through significant life chal-
lenges, promoting significant personal and social change, and transcending the
ego/body bound limits of self and world. The drive to connect with other beings
and the ground of being brings constant challenges as our self-concepts and
worldviews stretch and snap due to life crises and experiences of sacred reve-
lation or inspiration. Resources and strategies for helping, healing, and seeking
justice are applied to strive toward ideals of well-being (such as harmony, salva-
tion, or enlightenment) and to respond to physical, mental, social, or spiritual
distress. In the religious context, the transforming function leads to community
sanctioned therapeutic and social service systems for religiously motivated help-
ing, healing, saving, reconciliation, and social activism (Beckford & Demerath,
2007; Bellah, 1991; Dossey, 1993; Fuller, 2008; Matthews, Larsen & Barry, 1993;
Niebuhr, 1932; Sobrino, 1988).
The relational function of just being produces patterns of intrinsic satis-
faction. Experience of the preciousness or sacredness of our connectedness and
aliveness carries with it intrinsic joy, contentment, peace, and wonder (Maslow
1968, 1970). We can also engage in action dedicated to the well-being of others,
yet without attachment to results. As Mohandas Gandhi put it, “He is a true
devotee . . . who has dedicated mind and soul to God . . . who renounces all fruits
of action, good or bad, who treats friend and enemy alike, who is untouched by
respect or disrespect” (Mitchell, 2000, pp. 214–215). In transpersonal experience
of unitive nondualistic consciousness, there is no division between self or other
and no object to be attained. Wilber (2006, p. 74) describes this as “ever-present
Nondual awareness, which is not so much a state [of consciousness] as the ever-
present ground of all states (and can be experienced as such).” Within religious
contexts, people can engage in ceremonies, rituals, social gatherings, meditation,
prayer, and altruism just for the inherent worth of human community and com-
muning with the sacred, without seeking rewards or benefits. Paradoxically, just
being without ulterior motive can be its own profound reward.
For the sake of simplicity, we described how functions of spirituality lead to
particular contents of a spiritual perspective. Th is is not a one-way process, how-
ever. The expression of spiritual drives, the nature of spiritual experiences, and
spiritual functioning and development interact and are all shaped by a person’s
or group’s contact with established spiritual perspectives. In a very profound
way, just being can infuse all aspects of life with meaning, significance, and tran-
scendence. We intend our model to serve as a heuristic device that suggests the
The Meaning of Spirituality 87

components, complexity, and subtlety of spirituality, rather than specific causal

pathways. For example, Bradley, Maschi, and Gilmore (2007) adapted the 1999
version of this model to illustrate in real life rich detail the spiritual development
of an 80 year old peace activist.

A Holistic Model of Spirituality

Social work parlance commonly understands the whole person in environment in
terms of biological, psychological, and sociological aspects. In addition, scholars
sometimes describe spirituality as the wholeness or gestalt of the human being,
irreducible to any part. Figure 3.4, A Holistic Model of Spirituality, depicts spir-
ituality in relation to the bio-psycho-social model, using three metaphors: spir-
ituality as the wholeness of the person, spirituality as the center of the person,
and spirituality as the spiritual aspect of the person.
Spirituality as an aspect of the person completes a quaternity—the biolog-
ical, psychological, sociological, and spiritual aspects each have their neces-
sary functions (Robbins et al., 2006). In Figure 3.4, we illustrate the spiritual
aspect as one piece among four, but it is a very special piece. As we discussed
above, the spiritual aspect motivates experience and action to engage self with
the world and symbolic reflection to interpret self and world. It orients the per-
son and groups toward meaning, purpose, connectedness, and transcendence.
This spiritual aspect is fundamental to human nature and infuses the other
bio-psycho-social aspects. Indeed, the spiritual aspect impels us to give mean-
ing and purpose to our bodies and biological functions, to our thoughts and
feelings, and to our relationships with other people and the rest of the universe.

Spirituality as wholeness of the

person in relation with All

Spiritual
aspect

Spirituality
Psychological as Biological
aspect center aspect
of the person

Sociological
aspect

Figure 3.4. A holistic

model of spirituality.
88 central values and concepts

For example, when human beings try to understand one of the most significant
bodily events—death—we raise deeply spiritual questions about the reason for
sickness and mortality, especially for untimely deaths. Spirituality probes the
meaning of death, what happens after death, how to come to terms with the
deaths of ourselves and loved ones, how to process feelings of grief, and how
to acknowledge death through rituals and prayer. Spirituality infuses all our
aspects and helps to weave them together into a sense of integrity (i.e. integrat-
edness), connectedness, and wholeness.
Accordingly, many scholars have suggested that spirituality should refer to
a quality of human being that is not reducible to any part. This is spirituality as
the wholeness of what it is to be human. This wholeness is sometimes referred to
as that which is sacred or transcendent (Angel, 1994; Eliade, 1959; Imre, 1971).
So each person is worthy of respect and care regardless of any of his or her par-
ticular qualities or conditions. This is the basis of the value of unconditional pos-
itive regard, common in humanistic psychology, pastoral counseling, and social
work. In religious contexts, this mysterious and holistic quality of the person
may be described as a divine nature within humanity, “made in the image of
God,” the Buddha Nature of the person, or the true Self (Atman), which is one
with Brahman in Vedantic Hinduism. Indeed, the root meanings of the words
whole, holy, and heal are related. Even when people reject these religious or meta-
physical ideas, as with atheistic existentialists, the notion of human wholeness
and irreducibility is strongly valued.
Further, this wholeness is not limited to an individual, because individuals
achieve wholeness of self only through meaningful and respectful relations with
others. The quest for personal integration and wholeness brings individuals into
a quest for mutually satisfying relations with other individuals and communi-
ties, the rest of the world, and the ultimate ground of reality however a person
understands that (Assagioli, 1965; Helminiak, 1996; Jung, 1938). Contemporary
ecophilosophy and many traditional Indigenous worldviews emphasize that
human wholeness is inextricable from awareness of our interdependency with
all the earth and cosmos (Besthorn, 2001; Besthorn & Canda, 2002; Coates,
2007).
As a person grows in personal and relational integrity, the sense of respon-
sibility for and connection with others also grows. She or he defines and expe-
riences self in relation to other people, other beings, and the ground of being
itself (Faver, 2004). Further, a person may experience a sense of unity with the
divine or all that exists. Then, the whole self is experienced not only as a separate
entity limited by body and ego, but also as a transpersonal Self at one with all
(Wilber, 2000a). This transpersonal Self includes and transcends all particular
aspects. Figure 3.4 represents it by the outer circle that encompasses the person
in relation with all things. The spiritual journey toward wholeness, or expansion
of consciousness to union with the divine or ultimate reality that enfolds all, is
a movement of transcendence, going upward and beyond the limits of the ordi-
nary body/ego.
The Meaning of Spirituality 89

However, this journey can also be a movement of immanence, going inward

to “the center” of the person. Th is center is sometimes described as soul or the
seat of consciousness, which is the connection and orientation point between
all aspects of the person. Th is metaphor is used in the context of introspection,
going inside oneself to fi nd a center point of unity and integration. Many tra-
ditions of prayer, meditation, and contemplation employ centering techniques
such as awareness of the breath, which literally flows through our central chan-
nel, or focus on a central energy point below the navel (tantien, Chinese) or at
the heart. Even aside from particular religious beliefs and practices, most peo-
ple can relate to this metaphor as in the idiomatic expression, “to get centered.”
“Becoming centered” is to fi nd a place of quiet within oneself that provides a
sense of connection, integration, and clear awareness of self and world. Both
the metaphors of the center and the wholeness of the person are different ways
of coming to the same realization. Indeed, centering actually opens us up to
clear awareness and empathy in connection with others. By going within, we
fi nd unity with others. By going without, we fi nd a scope of consciousness that
embraces all.
Whereas the notion of spirituality as an aspect of the person is widely
accepted in scholarly circles, the notion of spirituality as wholeness or center is
not as widely used in academic writing of the helping professions. This is proba-
bly because these metaphors are difficult to state in operational terms for use in
research and clinical assessment. However, as these three ways of experiencing
and understanding spirituality are quite common both within and without reli-
gious contexts, it is certainly appropriate to be aware of them and to be able to
use them as metaphors with people for whom they make sense. Although we wish
to refrain from making metaphysical claims, we do feel that these metaphors of
spirituality as wholeness and as center are very consistent with the social work
professional perspective, which makes a commitment to honor all people with
unconditional positive regard. When we take together the three vantage points
on spirituality (aspect, wholeness, and center), we have a more complete and rich
understanding of the concept.

Spirituality and Religion of Groups

The drives, functions, experiences, developmental processes, and contents of
spirituality occur in individuals as well as social systems, such as families, small
groups, communities, organizations, cultures, and the global community. A
religion emerges when a group shares spiritual experiences, beliefs, values, and
behaviors and decides to create enduring patterns of religiousness. However, it
is possible for a group to interact for relatively brief amounts of time concern-
ing spiritual matters without forming into a religion. Therefore, there are spir-
itual support groups that do not constitute religions. In addition, members of a
religion could depart from it and shift toward a private or individually tailored
forms of nonreligious spirituality (Brinkerhoff & Mackie, 1993; Dowdy, 1991).
90 central values and concepts

Realistically, since every culture has some form of religious institutions and
most people experience them, nonreligious and religious individuals often influ-
ence each other. For example, even people who participate in small informal spir-
itual support groups, and borrow eclectically from diverse religious traditions to
form new beliefs and practices, could not do so without interacting with those
religious traditions. Further, if a nonreligious spiritual support group begins to
regularize and institutionalize its spiritual ways, it becomes a new alternative
religious movement.
Mainstream religions are those that predominate in a society because of
their numbers of adherents and economic and political influence (Corbett, 1997).
Alternative religions have smaller membership and have marginal economic and
political influence on a society. There is no absolute dividing line between these
types, since this is partly a matter of perception and there is so much varia-
tion among religions. Some commonly cited identifying features of alternative
religions are: charismatic, lay leadership; less bureaucratic organization; rela-
tively small size; emphasis on conversion and voluntary membership; spontane-
ous forms of worship; pervasive influence over members’ daily lives; frequently
an appeal to people who are marginalized, poor, or oppressed (Miller, 1995,
pp. 3–4). Sometimes alternative religions are called “cults” or “new religious
movements.” The term cult has become pejorative and vague, so we will not use
it. The term new religious movement is nonjudgmental, but not all alternative
religions have originated recently.
Some sociologists also identify cultural patterns that resemble religion and
derive from it but are not limited to formal organized religion (Cristi & Dawson,
2007). Bellah (1991) called this civil religion. Civil religion involves values and
beliefs about the relation between people and sacred powers that become per-
vasive through a society, even beyond the bounds of a particular religious insti-
tution. For example, the American government appropriates Judeo-Christian
concepts of God and morals and applies them to support a sense of social coher-
ence and confidence in public life and political governance. The U.S. Constitution
refers to God for its notion of human rights and many political groups appeal to
divine legitimacy for their policies. Presidents of any political party often end a
speech with “God bless America.”
There are also social systems built around meanings and values given ulti-
mate significance that do not pertain to organized religions and may not use
ideas of the sacred or supernatural. Smith (1994) called these quasi-religions.
Quasi-religions are ideologies that provide elaborate structures of belief, ritu-
alized behavior, and symbols related to a compellingly profound, often utopian,
ideal. They may require supreme commitment from followers, even unto death.
For example, Marxism gives ultimate priority to establishing utopian commu-
nism. Some countries, like North Korea, have transformed communism into a
state sanctioned quasi-religion. Following Griffin (1988), in order to avoid con-
fusion in our definition of religion, we will refer to a system of meaning (or a
The Meaning of Spirituality 91

group) built around an ultimate concern without reference to religious institu-

tions, as a nonreligious spiritual perspective or group.

Key Issues in Research about Spirituality

As noted previously, the concept of spirituality is difficult to define in part

because it involves aspects of reality that transcend words or measures. However,
social workers also need to have concepts, methods, and practical tools for use
in assessment and research. We will focus on assessment in Part III. For now,
we overview some issues in researching and measuring spirituality, so that the
reader is aware of how research could inform spiritually sensitive practice.
Whether spirituality can be operationalized, that is, reduced to phenomena
that can be directly observed and measured, depends on what one means by the
term. By definition, spirituality as wholeness cannot be measured or reduced
to any component for measurement without violating the very concept of spir-
ituality as wholeness. As this chapter’s opening quote suggested, for those who
uphold a holistic or mystical view of spirituality, there is something mysteri-
ous, and perhaps sacred, that cannot and should not be violated by reductionist
empirical prying and intellectual analysis. However, even here, mystics would
say that spirituality as wholeness not only can be experienced, but also should be
experienced. This is a kind of empiricism (i.e. knowledge by direct experience)
based on ways of knowing (e.g. prayer, meditation, contemplation, ritual process)
that go beyond the limits of the physical senses and ways of thinking or feeling
that are bound by ego, space, and time (Braud & Anderson, 1998; Wilber, 1998,
2006). Some meditative and contemplative traditions, such as Zen Buddhism or
Christian centering prayer, have systematic instructions for how to engage in
spiritual inquiry (methods), standards for legitimacy of insights derived from
the methods, and authorized teachers and mentors who guide practitioners,
compare experiences, and write up results in religious texts. Yet when mystics
talk about this realm of experience, they often use metaphors, paradoxes, par-
ables, and cautions to remind us the Reality of which they speak is beyond any
words or concepts.
Of course, people whose own worldview rejects the possibility of sacredness,
ego-transcendence, and mystical experiences will view such claims as mere delu-
sions, self-deceptions, or mistaken beliefs. Thus, for them, the claim of immea-
surability or inexpressibility is merely a hiding strategy; they view mysticism as a
mystification. This debate rests on fundamentally different ways of experiencing
and interpreting the world.
Note that whether or not a researcher accepts metaphysical ideas within a
spiritual perspective, the researched can study its contents and effects. For exam-
ple, we can study people’s accounts of the holistic, transcendent, and immanent
qualities of spirituality through interviews and through examination of the
92 central values and concepts

symbols, narratives, poetry, music, paintings, ceremonies, and rituals they may
be used to communicate about it.
In our operational model of spirituality as an aspect of the human being,
the situation becomes more clear. Although researchers or social work practi-
tioners cannot directly observe drives, they can infer them from observation of
pervasive human activities that strive for profundity, meaning, transcendence,
and integrity. We can also document people’s description of their spiritual moti-
vations and purposes.
It is possible to operationalize functions and contents of spirituality in terms
of observable and measurable things and events. We can observe, describe, and
analyze the way people perceive, interpret, and relate within the context of their
spiritual perspectives. We can also study developmental processes and relate
them to ways of analyzing life cycle stages and crises of transformation. We can
observe and measure the contents of a person’s spiritual perspective. For exam-
ple, we can listen to people’s accounts of transpersonal experiences and use bio-
feedback equipment to measure physiological states and changes that correspond
to subjective reports of alterations of consciousness and mystical experiences.
This does not measure the subjective experience directly, but it does document
its correlations with observable physical events.
Researchers can classify and rate aspects of spirituality and religiousness
and examine their correlations with other attitudes, behaviors, and outcomes
for personal and social well-being (Benson, Donahue, & Erikson, 1993; Brown,
1994; Hill & Pargament, 2003; Shafranske, 1996; Watts & Williams, 1988; Wulff,
1991). For reviews of hundreds of studies of spirituality and religion along with
numerous examples of measuring tools, see the Fetzer Institute’s 1999 report
on multidimensional measurement of religiousness/spirituality for use in health
research (http://www.fetzer.org/PDF/total_fetzer_book.pdf, retrieved September
21, 2008), Hill and Hood (1999), Koenig, McCullough, and Larson (2001), and
Paloutzian and Park (2005). Numerous measures and scales are available to
explore spiritual development and all the contents of spiritual perspectives listed
in our operational model. These very often focus on religious forms of spiri-
tuality, both those engaged in religious community (such as worship and cer-
emony) and those that are private (such as solitary prayer rooted in a religious
tradition).
Religiousness can be measured by rating such factors as religious preference,
or sense of belonging to a particular religious group; formal religious organiza-
tional affiliation; credal assent to particular religious beliefs; personal religious
behavior, or how often a person prays or engages in other religious activities
privately; frequency of attendance at places of religious practice; religious orga-
nizational activity other than at places of religious practice; amount of financial
support for religious groups; sense of religious despair or hope; religious commit-
ment/motivation regarding the level of importance given to religion by a person;
the extent of growth seeking or searching for meaning through religious con-
texts; types of religious experiences; processes of religious conversion; religious
The Meaning of Spirituality 93

coping behaviors and styles; religious or spiritual well-being, such as feelings of

fulfi llment and meaningfulness in relation to God or to life in general; amount
of religious knowledge regarding one’s own or others’ religions; religious func-
tionality, such as perceived closeness to God, degree of support by a religious
community, or sense of religious or spiritual struggle; and philanthropic con-
sequences of religious involvement, such as volunteerism or donation to social
causes. All of these features of religiousness have corresponding nonreligious
forms, for example, in private nonreligious spiritual activity and in informal
spiritual support groups.
Research on spirituality in the field of positive psychology is useful for social
workers because it draws on interdisciplinary perspectives, it addresses impacts
of spirituality on personal and social functioning, and focuses on positive con-
tributions of spirituality, similar to the strengths perspective in social work. A
brief review of this field of research on spiritual well-being illustrates contribu-
tions and limitations of prevalent empirical research on spirituality.
Spiritual well-being is a quality of developing and being oriented toward
ultimate or sacred concerns that alleviates personal and collective suffering,
provides a sense of meaning and purpose to life and death, and fosters optimal
human development and fulfi lling relationships (Canda, 2009, in press). Spiritual
well-being as a process is healthy spirituality. Spiritual well-being as outcome
refers to salutary effects on health, mental health, and social relationships from
healthy spirituality. Unfortunately, process and outcome are not always distin-
guished in the concepts and measures of spirituality and well-being, leading to
circular thinking in research (i.e. healthy living results in healthy living).
The Spiritual Well-being Scale (Ellison & Paloutzian, 2007) includes 10
items each for existential well-being (i.e. related to a person’s level of life per-
spective, meaning, and purpose) and religious well-being (i.e. view of God and
sense of positive relationship with God). The concept “religious” is distinguished
and limited here by belief in God or a higher power. The Spiritual Well-being
Questionnaire (Moberg, 2001), includes items about meaning and purpose as
well as specifically religious matters of beliefs, attitudes, activities, feelings, and
identity. Some items are limited by Christian terms. The Spirituality Index of
Well-being (Daaleman & Frey, 2004) addresses self-assessments of insight, abil-
ity to solve problems, and sense of purpose and meaning in life. Peterson and
Seligman (2004, p. #) developed the VIA classification of virtues and strengths,
including “Transcendence—Strengths that forge connections to the larger uni-
verse and provide meaning.” This category includes appreciation of beauty and
excellence, gratitude, hope, humor, and spirituality. Spirituality is defi ned as
“Having coherent beliefs about the higher purpose and meaning of the uni-
verse.” The Authentic Happiness website (www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.
edu, retrieved September 13, 2007), hosted by Martin Seligman, includes The
Authentic Happiness Inventory, The Approaches to Happiness Questionnaire,
and The Meaning in Life Questionnaire with questions about sense of meaning,
purpose, and benefit to others. VIA Signature Strengths includes a self-rating of
94 central values and concepts

degree of being spiritual. These various tools can be used for clinical assessment,
self-assessment, and research measurement.
Unfortunately, variability of terms, definitions, and measures among tools
can be confusing. For example, the most commonly used features of the concept
of spiritual well-being are positive sense of meaning and purpose in life. Some
instruments focus exclusively on meaning and purpose; some include related-
ness with the sacred, transcendence, and a general sense of positive connect-
edness. Some items use religiously limited terms, but are applied to everyone.
Some scholars prefer a broad conceptualization of spiritual well-being without
reference to religion or sacredness. Others believe that a reference to particu-
lar religious contexts or sacredness is crucial. Practitioners who use such tools,
or use the findings from research, need to examine the strengths and limita-
tions of the tools and be cautious about comparing results based on different
tools. Or practitioners can refer to careful reviews of the research such as Hill
and Hood (1999), Koenig (2007), Koenig, McCullough, and Larson (2001), and
Paloutzian and Park (2005). Websites on spirituality and health (see the link
listed in Exercise 3.3) provide helpful information as well.
These tools can be helpful for simple assessments or statistically based
research. However, they are limited by a structure that does not allow deep or
detailed engagement with people’s spiritual perspectives on their own terms.
Open-ended questions, interview methods, and field studies of daily life suit this
purpose better. When structured tools are needed for specific religions or cul-
tures, it would be useful to tailor them to the relevant spiritual perspectives.
There is a questionable assumption implicit in common measures of spiri-
tual well-being that a clear sense of life meaning and purpose is positive and that
it contributes to other aspects of well-being, such as coping with illness. While
this can be true, it is not necessarily true. Development of spiritual well-being is
a process that may involve unpleasant feelings (such as authentic guilt and shame
motivating personal change and restitution for wrongs) and crises of meaning,
purpose, and faith. Further, development of transpersonal consciousness involves
questioning and transcending egocentric pleasures, meanings, and purposes.
Some approaches to spiritually based social and environmental activism view
spiritual well-being as an ideal for loving and just communities that attend to
the well-being of self, other people, and all beings of the earth and beyond. These
insights suggest that we need to find measures of spiritual well-being that include
the potential positivity of negativity and the transpersonal levels of individual
consciousness, societies, and world community. We will bring these consider-
ations to bear in our guidelines for spiritual assessment in Part III.

Conclusion

In the remainder of this book, we will remain consistent in our use of these
terms. Our specific meaning should be clear from the context of usage, or else,
The Meaning of Spirituality 95

we will specify it. For example, if the terms “spiritual” or “spirituality” are used
without qualification, they should be understood to include both religious and
nonreligious expressions. If we say “spiritual and/or religious,” this is a short
form for saying “religious and/or nonreligious forms of spirituality.” Use of the
terms religion or religious will always refer to an individual’s or group’s expres-
sions of spirituality that connect with institutionalized religions.
In this chapter, we developed detailed defi nitions and holistic and oper-
ational models of spirituality. Our conceptualization assists understanding of
spirituality in practice and research. As we saw in chapters one and two, if we
are to remain consistent with professional values and a moral vision of compas-
sion and justice, we need to address spirituality in social work. In the remain-
der of this book, we present a foundation of knowledge and skills for how to do
this.

EXERCISES

.. What Does Spirituality Mean to You?

You are likely to have had some strong reactions to the various ideas about spir-
ituality and religion presented in this chapter. Strong reactions often stem from
feelings of congruence or conflict between one’s own beliefs and others. In order
to identify where these are coming from, try the following self-reflection exer-
cise to determine your own defi nitions and issues related to the terms spiritual-
ity and religion. This exercise also makes clear that our definitions are affected
by our life situation, sociocultural conditioning, and self-understandings. Since
these change over time, our personal definitions of spirituality and religion may
change over time as well.
Take out five blank sheets of paper. Label the top of each sheet with the
headings that follow. Then, following the suggestions, record your reflections on
each topic.

Understanding of Spirituality and Religion in Early Childhood

Take a moment to relax and be quiet. Think back to your earliest memories of
hearing discussions or having experiences that relate to an understanding of
aspects of reality that are ultimate, sacred, or supernatural. What words to label
them did you learn to use at the time? Did parents teach you to believe or not
believe in a God, spirits, or some other divine forces? Did you participate in a
spiritual group or religious community? What kinds of stories did you learn to
explain the nature of life and death? What rituals and symbols do you recall
vividly? In association with these experiences and words, what mental pictures
and feelings come to mind? What were the feelings of affirmation and strength
related to this? What were feelings of confusion or distress related to this? Do
96 central values and concepts

not judge yourself about any of this. Simply be aware of these memories and
accept them gently, without any discomfort.
Draw a picture or diagram, or write down some key words, that sum up
your insights about this.

Understanding of Spirituality and Religion Now

Consider the same questions as above. However, identify the terms that are
meaningful to you now. What are the thoughts, images, and feelings that you
now associate with the terms religion, spirituality, faith, or any others that are
important to you? What are the strengths and struggles you now experience in
regard to this?
Draw a picture or diagram, or write down some key words, that sum up
your insights about this.

How Did You Get Here?

Be aware of the developmental process that you have gone through to move from
your childhood experience of spirituality to your current experience. What were
the key events that signaled change points? Who were inspirational or troubling
figures in your life who have shaped your understanding of spirituality?
Again, depict your insights through a picture or key words.

Where Do You Want to Go?

Look over what you have written and drawn so far. Get a sense of the flow of
your spiritual development to this point in time. Now, imagine where you would
like to go with your spiritual development. What are your overall life aspira-
tions? How would you describe your images and feelings that are associated with
your ideal of spiritual growth? How can you build on your spiritual strengths
and resources? If you have identified limitations or conflicts, how could you
address them to grow toward your aspirations? Draw a picture or diagram, or
write down key words that depict your spiritual ideals and aspirations.

Reflection on the Reading

Now, think back to your reactions to reading this chapter. If there were specific
passages that provoked a strong response, consider whether there is any rela-
tion between what you have learned about yourself from this exercise and your
reaction.
The Meaning of Spirituality 97

3.2 Alternative Meanings of Spirituality and Religion

We defined spirituality and religion, including the relationship between these
concepts. Figure 3.1 depicts spirituality as a broader concept than religion.
Figure 3.2 depicts alternative meanings and relationships that clients, colleagues,
and people in the public might use. Re-examine all the options and choose the
one that best fits your own preferred understanding of the meanings of spiri-
tuality and religion and how they relate. If none of them fit, describe your own
understanding. Also, consider how faith relates to these terms for you. Write a
brief summary.
Recall a client (or a close acquaintance) who had a different understanding
of spirituality, religion, of faith from yours. Explain the person’s view and how it
was different from yours. Write a brief account comparing your views and how
these differences impacted your relationship and communication. Did you listen
carefully to the person and adjust your communication to join in a helpful way?
Was the relationship constrained by misunderstanding? How could you have
improved your communication with the person? What did you learn from what
you did well or less well to apply to future work with clients?

3.3 Exploring Resources on Spirituality and Social Work Online

There has been an explosion of information and resources about spirituality
in relation to social work and health in the past 15 years. Explore the Spiritual
Diversity and Social Work Resource Center to discover many of these develop-
ments. (via www.socwel.ku.edu/canda) This website complements the material
in this book. Initially, spend 20 minutes exploring links in the Resource Center.
Write a brief essay about implications for your practice based on what you find
there. Make a commitment to spend more time exploring any of the resources
that are relevant to your practice and personal interests.
This page intentionally left blank
 PART II

Exploring Spiritual Diversity for

Social Work Practice
This page intentionally left blank
 4

Human Diversity, Spirituality, and

Social Work Practice

(I hope for a) Cathedral of Humanity

which should be capacious enough
to house a fellowship of common purpose.
Jane Addams, Settlement House Movement
(cited in Oakley, 1955, p. 27)

Human spirituality is like an intricate tapestry of all aspects of human diver-

sity woven together with spiritual experiences, values, beliefs, and practices. In
order to establish the context for this discussion of spiritual diversity in Part II,
it will be helpful to consider how the universal and particular qualities of spir-
ituality relate to human experience. As we saw in Chapter 3, there are a variety
of opinions among theorists as to whether there is an essential or universal
quality of religion or spirituality or whether the concepts are merely social con-
structions (Scherer, 2006). While we avoid making a defi nite claim about this,
we believe that it is important for social workers to find ways of understand-
ing patterns of difference and similarity among diverse spiritual perspectives
in order to encourage a sense of common humanity as a basis for dialogue and
connection with clients and communities. We offer the metaphor of weaving to
highlight this.
Spirituality as wholeness of the person-in-relation is like the frame of a loom.
The frame provides a structure and support for the interweaving of warp and
woof fibers. Before weaving begins, the frame is empty; it represents a potential
for form and beauty that is not yet actualized. This is like the universal potential
for spiritual development of all people and cultures. The frame must be strong in
order to hold taut the warp fibers that are the necessary foundation for weaving
a wonderful fabric. The frame (wholeness) is the intrinsic and universal (trans-
personal, transcultural, or transcendent) human nature that provides for the
possibility of particular spiritual experiences and expressions. It encompasses
and holds all the fibers of particular spiritual expressions, but it also transcends

101
102 exploring spiritual diversity

them. Without this intrinsic nature, the weaving of spirituality would not occur
so pervasively around the world. This is similar to the notion of a “universal
grammar of religion” that recognizes common properties of humanity reflected
in sacred texts, rituals, and other spiritual manifestations around the world
(Rosemont, 2008, p. 89–90).
Before weaving upon the loom frame can begin, a warp of parallel lengthwise
fibers must be strung across the structure. This warp is the central threading that
pervades the entire tapestry, hidden within it. This is like the universal (panhu-
man) spiritual drives for profound experience, sense of meaning, and integrity.
The warp fiber must be strong and durable. This dimension of spirituality is uni-
versal, like the frame, but it is immanent rather than transcendent. It pervades
the tapestry, courses throughout it, and gives it shape. The warp threads connect
to the frame, from which they derive the necessary tautness and support.
The woof consists of fibers woven through and around the warp (see
Figure 4.1). The woof can be composed of many colors and textures. These woof
patterns form the outer particular appearance of the tapestry of an individual or
group’s spirituality. The woof of spirituality results from the complex weaving
together of many diverse strands deriving from spiritual experiences as shaped
by such factors as gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, age, religious or spiri-
tual perspective, socioeconomic class, and various physical and mental abilities
and disabilities. The act of weaving is the spiritual creativity of the person-in-
relation. We each weave a life tapestry by functions of perceiving, interpreting,
and relating as they proceed through developmental processes. As we weave our

Figure 4.1. Navajo

weaving, anonymous artist,
gift to author.
Human Diversity, Spirituality, and Social Work Practice 103

lives in relation with the world, we form particular contents of religious or non-
religious spiritual perspectives.
The woof represents spiritual diversity. The intricate patterns represent a
person’s or group’s way of life woven upon the universal warp of spiritual drives
while the warp connects to the transcendent frame. When the weaving is com-
plete, the formerly empty frame of spiritual potential displays a particular and
distinctive fabric associated with each person. Each individual weaves her or his
spiritual tapestry in relation with other people and beings. Collectively, we are
all weaving a cosmic tapestry that connects all people and all things. In this
way, we mutually shape our spiritual patterns of life together in families, groups,
organizations, societies, and world. This metaphor expresses the integral con-
nectedness between differentness, distinctness, and diversity, as one quality of
spirituality, and commonality and universality, as another quality.
In this chapter, we give an overview of spiritual expressions and forms
in relation to human diversity. We discuss the history of religious diversity in
American society and the social work profession. We consider links between
ethnic diversity and the variety of religions. We also consider some concerns
and controversial issues that arise from the intersection between religious diver-
sity and other aspects of human diversity, in particular for women and for les-
bian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people. A pervasive theme of this
chapter is that religious and spiritual diversity in the United States has always
been characterized by a perplexing and challenging blend of religious freedom
and religious persecution. The current world situation also reflects this ambigu-
ity. Therefore, spiritually sensitive practice necessarily calls for a commitment to
both personal well-being and social and environmental justice.

History of Spiritual Diversity in the United States

Historical Trends
For at least tens of thousands of years, hundreds of Indigenous cultures in North
America have maintained distinct patterns of religious beliefs, rituals, and orga-
nizations influenced by relationship to the sacred earth and cosmos. For exam-
ple, peoples of the eastern woodlands, the southwestern deserts, the northern
plains, and the northwestern coastal rain forests developed distinctive spiritual
ways in relation to the particular characteristics of the land, weather, and beings
of the place. Europeans began to colonize North America in large numbers dur-
ing the 1600s. The English pilgrims, other Puritans, and later, many other groups
such as Quakers and Catholics came to North America seeking freedom from
religious persecution (Chalfant, Beckley, & Palmer, 1987). Unfortunately, the
Christian settlers often did not extend respect of religious freedom to members
of rival Christian denominations and often engaged in denigration and perse-
cution of First Nations peoples (Brave Heart, 2001; Bullis, 1996; Canda, 2008b;
Canda, Carrizosa, & Yellow Bird, 1995; Gaustad & Schmidt, 2002; Johnstone,
104 exploring spiritual diversity

2004). Religious competition was compounded by nationalistic rivalries between

French and Spanish territories (primarily Catholic) and English colonies (pri-
marily Protestant) (Keller, 2000). During the American revolutionary war, many
colonists in the northeast sought freedom from both tyranny of the English
government and the control of the Church of England. Christians both for
and against revolution used religious justifications for their actions (Weber &
Jones, 1994).
During this period, Euro-American forms of Christianity predominated in
the political and economic processes of the government and the general public.
However, according to Melton (1993), many of the masses did not display strong
church-based religiosity. In 1776, only about 5% of the colonial population were
regular participating members of churches. In reaction to interreligious compe-
tition and the desire to free governmental control from any particular Christian
denomination, formal church–state relations on the federal level were cut at the
time of the revolution with the First Amendment to the Constitution and again
at the state level with the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868 (Johnstone, 2004).
This may also have been influenced by the First Great Awakening, beginning
in 1734, which was a widespread Protestant evangelical movement that empha-
sized salvation by personal relation with Christ and reliance on the Bible, while
de-emphasizing the importance of religious affi liation (Chalfant, Beckley, &
Palmer, 1987). During this period, enslaved Africans and free Black people began
to convert to Christianity in significant numbers, with or without the approval
of White enslavers (Martin & Martin, 2002). However, separation of church and
state did not challenge the predominance of Protestant Christianity in public
life. In the formerly English colonies, out of a population of about 3.5 million,
about 20,000 were Roman Catholic and about 6,000 were Jewish. Limited reli-
gious pluralism was recognized, but Protestant Christianity was given privilege.
The 19th century involved forces that expanded significantly the religious
diversity of the United States (Chalfant, Beckley & Palmer, 1987; Gaustad &
Schmidt, 2002; Johnstone, 2004; Keller, 2000). Expansion of European settlers
and colonialism westward to the Pacific coast brought contact with hundreds
more Indigenous cultures and religions. It also incorporated French and Spanish
Catholic territories into the predominantly Protestant nation. With the separa-
tion of church and state, Christian churches expanded private voluntary organi-
zations and self-support systems while protecting their privileged position with
the state. This opened more room to newer immigrant religious groups, such
as the Moravians, Amish, Mennonites, and many more Catholics. In addition,
theological disputes among longer established Protestant groups increased the
number of denominations.
The civil war involved splits between Christian abolitionists and proslav-
ery Christians (Gaustad & Schmidt, 2002; Jones, 1991; Martin & Martin, 2002;
Weber & Jones, 1994). Many Protestant denominations split into northern
and southern branches. In the 1750s, slave-owners began to allow proselytiza-
tion among enslaved laborers (Morris, 1991; Newsome, 1991). After the 1770s,
Human Diversity, Spirituality, and Social Work Practice 105

voluntary participation of African Americans in Christianity increased, and

they began to form separate congregations. Separate and independent African
American Protestant denominations formed in the 1800s, such as the African
Methodist Episcopal Church (est. 1816). Free African Americans, slaves, and
emancipated African Americans formed religious movements that combined
influences from traditional African religions, Christianity, and liberationism
(Corbett, 1997; Logan, 2001; Logan, Freeman & McRoy, 1990). In the early 1800s,
the Second Great Awakening movement led to the predominance of evangelical
and revivalist Christian groups in the south and southwest.
Between 1815 and 1920, about five and a half million Irish (mainly Catholic)
people emigrated to the United States. By 1850, there were 1.6 million Catholics
(Takaki, 1993). The Catholic Church had become the largest single denomination.
This rapid increase of Catholics was met with opposition by many Protestant
groups (Gaustad & Schmidt, 2002).
The small percentage of the population who were Jewish in the 1700s were
mostly of Spanish, Dutch, German, and Portuguese descent. In the 1880s and
early 1900s, the first large Jewish emigration occurred from Germany and Russia,
largely in response to anti-Semitic pogroms in Russia (Gaustad & Schmidt,
2002). Many were secularized and urbanized and some were political activ-
ists. Some of the German Jews established the more liberal humanistic branch
of Reform Judaism. Others established the Conservative Judaism branch, which
emphasizes Jewish traditions without strict orthodoxy. During the late 19th cen-
tury, the more orthodox Eastern European Jews established Orthodox Judaism.
Throughout this period, the Jewish emphasis on ethnic solidarity as well as con-
straints on Jews imposed by anti-Semitism maintained a distinct Jewish subcul-
ture, albeit with many religious and secular variations.
The 1800s also involved a period of religious innovation among Christians
leading to major new denominations, such as the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints, Christian Science, and Jehovah’s Witnesses. Each of these
groups experienced organized opposition from preestablished Christian groups
and sometimes the U.S. government.
During the 1800s, there were three major areas of social justice-related
religious debates in addition to the conflict between proslavery and abolition-
ist forces. First, the alcohol prohibition period (1860s–1933) involved intense
opposition to alcohol, primarily by some Protestant groups, while many peo-
ple of Catholic background supported alcohol consumption (Weber & Jones,
1994). Second, the Social Gospel movement, from 1880–1910, arose primarily
among liberal northern churches in urban areas to link efforts for personal
salvation with religiously based social justice advocacy (Gaustad & Schmidt,
2002; Johnstone, 2004). For example, Jane Addams’ settlement house work
and peace activism were influenced by the social gospel orientation of her
Quaker father. The social gospel movement led to the founding of the Federal
Council of Churches, later named the National Council of Churches. The third
debate related to the continuation and intensification of religious and cultural
106 exploring spiritual diversity

persecution of Indigenous peoples (Deloria, 1994; Johnstone, 2004). Westward

expansion of Euro-Americans brought territorial, military, economic, religious,
and other forms of imperialistic destruction. By the time of the Allotment Act of
1887 (Dawes Act), which further destroyed the land base of Native peoples, vir-
tually every form of traditional religion was banned on reservations. Although
some Christians objected to this behavior, the majority actively supported this
process through missionization and support of federal policies or else remained
silent about it.
Trends of diversification continued to expand in the 20th century.
Antidiversity forces also rose in reaction. For example, by 1925 the anti-Cath-
olic, anti-Jewish, and anti-Black Ku Klux Klan was operating in all states and
had a membership of about 8 million. In contrast, ecumenical and interreligious
movements also began to grow, especially after World War II. For example, the
National Council of Churches in Christ expanded formal cooperation between
the more inclusive and liberal Protestant denominations in the 1950s and 1960s.
Trends of unification increased within Lutheran, Methodist, and Presbyterian
denominations. Interreligious dialogue between Protestants, Catholics, Jews,
and members of other religions increased after the Second Vatican Council of
the Catholic Church (1962–1965). Another post World War II trend involved
a revival of Evangelical, Fundamentalist, and Pentecostal Protestant groups,
including major denominations (such as Southern Baptists) and numerous non-
denominational churches.
Three major themes of religiously related social justice debate flowed through
the 20th century. First, during the two world wars, religious rationales for just
war were elaborated. But religiously based pacifism and the antiwar movement
also expanded. Second, in the post World War II period, religious debates con-
cerning the civil rights movement and Vietnam War increased the social activist
agendas of many religious groups. Third, since the 1960s, there have been coun-
ter trends of increased Christian conservatism and evangelicalism with highly
organized political action on the one hand, and, on the other hand, greater calls
for ecumenical and interreligious cooperation, feminist approaches to spiritual-
ity, gay liberation, and liberation theology among more politically and theolog-
ically liberal groups.

Contemporary Spiritual Diversity

This section includes statistics and observations compiled from estimates pro-
vided by several sources (primarily the Association of Religion Data Archives
[ARDA], [http://www.thearda.com/about/, retrieved October 25, 2008] plus
Chalfant, Beckley & Palmer, 1987; Corbett, 1997; Famighetti, 1995; Gaustad &
Schmidt, 2002; Lippy & Williams, 1988; Keller, 2000; Melton, 1993; Williamson,
1992). These researchers relied on surveys, reports of membership by religious
organizations, and review of religious organization directories. They sometimes
arrive at rather different demographic figures. This means that figures for groups
Human Diversity, Spirituality, and Social Work Practice 107

without formal organizations or membership reporting procedures (e.g. the New

Age Movement or traditional Indigenous spiritualities) are not represented or
are based on inferences. Further, membership reports by religious organizations
are not always accurate. This summary serves as a broad picture of spiritual
diversity in the United States.
According to Melton (1993), from 1800–1988, the number of Christian
denominations grew from 20 to more than 900. About 82% of Americans iden-
tify as Christian; about 60% are Protestant; about 22% are Catholic. ARDA
illustrates diversity and groupings among Christians by denominational “fami-
lies” including Adventist, Anglicanism, Baptist, Christian Science, Communal,
Eastern Orthodox, European Free-Church (e.g. Mennonite, Quakers, Amish),
Holiness, Independent Fundamentalist, Latter-day Saints, Liberal, Lutheran,
Methodist, Pentecostal, Presbyterian-reformed, Spiritualist, Western Catholic
and others. Further, within these families and the specific denominations, there
are variations of specific spiritual perspectives and behaviors across congrega-
tions, families, and individuals.
Jewish Americans (about 2% of the U.S. population) reflect many varia-
tions of conservative, orthodox, reform, secular, and other spiritual styles. Islam
(about 1.6% of the U.S. population) is one of the fastest growing religions in
the United States due to emigration from the Middle East, Africa, and Asia,
growth of the Nation of Islam among African Americans, and interest by Euro-
Americans (including Sufism). Emigration from Asia, especially in the 1970s
and 1980s, brought many ethnic-specific forms of Hinduism and Buddhism. In
addition, many Euro-Americans have become converts to offshoots of Hinduism
(such as the Hare Krishna movement) and Buddhism (such as Tibetan Buddhism
and East Asian forms of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism). Buddhism now repre-
sents nearly 1% of the U.S. population. The New Age movement of the 1970s and
1980s brought about many sectarian and nonsectarian blendings of humanism,
new paradigm scientific thinking, and Eastern and Western spiritual practices.
There are hundreds of Indigenous cultures, each with a variety of spiritual per-
spectives from culture-specific traditionalism to blending with Protestant and
Catholic denominationalism, to completely new forms. Other than Christians,
Jews, Muslims, and Buddhists, about 11% of the population are nonreligious and
about 2.24% are other religious.
These facts highlight three cautions for social workers. First, given the 900
plus Christian denominations, we need to avoid assuming any particular reli-
gious beliefs or practices when meeting a Christian client. We need to find out
from the client what Christian affi liation means to her or him. Secondly, because
most social workers are influenced by Christianity, we must be especially cau-
tious not to impose religious assumptions or beliefs upon non-Christian clients.
Thirdly, since non-Christian minorities may be more likely to experience nega-
tive social stigma and prejudice, we must be especially attentive to issues of reli-
gious freedom and social justice for these groups. This is especially evident in the
post 9/11 period in which Muslims are at increased risk of negative stereotyping,
108 exploring spiritual diversity

discrimination, and oppression due to suspicions in the general public. These

points are actually salient for every combination of worker/client spiritual per-
spective. We must always find out the significance (if any) of a religious or non-
religious spiritual perspective from the client’s point of view. We must always
avoid imposing our own view. And we must always be alert to client’s experiences
of harmful discrimination or oppression based on their spiritual perspective.

Contemporary Trends of Spiritual Belief and Practice

Although spirituality in the United States involves great diversity, there is also
a high level of consensus. According to ARDA figures, most Americans share
the following characteristics: Christian (82%), belief in God (95.6%), belief in a
human soul (95.6%), belief in life after death (81.2%; heaven, 87.5%; hell, 74.6%).
Most say that religion is important (82.5%) and that it provides comfort and
strength (79.5%); 78.5% belong to a denomination. Most say that church provides
answers for spiritual needs (74.5%) and family problems (61%). Most meditate or
pray (89.3%), praying more than once a week (71.1%). Evangelical Protestants now
make up the largest religious category at 30% of the population (Pew Research
Center for the People and the Press, 2003).
In American contemporary society, more people place fi rst priority on pri-
vate, personal, individualized faith rather than on institutional religious par-
ticipation (Corbett, 1997; Greeley, 1989 & 1995). Religious group membership
often involves crossing boundaries set by expectations of family, ethnic group,
and social class. In many congregations, there is a stronger focus on local issues
and religious group particularism, rather than on global issues and ecume-
nism. There is great interest in application of religion and spirituality to healing,
alternative therapies, social action, and other practical “this worldly” benefits.
Emotional and experiential approaches to spirituality have grown more popular
than intellectual approaches. Concern about women’s issues and gay rights has
grown among religious people. Increased population movements across national
boundaries have led to increasingly complex variations of religious traditional-
ism, conversion or loss of religion, spiritual exploration, and blending of reli-
gious and nonreligious spiritual perspectives (Ammerman, 2007). In the past
10 years, cyberspace of the internet has dramatically increased opportunities for
learning and communicating about one’s own and others’ spiritualities around
the world (Lovheim, 2007). Some people revel in these opportunities for spiri-
tual flexibility, some reinforce adherence to their singular perspective, and some
foment intolerance and violence.
These patterns are influenced by age, with American baby boomers (born
from 1946–1962) emphasizing more spiritual questing and flexibility in con-
trast to elders (65 or older) who may reflect more traditional religious beliefs,
even though private spiritual activities may become more common than formal
religious group participation as health and mobility decline (Nelson-Becker,
Nakashima, & Canda, 2006; Roof, 1993). Many contemporary youth conceptualize
Human Diversity, Spirituality, and Social Work Practice 109

spirituality as distinct from, and more significant than, religion and institution-
alized authority, even though they may participate in religions (Smithline, 2000;
Steen, Kachorek & Peterson, 2003; Wilson, 2002). Among Generation Nexters
(18–25 year olds), 44% are Protestant, 25% are Roman Catholic, less than 10%
are other religious. Although a similar proportion identify as Evangelical to
older adults, 20% are nonreligious, atheist, or agnostic. This generation is the
least likely to attend church regularly.
The current world situation of intense interdependency and interaction
between societies impacts spiritual perspectives and spiritual perspectives
impact the process of globalization (Roberts, 2004). On the one hand, partic-
ular religious denominations can be enriched by connection among members
from different languages and nationalities on the basis of common beliefs and
practices. The potential for interreligious dialogue and understanding increases
as well. On the other hand, differing cultural traditions and political leanings
among fellow believers and between different believers of various cultures and
nations can lead to confusion and conflict.

History of Connections between Spirituality and Social Work

The previous discussion of religion and spirituality in the United States illus-
trates some of the ways that religious groups vied for influence in public life,
social policy, and social activism. In this section, we consider briefly the shift ing
trends of connection between spirituality and the social work profession.
Five broad overlapping historical phases characterize the development of
connections between spirituality and social work in America (Table 4.1). These
provide a simplified heuristic overview of complex trends (Canda, 2005a):
Indigenous social welfare (precolonial period); sectarian origins (colonial period
through early 20th century); professionalization and secularization (1920s
through 1970s); resurgence of interest in spirituality (1980s to mid-1990s); and
transcending boundaries (mid-1990s to present).
The first phase, Indigenous social welfare, covers tens of thousands of years
during which Indigenous cultures in North America (as everywhere else) had
distinctive spiritually based patterns of helping, healing, and mutual support
extending to social welfare and respect for the earth. There are no written
records for most of this period. However, certain features can be inferred from
archeological evidence, oral traditions, current practices, and written records of
the past 500 years. Many of these continue to the present, separate from or in
connection with professional social work, as will be discussed in Chapter 5. As
mentioned previously, there were hundreds of distinct cultures with their own
languages and worldviews. Precolonial Indigenous helping likely occurred in
the context of holistic worldviews emphasizing: (1) individual development of
harmony between spiritual, emotional, physical, and mental aspects or persons;
(2) a strong web of family, clan, and community relations; (3) family, clan, and
community-based identity; (4) sense of respect for and interdependency with all
110 exploring spiritual diversity

Table 4.1. Historical Phases in Connection between Spirituality and American

Social Work.
Phase Characteristics

One: Hundreds of Indigenous cultures with spiritually based social

Indigenous precolonial times welfare systems
Discrimination, oppression, and mass destructive impacts
from European colonial contact and expansion
Two: Primarily Christian and Jewish sectarian professional
Sectarian origins (colonial services
period to early 20th Sectarian ideologies in governmental services
century) Beginnings of nonsectarian humanistic spiritual ideologies
for social services
Three: Professionalization and secularization of social work
Professionalization ideologies and institutions
and Secularization Increased professional skepticism of religiously based social
(1920s–1970s) work
Separation of church and state more strictly enforced in
social service delivery
Tacit religious ideologies continue in governmental social
services
Social work education detaches from religion and spirituality
Sectarian private social service agencies and educational
institutions continue
Beginnings of existential, humanistic, and new nonsectarian
approaches to social work
Four: Continuation of private sectarian social work
Resurgence of interest Calls for inclusive approach to spirituality
in spirituality (1980–1995) Increasing diversity of religious and nonreligious spiritual
perspectives in social work
Rapid increase of related research, publication, and
networking
Beginnings of systematic international collaborations
Return of attention to religion and spirituality in social work
education
Five: Escalation of previous trends
Transcending boundaries General and context-specific defi nitions and research on
(1995 spirituality refi ned
to present) Curriculum guidelines, courses, textbooks widely established
Postmodern perspectives increased
Faith-based social services policies formalized
Interdisciplinary and international networking and
collaborations increased
Empirical studies increased
Whole earth perspectives on spirituality introduced

of nature; (5) rootedness in particular places and special relationship with the
sacred beings thereof; and (6) a sense of sacredness and connectedness of per-
son, family, clan, nation, world, mother earth, and universe (Baskin, 2006; Brave
Heart, 2001; Bucko & Iron Cloud, 2008; Deloria, 1994; Fire, 2006; McKenzie
Human Diversity, Spirituality, and Social Work Practice 111

and Morrisette, 2003; O’Brien, S., 2008; Smith, 2005). Therefore, help provided
by community leaders, herbalists, spiritual healers, peacemakers, respected
elders, and ritualists sought to maintain or restore the web of harmonious rela-
tions within and among persons, communities, and cosmos. Unfortunately,
these Indigenous helping systems were assaulted during the colonial period
and they were largely ignored by the Euro-American founders of professional
social work.
In our view, all social workers should hold Indigenous ways of helping with
special esteem and appreciation. In particular, social workers who are immigrants
or descendents of immigrants should respect those who are the first caretakers
of this land. We should also be cognizant of the unpaid debt for our intrusion
upon this land and its original peoples. Further, contemporary social work is
rediscovering many insights of Indigenous worldviews, such as holistic under-
standing of the person/environment whole, the interrelatedness of all things,
and the sacredness of the Earth. We believe that the ANZ professional social
worker organization’s recognition of Indigenous people’s rights, colonists’ treaty
obligations, and appreciation for their spiritual perspective is a good model for
American social work (Nash & Stewart, 2002).
In the second phase, sectarian origins, voluntary social services and gov-
ernmental social welfare related policies were largely influenced, directly or
indirectly, by Christian and Jewish conceptions of charity and community
responsibility (Axinn & Levin, 1982; Boddie, 2008; Brower, 1984; Bullis, 1996;
Cnaan, Wineburg, & Boddie, 1999; Garland, 1992; Gelman, Andon, & Schnall,
2008; Kreutziger, 1998; Leiby, 1985; Loewenberg, 1988; Marty, 1980; Niebuhr,
1932; Reid & Popple, 1992; Van Hook, 1997). These involved rival applications of
theological ideas to social life, such as emphasizing individual moral blame or
merit (e.g. distinction between worthy and unworthy poor) versus social justice
and communal responsibility (e.g. Jewish communal service and the Christian
social gospel). During this phase, Indigenous, African American, and French
and Spanish Catholic spiritual perspectives also shaped social work, though
these have not been acknowledged widely (Martin & Martin, 2002; Van Hook,
Hugen, & Aguilar, 2001).
There were also social work pioneers who had strong spiritual motivations
for service, but did not focus on religious terminology or institutions to express
them. For example, in 1888, Jane Addams, the Nobel Prize winning pioneer of
the settlement house and peace movements, used the metaphor of a “Cathedral
of Humanity which should be capacious enough to house a Fellowship of com-
mon purpose, and which should be beautiful enough to persuade men to hold
fast to the vision of human solidarity” (as cited in Oakley, 1955, p. 27). An arti-
cle in a Christian magazine in the 1930s, The Churchman, expressed it this way
(Simkhovitch, 1950, p. 139): “The settlement, made up as America is made up, of
various types of people with varying points of view, cannot fasten upon any one
aspect of truth, political or religious, and, regarding it as the solely valid key to
life, insist upon its acceptance by others.” Cnaan, Wineburg, and Boddie (1999)
112 exploring spiritual diversity

pointed out that while religions had significant influence on the formation of
American social work, there were also significant nonreligious and governmen-
tal influences.
During the third phase, professionalization and secularization, as social
work professionalized in competition with and along medicine and law, secular
humanistic and scientific perspectives, such as socialism, social functionalism,
Freudianism, and behaviorism became more influential than theology. It was
hoped that these scientific views would provide a more reliable base for practice.
Increased involvement of federal and state governments in social work and social
welfare brought greater concerns about separation of church and state within the
arena of social services. In general, many social workers grew wary of the ten-
dency of some religious providers of services to engage in moralistic judgmen-
talism, blaming the victim, proselytization, and exclusivism. During this period,
the National Association of Social Workers and the Council on Social Work
Education (CSWE) formed as inclusive, secular, professional organizations, in
contrast to earlier sectarian social work organizations. Curriculum policy guide-
lines of CSWE in the 1950s and 1960s referred to the spiritual needs of people, in
nonsectarian terms. But the CSWE guidelines of the 1970s and 1980s eliminated
even these nonsectarian references to spirituality (Marshall, 1991; Russel, 1998).
However, religious and nonreligious spiritual perspectives influenced social
work throughout the third phase. Many religiously related agencies continued to
provide social work services, such as through Catholic Social Services, Lutheran
Social Services, Jewish Family Services, and the Salvation Army. Nonsectarian
spiritual perspectives grew in influence, such as in 12 Step programs. Social
workers brought their own personal spiritual views and values into practice, at
least implicitly. Some social work scholars continued to call attention to spiri-
tuality in publications (e.g. Spencer, 1956; Towle, 1965). Ideas from Asian reli-
gions began to enter social work literature (e.g. Brandon, 1976; Krill, 1978).
Humanistic, Jungian, and other nonsectarian spiritual perspectives grew within
social work, often without explicit mention of religion or spirituality (Robbins,
Chatterjeee, & Canda, 2006).
The fourth phase, resurgence of interest in spirituality, expanded on the ecu-
menical, interreligious, and nonsectarian spiritual undercurrents that existed in
the profession from its beginning. During the 1980s, publications called for a
return to our profession’s historic commitment to spirituality. The significant
innovation was addressing spirituality in a way that includes and respects the
diverse range of religious and nonreligious spiritual perspectives among clients
(Borenzweig, 1984; Brower, 1984; Canda, 1988b, 1988c, 1989; Constable, 1983;
Joseph, 1987; 1988; Loewenberg, 1988; Marty, 1980; Meystedt, 1984; Siporin,
1982, 1985).
Up to the mid-1990s, this trend continued to expand rapidly. Numerous
articles and books appeared dealing with spirituality and social work, includ-
ing a wider range of religious and nonsectarian approaches such as Buddhism,
Confucianism, Hinduism, Shamanism, Taoism, and transpersonal theory (Canda,
Human Diversity, Spirituality, and Social Work Practice 113

Nakashima, Burgess, Russel, & Barfield, 2003). I (EC) founded the Society for
Spirituality and Social Work in 1990 (based on informal networking begun in
1986) to bring together scholars and practitioners of diverse spiritual perspec-
tives for the enhancement of the profession. It organized meetings at NASW and
CSWE national conferences. In 1994, under the leadership of Robin Russel, it held
its first national conference, bringing together practitioners and educators from a
wide variety of religious and nonreligious spiritual views (Derezotes, 2006).
In phase five, transcending boundaries, all of these trends have been accel-
erating. The distinguishing features of this period are the formal recognition of
spirituality in U.S. social work educational standards and the movement among
scholars and practitioners “to transcend boundaries between spiritual perspec-
tives, academic disciplines, nations, governmental and religious institutions, and
between humans and nature” (Canda, 2005a, p. 99).
The 1995 version of CSWE’s curriculum guidelines returned attention to
belief systems, religion, and spirituality, especially with regard to client diversity
(Russel, 1998). Social work practice texts and a human behavior theory text pub-
lished in the United States and United Kingdom during the next several years
set out frameworks for integrating spirituality into social work (Bullis, 1996;
Canda, 1998a; Canda & Furman, 1999; Crompton, 1998; Derezotes, 2006a; Ellor,
Netting, & Thibault, 1999; Nash & Stewart, 2002; Patel, Naik, & Humphries,
1997; Robbins et al., 1998) .
In the early 2000s, ecophilosophical spiritual views on social work entered
our field, mainly through the work of Besthorn (e.g. 2000, 2001) and Coates
(2003). The range and numbers of publications on spirituality in general and
context-specific understandings have continued to increase until the present.
(For example, see the Journal of Religion and Spirituality in Social Work, formerly
Social Thought). Postmodern perspectives (such as feminist, ecophilosophical,
transpersonal, and post-colonial) are calling “social work to extend its inclusive
approach to spirituality to all people and nations, with special attention to the
oppressed and marginalized, to all beings on the planet, and to the earth itself as
a living being deserving of honor and respect” (Canda, 2005a, p. 100; Meinert,
Pardeck & Murphy, 1998). For example, Derezotes’ (2006a & 2006b) approach to
spiritually oriented social work calls for an integration of biopsychosocial, spiri-
tual, and environmental paradigms in a way that celebrates spiritual diversity.
Courses, conferences, and symposia on spirituality have been increasing in
North America and in other countries. For example, Russel (1998, 2006) noted
that spirituality electives in American MSW programs increased significantly
in the past 10–12 years; she identified 57 such courses in the country in 2004.
The first international conference of the Society for Spirituality and Social Work
(SSSW) took place in 2000. In the past several years, international conferences
hosted by International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) and International
Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW) have featured many presentations
and networking on spirituality. The Centre on Behavioral Health of the University
of Hong Kong was established by Cecilia Chan in 2002 “to provide a holistic
114 exploring spiritual diversity

approach for the promotion and betterment of mental, emotional and behavioral
welfare of the community, as well as aspiring towards achieving international
recognition in the field” (http://web.hku.hk/~bhealth/index.html). The Canadian
Society for Spirituality and Social Work was established in 2002. John Coates,
the director, cooperates with Ann Weaver Nichols, the director of the U.S. based
SSSW to cohost annual North American conferences. International symposia on
spirituality and social work at the Inter-University Center of Dubrovnik, Croatia
expanded under the inspiration of Dada Maglajlic. In 2004, I (EC) established the
web-based Spirituality and Social Work Resource Center to create interdisciplin-
ary and international linkages and information sharing (see www.socwel.ku.edu/
canda). In 2005, Bernard Moss formed the Staffordshire University Centre for
Spirituality and Health in England (see http://www.bernardmoss.org.uk/).
Another trend of this phase has been the increase of empirical research
about spirituality in social work. Sheridan was the main forerunner of surveys
on practitioners’ and educators’ attitudes about spirituality in social work and
has continued to develop these (e.g. Kvarfordt & Sheridan, 2007; Sheridan, 2004;
Sheridan & Amato-von Hemert, 1999; Sheridan & Bullis, 1991; Sheridan et al.,
1992; Sheridan, Wilmer, & Atchison, 1994). Our national and international sur-
veys rely heavily on her work; they also illustrate the fruits that can come through
international collaborations. Qualitative and quantitative empirical studies on
the impacts of religious participation as well as spiritually based social work
practices have increased (e.g. Hodge, Langer, & Nadir, 2006; Thyer, 2007a). These
often draw on interdisciplinary insights and research approaches especially from
gerontology, health, and mental health fields (e.g. Ai, 2006; Canda, 2009).
These trends of spiritually sensitive social work are helping to draw the pro-
fession farther beyond egocentric, ethnocentric, humanocentric and other lim-
iting, divisive views. These trends intersect with globalization in both its helpful
forms (such as promotion of human rights) and its detrimental forms (such as
militaristic expansionism and exploitive transnational economies). The chal-
lenge now is how spiritually sensitive social work can continue to further per-
sonal well-being and social and ecological justice for all people and all beings,
as we extend connectedness around this planet and beyond. To paraphrase the
Canadian social work scholar John Graham (2006), social workers invested in
spirituality need to develop a knowledge base that is both locally and globally
compatible, by connecting North and South (and we would add East and West)
through collaborations that are nonhegemonic and mutually enriching.

Patterns of Spiritual Orientations among Social Workers

A detailed picture of social workers’ demographic and spiritual diversity can be
derived from our 2008 National Survey of social workers. The sample was com-
posed of 72.6% (n = 1,309) women and 26% (n = 469) men. The data for gender
were missing on 1.4% (n = 26) of the surveys. The gender demographic is very
similar to the 1997 sample: 74.4% women; 24.7% men. The average age of the
Human Diversity, Spirituality, and Social Work Practice 115

respondents was 58 (standard deviation of 10.7) with a range of 23–89. The age
demographic in 1997 was considerably lower, with an average age of 48. There
were 40 questionnaires missing data pertaining to age. Most of the 2008 respon-
dents were Caucasian/Euro-American (87.1%, n = 1,572). The rest of the sample
were African American (4.2%, n = 75), Latino/Hispanic American (3%, n = 54),
Asian American/Pacific Islander (1.5%, n = 27), Native American/First Nations
(0.3%, n = 5), mixed heritage/bi-racial (1.3%, n = 23), and other (1%, n = 18).
Missing data accounted for 1.7% (n = 30). The ethnic/racial composition of the
2008 National Survey was very similar to the 1997 sample, although the percent-
ages of Caucasian (−3.2%) and Native American (−0.4%) respondents were lower
whereas respondents in the other racial groups increased in 2008.
The participants were requested to indicate their current primary religious
or spiritual orientation (see Table 4.2). Not surprisingly, by far the largest per-
centage of the respondents related that they were Christian (56.8%), which is
very similar to the 1997 sample (57.5%). Adherents to various forms of Judaism
formed the second largest religious category. We had far more Jewish respon-
dents in 2008 (20.2%) than in 1997 (6.1%). There is also a wide variety of other
religious orientation affi liations, most notably Buddhism, Goddess religion,
spiritism or shamanism, traditional First Nations and Native Hawaiian, and
Unitarian. In addition, about 14% of participants indicated a nonreligious orien-
tation as their primary affi liation.
After they selected a primary affi liation, participants were asked to indicate
if they have only one religious or spiritual affi liation, a multiple religious orienta-
tion (combinations of at least one religion and any other religious or nonreligious
spiritual orientation), or a multiple nonreligious orientation (any combination of
atheist, agnostic, existentialist, nonaffi liated Jewish, and none) (see Table 4.3).
Among Christians, 6% indicated they have a multiple religious orientation.
Among those with a primary nonreligious spiritual orientation, 1.6% indicated
that they have a multiple religious orientation, and 6.8% have a multiple non-
religious orientation. Overall, 5.9% of the sample indicated a multiple religious
orientation and 1.2% indicated a multiple nonreligious orientation, compared
with 9.9% and 9.1% respectively, in 1997. This lower proportion of multiple spiri-
tual affi liators in 2008 may be due to the changed questions. This time, we asked
respondents to specify their primary affi liation in order to make this clear and to
facilitate other statistical analyses. In 1997, on the other hand, we asked respon-
dents to select as many religious and nonreligious spiritual orientations as they
wished, without specifying primary affi liation. This resulted in a greater degree
of overlapping religious and nonreligious spiritual orientations.
In comparison with ARDA statistics, while a majority of NASW members
in our study are Christian (56.8%, including those with multiple affi liations), the
percentage is quite smaller than the general population (about 82%). In addition,
the percentage of Jewish and Buddhist members is much higher; the percent-
age of Muslims is much lower; and percentage of nonreligious is slightly higher.
In general, as would be expected, those who claimed a religious affiliation were
116 exploring spiritual diversity

Table 4.2. National NASW Survey: Religious and Spiritual Orientations of Social
Workers.
Percentage Frequency

Primary Religious Orientations

Buddhism 4.8 86
Christianity:
Protestantism 26.9 486
Catholicism 17.8 321
Nondenominational 5.8 105
Unspecified 5.6 101
Latter-Day Saints 0.2 3
Eastern Orthodox 0.4 8
Subtotal Christian 56.8 1,024
Goddess Religion 0.1 1
Hinduism 0.2 3
Judaism:
Reform 16.2 293
Conservative 2.3 42
Unspecified 1.2 21
Orthodox 0.5 9
Subtotal Jewish 20.2 365
Islam 0.1 2
Spiritism/Shamanism 0.7 13
Traditional Native American (First Nations) 0.4 8
Traditional Hawaiian 0.1 1
Unitarian Universalism 0.7 13
Wicca 0.2 4
Religious Othersa 0.5 9
Total Religious 84.8 1,529

Primary Nonreligious Spiritual Orientations

Agnosticism 6.5 117
Atheism 2.9 53
Existentialism/Humanism 1.5 27
Nonaffi liated Jewish 3.0 54
Total Nonreligious 13.9 251

Other
None (No spiritual affi liation) 0.1 2
Other—Unspecified 0.6 11
Not Reported 0.6 11

Note: a Religious others includes unspecified multifaith/interfaith (6 responders), Buddhism/

Christianity (1 responder), Zen/Taoism/Episcopalian (1 responder), and Buddhism/Shamanism/
Existentialism (1 responder).

likely to have an average to high level of involvement in religious or spiritual

activities, such as prayer and attendance at religious services. In contrast, athe-
ists and agnostics were likely to have a low to average involvement in religious
or spiritual activities.
Table 4.3. National NASW Survey: Singular and Multiple Religious and Spiritual
Orientations of Social Workers by Primary Affi liation.
Multiple Multiple
Singular Religious Nonreligious
Primary Orientation Orientation
Affiliation in Addition to in Addition to
Total Only Primary Primary

(n) % (n) % (n) % (n)

Primary Religious Orientations

Buddhism (86) 90.7 (78) 9.3 (8)
Christianity:
Protestantism (486) 95.3 (463) 4.7 (23)
Catholicism (321) 94.1 (302) 5.9 (19)
Nondenominational (105) 90.5 (95) 9.5 (10)
Unspecified (101) 92.1 (93) 7.9 (8)
Latter-Day Saints (3) 66.7 (2) 33.3 (1)
Eastern Orthodox (8) 100 (8)
Subtotal Christian (1024) 94.0 (963) 6.0 (61)

Goddess Religion (1) 100 (1)

Hinduism (3) 66.7 (2) 33.3 (1)
Judaism:
Reform (293) 99.3 (291) 0.7 (2)
Conservative (42) 97.6 (41) 2.4 (1)
Unspecified (21) 81 (17) 19 (4)
Orthodox (9) 100 (9)
Subtotal Jewish (365) 98.1 (358) 1.9 (7)

Islam (2) 100 (2)

Spiritism/ (13) 84.6 (11) 15.4 (2)
Shamanism
Traditional Native (8) 100 (8)
American (First
Nations)
Traditional (1) 100 (1)
Hawaiian
Unitarian (13) 15.4 (2) 84.6 (11)
Universalism
Wicca (4) 100 (4)
Religious Othersa (9) 100 (9)
Subtotal Primary (1529) 93.5 (1430) 6.5 (99)
Religious
Orientations

Primary Nonreligious Spiritual Orientations

Agnosticism (117) 94.0 (110) 1.7 (2) 4.3 (5)
Atheism (53) 92.5 (49) 7.5 (4)
Existentialism/ (27) 74.1 (20) 7.4 (2) 18.5 (5)
Humanism

(continued)

117
118 exploring spiritual diversity

Table 4.3. Continued.

Multiple Multiple
Singular Religious Nonreligious
Primary Orientation Orientation
Affiliation in Addition to in Addition to
Total Only Primary Primary

(n) % (n) % (n) % (n)

Nonaffi liated Jewish (54) 94.4 (51) 5.6 (3)

Subtotal Primary (251) 91.6 (230) 1.6 (4) 6.8 (17)
Nonreligious
Spiritual
Orientations

Other
None (No primary (2) 50.0 (1) 50.0 (1)
religious/spiritual
affi liation)
Other—Unspecified (11) 45.5 (5) 27.3 (3) 27.3 (3)
Not Reported (11) 81.8 (9) 18.2 (2)
Percentage and (1,804) 92.8 (1,675) 5.9 (107) 1.2 (22)
Count for Total
Sample

Note: aReligious others includes unspecified multifaith/interfaith (6 responders), Buddhism/

Christianity (1 responder), Zen/Taoism/Episcopalian (1 responder), and Buddhism/Shamanism/
Existentialism (1 responder).

Other regional and national studies of social workers (Derezotes & Evans,
1995; Furman & Chandy, 1994; Hodge & Boddie, 2007; Kvarfordt & Sheridan,
2007; Mattison, Jayaratne, & Croxton, 2000; Sheridan et al., 1992) have also
shown variations in proportion of spiritual perspectives compared to the gen-
eral population, for example, fewer Christians, more Jews, more other religious,
and more nonreligious. This is a reminder of the necessity for social workers to
be able to engage in a spiritually sensitive helping relationship that takes into
account similarities or differences of spiritual perspective between worker and
client. It is likely that this wider variety of religious and nonreligious spiritual
perspectives among social workers contributes to professional commitment to
respect spiritual diversity because of the opportunity to interact across differ-
ences among students and faculty in educational programs. Conversely, it may
also raise a challenge for less traditionally spiritual social workers to be sensitive
to more traditionally religious clients.

Ethnic Diversity and Spirituality

We have seen the interconnections between ethnicity and religious affi liations
in the review of American history and social work. The spiritual diversity of the
Human Diversity, Spirituality, and Social Work Practice 119

United States has been directly influenced by interactions between Indigenous

peoples, people of African descent, and immigrants and refugees from all
regions of the world. Even within a single religious tradition or a single reli-
gious congregation, ethnic diversity brings different modes of belief and prac-
tice. For example, very different patterns of language, worship styles, symbolism,
and religiosity can be found among Hispanic Catholics whose families resided in
New Mexico for many generations, first generation Catholic immigrants from El
Salvador, fourth generation Irish Catholics, and Vietnamese Catholics who came
here as refugees in the 1970s and 1980s.
In some cases, there are close associations between ethnicity and spiri-
tual perspective, such as among the Amish, Jews, Eastern Orthodox Christians,
Arab-American Muslims, Indian American Hindus, Asian American Buddhists,
and traditional spiritual ways of Indigenous peoples (Corbett, 1997). This is
not to say that any of the religious traditions are entirely ethnic exclusive; how-
ever, some religious communities maintain an intentionally close link between
cultural identity and spiritual tradition and may seek to maintain a boundary
between themselves and others. Often people in these groups view culture and
religion or spirituality as inseparable. They may discourage or limit participa-
tion in religious ceremonies by outsiders. Interreligious and inter-ethnic mar-
riage may be perceived as a dilution or threat to the continuance of the group.
This voluntary separatism is often complicated and reinforced by involuntary
exclusion, ostracism, persecution, and prejudice directed at these groups by so-
called mainstream Euro-American Christians. For example, declarations that
the United States is a Christian country, anti-Semitism, White racist practices
of exclusion and segregation, anti-Arab and anti-Islamic rhetoric, and attack
against Indigenous spiritual ways have all contributed to inter-group tensions.
Yet even given these challenges, connections between cultural diversity
and religious diversity increase the richness and complexity of patterns of spir-
itual diversity as portrayed in the metaphor of weaving that began this chapter.
In order to illustrate this, we introduce some strengths of spirituality among
the two largest ethnic minority groups, as defined by the U.S. census, African
Americans, and Hispanic Americans. These discussions provide sources for more
detailed explorations of these groups by the reader. They also provide examples
for how the reader could explore spiritual diversity within and between ethnic
groups not addressed here.

African American Spirituality

Spirituality is a significant aspect of life and source of resilience and mutual sup-
port in African American communities (Bacchus & Holley, 2004; Bell & Bell,
1999; Black, 1999; Chaney, 2008; Corbett, 1997; Frame, Williams, & Green, 1999;
Grant, 2001; Logan, 2001; Johnstone, 2004; Martin & Martin, 2002; Shiele, 1994).
Some African Americans distinguish spirituality from religion in ways similar
to our definitions. Religion is more associated with organized rituals, doctrines,
120 exploring spiritual diversity

and worship forms, while spirituality is a source of meaning, vitality, and divine
connection that can give significance to religion or can give significance to life
outside religion (Banerjee & Canda, 2009; Chaney, 2008). In many communities
the Black church is a focal point for material, emotional, social and spiritual
support; social reform efforts; affirmation of self-esteem and cultural integrity,
recreation apart from intrusiveness of majority White culture; and education. As
an African American spiritual song puts it “In my trials Lord, walk with me . . . In
my sorrows Lord, walk with me . . . I want Jesus to walk with me” (quoted in
Chaney, p. 215).
African Americans participate in a wide range of religious affi liations,
most commonly Christianity (75.7% Protestant and 6.5% Catholic), includ-
ing National Baptist Conventions, African Methodist Episcopal churches, the
Christian Methodist Episcopal Church, mainline Protestant denominations such
as United Methodism, Roman Catholicism, and nondenominational churches
and Islam. Nonreligious groups identifies to 10.6% (General Social Surveys from
1972–2004, retrieved from http://www.religionlink.org/tip_070108.php#stats,
October 27,2008), 81% of African Americans describe themselves as “some-
what religious or religious,” which is the highest percent among the racial/eth-
nic groups studied (Kosmin, Mayer, & Keyser, 2001). Religious groups with 20%
or higher Black membership include Jehova’s Witnesses (37%), Baptist (29%),
Muslim (27%), Seventh Day Adventist (26%), and Pentecostal (22%).
Mainline Protestant and Catholic African Americans often belong to
integrated congregations and their religious worship style generally is not sig-
nificantly different from their Euro-American fellow congregants (Chalfant,
Beckley & Palmer, 1987). However, most African American Christians belong
to primarily Black denominations that include more than 13 million members.
There are also about 3–5,000 Rastafarians, a religion with roots in Jamaica, and
an unknown number of adherents to Vodoun, a blending of African, Haitian, and
Catholic religious elements (Payne, 1991). Recent immigration and refugee flight
from African countries bring additional forms of Indigenous African, Christian,
and Islamic traditions (e.g. Gbemudu, 2003; Shandy & Fennelly, 2006).
The origin of the Black Muslims (which now includes several denomina-
tions) can be traced to slaves brought from Africa, among whom about 10% were
Muslim. In 1934, Elijah Muhammad became the leader of the Nation of Islam.
The 1960s and 1970s saw increasing influence of Black Muslims in the African
American community generally as well as the Black Power Movement, one of
the heroes of which was Malcolm X. For some African Americans, an advan-
tage of the Black Muslim movement is that it is not associated with the history
of slavery and racial oppression in the United States, as was Christianity. There
are also many African American members of Islamic groups that originate from
the Middle East.
African American Christian congregations have often provided a safe
haven and source of community support for Black people throughout their
experience of Diaspora (Franklin, 1994; Leashore, 1995; Logan, 2001; White
Human Diversity, Spirituality, and Social Work Practice 121

& Hampton, 1995). During the period of slavery, they provided a way to link
traditional African patterns of culture and spirituality with the Christian reli-
gious practice mandated by White culture. They drew on Christian themes of
perseverance and liberation to provide nurture, mutual support, assistance for
escape, and support for the abolitionist movement. After the civil war, churches
became major sources for community support and leadership training. Hence,
they have been active in promoting and organizing the civil rights movement
since the 1950s.
Paris (1995) and Martin and Martin (2002) emphasized the continuity of
heritage between African and African American spiritual perspectives and val-
ues. Paris stated that a fundamental principle of African and African American
spirituality is the interdependency between God, community, family, and person
in a holistic and sacramental view of life. Paris identified the following virtues as
central to African American spirituality: beneficence to the community; forbear-
ance through tragedy; applying wisdom to practical action; creative improvisa-
tion; forgiveness of wrongs and oppression; and social justice as the culmination
of these other virtues.
According to Franklin (1994), worship style in many Black Christian con-
gregations is characterized by several common features. Times of intimate,
cathartic “altar prayer” are encouraged in which members express pain and
vulnerability and celebrate forgiveness and liberation in a public manner, thus
joining individual feeling with communal care and support. Some congregations
encourage cathartic shouting of praise and triumph, ecstatic dancing, and speak-
ing in tongues. Choir singing and music often help stimulate collective feelings,
growing in beat and intensity or calming. Religious education often has a strong
political component, emphasizing civil rights, community support, and pride
in African identity and culture. In regards to preaching, Franklin said, “Black
people expect the sermon, as a word inspired by God and located within the
community, to be spiritually profound, politically relevant, socially prophetic,
artistically polished, and reverently delivered” (p. 265).
Kwanzaa is a nonsectarian Afrocentric spiritual celebration founded in
the 1960s by Maulana Karenga (1995), a civil rights activist and professor of
Black Studies. He estimated that about 18 million African Americans and other
African people throughout the world now celebrate it. Karenga was inspired by
the Black Power Movement’s goals of individual and community self-determina-
tion, culturally grounded self-respect, and collective capacity to end and prevent
oppression. In cooperation with others, Karenga drew on empowering principles,
values, and symbols widely shared in traditional African cultures, and adopted
Swahili terms, to create the format for Kwanzaa. The Kwanzaa celebration
supports and appreciates the strengths of African families, communities, and
cultures within the larger context of re-Africanization and African American
community empowerment. Seven principles (Nguzo Saba), paraphrased below,
represent core values to be encouraged in the African American community
through Kwanzaa.
122 exploring spiritual diversity

1. Umoja: Unity of the family, community, nation, and race.

2. Kujichagulia: Self-determination in defining, naming, creating, and
speaking for oneselves.
3. Ujima: Collective responsibility to build and maintain community
and solve problems together.
4. Ujamaa: Cooperating economically to build and maintain the
community’s own stores, shops, and other businesses for mutual
benefit.
5. Nia: Purpose to build and develop the community and restore our
people to their traditional greatness.
6. Kuumba: Creativity in doing as much as possible to make the com-
munity more beautiful and beneficial than how it was received.
7. Imani: Faith to believe totally in our people, our parents, our teach-
ers, our leaders, and the righteousness and victory of our struggle.

Kwanzaa is a collective nonsectarian celebration of spiritual and cultural

renovation, innovation, and liberation. It is an opportunity for African and
African American families and communities to come together across Muslim,
Christian, Jewish, traditional African, and any other spiritual perspectives to
reverence the Creator and give thanks for the gift of life, fruits of the earth, and
the support of African heritage and community.

Social Work Implications

In order for social workers to provide culturally competent service with African
Americans, it is crucial to engage the supportive and transformative aspects of
African American spirituality, since this is so important for most Black people.
This requires knowledge about and respect for the historical and contemporary
roles of the wide variety of African American religious groups and practices. It
requires familiarity with patterns of worship and values. It requires practical
ability to assess the particular spiritual style and practices of African American
clients and to work collaboratively with their religious community-based rela-
tives, friends, and leaders or with their other nonreligious support systems if
they are nonreligious.
For African American social workers working with Black clients, there is an
opportunity to build on common experiences and sense of solidarity. It is also
important not to assume agreement or commonality on religious practices and
beliefs, since there is a great deal of diversity within the African American pop-
ulation. For others working with African Americans, it is important to be able
to deal honestly and comfortably with the context of racism as it may affect the
current situation of the client and the client’s relationship with and perception
of the social worker. Euro-American social workers must be especially cautious
not to make ethnocentric evaluations of unfamiliar spiritual styles and beliefs.
Martin and Martin (2002) provide recommendations for spiritually sensitive and
Human Diversity, Spirituality, and Social Work Practice 123

culturally appropriate social work practice within both mainstream contexts and
Afrocentric approaches.
They believe that social workers in the African American community now
need to address spiritual and cultural fragmentation, as evidenced by collapse of
meaning and excessive levels of violence. They lament that many White domi-
nated social work agencies do not understand or encourage Black cultural and
spiritual values. They suggest five principles to guide practice.
The Principle of Internal Locus of Control proposes that Black people are
free and responsible for their own moral, intellectual, and spiritual develop-
ment, even when oppression impacts their outer lives. The Principle of Personal
Responsibility and Collective Reciprocity emphasizes that Black people should
do all they can to care for each other as a spiritual act. The Principle of Social
Debt proposes that Black people can repay the debt to their ancestors and to God
by helping each other to “grow in decency, dignity, and respect” (p.208). The
Principle of Sanctification of Human Life states that each human life is sacred,
that even small problems are significant, and that the helping process itself is
sacred. The Principle of a Holistic Approach proposes that spirituality is not the
exclusive domain of religious leaders and that social workers attend to this sig-
nificant aspect of clients’ lives. They advocate that social workers learn from the
Black helping tradition how to engage spirituality in a nonjudgmental, inclusive,
and empowering manner, similar to what we have described as the ideal of spir-
itually sensitive social work. Martin and Martin encourage social workers to be
attentive to the language of Black clients for allusions to their religious beliefs
and themes. Social workers should be attentive when Black people recount spir-
itually meaningful dreams that represent insights and warnings from the spirit
world. Social workers can build on the spiritual strengths of Black communal
life events, such as baptism, weddings, holidays, family reunions, and memori-
als for the deceased. Social workers should also assess whether and how Black
clients draw on prayer, religious attendance, scriptures, forgiveness, and other
religious practices for strength.
A midwestern Micro-Entrepreneurial Training (MET) Program is an exam-
ple of some of these practice principles (Banerjee & Canda, 2009). Informal and
formal interviews with 60 low-income African American women who partic-
ipated in the program revealed that spirituality was import in their dealing
with the challenges of poverty and welfare to work policy. “it helped them to
cope with basic needs, such as persevering while seeking food, clothing, shel-
ter, and employment; to deal with health problems and personal and family
crises; to grow in relationships with their children and spouses or partners; to
enhance self-esteem and sense of inner peace; to develop nonjudgmental and
caring attitudes toward others; and to process feelings of anger or frustration
with supervisors, case managers, and the general difficulties of navigating the
welfare system.”
For example, Alicia said that a life without God is being poor, but if you
have God, you can accomplish what you need. Monique said that if it was not for
124 exploring spiritual diversity

“my Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ” she probably would have died from drink-
ing alcohol. Brenda explained how she prayed for God’s guidance in setting up
her micro-enterprise program. God guided her to join the program and to start
a graphic design business. She said, both seriously and humorously, that God
is the president of the company and that she is just the sales rep. “When I run
across problems in the company, I’d tell people, ‘Well, the President isn’t in at
this moment, but if you leave a message, I’ll relay it to Him and if He doesn’t get
back with you, I’m sure He’ll tell me how to handle it.” Somber said that praising
God in worship lifts you up so that you feel light and free of worries. She said
that she knows God will take care of everything if she follows God’s directions
to work and care for her children. Michelle said that she inherited the abilities to
see spirits and to have dreams that foretell the future. Once, following directions
from a dream, she gathered a group of 25 people to stand in front of a drug house
in order to “ pray a young man to come out and change his life.”
Participants in the MET program felt that this program was a good match
for their spiritual values. They viewed staff as caring and persevering teachers
who related as fellow humans with their own struggles. Participants formed a
sense of spiritual bond with each other. Even though the MET program did not
take a religious approach, participants viewed it as having a spiritual quality,
because it helped participants to draw on their own spiritual ways and to support
each other in the process of developing micro-enterprise strategies.
On a larger scale of social change, the joining of spirituality and action for
justice is well reflected in the nonviolent resistance strategy promoted in this
country by Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. He and countless other known and
unknown African American civil rights advocates and their allies made immea-
surable contributions and sacrifices for the benefit of this country. King’s non-
violent resistance strategy confronted racism and unjust war in an inspired and
direct way that sought to overcome evil acts and policies, but not to debase or
dehumanize anyone, including the oppressors. He sought a beloved community
of mutual caring, benefit, and justice for everyone (King, 1992). His approach
grew from the Christian stand for love, justice, and forgiveness and it embraced
every one in all cultures (see Figure 4.2).
If it were not for him and fellow members of the civil rights movement,
I (EC) may not have been able to marry my Korean wife in 1977. It was only
10 years earlier that the Supreme Court struck down so-called antimiscegenation
laws as one more step in the ongoing march to achieve freedom for everyone.
I believe that the social work profession at large is heavily indebted to the leg-
acy of the African American freedom movement for vitalizing the principles of
dignity, respect, and empowerment. Social work could become much greater if
we considered more seriously how to apply the nonviolent resistance strategy to
current issues of injustice.
I will digress a moment to a small but personally inspiring event. Around
1985, I was invited to teach an introductory world religions course as part of
Human Diversity, Spirituality, and Social Work Practice 125

Figure 4.2. Ebenezer

Baptist church sign,
Atlanta, GA.

an Ohio State University outreach program. African American Christian clergy

and lay leaders requested it in order to learn more about religious diversity.
During the course, I took special note of the most senior clergy person there. He
always spoke with careful thought and deliberation, in few but stirring words.
Everyone paid respectful attention when he spoke. For example, one day, when
I was covering shamanism and the animistic worldview that honors the spir-
its in nature, he raised his hand. He said, “Those shamans remind me of how
I like to sit on the bank of a river and listen to the water. In the flowing water,
I hear God speak to me. That is very powerful, so I know what those shamans
are talking about.” The sincerity and depth of feeling in his voice moved me. His
Christian faith went so deep that it found common root of experience with other
religions.
On the last day of class, one of the students approached me as most people
had already departed. She noticed how I thanked the reverend as he left. Then
she informed me that this man was Reverend King, uncle to Reverend Martin
Luther King, Jr. Of course I had known his name, but I didn’t realize the rela-
tion. I was grateful that Reverend King had touched me with a deep wisdom and
peace that connects and reconciles across race, culture, and religion.
126 exploring spiritual diversity

Hispanic American Spirituality

The federal government designated the category “Hispanic” in the 1970s to refer
to “a person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central or South American or
other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race” (cited in Castex, 1994, p. 189).
This designation implies a cultural or linguistic commonality, which is rather
misleading. The federal definition includes people originating from 26 countries
with different languages, religions, other cultural patterns, and varied histor-
ical relations with the United States. For example, this includes people from
countries in North, Central, and South America; people from the Caribbean;
and Spain, in Europe. For the 2000 census, anyone who identified as Hispanic,
Latino, or Spanish was included. The follow up U.S. Census Bureau American
Community Survey of 2006 (http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/
hispanic/hispanic.html, retrieved October 31, 2008) showed subgroups from ori-
gins in Mexico (64%), Puerto Rico (9%), Central America (7.6%), South America
(5.5%),Cuba (3.4%), Dominican Republic (2.8%), and other (7.7%). Between
2000–2006, growth in the Hispanic population accounted for half of the nation’s
growth. Current Hispanic percentage of total U.S. population is 14.8. There are
Hispanic people whose ancestors have resided here since before the U.S. revolu-
tionary war. People classified as Hispanic under this definition may identify as
White, African American, First Nations (Indigenous), Asian, or other.
More than two-thirds of Hispanics are Roman Catholic (about 68%), but
many are leaving this church to seek more personal forms of worship and expe-
rience (Pew Hispanic Project, 2008). Born-again or Evangelical Protestants com-
prise 15%. About 8% do not identify with a religion. Most view God as important
in daily life, pray every day, have a religious object in their home, and attend a
religious service at least once a month. Revivalism, or spirit-fi lled religious expe-
rience, is becoming more common. In addition, there are many religious beliefs
and practices that are blendings of Christian and African and Indigenous spiri-
tual traditions (Castex, 1994).
Even within a single denomination and ethnic group, there are further com-
plications. For example, many Mexican Americans view the Catholic Church as
a source of significant social and spiritual support (Aguilar, 2001; Curiel, 1995).
However, there is also some ambivalence rooted in the history of colonialism.
Catholicism came to the Americas in cooperation with the Spanish campaign
of military, economic, cultural, political, and religious conquest. Thus, many
Indigenous peoples were forced to become Catholic. Many of their traditional
spiritual places of worship, sacred texts, beliefs, and practices were destroyed,
forced into hiding, or melded with Catholic forms of symbolism and ritual. The
Catholic Church was opposed to the Mexican War of Reform and 1910 revo-
lution; so after independence, the Mexican government formed an anticlerical
policy. After Mexican territory was annexed by the United States, many Spanish-
speaking clergy were replaced by Irish and Anglo clergy with a more austere
doctrinal approach, less sympathetic to syncretistic practices.
Human Diversity, Spirituality, and Social Work Practice 127

In response to discontent, during the 1960s and 1970s, the American

Catholic Church instituted alternative, culturally and linguistically relevant lit-
urgies, appointed more Hispanic bishops, and established more active commu-
nity-based programs to promote social and economic justice (Curiel, 1995). The
American Catholic Church has also been active in recent decades in opposing
various human rights violations in Central and South America and in assist-
ing refugees and undocumented entrants who fled war and persecution (Deck,
1989). Grass roots Catholic communities and socially concerned clergy in
Latin America have given rise to liberation theology, which influenced social
justice action among Hispanics and stimulated similar movements through-
out the world (Garcia, 1987; Getz & Costa, 1991; Gutierrez, 1988; Roland, 2007;
Sobrino, 1988).
Costas (1991) suggested that Hispanic theology in North America is charac-
terized by the cultural and historical factors of colonialism. It takes into account
painful experiences of migration and refugee flight, and dilemmas and struggles
pertaining to biculturality, isolation, or assimilation. Bishop Ramirez (1985) pro-
vided a summary of common features of Hispanic Christian spirituality. He said
that God is often regarded as a compassionate and forgiving yet judging and
punishing Father and Creator. Popular piety regards God with love and rever-
ence as well as fear and dread.
Popular spirituality focuses faith on Jesus as Savior, King, and Infant God
through special titles and devotional practices (Ramirez, 1985). Mary “the
Blessed Virgin” is revered as the merciful, loving, and majestic Mother of God
(see Figure 4.3). The Feast of Mary as Our Lady of Guadalupe is of major signifi-
cance (Aguilar, 2001). Saints are popular as models for behavior as well as mirac-
ulous benefactors. Blessed objects, such as depictions or relics of saints, are both
symbols and conveyers of divine protection and care. Christian holy days, days
of national celebration in the country of origin and family life cycle transition
times, such as baptisms and marriages, and coming of age celebrations for girls,
may be marked with religious ceremony and major family gatherings.
Hispanic spirituality often combines these Catholic teachings with African
and Indigenous spiritual traditions that vary considerably among and between
particular Hispanic groups. In the social work literature, several types of spiritu-
ally based syncretistic Hispanic support systems have been identified (Delgado,
1977, 1988; Delgado and Humm-Delgado, 1982; De La Rosa, 1988; Paulino,
1995a, 1995b). Curanderismo, common among Mexican Americans, and san-
tiguando among Puerto Ricans, are forms of healing that combine herbalism
and other physical interventions with Catholic beliefs and practices. Among
Puerto Ricans and Caribbean immigrants, espiritismo (spiritism) is a folk heal-
ing practice involving mediumistic healers who employ group dynamics of role-
playing and catharsis, with the support of helping spirits. Mediumistic healing
also occurs in santeria, a religion mainly among Cubans, and Dominican and
Haitian forms of vodoun (voodoo) which formed from a blending of African tra-
ditions and Catholic beliefs. A survey of Mexican American social work students
128 exploring spiritual diversity

Figure 4.3. Our Lady

of Guadalupe Tiles,
Cathedral, Santa Fe.

compared Catholics and non-Catholics (Faver & Trachte, 2005). It found that
non-Catholics attend church more often and use a curarandero/a half as often;
but both groups have similarly high levels of private religious practices and sense
of being a spiritual person.

Social Work Implications

The Hispanic population is large and fast growing. Given the many varia-
tions of culture, language, and spiritual beliefs and practices among Hispanic
Americans, it is clear that social workers who work with Hispanic people need to
learn the particular circumstances of clients’ history, culture, and family expe-
rience in relation to particular spiritual beliefs and practices. As we pointed out
in the previous section on African American spirituality, competent practice
requires suspending assumptions and ethnocentric judgments while opening up
to the stories of the clients. Clients and their religious or spiritual elders, leaders,
Human Diversity, Spirituality, and Social Work Practice 129

healers, friends, and family are the best sources of information about their par-
ticular practices and beliefs. For example, De La Rosa (1988) and Delgado (1988)
have given specific suggestions for tailoring social work practice style, setting,
and beliefs to work with Puerto Rican clients influenced by spiritism.
The range of spiritual beliefs and practices can be quite startling to unfamil-
iar social workers. For example, social workers need to be open to learn about
culture-specific beliefs addressing the spiritual causes and cures of physical,
mental, and social problems. Some practices, such as possession trance among
some healers, or animal sacrifice in vodoun and santeria, may be particularly
uncomfortable to social workers who have differing beliefs.

Women and Spirituality

In the United States, women represent the majority of adherents in most reli-
gious groups. Women are significantly more likely than men to say that they
are absolutely certain in their belief in a personal God and somewhat more reli-
giously engaged, including the likelihood of being affi liated with a religion at all
(Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, 2008). However, their stories are often
subsumed and neglected in discussions of religion and spirituality because of the
androcentric assumptions of religious research and theology (Braude, 1997). Men
have written most religious texts, theological discourses, and scholarly studies
of spirituality. Male authors have tended to focus on formal religious doctrines
and practices of religious hierarchies which themselves are usually dominated
numerically and politically by men. Since most adherents are women, this male
perspective presents an inaccurate picture of women’s lives. Feminist writing in
social work has critiqued similar trends in our profession. However, the topic of
women and spirituality has not been addressed often in the social work litera-
ture. This section gives a brief introduction to some trends and issues concern-
ing the junction between women, spirituality, and gender justice in the United
States. As in the case of ethnic diversity and spirituality, women’s spirituality
raises many complex and controversial issues concerning both the liberating and
oppressing functions of religious traditions.
There is a great variety among women and their situations within and between
religions and spiritual perspectives (Holm & Bowker, 1994; Joy & Neumaier-
Dargyay, 1995; King, 1987; Sharma, 1994; Sharma & Young, 2007). Generally
speaking, women in the Judeo-Christian-Islamic stream of monotheistic traditions
operate with conceptions and symbols of God that are usually masculine and have
theological justifications for restricting women from formal leadership positions.
An interesting case in point is the Catholic veneration of the Virgin Mary (Warner,
1976; Zimdars-Swartz, 1991). Scholars have pointed out that Marion devotion has
served to imbue feminine symbols and attributes with sacred significance. It has
also provided women (and men) opportunities to honor and emulate these fem-
inine qualities. On the other hand, Marion devotion has been contained within
constraints developed by the all male church hierarchy. Critics have contended
130 exploring spiritual diversity

that Marion devotion actually serves to support patriarchal gender stereotypes and
male privilege. Many women scholars emphasize the importance of ordination of
women and bringing women into leadership positions within religions to provide
a more woman-affirming approach (Roberts, 2004).
Many nontheistic or polytheistic Asian religions, such as Buddhism,
Hinduism, and Taoism, have positive feminine and androgynous representa-
tions of divinities, cosmic forces, and religious teachers. However, women have
also commonly been restricted from leadership positions within these religious
institutions. Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism acknowledge the importance
of harmony between men and women as well as complementarity of yin and
yang qualities of reality, which are often seen as related to feminine and mas-
culine traits. However, in practice the Confucian tradition has often enforced
patriarchal social arrangements (Nyitray, 2007). There are efforts to revivify the
liberatory potential of Confucianism from feminist and social work standpoints
(Canda, 2002a, 2002b; Shim, in press). Many Indigenous tribal religions have
positive feminine spiritual conceptions of women, the earth, and various spirit
powers; and women have been major leaders within many Indigenous spiritual
traditions. However, under the impact of colonialism and Christian missionary
influence, many of these more woman-affirming traditions have been eroded.
So, despite the wide variety of religious beliefs and spiritual experiences in the
United States, it is all too common for women to experience constraints imposed
by the very religious traditions to which they may faithfully adhere.
However, most women in the United States belong to conventional Christian
and Jewish denominations and most appear generally satisfied with their affi lia-
tions (Corbett, 1997). Indeed, many belong to evangelistic, charismatic, and fun-
damentalist groups that tend to be supporters of traditional patriarchal religious
and family arrangements for gender roles in family and religious groups. Many
others are movers for reform toward greater participation of women in their reli-
gious groups’ patterns of ritual and leadership and advocate for gender inclusive
theological and scriptural language. Further, there are many women who call for
radical restructuring of patriarchal religious institutions. Some have left them
altogether for alternative spiritual paths, or as the feminist philosopher, Mary
Daly put it in the title of a famous book, to go “beyond god the father” (1973).

Women in Conventional Religions

Corbett (1997) summarized various trends toward greater inclusion and lead-
ership of women within the conventional Christian and Jewish denominations.
Jewish and Christian feminist theologians have pointed out that some biblical
passages use feminine images to refer to God. For example, the Hebrew word
for “spirit” is ruach (a feminine word) which is translated as pneuma (a gen-
der-neutral word) in the Greek language Bible. God is sometimes described in
images relating to bearing and suckling children. God is sometimes referred to
as wisdom, with the feminine Greek word sophia. Feminist theologians build
Human Diversity, Spirituality, and Social Work Practice 131

on these biblical precedents to advocate for gender inclusive language in Bible

translations, hymns, and liturgy. Feminist scholars suggest that biblical passages
implying subordination of women should be understood within the historical
and cultural context of their authors and should be reinterpreted in ways that
support the liberation of women in contemporary society. There are many bibli-
cal examples that directly affirm the worth of women.
Many religious women are active in making their churches and synagogues
more responsive to social issues, such as day care for children and elderly depen-
dents, shelters for battered or homeless women and children, and support of or
opposition to legal abortions (Corbett, 1997). Religious laywomen and nuns have
been active in the formation of major religiously based social movements, such
as antislavery, prohibition of alcohol, religious missions, and social gospel-based
activism (Braude, 1997).
In the past 30 years, many mainline Christian churches and Jewish temples
and synagogues have provided equal opportunities for women as lay leaders in
worship. Some Christian and Jewish denominations allow women to become
clergy. Others, such as the Catholic Church, many conservative Protestant
denominations, and Orthodox Jewish synagogues, do not allow women to
become clergy. Some Christian women have developed their own organizations,
such as Church Women United, an ecumenical group with 1,500 local groups.

Alternative Women’s Spiritual Perspectives

Some women have decided that the traditional patriarchal religions are not viable
spiritual support systems for women and have created alternatives. Some women
become agnostics or atheists or form nonsectarian informal spiritual support
groups. Some are exploring religions imported from Asia, such as Buddhism,
and transforming them by focusing on their traditional feminine or androgy-
nous religious images and expanding their potential for women to become lead-
ers and teachers (Gross, 1994).
Paganism (including Neo-Paganism, Wicca, Goddess worshippers, Druids,
Neo-Shamans and others) is a movement that is small but important for growing
numbers of women and men (Corbett, 1997; Starhawk, 1979; Yardley, 2008). Some
women find it a more congenial spiritual context for its attention to feminine qual-
ities of life and availability of leadership positions. Paganism is a movement rooted
in pre-Christian European or other non-Christian religions. It honors nature as
sacred, includes male and female aspects of the divine, and promotes improve-
ments in life through magic, that is, “focusing intention and energy toward a goal
through the use of symbolic rituals” (Yardley, p. 330). Since there are no formal,
centralized Pagan organizations or membership lists, and many members are cau-
tious about identifying their belief out of fear of ostracism, it is difficult to identify
numbers of practitioners. The number of Pagans in the United States is probably
around 300,000 (Yardley). They are usually organized in local informal small spir-
itual support groups. The large majority of Pagans are Euro-American.
132 exploring spiritual diversity

Wicca means the tradition of “the wise one”; it is also known as Witchcraft,
or the Craft. Witchcraft and other pre-Christian religious traditions were maligned
and persecuted during the medieval Inquisition (Roberts, 2004). Some accounts
suggest that millions of people were killed in Europe under accusations of witchcraft
and heresy, most of whom were women, homosexuals, people with disabilities, and
others defined as deviant by political and church authorities. Wicca, and paganism
generally, continue to be portrayed with superficial or negative stereotypes by con-
ventional religious groups and popular American movies and news media.
Wiccan beliefs emphasize harmony with the earth and balance of female and
male spiritual powers. Special attention is given to feminine aspects of life and the
spiritual realm. Female characteristics are viewed as good and powerful. Women’s
experience of biological cycles is related in a positive way to the cycles of the earth,
seasonal changes, and the phases of the moon. Women’s roles as maiden, mother,
and wise elder are honored as reflections of the Goddess in her three forms as
Maiden, Mother, and Crone. All living beings, and the earth Herself, are regarded
as holy. Therefore, people are enjoined to live respectfully with the planet. Contrary
to popular misconceptions, Wiccans do not worship Satan (which is a Christian
concept) or put evil spells on people. Rituals are often geared toward seasonal cel-
ebrations and emotional and physical healing for individuals.

Social Work Implications

Social workers should consider the impact of gender and gender roles on the
spirituality of women and men. Our experiences, perceptions, needs, and goals
are likely to vary by our vantage point as men and women, both because of our
different experiences of spirituality in relation to our embodiedness and in rela-
tion to gender role definitions, empowerments, and restrictions, placed on us by
social and religious contexts. We need to avoid assuming or imposing gender-
based views on clients. As we have seen, there is a great variety among women
with regard to their attitudes toward and participation in conventional religions.
Yet, especially in practice with women, whatever her own position regarding
patriarchy and feminism, the importance of the distinctness of being a woman
is inextricably related with spirituality. Randour (1987) suggested that women
in both conventional and alternative spiritual groups tend to share an ideal of
healthy connectedness between people and people and the divine, including
respect for women’s roles and traits.
In clinical practice, women may be trying to work out a sense of resolution
between their loyalty to a faith tradition that is patriarchal and their personal
aspirations for affirmation of their experience. In extreme cases, women who are
victims of spousal abuse might be told by religious leaders to be patient and stay
within the relationship, even under risk of serious injury and death. If a woman
feels that her affi liation with a religious group is no longer tenable, she may need
assistance exploring alternative spiritual support systems and working through
feelings of guilt.
Human Diversity, Spirituality, and Social Work Practice 133

Kahn (1995) pointed out how innovations in ritual within conventional reli-
gions can affirm and empower women. She discussed the adult bat mitzvah as a
Jewish life cycle ritual for women that simultaneously helps to clarify identity and
commitment as a Jew and as a woman. As Laird (1984) pointed out, social work-
ers can help clients utilize existing rituals or invent new rituals in order to sup-
port transition through life crises and to celebrate life cycle transitions. Feminist
spiritual innovations, both within and outside of conventional religions, high-
light many possibilities for developing symbolism and ritual that affi rm women’s
experience and honor female aspects of the earth and the divine.
Social workers also need to be alert to issues of gender justice and diver-
sity in spirituality. If clients experience ostracism or discrimination because
they question patriarchal constraints and oppression within religious groups, or
because they adhere to alternative religious groups such as Wicca, social workers
may be called on to respond. For example, child welfare workers have some-
times removed children from parents’ homes because of prejudice against their
Wiccan parents (Yardley, 2008). Children in schools who have Pagan parents
may be ostracized. Most Pagans have been raised in other religions, so they
might experience tensions with their families of origin. Social workers should
uphold clients’ spiritual self-determination.
Coholic’s (2003) interviews with 20 self-identified feminist social workers in
Australia yielded valuable insights for practice in general. Participants expressed
that an inclusive approach to spirituality is consistent with feminist values. Both
promote a holistic outlook on person (including body, mind, emotions, and
spirit) and environment, emphasize the importance of process and relatedness,
support diversity, and view social change on both collective and personal lev-
els. They often used generic ways of talking about spirituality with clients and
then tailored communication to the specific client situation. Participants pointed
out that not all feminists or clients would find spirituality to be relevant. They
viewed spirituality as often important in making meaning of work and life and
in forming connectedness with one’s own spirit and with the universe or God.
The helping relationship has a spiritual quality when it involves sharing life sto-
ries, sense of deep connection, and feelings of compassion and caring. This rela-
tionship should foster the client’s ability to experience trust, love, and respect for
self and others. They emphasized that it is important to attend to clients’ spiri-
tual beliefs as they affect his or her life and spiritual development. Participants’
said that these practice principles are congruent with feminism and social work
in general, though to remain true to feminist values, they should operate within
a context of equity and fairness.

Homosexuality, Sexual Orientation Diversity, and Spirituality

Estimates of the homosexual population in all cultures range from 2%–10%.

Obviously, this means that every large religious and spiritual tradition is likely
134 exploring spiritual diversity

to have some gay or lesbian members. There are distinct issues related to sex-
ual orientation in each tradition (Dynes & Donaldson, 1992; Swidler, 1993).
This is further complicated by various defi nitions of varieties of sexual orienta-
tion diversity that go beyond a simple homosexual/heterosexual binary, such as
bisexual, transgender, and more fluid self-identifications.
According to Duran (1993), in some religious cultures, same gender sexual
contacts are sometimes tacitly accepted in the context of temporary or alterna-
tive relationships, as long as the person forms a heterosexual marriage. Scholars
have identified religious rationales for tolerance of sexual orientation diversity
in Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism even
though the historically prevalent view in these traditions has been to favor het-
erosexuality (Ellison & Plaskow, 2007). Hinduism is highly diverse so opinions
about homosexuality range from intolerance to affirmation of sexual orientation
diversity (http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/2004/10-12/30-31_mela_
council.shtml, retrieved October 31, 2008). Researchers have documented vari-
ous forms of sexual orientation diversity in many Indigenous nations of North
America (Baum, 1993). The influence of Christian missionaries seems to have
made antihomosexual attitudes more prevalent among Native peoples recently;
however, in many communities, affi rming spiritual perspectives on LGBT peo-
ple continue.
The link between sexual orientation and spirituality is one of the most con-
troversial aspects of contemporary American society. Conventional American
social mores concerning sexuality, sexual identity, and sexual orientation have
been shaped by the Judeo-Christian tradition, which has generally maintained
that normal and moral sexual relations are only expressed within the context
of heterosexual marriage (Cahill, Garvey, & Kennedy, 2006). On the opposite
side, some Christians view this belief as heterosexism, defined as a prejudice in
favor of heterosexual people and prejudice against others (Hunt, 2007). Hunt
describes heterosexism as “a sin against a Divine who created sexually diverse
people” (p. 155). Currently, various Christian denominations are struggling and
splitting over this issue. The Pew Forum website gives an overview of this wide
range of religious views and policies (http://www.pewforum.org/gay-marriage/).
In addition, particular attitudes and behavior about homosexuality vary within
each religious congregation, and among individuals, beyond the official denom-
inational policies.
For example, within Christian denominations, the range of responses to
homosexuality and sexual orientation diversity can be summarized by four
alternative views placed on a continuum. Analogous views can be found in many
religious and secular contexts. The first three views operate within the Christian
framework and the fourth reacts against it. They vary in interpretation of and
adherence to biblical passages and denominational doctrine regarding homo-
sexuality and sexual orientation diversity in general (Cahill, Garvey, & Kennedy,
2006; Coleman, 1980; Comstock, 1993; Cromey, 1991; Ellison & Plaskow, 2007;
Mickey, 1991; Seow, 1996).
Human Diversity, Spirituality, and Social Work Practice 135

We summarize the four major alternative ideological responses in order of

degrees from a strident antigay standpoint to complete rejection of Christian
teachings (see Table 4.4). Most American Christians would likely identify them-
selves with the middle two positions.
The first type of response is outright condemnation. This comes from a per-
spective that posits patriarchy and heterosexuality as divinely ordained aspects of
human nature and society. LGBT people are viewed as deviants, criminals, and
immoral sinners. Biblical passages that refer to homosexuality are interpreted in
the most literal and punitive manner. In such communities, homosexual people
may be driven out, punished, or pressured to confess as sinners or to “change” into
heterosexuals. In such a religious context, LGBT people may have to contend with
guilt-inducing and shaming messages from the social environment and internal
homophobic feelings learned from religious upbringing. In extreme cases, antigay
Christian militants make a public mission out of harassing LGBT people.

Table 4.4. Four Christian Ideological Responses to Homosexuality.

Condemnation
Patriarchy and heterosexuality accepted as divine mandates
Biblical texts interpreted as punitive toward LGBT people
Homosexuals and other LGBT people labeled as deviant, immoral, criminal
Homosexuals in congregation ostracized, defi ned as sinners; forced to leave congregation
or subjected to “changing”

Accept the Person, Reject the Behavior

Patriarchy might be questioned while heterosexuality accepted as normal and divine
mandate
Biblical texts interpreted to condemn homosexual sexual acts, but affirm dignity and care
for all people
Homosexuals and other LGBT people granted acceptance with inherent dignity and worth,
yet often not accepted openly as clergy
Homosexual expression of sexual intimacy labeled as sinful
Homosexuals in congregation subjected to ambivalence

Affi rmation
Patriarchy and heterosexual privilege criticized as oppressive social constructs
Biblical texts interpreted to support affirmation and liberation of oppressed
Homosexuals and other LGBT people affirmed as whole persons, including sexual
orientation and sexual intimacy
Homosexuals and other LGBT people in congregation openly accepted, including as clergy
Congregations advocate for social justice regarding LGBT issues

Reject Christianity
Patriarchy and heterosexual privilege criticized as oppressive social constructs
Christianity viewed as an inherently oppressive religious institution
Biblical texts on homosexuality criticized and rejected
Homosexuals and other LGBT people and their advocates depart from Christian
congregations
New spiritual support groups and religious organizations are formed
136 exploring spiritual diversity

The second type of response is accept the person, reject the behavior. This
perspective also accepts heterosexuality as divinely ordained. However, it advo-
cates for acceptance and respect for people of all sexual orientations, on the basis
of inherent human dignity. Biblical passages referring to homosexuality are
interpreted as opposing same-gender sexual relations (and other sexual relations
outside of heterosexual marriage) in a larger context of affi rming God’s love for
all people. This position separates homosexual orientation from same-gender
sexual activity. It leaves open the question of how people become homosexual
and acknowledges that this may be a matter of identity, not only a lifestyle or
choice. However, while LGBT people are allowed in such Christian communi-
ties, they are enjoined not to engage in same gender sexual activity or the issue
is politely avoided. Openly LGBT people are prevented from holding leader-
ship positions. In denominations that maintain this “accept the person, reject
the behavior” position, it seems inevitable that LGBT people will be subject to
ambivalence. This position makes a split between their experience of who they
are (which is granted dignity) and how they express intimacy with loved ones
(which is defined as sinful).
For example, this is the official position of the Catholic Church. In 1997,
the American Catholic bishops released a public statement of apology for the
church’s frequent mistreatment and rejection of gay and lesbian people. However,
the bishops maintained the official teaching against same gender sexual activity.
Some Catholic parishes have support groups for LGBT members, such as the
organization named DignityUSA. “DignityUSA envisions and works for a time
when Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender Catholics are affi rmed and expe-
rience dignity through the integration of their spirituality with their sexuality,
and as beloved persons of God participate fully in all aspects of life within the
Church and Society” (http://www.dignityusa.org/). This organization seeks to
transform the Catholic Church toward the third position, while offering support
to LGBT members in the meantime.
The third option is affirmation of sexual orientation diversity, viewing every
person as loved in the embrace of God. In this view, it is not loving to force
a split between who a person is, how that person genuinely expresses intimate
love, what privileges are accorded in religious community and in society in gen-
eral. In this view, God would not create LGBT people only in order to condemn
them. This position critiques and transforms the Christian tradition in order to
move out of what it considers to be a patriarchal, heterosexist, and alienating
viewpoint. In this case, biblical denouncements of same-gender sexual behavior
are interpreted as an expression of an overall divine ethic of compassion that was
distorted through human heterosexism. In other words, various passages in the
Bible condemn homosexual acts of exploitation just as it condemns heterosexual
exploitive acts and other harmful actions that have nothing to do with sexuality.
Some passages are seen as culture bound and outdated. This position views the
Christian message as one of affirmation and empowerment of all people, espe-
cially those who have experienced social discrimination and persecution, such as
Human Diversity, Spirituality, and Social Work Practice 137

LGBT people. In this context, LGBT people are openly accepted, full members
of a congregation. Christian marriage or sacred union ceremonies may be per-
formed for gay or lesbian couples. In some denominations, openly LGBT people
are eligible as clergy. Also, Christian denominations with primarily LGBT mem-
bership have developed, such as the Metropolitan Community Churches.
The fourth response is to reject Christianity as unacceptable or unviable for
LGBT people and others who support sexual orientation diversity. In this view,
the Christian tradition has demonstrated a long history of persecution and dis-
crimination of LGBT people. Persecution has varied in intensity from widespread
murder during the Inquisition to contemporary ostracism. In this position, peo-
ple might reject the Christian tradition of their upbringing in favor of atheism,
agnosticism, exploration of other religious traditions that are more congenial, or
creation of new patterns of spiritual belief and support groups. For some people,
this could be a comfortable and liberating option. Yet the process of breaking
from one’s religious heritage and community could also be painful. Lingering
feelings of internalized homophobia may still have to be dealt with.

Social Work Implications

The NASW Code of Ethics takes a clear proactive stance with regard to diversity
of sexual orientation, as with other aspects of human diversity. Social workers
are required to obtain education about diversity and oppression, including sexual
orientation (standard 1.05). They are also prohibited from directly or indirectly
practicing any form of discrimination on the basis of diversity, including sexual
orientation (standard 4.02). These same standards also take a proactive stance
on religious diversity. Since many spiritual traditions and groups take a negative
stance toward homosexuality, there are many occasions when the two ethical
principles of supporting religious diversity and sexual orientation diversity may
conflict. Therefore, the most basic social work implication is that we need to be
able to deal openly and honestly with different and conflicting spiritual posi-
tions on sexual orientation diversity in such a way that constructive dialogue for
mutual understanding is created in direct practice settings, professional educa-
tion, and social advocacy. We believe this dialogue is only meaningful with the
full inclusion of LGBT people of a variety of religious and nonreligious spiritual
beliefs. Social workers on all sides of the issue should be able to communicate on
the basis of respect and dignity.
It needs to be emphasized, though, that the overall ethical stance of the
social work profession is to oppose any form of discrimination or oppression
and to support self-determination and empowerment for all people. Therefore, it
seems to us that there are certain limits on what spiritual perspectives on sexual
orientation diversity can be promoted in professional capacities by social work-
ers. The first option above, which is directly antigay and degrading, is clearly
inconsistent with social work ethics. If a social worker holds such a view, we
believe it is incumbent upon the worker to do some serious thinking about
138 exploring spiritual diversity

whether he or she can in good conscience affi liate with and practice in the social
work profession. It does not seem honest to claim to be a social worker while
holding a position that demeans people. The same can be said about any value
position, religiously based or otherwise, that demeans and oppresses any person
or group of people.
Indeed, Keith-Lucas, who was a prominent writer on Christian social work,
identified four patterns of Christian belief in relation to social work ethics
(Ressler, 1992). He named one extreme Christianity of Morality, which is judg-
mental and punitive, and as such, is least compatible with social work. He pro-
moted Christianity of Grace, which views all things created by God as perfect,
to be the ideal orientation for social work. This view is most consistent with the
second and third types of Christian responses to homosexuality, as described
above.
Social workers who hold the second perspective, accept the person, reject
the behavior, should also consider how that might influence their practice with
LGBT clients. Studies of gay and lesbian sexual identity development and coming
out process highlight common developmental challenges that relate to clarifica-
tion of self-identity and long-term relationships in relation to the societal context
of discrimination (Miller, 2008; Morrow, 2008; Robbins et al., 2006). The second
theological position is likely to compound identity and relationship confusions
by creating a split between self-awareness of sexual orientation, feelings of affin-
ity for others, and restrictions or denigration of honest expressions of intimacy
with others. LGBT clients who are working through such developmental issues
or experience of tension or conflict with a religious group need assistance from
social workers who are able to provide an unambiguous relationship of empathy
and respect. If a worker is unable to do so, then the worker needs to refer the
client elsewhere and engage in a process of self-examination and professional
development in order to move toward an empathic and respectful way of relating
with LGBT clients.
On the other hand, social workers who take the fourth position of reject-
ing Christianity will need to be alert to her or his feelings and behaviors toward
religious clients. If the worker has unresolved issues pertaining to the reasons
for rejecting Christianity, then feelings of anger, mistrust, or derisiveness could
cloud the helping relationship. As above, a worker who is unable to relate empa-
thetically and respectfully with a religious client needs to refer the client else-
where and engage in personal and professional development.
Different and conflicting positions on homosexuality obviously exist
among social workers, often related to rival spiritual and ideological positions
(e.g. Adams, 2008; Cain, 1996; Canda, 2003; Hodge, 2002; Parr & Jones, 1996;
Spano & Koenig, 2007; Van Soest, 1996). We emphasize that spiritually sensitive
social workers should work with LGBT clients in a way that affirms their intrin-
sic human dignity and helps them to attain their goals for the helping process
according to their values and priorities. As professionals who have expressed
commitment to uphold the NASW Code, workers need to find ways to relate
Human Diversity, Spirituality, and Social Work Practice 139

with empathy and skill through a client-centered position. This means including
and transcending the limitations of our personal positions.
A further implication of this debate is that social work education needs to
prepare social workers for an astute analysis of the spiritual issues involved in
attitudes about sexual orientation diversity and the diverse spiritual opportuni-
ties available for LGBT people. For example, many students and faculty seem to
accept the mistaken idea that Christianity (or other religions) uniformly opposes
LGBT people. As we have seen, there is much variety and debate within and
between religions on this issue. Some social work educators and practitioners
express hurtful discriminatory views of religious, especially conservative, stu-
dents and clients (Cnaan, 2006). We also emphasize that this is not appropriate.
As Sherwood (2000) put it, “Real tolerance and respect for diversity requires that
we figure out how we should deal with ideas, behavior, and persons we genuinely
disagree with, some of which we believe to be not simply different but wrong”
(p. 5). We recommend that social work educators and practice supervisors men-
tor their students and supervisees to help them work out areas of disjuncture
between their personal values and professional values, to develop more inclusive
and widely embracing compassion, and to discern whether social work is the
most fitting profession for them.
There is another option beyond the range of ideological positions described.
Professionals can get unstuck from any position. In an actual helping relation-
ship, the worker can decenter from a position and recenter on the client. If you
predetermine a relationship by an idea, then the relationship is not an encounter
of persons—it is a confrontation of ideas. My idea of right confronts my idea of
the person, all stuck in my head. In the process, I lose my real self and the real
client. There is another way: here and now, real person to real person, in helpful
dialogue.

Conclusion

This chapter presented a summary of the history of spiritual diversity in the

United States and the American social work profession. We introduced patterns
of spiritual belief and practice in the general public and among social workers.
We addressed complex intersections between spiritual diversity and ethnicity,
women’s experience, and sexual orientation. We discussed ways in which spiri-
tual perspectives can enhance human well-being or contribute to discrimination
and oppression. Genuine compassion moves us to empathize and join with peo-
ple who experience suffering and injustice. It stretches us beyond our egocen-
tric, ethnocentric, and religiocentric assumptions in order to meet the other. In
doing so, we grow to the point at which no one is “the other” in the sense of a
person who seems remote or estranged. Indeed, encounters with diversity inevi-
tably challenge us to broaden and deepen our spirituality, so that we can appre-
ciate both difference and commonality. If we succeed in doing this, then the
140 exploring spiritual diversity

potential of spirituality to bring about personal healing and social justice will
surely express in our personal and professional lives.

EXERCISES

.. Writing a History of Spiritual Diversity in Your Community

The historical overview in this chapter can be a model for you to study the
historical development and contemporary situation of spiritual diversity in
your community. A history of local spiritual diversity can be useful to acquaint
practitioners and policy makers with the cultural and religious backgrounds
of client populations and constituencies. Source materials can include library
materials such as regional religious historical studies, survey and census data,
and directories of religious organizations. Local newspapers (especially “reli-
gion” sections), telephone directories, and social service directories have listings
of religious organizations and religiously affi liated social service organizations.
Internet search engines are powerful tools for exploring religious groups in
your service area as well as the official teachings of religions on a national or
global level. Social service agencies that provide specialized services for eth-
nically diverse groups (such as refugee resettlement programs, ethnic mutual
assistance associations, and universities or colleges with geographical area
studies and international studies programs) can be identified. Chaplains in
hospitals and hospice programs are often very knowledgeable of local spiritual
resources.

.. Self-Assessment of One’s Own Spiritually Based Attitudes

about Sexual Orientation Diversity
One of the most contentious issues in many religious communities, and in the
general public, is the standpoint toward LGBT people. Given the social work
profession’s ethical stance of nondiscrimination, this is a good starting point
for self-reflection about our level of openness, empathy, and support regarding
human diversity. Table 4.4 identifies four major Christian ideological positions
toward homosexuality (and by extension, other nonheterosexual orientations)
that can help you reflect on where you stand. Since there are analogous positions
possible within other religious and secular spiritual perspectives, you can adapt
the positions to your own background. As you go through the exercise, consider
how your sexual orientation relates to the ideological position you take on this
issue and how you relate with clients who have similar or different views.
The first step in this exercise is to identify which ideological position is clos-
est to your own and then state your position in your own words. If none of these
positions is an accurate depiction of your view, then articulate your view. Be
aware of feelings that arise in response to this self-questioning. What are areas
of comfort and discomfort? What particular beliefs do you have about sexual
Human Diversity, Spirituality, and Social Work Practice 141

orientation diversity? What sources of religious authority, if any, do you use to

support your position, such as sacred texts, traditional doctrines, or spiritual
leaders’ teachings? How does this position affect your behavior in your private
life, within your religious or spiritual community, and in your professional social
work practice? Are you able to be client-centered and empathetic in relating with
clients who have a different sexual orientation or ideology about sexual orienta-
tion from yourself?
Now, consider the degree of fit between your position and the NASW ethi-
cal standards cited in this chapter. Do you feel comfortable affirming these eth-
ical standards? Do you feel tension between professional values and ethics and
your own personal beliefs?
Once this is clear, it is important to engage in direct respectful dialogue
with someone who holds a different ideological position from yourself on this
issue. This dialogue is for the purpose of understanding another’s perspective;
it is not to try to convince someone else of the rightness of your own position.
For example, if the social worker holds the second position, “accept the person;
reject the behavior,” it would be valuable to identify a fellow student, colleague,
or community member who holds position 1, 3, or 4. An appropriate person
would be someone who is comfortable and willing to discuss this topic openly.
Then, in the conversation, each person should take turns sharing one’s position
and explaining the rationale. Each person should also express honestly one’s
feelings about the other’s position.
It is essential that the conversation take place in a setting that feels safe and
private for both parties. Ideally, the conversation could be facilitated among stu-
dents in a class, with faculty support and guidance, or in some other professional
setting. The conversation needs to be based on an explicit expression of mutual
respect, willingness to learn, and agreement to disagree.
After the conversation, write a self-reflective essay about one’s ideological
position, ethical implications for oneself, and the subsequent conversation. Then,
areas for one’s own personal and professional growth should be identified.

.. Self-Assessment of Your Spiritually Based Attitudes about

Other Forms of Diversity
A similar procedure to Exercise 4.2 can be used for any topic related to spiritu-
ality and human diversity. For example, your can explore your spiritually based
attitudes and beliefs regarding women, people with disabilities, people with spir-
itual perspectives different from yours, or particular racial and cultural groups.
Identify the degree of your own acceptance of a particular group that is signifi-
cantly different from yourself. Reflect on the religious or nonreligious spiritual
sources of your attitude. Have a respectful conversation with a person from the
selected group about issues of discrimination. Strive to understand the other
person’s perspective. Then write a self-reflective essay, including implications for
your growth.
142 exploring spiritual diversity

.. Your Personal Experience of Spiritually Based Discrimination

In order to deepen empathy for people who experience spiritually based dis-
crimination, it is helpful to look honestly at your own attitudes and behaviors in
concrete examples from your life. We all at some times are on the receiving or
giving ends of spiritually based discrimination. When we reflect on the times we
experienced it, we can work through painful feelings and consider more effec-
tive ways to prevent it or respond to it. When we reflect on the times we have
committed it, we can correct our behavior for the future and make amends for
the past.
First, jot down one way you have directly or indirectly experienced discrim-
ination or oppression toward yourself, based on your spiritual perspective. Then,
jot down one way you could prevent this or respond well in the future.
Second, jot down one way you have directly or indirectly engaged in dis-
crimination or oppression toward someone different from yourself, based on
your spiritual perspective. Then, jot down one way you could prevent this in the
future. If possible, make amends for your mistake.
Identify specific steps for your personal and professional growth that will
contribute to the mutual well-being of both yourself and others who are different
from yourself, but with whom you regularly interact, such as clients, colleagues,
and neighbors.
 5

Religious Perspectives on Social

Service and Their Insights for Social
Work Practice

Woe to those who pray

but are heedless in their prayer;
who make a show of piety
and give no alms to the destitute.
The Quran, Islam
(trans. Dawood, 1974, p. 28)

In this chapter, we provide an overview of religious traditions that are currently

influencing American social work. Our purpose is to increase readers’ knowl-
edge about diverse approaches to social work that have an explicit connection
to religious traditions and communities alluded to in Chapter 4. The informa-
tion in this chapter provides a foundation for the reader’s further exploration of
traditions that are of particular relevance to personal interest and to clients and
their communities. Each religious tradition yields insights for social work prac-
tice, both for working with clients within the tradition and for general innova-
tion in social work practice.
We examine seven religious perspectives that have worldwide impact, while
focusing on the American social work context. They cover most of the religious
believers in the United States and the world, giving both regional focus and
international relevance. They are (in alphabetical order) Buddhism, Christianity,
Confucianism, Hinduism, Indigenous Religions, Islam, and Judaism.
The next chapter continues this approach by addressing nonsectarian spir-
itual perspectives. In both chapters, spiritual perspectives are presented accord-
ing to the following topics: historical origin and contemporary varieties; basic
beliefs underlying the approach to service; basic values motivating service; and
social work practice implications. We will present more detail on selected spiri-
tually based helping practices in Part III.
These summaries of religious perspectives are vast generalities. It is impor-
tant to remember that they are only starting points for further exploration of
the spiritual perspectives relevant to your clients and your practice approaches.

143
144 exploring spiritual diversity

It is especially important to discuss with clients, whenever relevant, to dis-

cover the real significance and practice for that person in her or his family and
community. We simplify complexity to help readers move forward into deeper
understanding. However, we do not want to be simplistic. There are many differ-
ent (and sometimes conflicting) interpretations and applications of these basic
ideas within each perspective. We must be wary of turning generalizations into
stereotypes.

Buddhism and Social Service

Origin and Contemporary Varieties of Buddhism

Buddhism, or the Buddha Dharma (Sanskrit), originated around 500 years BCE
(before the common era) in what is today Nepal and northeastern India (Canda,
2001; Gethin, 1998; Harvey, 1990; Schuhmacher & Woerner, 1994). Buddha
Dharma means “teaching of the awakened one.” Its founder was Siddhartha
Gautama who lived about 566–486 BCE. Siddhartha was a prince who left the
luxury and confines of his royal life to seek understanding of human suffering
and how people can become free from suffering. After several years of spiritual
disciplines and meditation, he achieved enlightenment, which means awakening
into the true nature of self and reality. The Buddha spread his teachings for 45
more years until his death. Since Buddhism emerged from a Hindu context, it
uses many Hindu religious terms, symbols, and practices often with different
nuances.
During the next five centuries, Buddhism spread throughout India and
south Asia, formalized its doctrines, established orders of monks and nuns, and
separated into various branches. The Theravada branch (Pali, Way of the Elders)
traces to this original form of Buddhism. Theravada is most common today in
South and Southeast Asia. Buddhism spread into central and east Asia around
2000 years ago. The Mahayana (Sanskrit, Great Vehicle) branch developed from
interaction between Indian Buddhism and philosophical and religious systems
of central and East Asia. From China, Buddhism spread to Korea, Japan, and
Vietnam. Currently, the Mahayana branch is most common in these coun-
tries. Vajrayana (Sanskrit, Diamond Vehicle) Buddhism is related to Mahayana;
it is most common in Tibet and Mongolia. These branches of Buddhism have
many variations between and within them, shaped by different schools of phi-
losophy and practice as well as the cultural environments in which they have
taken root.
Various forms of Buddhism are present in the United States. There are
many ethnic-specific forms of Buddhism brought by Asian immigrants and ref-
ugees as well as nonethnic-specific (but primarily Euro-American membership)
Buddhist meditation centers (Canda & Phaobtong, 1992; Furuto, Biswa, Chung,
Murase, & Ross-Sherif, 1992; Prebish, 1999; Tan, 2006; Timberlake & Cook,
1984). Buddhists from Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand are usually Theravadin.
Religious Perspectives and Insights 145

Buddhists from China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam are usually Mahayanist.
Pure Land Buddhism promulgated by Buddhist Churches of America has about
100,000 members in the United States (Corbett, 1997). Zen philosophy and
meditation practice was promulgated widely in North America first by Japanese
scholars and missionary monks. It started to become popular among American
intellectuals, such as artists and poets in the 1950s. Now, there are many dif-
ferent Zen-oriented centers in the United States, founded by Japanese, Korean,
Chinese, Vietnamese, and American Zen Masters (Morreale, 1998). Since 1975,
many Southeast Asian refugee communities established Buddhist temples and
mutual assistance associations. Tibetan Buddhism, headed by the Dalai Lama,
has become influential in American Buddhism among Tibetans and the general
public.
Zen is the form of Buddhism discussed in social work literature most often.
Zen emphasizes the priority of attaining enlightenment through direct personal
experience and disciplined effort. Zen originated in China under Indian influ-
ence, incorporating elements of Daoism and Confucianism, and spread to Korea,
Japan, and Vietnam and on to the West. In the social work literature, general
insights and practices influenced by Zen are often presented without restric-
tion to a specific religious affi liation. Zen is commonly portrayed as a way of life
and a nonsectarian spiritual approach to social work practice (e.g. Bein, 2008;
Brandon, 1976, 2000; Krill, 1990; Martin, 1999).

Basic Beliefs
All forms of Buddhism accept the original teaching of Siddhartha, summarized
in the Four Noble Truths (Canda, 2001; Gethin, 1998; Pyles, 2005; Smith, 1991).
The first truth is that human existence is characterized by suffering, that is, a
sense of pervasive unsatisfactoriness due to experiences of pain, injustice, loss,
and lack of fulfi llment. The second truth is that this suffering arises from inap-
propriate desire that clings to what we have and rejects what we do not want to
have. However, nothing is permanent, all conditions change, and all things we
have, including the body itself, passes away. Further, we inevitably have things
and conditions we do not like, such as illnesses. The third truth is that suffering
can cease by eliminating inappropriate desires. Ironically, in living a life based
on desire, we glue to the situation of suffering. The most basic attachment to stop
is the illusion of a separate self. Since all things are interdependent, and copro-
ducing (as in systems theories), the idea of a separate self is faulty. Belief in a
separate self is an intellectual error and an emotional trap. Egotistic desire-based
clinging or rejecting hinge on this illusion. The fourth truth is that egotistic
desire can be stopped by practicing a disciplined way of life (the Eightfold Path)
based on correct perception, conduct, and meditation. In the process, we realize
that there is no separate independent self, since all things co-arise and pass away
in interdependency. This complete awareness is called Nirvana (Sanskrit) which
means “cessation.”
146 exploring spiritual diversity

Basic Values
The process of enlightenment leads to awareness of the interconnectedness of all
beings together with compassionate motivation (karuna, Sanskrit) to help them
also become free from suffering (Blofeld, 1988; Brandon, 1976; Eppsteiner, 1988;
Pyles, 2005). In Mahayana Buddhism, the supreme ideal is the Bodhisattva,
a person who attains enlightenment and vows to help all beings do the same
(Canda, 1995a; Keefe, 1975). Thus, the Zen-oriented social worker upholds a
profound commitment to empathic relations with clients, undistorted by coun-
ter-transference (Chamberlayne, 2007; Keefe, 1996). Th is compassion extends to
all beings, not just one’s clients and not just human beings.
The central virtues of Buddhism are called paramitas (Sanskrit). Paramita lit-
erally means “to reach the other shore” of enlightenment. Practicing these virtues
is a process of simultaneously helping oneself and others to become enlightened,
and hence, saved from suffering. Canda, Shin, and Canda (1993, p. 91) summa-
rized, “The paramitas are generous giving, ethical conduct, patient endurance,
zealous effort, concentration of the mind, realizing wisdom, and integration of all
the virtues in service to others.” Thus, compassion flows through them all.

Social Work Implications

In countries with large Buddhist populations, many formal and informal social
welfare services are provided through Buddhist temples (e.g. Canda & Canda,
1996; Kubotani & Engstrom, 2005). Many Asian Americans have been influ-
enced directly or indirectly by Buddhism, especially first or second generation
immigrants or refugees from East and Southeast Asia. For Asian American
Buddhist clients, it is important to identify what particular form of Buddhism
they practice and what significance it has for them. Many Southeast Asian refu-
gee communities establish temple-based mutual assistance associations that pro-
vide a wide variety of physical, mental, social, and spiritual supports for cultural
preservation, dealing with postwar and genocide trauma, and promoting overall
well-being (Canda & Phaobtong, 1992; Tan, 2006; Timberlake & Cook, 1984).
These can be important environmental resources for collaboration. In addi-
tion, many Buddhists of all ethnic backgrounds practice personal-, family-, and
community-based rituals and meditation techniques that can assist with stress
management, personal insight, and conflict resolution. For example, Nakashima
(1995), a Japanese American social worker, described how her upbringing and
practice as a Buddhist helped her to deal with issues pertaining to her own mor-
tality and provided her with a nonsectarian framework for helping clients in
hospice deal with their own issues around dying and death. Martin (1999) gave
a detailed account of how to follow a Zen path through depression, both in per-
sonal life and clinical practice.
Some social workers promote Buddhist insights that can guide spiritually
sensitive practice in a nonsectarian manner, without using explicit Buddhist
Religious Perspectives and Insights 147

language. For example, Brandon, who was a British social work scholar and Zen
teacher, blended insights from Zen, Daoism, and humanistic perspectives. In his
view, Zen-oriented practice is wary of conceptual constructs, rigid treatment plans,
and diagnostic categories because these tend to obstruct direct and spontaneous
interactions with the client (Brandon, 1976, 2000). Rather than impose profes-
sionally designed interventions that arise from the worker’s own desires and con-
ceptual constructs, the Zen-oriented worker strives to merge harmoniously with
the spontaneous ongoing process of mutual interaction with the client. Indeed,
the Zen approach assumes that the client truly knows the way to resolve his or her
suffering, but is unaware or is not implementing it. As Brandon put it, social work
is a process of attempting to widen and illuminate people’s choices and their costs
in order to extend autonomy rather than restrict it (1976, p. 30). Bein (2008) pres-
ents an open hearted model of Zen inspired practice that blends skill with spon-
taneity, celebrates challenges and paradoxes in life, and finds strengths to realize
aspirations. As he put it, “Zen is about being intimate with what is. As we enter
helping relationships with real people, what could be more important? We offer
them our authentic presence, our hearts, and our willingness to muck around in
their pain and fear as well as their successes and failures” (p. 1).
Buddhist inspired social workers often highlight therapeutic qualities of
mind and relationship that are cultivated through meditation and mindful
awareness of each moment. These include radical and unconditional acceptance
of what is; nonjudgmentalism; steadying and clarifying the mind; being present
in each moment; compassion; patiently witnessing pain; nonattached respon-
sibility; embracing paradox; self-understanding; clear listening; and working
through anger (Bein, 2008; Berlin, 2005; Brenner & Homonoff, 2004; Kissman &
Maurer, 2002; Pyles, 2005). Socially Engaged Buddhism is a movement to bring
Buddhist meditative practice and awareness into the arena of social service
(Eppsteiner, 1988; Pyles, 2005). This includes teaching meditation to prisoners,
helping dying people in hospice, microenterprise with homeless people, envi-
ronmental activism, peaceful and collaborative community development, and
peace advocacy. The Zen Peacemaker Order is a good example. (See http://www.
zenpeacemakers.org/).
Zen inspired practice can make use of meditation training for both the
worker and the client (Finn & Rubin, 2000; Keefe, 1996; Mace, 2008; McBee,
2008; Vohra-Gupta, Russel, & Lo, 2007; Wegela, 2003). Zen meditation combines
relaxation of the body with focusing of the mind. The meditator learns to be
aware of the stream of consciousness without being attached to the thoughts
and feelings that pass through. The meditator then becomes able to perceive the
world directly, without the distortion of desires and illusions. Traditional med-
itation is for the purpose of attaining enlightenment. It can be very intense and
prolonged, in order to crack the illusion of separate self. In social work and men-
tal health practice, usually a milder form of mindfulness meditation is used with
clients, directed toward stress management, enhanced self-awareness, and clear
insight into one’s situation and how to deal authentically with it (e.g. McBee,
148 exploring spiritual diversity

2008). Dialectical Behavior Therapy, popular in mental health settings, is derived

from Zen mindfulness practice and cognitive behavioral techniques (Haynes,
Follette, & Linehan, 2004). The social worker can benefit from meditation by
increasing her or his skills of concentration, attentiveness, accurate listening,
empathy, and stress management.
A broad implication of Buddhism for social work is to expand our concep-
tion of the person and environment. In Buddhist thought, as in dynamic sys-
tems theory, the person does not exist independently from the environment
(Macy, 1991; Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 2006). Helping oneself and help-
ing others must be interrelated. Human rights of individuals link with collec-
tive responsibility (Abe, 1995; De Silva, 1995; Thurman, 1996). Understanding
and action must necessarily address both micro- and macrosystems, as all are
woven together. Achieving human aspirations for peace and justice is inextrica-
ble from supporting the well-being of the entire planetary ecology and all beings
within it (Eppsteiner, 1988). Thus, Buddhist philosophy can inspire social work-
ers to weave together micro- and macropractice, local and global issues, and to
seek creative solutions to problems that provide maximum mutual benefit to all
human and nonhuman beings (see Table 5.1).

Christianity and Social Service

Origin and Contemporary Varieties of Christianity

Christianity traces its origin to Jesus of Nazareth, who was born in Israel in
about the year 4 BCE (Crim, 1981; Nielsen et al., 1993; Smith, 2005). Jesus was a
Jewish teacher whom Christians consider the Messiah, born as the incarnation of
God to save humanity from sin. The title of Jesus, Christ, is derived from a Greek
word meaning Messiah or Anointed One. Early in the 1st century, Christian
communities were established in Israel and then spread to Gentiles throughout
Asia Minor and parts of Europe. Gentile Christians came to outnumber Jewish
Christians as missionary efforts expanded. During this period, Christians were
a persecuted minority in the Roman empire. However, the Roman emperor
Constantine converted to Christianity and in 380 CE made Christianity the offi-
cial religion of the Roman empire.
This alliance between the Roman empire and Christianity eventually changed
the status of the religion from persecuted minority to the politically and numer-
ically predominant majority. This pattern of alliance between church and state
continued in Europe throughout the middle ages. Christianity became referred
to as Catholic, in order to indicate its universal scope, under the authority of the
Roman pope. In 1054, Christianity underwent a major division between western
Catholic Christianity (centered in Rome) and Eastern Orthodox Christianity.
The 1500s began a period of theological and political challenges to reform
the western Catholic Church, under such Protestant leaders as Martin Luther
(German), John Huss (Czech), and John Wycliffe (English). Many Protestant
Table 5.1. Comparison of Religious Perspectives on Service.
Perspective Beliefs Values Service

Buddhist (1) Nontheistic Buddha Nature. (1) Primary life task is to seek (1) Mutuality and harmony in helping
(esp. Zen) (2) Beliefs from traditions, sutras, direct spiritual enlightenment. relationship.
experience; Nonattachment to beliefs. (2) Commitment to compassionate help (2) Aim to help client clarify aware-
(3) Existence is suffering, caused by desire toward all beings. ness, act realistically; ultimately attain
and illusion of separate self; suffering ends (3) Transcendence of self/other dichot- enlightenment.
through disciplined lifestyle, meditation, and omy in virtuous living. (3) May use meditation and connect with temple
enlightenment. or meditation center based support systems.
Christian (1) Theistic and trinitarian. (1) Primary life task to love God and (1) Agape love based helping relationship.
(2) Beliefs from Old and New Testaments, church people. (2) Aim to help client meet physical and spiri-
traditions, faith experience. (2) Commitment to charity and justice. tual needs, reconcile with others and God.
(3) People are prone to sin; relation with loving God (3) Moral relation between individual (3) May use witnessing, prayer, sacrament,
yields reconciliation, meaning and purpose. needs, social welfare, God’s will. clergy/congregation referrals.
Confucian (1) Nontheistic Dao. (1) Primary life task to cultivate sageli- (1) Helping relationship based on benevolence
(2) Beliefs from Chinese classics, sages and reli- ness and benefit society. and harmony.
gious teachers, and local traditions. (2) Commitment to lifelong learn- (2) Aim to help client learn from life situations
(3) Benevolent human nature must be cultivated ing, public service, family/social and harmonize relationships.
for benefit of person, family, society, and world. harmony. (3) May use quiet sitting, self-reflective prac-
(3) Filial piety and complementary tices, qigong, acupuncture, herbs.
reciprocal relationships.
Hindu (esp. (1) Nondualistic, with theistic and other forms. (1) Primary life task to achieve libera- (1) Helping relationship honors the divine in
Vedanta) (2) Beliefs from Upanishads & Vedas, religious tion (moksha). all.
teachers, and local, family traditions. (2) Commitment to respectful nonat- (2) Aim to achieve welfare of all.
(3) Karmic bonds to suffering and rebirth can tached service. (3) May use various yogas, rituals, and cooper-
be released through spiritual disciplines (e.g. (3) Nonviolent means and ends for ative nonviolent community action.
yogas); liberation comes through union with everyone’s attainment of truth and
divinity (Brahman). liberation.
(continued)
Table 5.1. Continued.
Perspective Beliefs Values Service

Indigenous (1) Animistic, holistic, collectivistic. (1) Primary life task to balance body/ (1) Helping relationship based on respect,
Religions (2) Beliefs from cultural traditions, teachings of mid/feelings/spirit interrelated with openness, humility.
of North elders, and spiritual insights. community and world. (2) Aim to help client toward balance,
America (3) Human well-being requires balance and har- (2) Commitment to maintain or restore harmony, empowerment, resolving his-
mony within self, with community, nature, and balance and harmony. torical trauma.
spirit realm. (3) Honoring family, elders, ancestors, (3) May use symbols and stories of balance
spirits of place, all relations in earth and connectedness, culture specific cer-
and sky. emonies and healing.
Islamic (1) Monotheistic. (1) Primary life task is to live in accord (1) Helping relationship honors God and sup-
(2) Beliefs from Quran, community (umma) tradi- with will of Allah and the Islamic ports client in community context.
tions and teachers, and body of law (shari’a). community. (2) Aim to help client meet basic needs, as
(3) There is no God but Allah and Mohammed is (2) Commitment to life of prayer and bases for living in accord with God and
Allah’s prophet; personal and social well-being justice. community.
comes from submission to Allah in all things. (3) Community responsibility of (3) May use almsgiving (zakat), mutual sup-
almsgiving and protection of port in community, reflection on Quran,
disadvantaged. daily prayer, and religious practice.
Judaic (1) Theistic. (1) Primary life task to love God and (1) I-Thou and communally concerned helping.
(2) Beliefs from tanakh, halakah, Jewish people, uphold Jewish community. (2) Aim to help client problem-solving in con-
community. (2) Commitment to loving kindness text of Jewish community.
(3) People created in God’s image but may be dis- and justice. (3) May use Jewish role modeling, religious
torted by experience; sinful behavior requires (3) Compassion both inner personal reflection.
reconciliation. quality and behavior.

Note: Revised and expanded from Canda (1988b); used with permission of publisher.
Religious Perspectives and Insights 151

denominations of Christianity have continued since that time. They tend to hold
in common a denial of the authority of the pope and an emphasis on salva-
tion by divine grace rather than human effort. The various denominations of
Christianity have engaged in extensive missionary activities, leading to its pre-
dominance in the United States and in many other parts of the world.
Most Americans identify as Christians. There are more than 900 denomi-
nations, including Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant denominations that orig-
inated elsewhere, and also denominations that have originated in the United
States, such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Church of Christ,
Scientist, Seventh-day Adventists, and the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society
(Jehovah’s Witnesses).
Christianity has been extremely influential in the formation and current
practice of professional social work (Cnaan, Wineburg, & Boddie, 1999; Garland,
1992, 2008; Loewenberg, 1988; Van Hook, Hugen, & Aguilar, 2001). As we
have seen in the National Survey, most American social workers are Christian.
Christianity is the most prevalent religion in social work publications in the field
of spirituality (Canda, Nakashima, Burgess, Russel, & Barfield, 2003). Many pro-
fessional and volunteer social services are provided under Christian denomi-
national auspices. Three of the largest Christian organizational providers of
social services are Catholic Charities, USA, Lutheran Social Services, and the
Salvation Army. The North American Association of Christians in Social Work
(http://www.nacsw.org/2008/2008-index.shtml) sponsors conferences, a journal,
and book publications. Many of its members are Protestant, from theologically
conservative denominations. The National Catholic School of Social Services
of Catholic University of America for many years sponsored the journal, Social
Thought, as a forum for Christian (especially Catholic) and other theological and
philosophical approaches to social work. For many years, it has been published
by Haworth Press, presenting a nonsectarian orientation to spiritual diversity. It
is a membership benefit of the Society for Spirituality and Social Work (http://
ssw.asu.edu/portal/research/spirituality).

Basic Beliefs
This presentation emphasizes beliefs and values that are widely shared by
Christian social work authors past and present, keeping in mind the great vari-
ety among Christians discussed in the previous chapter (e.g. Biestek, 1956;
Canda, 2008c; Catholic Charities USA, 2006; Consiglio, 1987; Constable, 2007;
Corbett, 1997; Garland, 2008; Keith-Lucas, 1985, 1994; Ressler, 1992; Shank,
2007; Sherwood, 2001; Van Hook et al., 2001).
Christian theology forms through the interaction of several sources: schol-
arly exegesis of the Old and New Testaments, regarded as the inspired word of
God; the traditions and doctrines of various denominations; and personal inspi-
ration of Christian individuals and communities. Basic Christian beliefs can be
summarized as follows.
152 exploring spiritual diversity

The universe was created by a personal supreme God who loves the world.
Humankind was created with the capacity for moral choice. Unfortunately, peo-
ple often choose sin, asserting their own prideful desires in disobedience to
God’s will. Jesus Christ became incarnated as both God and human being in
order to save humanity from sin through his crucifi xion and resurrection from
the dead. Christ will come again to usher in the fullness of the Kingdom of God
on earth. The Holy Spirit continues to guide and strengthen Christians. These
three divine Persons, God the Creator, Christ, and Holy Spirit, are One God.
People who turn away from their sinfulness and align their wills with the will of
God are promised salvation and eternal reward after death.
The central message of Christianity is that God is love (King, 1965). Jesus
said that the most fundamental laws are to love God fully and to love others as
oneself (Mathew 22:37–39). Since Christianity teaches that humans were made in
God’s image, it accords every human being with dignity and respect (Hodge &
Wolfer, 2008). Human beings achieve fulfi llment through personal and loving
relationship with God and each other (McCabe, 1965). When people are open to
the grace of God, they discover a sense of meaning, reconciliation between self,
the world, and God, and strength and hope in the face of suffering. Reconciliation
is expressed and experienced through loving relationships between people and
between God and people. As Sherwood (2001) put it, “Christian faith involves a
response of gratitude to God’s grace to us which leads to our ability to respond in
love and grace to other persons” (p. 99). Many Christians emphasize that loving
service should extend beyond helping individuals, or Christian communities, in
order to promote well-being and justice for family, community, nation, world,
and global ecology (Canda, Ketchell, Dybicz, Pyles, & Nelson-Becker, 2006).

Basic Values
The most central value commitment of Christians is to live a life of charity (love).
Since this word is distorted in popular usage to mean condescending help, it
is important to return to the theological meaning. Charity (caritas in Latin;
agape in Greek) is recognized in the New Testament as the most important
virtue (Benton, 1981; see 1 Corinthians 13, New Testament). Charity does not
expect gratitude or reward. Charity is a spiritual impulse of love, arising from
relationship with God. As Christ is present in all people, the Christians show
love of God in service to the needs of people. Charity involves recognizing the
essential communion of all people, both in their shared suffering of the human
condition, and in their relationship with God. As Tillich (1962) explained, relat-
ing to another person in charity involves both unconditional acceptance of the
person’s worth and caring expression of constructive criticism. As the National
Conference of Catholic Charities (1983) asserted, four related primary values are
love (as charity), truth, justice, and freedom. The Christian upholds the truth of
God’s reconciling work in the world. He or she works toward the just ordering
of social relationships, respecting the needs of all people. The Christian supports
Religious Perspectives and Insights 153

freedom of opportunity for all people to live in a fully human and loving man-
ner. This may involve active opposition to corrupt social policies and social insti-
tutions (Scharper, 1975). Shank (2007) summarizes the values of Catholic social
teaching as respect for the human person; rights to subsistence, health, and free-
dom; responsibility to self, others, the larger society, and the common good; the
dignity of work as a contribution to God’s creation and welfare of family and
society; and special regard for the poor and oppressed.
Biestek (1956) drew on Christian social ethics to explain basic social work
values. (1) Acceptance of the client means that the worker perceives the cli-
ent accurately, both strengths and weaknesses, while maintaining a sense of
the client’s innate dignity and worth. (2) Self-determination means respect-
ing the client’s right to free choice within the context of the client’s capacity
for constructive decision making, moral reflection, and social responsibility. (3)
Nonjudgmentalism means that the worker carefully evaluates whether the behav-
ior of the client is helpful or harmful to self and others, without judging guilt or
innocence.

Social Work Implications

For the social worker who practices from a Christian perspective, there is an
integral connection between life in Christ and professional activity (Hugen, 1998;
Keith-Lucas, 1985, 1994; Ressler, 1992; Sherwood, 2001; Van Hook, Hugen, &
Aguilar, 2001). For example, Smith (1961) suggested that helping the client to
heal emotional wounds requires constant expression of love in the helping rela-
tionship as well as in the ongoing daily interactions of agency staff. This mod-
eling and sharing of love involves the personal spiritual growth of the worker
as well as the healing of the client. Indeed, for Keith-Lucas (1985, 1994 ), the
empathic helping relationship is a human reflection of the divine love shown by
God to people through the incarnation of Christ and the grace of the Holy Spirit.
For these reasons, the Christian social worker should use practice methods that
affirm the distinctiveness, worth, and capacity for choice of the client.
Tillich (1962) identified four main aims of this love expression in social work.
First, the worker helps the client promptly satisfy immediate needs. Second, the
worker guides the client toward independence and withdraws from the depen-
dency relationship. Third, the worker communicates to the client a sense of being
a necessary and significant person. This provides a perspective of cosmic mean-
ing in which each person has “a necessary, incomparable, and unique place in
the whole of being” (p. 16). Finally, the worker helps to fulfill the ultimate goal of
humanity and the world that is to integrate each individual aim into the univer-
sal aim of being itself. Thus, Christian social work deals with practical material
needs in the context of spiritual needs, the two kinds of needs being inextricable
(Canda, 1988b).
Essentially, the Christian view explains the fact of human suffering in terms
of sin. When sin is understood as alienation from one’s authentic self, from
154 exploring spiritual diversity

others, and from God (King, 1965), it becomes clear that the primary goal of
Christian social work is personal and community reconciliation. Keith-Lucas
(1985, p. 14) described the helping process in Christian terms, as including four
main elements: repentance, which requires that a person recognize a problem
needing help; confession, which requires telling someone about the problem;
submission, which requires giving up familiar old but unproductive behaviors;
and faith in the positive outcome of the change efforts.
One controversial practice method employed by some Christian social work-
ers is witnessing their faith to the client. Keith-Lucas suggested four situations in
which witnessing might be appropriate: (1) when a client is a Christian, would
like to become one, or wishes to have companionship in prayer; (2) when a client
inquires about the worker’s motivation for providing caring and helping; (3) when
the client’s view of Christian faith needs enlargement or theological reflection;
and (4) when the client is explicitly asking questions about the purpose of life and
suffering. He added that the most effective Christian witness is not talking about
religion, “but treating people in a Christian way oneself” (p. 29). In this context,
witnessing or other religiously based practices should be done only according to
the need and interest of the client (Canda, Nakashima, & Furman, 2004).
Another Christian helping method is seeking help from God for specific
situations through prayer in a professional context (Canda, 1990a; Gatza, 1979;
Sherman & Siporin, 2008). Prayer may involve petition for help, quiet medita-
tion or contemplation, prayerful scripture reading, ritual and community cel-
ebration, and relating to each moment of life prayerfully. According to Gatza,
healing prayer involves openness to God’s grace that goes beyond ordinary
human ability to heal. Gatza recommended using healing prayer to complement
ordinary professional knowledge and skill. Sneck and Bonica (1980) pointed out
that one need never overtly and explicitly pray with a client in order to help
prayerfully. According to them, the Christian worker should trust in the power
of God to heal through the therapeutic relationship itself. Their contraindica-
tions to praying with clients are when the counselor is inexperienced; when the
client is potentially hostile or in danger of being exposed to needless additional
pain; or when an act of prayer is a substitute for a more genuine and imagina-
tive intervention. Hodge (2007a) reviewed empirical studies (typically in a health
treatment context) on the effects of intercessory prayer, which is a silent or vocal
prayer to God or another transcendent or sacred force to benefit another person.
He found a trend that reported generally favorable outcomes. He suggested that
some workers might find this evidence sufficient to support their praying for
clients. He cautioned that use of intercessory prayer should take into account
client preferences.
Christian social workers might also engage in prayer to help themselves
relieve stress, to clear their minds and set good intentions before meeting a client,
and to deepen the sense of connection with God and client throughout the help-
ing relationship. These practices can be private and unobtrusive. Canda (1990a)
offered ethical guidelines for use of various kinds of prayer in social work.
Religious Perspectives and Insights 155

Encouraging forgiveness is one of the most common spiritual interventions

by psychotherapists, especially those with a theistic orientation (Richards &
Bergin, 2005). DiBlasio (1993) summarized research findings that indicate reli-
gious ideas and rituals concerning forgiveness can help religious families and
individuals to resolve problems and conflicts and to enhance relationships. His
study of social workers’ religiosity and attitude toward forgiveness indicated that
many are not aware of or comfortable with forgiveness theory and practice. He
recommended development of more research and clinical applications on the
appropriate and effective uses of forgiveness.
All social workers can refer to and cooperate with Christian clergy and
church communities in so far as these are sources of support for Christian cli-
ents (Bigham, 1956; Furman & Chandy, 1994; Furman & Fry, 2000; Garland,
2008; Hugen, 1998; Joseph, 1975; Loewenberg, 1988; Pepper, 1956). When social
workers and pastoral workers understand each other and share basic aspects of
worldview, their work can complement each other (Lee & Gorman, 2005). Thus,
clients can deal with problems in both psychosocial and spiritual terms. Social
workers sometimes provide consultation to Christian congregations to help them
enhance their attention to issues of health and well-being for themselves and
the wider community (Canda, Ketchell, Dybicz, Pyles, & Nelson-Becker, 2006;
Tirrito & Cascio, 2003). However, significant issues of logistics and trust need to
be addressed in clergy/social worker collaboration (Bilich, Bonfiglio, & Carlson,
2000). This will be addressed in Part III.
Christian volunteers and professional social workers often engage in commu-
nity service, social policy advocacy, and social justice activism through Christian
church auspices (Brenden, 2007; Breton, 1989; Ellor, Netting, & Th ibault, 1999).
As we saw in Chapter 4, Christian values and congregations were very active in
the civil rights movement. Many Christian congregations provide informal and
formal social service supports, including church social work and parish nursing.
In fact, Christian (and other) religiously affi liated agencies range considerably
in the extent to which Christian teachings explicitly connect with staff hiring,
program designs, and work with clients (Tangenberg, 2005). Therefore, services
might be provided in a nonsectarian manner, although consistent with basic
Christian social ethics. This is even more likely when the program is funded
by federal or state money, due to the separation of church and state (Ressler,
1998). Christian philanthropy and social policy advocacy efforts are extensive
(Weber & Jones, 1994), for example, by Church World Service, National Council
of Churches of Christ, the U.S. Catholic Conference, and Women’s Division of
the United Methodist Church. As we saw in Chapter 4, Christians vary and con-
flict in their concepts and goals for social justice, so numerous lobbying and
social action groups vie to influence public policy and behavior on such issues
as abortion, church/state relations, civil rights, education, poverty relief, foreign
policy, pornography, world peace, and gay rights.
Some social work scholars have raised concerns about the role of theolog-
ically conservative, especially fundamentalist, Christian groups in promoting
156 exploring spiritual diversity

judgmental, exclusivistic, patriarchal, and sometimes militant conservative

approaches to individual, family, and social issues (see the letters to the edi-
tor in Social Work, 2003, 48(2), 278–282; plus Denton, 1990; Loewenberg, 1988;
Midgely, 1990; Midgely & Sanzenbach, 1989; Sanzenbach, 1989; Swigonski, 2001).
By Christian fundamentalism, we mean a movement primarily among Protestant
and newer Christian denominations that has the following characteristics: con-
viction of personal salvation by faith in Jesus; commitment to evangelize others;
faith in the inerrancy of the Bible as the literal, authoritative word of God; spe-
cial interest in the imminent apocalyptic second coming of Christ; practice of
exclusion of “unbelievers”; and active opposition to liberalism and secularism
(Marty & Appleby, 1991). Denton (1990) distinguished between fundamental-
ists with a polemical, exclusivist style versus those with a faith nurturing style.
In his view, polemical groups’ rigid standards of patriarchy and authoritarian
discipline may pose risks to women and children in families. On the macrolevel,
militant fundamentalists may actively oppose social work values and agendas
and spread distrust of social workers and mental health professionals.
On the other hand, conservative religious communities provide many peo-
ple with positive experiences of social support, forgiveness, reconciliation, and
spiritual guidance. Several authors have cautioned against negative stereotyping
and ostracism of conservative Christian clients and groups or religions in gen-
eral (Canda 1989b; Cnaan, 2006; Joseph, 1989; Pon, 2008). Denton (1990) sug-
gested that fundamentalist families be addressed as culturally distinct. Hodge
(2004a) proposed guidelines for culturally competent practice with Evangelical
Christians (who may or may not be fundamentalist or exclusivist). However, we
point out that this does not mean that Christian social workers are permitted to
engage in discrimination or oppression against clients. We advocate for spiritual
sensitivity, including adherence to ethical standards, for all social workers, reli-
gious and nonreligious (Spano & Koenig, 2007).

Confucianism and Social Service

Origin and Contemporary Varieties of Confucianism

Confucianism originated in China about 2500 years ago. Its philosophical, reli-
gious, and ethical views spread from China to Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and else-
where within Chinese cultural influence (Chen, 1990; Takashima, 2000; Yao,
2000; Yip, 2005). The founder was Kongzi or Kong Fuzi, anglicized as Confucius,
who lived about 551–479 BCE. Confucius described himself as the transmitter
of wisdom from ancient sages. He hoped to restore virtue of leaders during a
time of social and political disruption. For many years, he taught students and
advised rulers, holding public office only briefly. He tried to clarify principles for
applying the Dao (or Way) of humane benevolence to relations with self, fam-
ily, the wider society, and world. Mengzi (anglicized as Mencius), who lived in
China from about 371 to 289 BCE was the second most influential teacher. He
Religious Perspectives and Insights 157

elaborated Confucius’ teachings about human nature and social justice. Over
the centuries, East Asian governments sometimes supported, suppressed, or
neglected Confucian teachings. The ruling classes often distorted or selectively
applied Confucian social ethics in an authoritarian and rigid patriarchal manner
(Canda, 2002a, 2002b; de Bary, 1991; Nyitray, 2007; Yee, 2003). Other Confucian
scholars protested social policies that injured social welfare.
Confucianism has taken various forms over the centuries, shaped by its
host cultures and historical changes. Neo-Confucianism, which was influenced
by Daoist and Buddhist cosmology and meditation practices, became prevalent
from the Song dynasty (960–1279) until the early 20th century, especially in
Korea where it was the state ideology during the Joseon dynasty (Canda & Canda,
1996; Canda, Shin, & Canda, 1993; Yao, 2000). Neo-Confucianism (and its mod-
ern varieties) emphasizes that everyone is capable of becoming a sage through
cultivation of their true nature through diligent study and effort. Traditionally,
this sage learning was primarily the province of men. In the contemporary
period, Confucian scholars are reinterpreting the teachings in light of moderni-
zation, democracy, globalization, and feminism (Bell & Hahm, 2003; de Bary &
Tu, 1998; Shim, in press). This summary gives ideas from classical Confucianism
and Neo-Confucianism that lay the foundation of all current varieties.
Few contemporary people identify as Confucians. However, it is important
for social workers to understand Confucianism because it directly or indirectly
influences the worldviews, social ethics, and health practices of many millions
of people around the world, especially East Asians and Asian Americans (Chu &
Carew, 1990; Reid, 2000; Yao, 2000). The influence of Confucianism on clients
may not be obvious, since there are no formal Confucian religious institutions
in the United States and formal membership in a Confucian religious group is
not common. Many people do not think of Confucianism as a religion per se, but
rather as a social ethical system. It is most likely to influence traditionally minded
people of East Asian descent, whatever their religious or nonreligious affi liation.
In popular American culture, many people interested in Asian philosophy are
familiar with the Chinese Book of Changes (Wilhelm & Baynes, 1976). This is
one of the world’s oldest philosophical texts for understanding the cosmic pat-
terns of change and how to live in harmony with them. According to traditional
belief, Confucius and a prior sagely ruler wrote some of its commentaries.

Basic Beliefs
The main purpose of Confucianism is to help people become aware of their
inherent nature of ren (all Chinese terms are rendered in the pinyin system).
Ren means benevolence or humane-heartedness (Taylor, 1990; Tu, 1979, 1985;
Yao, 2000). It is the cardinal virtue to guide living with family, society, the wider
world, and all in heaven and earth. For example, Mencius said that anyone who
notices that a baby is in danger of falling into a well would naturally rush to
save the baby. Confucianism teaches that when we look into our own hearts
158 exploring spiritual diversity

with sincerity, we recognize that our genuine needs are shared by everyone.
The benevolent person strives for mutual benefit and harmony in relationships.
People need to use effort to keep the benevolent nature clear in mind and action.
This begins by cultivating sincerity and wisdom in ourselves and continues by
extending that outward in larger spheres of relationship through family, com-
munity, society, and world (Chung, 1992, 2001; Tu, 1989). Benevolence is the
basis of other cardinal virtues, such as li, which means proper conduct of rituals
as well as propriety in daily life.
Well-being is fostered through the cultivation of virtue (te), which is both
a quality of personal character and a moral power through which we influence
social well-being and justice. Mencius explained that the best way to keep our
vital energy (qi) flowing in a healthy way is to develop our virtue through dili-
gent yet gentle effort.
The human Dao (way of life) interconnects with the cosmic Dao, represented
in the metaphor of heaven and earth as humanity’s spiritual parents and all things
as our brothers and sisters. We owe greatest respect and care to heaven and earth
and should treat all things as relatives. However, Confucian philosophers did
not promote literal anthropomorphic ideas about heaven. Heaven (tian) refers
both to the sky and to a metaphysical force. Heaven is regarded as the source of
human nature, the creative power behind all things, and the determiner of per-
sonal destiny. Earth is respected for its nurturing bounty and beauty.
Everything in heaven and earth operates according to the dynamics of yin
and yang, which are qualities or types of vital energy (qi). Yin (receptive, yielding,
birthing, shadowy, earthy) and yang (creative, proactive, generative, bright, heav-
enly) are complementary, mutually shaping, and alternating opposites that work
together (Yee, 2003). Sometimes yin is more prominent and sometimes yang. For
example, each human body has organ and energy systems (addressed in acupunc-
ture and herbal medicine, for example) that are affected by yin and yang. If either
energy quality is too extreme or too faint, or if they are not in harmony, illness
results. Qi and its aspects of yin and yang emerge from the Supreme Ultimate
(Taiji), which is boundless and beyond any division, name, or form. Health and
social welfare require a practical harmonization of yin and yang in the body and
in relationships, plus a profound realization of the oneness of everything in the
Supreme Ultimate (Canda, 2002a, 2002b; Chung, 2001; Yao, 2000).

Basic Values
In Confucianism, values and beliefs about cosmology are inseparable, as illus-
trated above. Ren is the heart of all other virtues and ideals for relationships.
Traditionally, ren expresses strongly through values of reciprocity (shu) and fi lial
piety (xiao) (Yao, 2000).
Human social relations are organized traditionally in partnerships of related
persons, for example, royalty and common people, teacher and student, leader
and subordinate, husband and wife, parents and children, elder and younger
Religious Perspectives and Insights 159

siblings, and friend and friend (Yee, 2003). Confucianism recognizes the impor-
tance of the individual, but it is not individualistic. Indeed, Confucian oriented
societies tend to be more familistic and communalistic. In traditional societies,
many relationships are hierarchical and patriarchal, with greater authority given
to those in the superior position. Ideally, the principle of reciprocity means that
those with more authority should use it for the care and benefit of their juniors,
while the juniors should relate to their superiors with respect. If people violate
this pattern of mutual benefit, then those in lesser positions of power are vulner-
able to exploitation or oppression. Therefore, well-being at personal and social
levels depends on harmony and benevolent reciprocity (Chung & Haynes, 1993).
Government policies should promote the welfare of the people, with special
attention to the destitute and solitary (Canda, 2002b; Chen 1993).
Since the relationship between parents and children is the basic building
block of traditional East Asian societies, the virtue of fi lial piety is very impor-
tant (Yao, 2000). It sets the standard for other types of hierarchical relation-
ships. For example, the king and queen are like the parents of their subjects.
A special teacher or mentor is like a parent to her or his students. Parents give
the great gift of life to their children, so children should respect and appreciate
their parents. When parents are elders, the adult children (especially the oldest
son and his wife) should return care and support for their parents. Good parents
raise their children with loving attentiveness, using great effort, resources, and
personal sacrifice. Traditional people live in extended families, often including
grandparents, parents, and adult eldest son with his spouse and children. Other
family members remain closely connected. Departed ancestors are also honored
as they are the roots of the living family. On the widest level, fi lial piety means
that we treat all people and things with love, since they are our fellow children
of heaven and earth.

Social Work Implications

Most contemporary people influenced by Confucianism do not engage in reli-
gious institution based practices such as rituals or prayers that were prevalent
prior to the 20th century. Some East Asians and East Asian Americans draw on
cultural traditions that meld Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism, and may
not distinguish what is Confucian. Many are members of other religions, such
as Buddhism, Christianity, or Daoism, through which they may engage in for-
mal religious practices. Many others are not religious. In these situations, peo-
ple commonly consider Confucianism to be an ethical or philosophical system
rather than a religion. Conversation with the client and family is the only way to
know if Confucianism is significant for them. If concepts of fi lial piety, ancestor
honoring, and holistic healing based on yin and yang energies are important to
the client, then Confucianism is probably an important influence.
It is also important to note that there is widespread distrust among social
workers and general populations in East Asia about rigid patriarchy and
160 exploring spiritual diversity

governmental authoritarianism that may be attributed to Confucianism (Shim,

in press). Others praise Confucianism as the distinctive feature of East Asian her-
itage that paved the way for contemporary democracy and economic advances.
There is polarization around this issue (Canda 2002a, 2002b). For many second
or later generation East Asian Americans in the United States, Confucianism
is simply irrelevant or little known. Social workers should not assume an East
Asian Americans’ attitude about Confucianism.
Many practice approaches that draw on traditional Chinese medicine, such
as yin/yang and five elements theory, holistic mind-body-spirit-cosmos per-
spective, and acupuncture, herbal medicines, and qigong can be integrated with
social work while connecting them with the spiritual perspective of East Asian
American clients however they define it (e.g. Chan, 2001; Lee, Ng, Leung et al.,
2009). Although these traditional healing approaches in East Asia are strongly
influenced by Chinese medicine, each country has its particular styles.
The Confucian Way approaches each moment as an opportunity for learn-
ing, including times of illness and distress. Therefore, there are practices to pro-
mote constant learning, such as daily reflecting on the quality and results of
one’s intentions and actions; maintaining a consistently sincere attitude; seek-
ing to understand both the practical details of how things work and the deeper
principles beneath them; intensive study of the writings of sages; and pursuit
of formal education that should round the whole person and develop skills for
human service (Canda, 2002a, 2002b; Chen, 1993; Chung, 2001; Kalton, 1988;
Taylor, 1990).
Many Confucians practice a form of quiet sitting that allows the mind to
still and one’s true nature to emerge clearly. It does not involve use of strong
mental force, extreme postures, or overly intense techniques of concentration.
Clients who are comfortable with such practices might be interested in this or
similar practices, such as Zen meditation, Christian centering prayer, qigong,
yoga, or generic relaxation exercises to help with stress relief, self-understanding,
good health, and harmonious relationships. These should be matched with the
beliefs and comfort level of the client.
Some Confucian oriented clients may be interested to adjust diet to har-
monize with the yin/yang qualities of the person. Some also draw on geomancy
(i.e. feng shui) to make their homes’ energy conducive to health and harmony.
Specialists in traditional Eastern medicine can be sources of information, refer-
ral, or collaboration for social workers (Lee et al., 2009). Clients may seek advice
and support from respected family elders, mentors, scholars, herbal medicine
practitioners, acupuncturists, and diviners who use the Book of Changes to tell
fortunes and give advice.
Social workers should be attentive to clients of East Asian descent for whether
they celebrate special days. For example, in some countries, Confucians hold a
major national celebration to honor the teachings of Confucius, Mencius, and
the other sages. These occur at the Spring and Autumn equinoxes, the exact date
of which varies by year according to the lunar calendar. More commonly in the
Religious Perspectives and Insights 161

United States, people influenced by Confucianism perform rites to memorialize

their deceased parents, grandparents, and other close deceased relatives. These
involve offerings of food and bows of respect before the grave or an offering table
set at home. If the grave is far away, this can lead to a feeling of loss and sadness.
These rites are performed on anniversaries of the death and on special holidays,
such as Autumn Harvest Thanksgiving Day. Social workers engaged in bereave-
ment work with Confucian influenced clients should be aware of these practices.
Many people influenced by Confucianism come from patriarchal cultures
and may give preferential treatment to males. Traditionally, adult men are
expected to have primary authority and activity outside the home, while adult
women are to have primary authority and activity within the home. This may
still manifest in men (particularly family elders) being most outspoken in inter-
actions with social workers. However, social workers should not ignore the role
of women as family nurturers and behind-the-scenes decision makers. It may be
uncomfortable for some men when a female social worker takes on authority in
the helping relationship.
Whether or not a Confucian influenced client supports patriarchal rela-
tions, it is likely that the person’s sense of identity will be closely tied to fam-
ily and community. In this case, social workers should be alert to the possible
importance of reciprocity, harmony, and fi lial piety for the client in decision
making and problem solving. Yip ( 2004) suggests that the Western concept of
empowerment may need to be adapted to Confucian (and Buddhist and Daoist)
influenced contexts. Yip indicates that such clients may be more comfortable
with helping that promotes mutual empowerment of the individual and signif-
icant others; building on complementarity of individual rights and responsibil-
ities; attending to the need for social harmony; and promoting self-cultivation
and gradual empowerment rather than disruptively rapid change.
East Asian Americans, especially first or second generation immigrants,
often go through rapid culture change. Younger members of families tend to
change values and lifestyles significantly from elders, leading to family role con-
fusion and conflict (Furuto et al., 1992). Some people (especially elders and males)
may try to maintain traditional patriarchal patterns. Many younger Asians and
Asian Americans challenge these patterns and seek to change them. For example,
Shim (in press) explains how she worked through a process of rejecting Korean
Confucian patriarchy from a feminist vantage, then struggled with a sense of
identity confusion and cultural ambivalence, and finally moved to a more self
and culture affirming position of feminist style Confucianism with insights for
social work. Clients might raise these kinds of intrapersonal issues in East Asian
American families.
Finally, some social workers have proposed ways that Confucian social welfare
ideals and self-cultivation practices can be applied to contemporary social welfare
and social work in a general nonsectarian manner (Canda, 2002a, 2002b; Chung,
1992, 2001; Chung & Haynes, 1993; Imbrogno & Canda, 1988; Lee, 2004). Their
approaches draw out important insights from the original cultural and religious
162 exploring spiritual diversity

contexts and suggest ways to apply them in a culturally diverse society and world.
For example, viewing the person, community, and cosmos as interconnected and
mutually benefitting can correct excesses of Western individualism, alienation,
and narcissism. This approach connects with current social work theory develop-
ments related to holistic biopsychosocial-spiritual models, transpersonal theory,
and deep ecology. Chung gives practical recommendations for qigong practice
within this holistic approach (http://www.geocities.com/bgaughr/).

Hinduism and Social Service

Origin and Contemporary Varieties of Hinduism

Hinduism is the common name for the predominant religion of India and Indian
Americans. The term originated from Persian; it literally means “the belief of
the people of India” (Nielsen et al., 1993). Sometimes the term Brahmanism,
referring to the priestly class, is used to distinguish it from other religions in
India. Hindus use the term Sanatana Dharma (Sanskrit), meaning eternal cos-
mic principles that guide human life (Singh, 2001). Hinduism is an extremely
varied tradition (Smith, 1991). Certain scriptures are highly regarded, such as
the Vedas and Upanishads, but there are many different schools of philosophical
orientation and types of religious groups and practices. Hinduism is not orga-
nized with a central overarching institution. There is little attempt to regulate
conformity of beliefs. Rather, a common Hindu viewpoint is that there are many
legitimate spiritual paths, just as there are many paths to the top of a mountain.
Hindus may embrace many varieties of monotheism, polytheism, animism, non-
theistic philosophy, or combinations of these. There are also many variations
based on caste, region, language, and ethnicity. Indeed, each family may have
its own traditions and home-based forms of worship dedicated to particular dei-
ties (Banerjee, 2005; Singh, 2001). Variations in these aspects of diversity, and
various cross-cultural experiences and immigration history, have significant
influences on the particular spiritual forms of Hindu Indian Americans (e.g. see
Banerjee, 1997a, 1997b).
Early Hinduism emerged from the Indus Valley agricultural cultures, which
were established by 2400 BCE (Corbett, 1997; Crim, 1981; Nielsen et al., 1993).
By about 1600 BCE, Indo-European people, called the Aryas, colonized the
Indus valley region. Mingling between traditions of the original Indus civiliza-
tion and the Aryas gave rise to historical Hinduism. Between 1200 and 800 BCE,
the priestly class compiled the Vedas from a long tradition of oral literature. By
around 200 BCE, the main core of the Upanishads (secret teachings) were writ-
ten. These teachings gave rise to the world view of Vedanta (Veda’s End), which is
widely considered to be a culmination and refi nement of earlier Vedic teachings.
The classical language of Hinduism is Sanskrit.
In the United States, there are many varieties of Hindu originated reli-
gious systems and practices. For example, Swami Vivekananda was a major
Religious Perspectives and Insights 163

proponent of karma yoga as an approach to social work in India (Patel, 1987). In

1894, the first American Hindu organization, the Vedanta Society, was founded
in the United States by Swami Vivekananda (Corbett, 1997; Melton, 1992). In
the United States, the Vedanta Society promotes intellectual study of Vedantic
philosophy. In 1965, the International Society for Krishna Consciousness was
founded in the United States by Swami Prabhupada. This organization (also
called the Hare Krishna movement) promotes a devotional approach to worship
for Indian Americans and many Euro-Americans. Th is group gives special devo-
tion to Krishna, an incarnation or manifestation of God featured in one of the
most important Hindu scriptures, the Bhagavad Gita. Maharishi Mahesh Yogi
founded the transcendental meditation program that has trained thousands of
people since the 1960s. Sathya Sai Baba Centers emphasize performance of ser-
vice as a form of devotion. There are many other kinds of yoga centers and yoga
practice groups throughout the United States. Yoga means “union.” The prac-
tice of yoga is meant to unify body-mind-spirit with the divine, although some
American yoga practitioners view it only as a form of healthy exercise. The previ-
ously mentioned groups are not limited to Hindus and have a broad spectrum of
members in the United States. Besides this, Hindu Americans have established
numerous Hindu temples around the country. Aside from formal Hindu related
organizations, the primary locus of Hindu practice is the home.
In the social work literature, two forms of Hindu oriented views are most
often addressed. One is karma yoga, based largely on the teaching of Swami
Vivekananda and other yogic traditions (Banerjee, 1972; Battacharya, 1965; Patel,
1987; Seplowin, 1992; Singh, 1992). The other is a Gandhian approach to social
work (Capozi, 1992; Dasgupta, 1986; Sharma, 1987; Walz, Sharma, & Birnbaum,
1990). Although Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) is well known throughout the
world for his spiritually based social activism in India and South Africa, his ideas
were not systematically applied to American social work until the mid-1980s.
Patel (1987) said that there are many similarities between Gandhian social work
and karma yoga. However, she suggested that the Gandhian perspective focuses
more on social action goals, while karma yoga has moksha, or spiritual liberation
and union with the divine, as its explicit goal.
In the following presentation, we will focus on ideas from Vedanta, karma
yoga, and Gandhian social work. Social work writers advocate these ideas in
order to promote nonviolent, spiritually based practice for social workers both
for Hindus and for others. They can be applied with explicit religious and cul-
tural features for practice with Hindus. Their principles can also be expressed in
a nonsectarian manner for diverse clients.

Basic Beliefs
In general, Vedantic worldview emphasizes a universal, ultimate, nondualistic real-
ity that underlies all things, called Brahman. There are many Gods and Goddesses
that are manifestations of this ultimate reality. Vedanta identifies the goal of life as
164 exploring spiritual diversity

liberation (moksha) from the samsara, cycle of birth, suffering, death, and rebirth
that is rooted in the illusion of separate self. Moksha involves realizing the unity
of one’s true self (atman) with Brahman and freedom from the bondage of karma.
Karma literally means “action.” Moral and helpful actions generate beneficial reac-
tions for oneself and others. Immoral or irresponsible actions generate harmful
results for self and others. Karma binds the person to the cycle of death and rebirth
until he or she attains liberation through moral action and religious practices.
Traditional Hindus believe that each person has a dharma—a set of duties and
obligations linked to family, society, occupation, and the wider sacred dharma,
that is, the order of the universe (Nimmagadda & Cowger, 1999).
Singh (1992) defined karma yoga as “the realization of the divinity through
complete selfless dedication to work and duty” (p. 9). Vivekananda elaborated
principles of karma yoga by building on the foundation of Vedantic philosophy
(Patel, 1987). Karma yoga is a spiritual discipline of selfless service that leads
to the liberation of the social worker from karmic suffering at the same time
as helping to relieve others’ suffering. Karma yoga cultivates an awareness of
the divine (Brahman) as the absolute ultimate reality that envelops everything,
including the social worker’s true self (atman) and the true selves of clients. Patel
(1987) explained that karma yoga means helping others, even to the point of
death, without being attached to any outcome.
Gandhian social work rests on similar principles. Although Gandhi was
a Hindu, he did not promote divisive sectarianism. He believed that ultimate
Truth is beyond the comprehension of any one person or any one religion. He
believed that all people should seek the Truth through their various religious
and cultural frameworks. This is true self-realization (Pandey, 1996; Walz et al.,
1990). Gandhi’s approach to social action was based on satyagraha, meaning
“truth force.” Satyagraha means living life as a nonviolent pursuit of Truth, while
honoring everyone else’s pursuit of truth, even in the midst of conflict.

Basic Values
In Vedantic perspective, all beings are manifestations of the divine Truth.
Therefore, every being should be treated with respect. Vedantic beliefs lead
directly to three fundamental values to guide practice. First, social work-
ers should maintain clear benevolent purpose toward clients and fulfill their
responsibilities in a sacred manner. This is our professional dharma. Second,
social workers should not be attached to the fruits of their actions. This does not
mean being careless or uncaring. It means having motivation free from egotistic
attachment to one’s own goals for clients. Service is its own reward.
The third value principle is nonviolence (ahimsa). In nonviolence, all people
are granted unconditional respect and compassion, including people who are
one’s opponents and oppressors. Nonviolence means refraining from intentional
harm while loving the other (Banerjee, 1972). Gandhian ahimsa involves dedi-
cated and persevering search for Truth, and assisting others to live with dignity
Religious Perspectives and Insights 165

and freedom so they too can pursue Truth. Oppression and dehumanization are
to be resisted actively, but in a way that does not oppress or dehumanize oth-
ers. In Gandhian thought, nonviolence actively promotes individual and social
peace such that even one’s opponents can progress in their own search for Truth
(Dasgupta, 1986; Pandey, 1996; Sharma, 1987, Walz & Ritchie, 2000).
These three values imply the value of seeking mutual benefit in social work. It
is not sufficient to benefit only an identified client. Since all people and beings are
interconnected by karma, the results of helping actions on clients and others need
to be discerned. Harming some to help others is not nonviolence. Further, the pro-
cess of helping is itself a natural karmic benefit for the social worker. Thus, helping
others naturally helps oneself work toward moksha or realization of Truth.
There is a paradox inherent in these values. Karma yoga and Gandhian
social work both advocate that the social worker should seek the benefit of oth-
ers without seeking personal benefit. However, selfless action results in spiritual
benefits for the social worker. Yet, if one’s motivation is solely to accrue material
or spiritual benefits, then even apparently good action does not help the social
worker toward the spiritual goal of liberation.

Social Work Implications

The helping relationship should reflect these values of respect, selflessness, and
nonviolence. The traditional Hindu greeting, namaste, meaning “the divine
within me greets the divine within you,” signifies that the social worker should
relate to clients on the basis of their inherent worth.
On a practical level, karma yoga practitioners in India have established edu-
cational and social service programs, medical institutions, cultural activities,
rural and tribal development programs, and youth training for social service
(Patel, 1987). Such formal service organizations based on karma yoga have not
been described in the American social work literature. However, the principles
of karma yoga could be applied in American social work contexts. Gandhian
principles have not been applied widely in American social work, although they
were a significant influence on Rev. Martin Luther King Jr.’s, civil rights organiz-
ing approach. Advocates suggest that American social work could move toward
a more holistic, spiritually attuned, and nonviolent approach by considering
Gandhian principles.
Singh (1992) suggested that the Vedantic perspective and traditional helping
techniques, such as yoga systems, could provide a culturally familiar framework
for many Hindus (and other Asian Americans) in the United States. He identi-
fied four types of yoga: karma yoga (as already described); bhakti yoga, devo-
tional dedication to a personal God; raja yoga, opening awareness of the divinity
within oneself through mental and physical exercises; and jnana yoga, realizing
one’s own divine nature through intellectual disciplines. The yogas provide a
holistic approach to individuals, by using different means suited to particular
talents, personalities, and beliefs, in “application to stress management, mental
166 exploring spiritual diversity

clarification from confusions, self-unification, emancipation from suffering and

enhancement of self-image” (p. 9). Singh also identified some current helping
techniques that have similarity to yogic disciplines, such as biofeedback and
healing visualization.
Seplowin (1992) recommended meditation in conjunction with group ther-
apy. Logan (1997), gave a personal example of how her practice of an Indian
originated meditation practice (siddha yoga) simultaneously helps herself
achieve clarity while relating in a clear and open minded way with social work
students.
Gandhian principles highlight the importance of spiritually explicit, com-
passionate approaches to macro-action. The practical techniques of Gandhian
community organizing and development can be applied to American social
work. This would require reenvisioning the nature of social work (Walz et al.,
1990; Walz & Ritchie, 2000). For example, the personal lifestyle of the worker, the
consumption patterns of the agency, and efforts for larger social change should
all foster material simplicity. Material simplicity reduces violence by performing
work simply, limiting environmental damage, and taking only what is needed
for service. Helping strategies should seek the welfare of all (sarvodaya) by tak-
ing a holistic and systemic understanding of situations and applying a value of
compassion for everyone affected by change. Social work should also embody the
principle of swadeshi, which means focusing help for those most needy in the
local environment while rippling benefits out to wider social systems, including
the global context. Swadeshi links local and global dimensions of justice.
In general, the Vedantic inspired approaches to social work suggest inno-
vative possibilities for working with Indian American clients in a culturally
appropriate way. In addition, when the principles are extended beyond specific
traditional Hindu terminology and religious beliefs, they provide guidelines for
developing holistic models of social work in general.
Traditional Hindus emphasize personal identity as interdependent with
family, social class, and cosmic design. Decision making in the helping process
needs to take into account the client’s sense of dharma, including responsibilities
within the family and larger social context. Recognized authorities in the fam-
ily, such as husband or elder males, may have special priority in family meetings
with social workers (Hodge, 2004b). Hindu temples may be important sources of
psychosocial and spiritual support. However, Hindus with high levels of formal
education, multicultural living experience, or preference for egalitarian relation-
ships may not conform to the expectations described for traditionalists.
Since religious beliefs and practices vary widely, spiritual assessment should
include identification of particular deities, home- or temple-based worship prac-
tices (puja), religious teachers (guru), temple priests, and Indian community
celebrations (if any) that are relevant to the client’s sources of strength, resil-
ience, and problem solving. Hindu clients may be open to referral to comple-
mentary healing and stress management practices rooted in Indian culture, such
as Ayurvedic medicine and yogas.
Religious Perspectives and Insights 167

Indigenous Religions of North America and Social Service

Origin and Contemporary Varieties of Indigenous Religions

In this section, we summarize some features of traditional religions among
Indigenous peoples of North America, drawing heavily on insights from
Indigenous social workers and helping professionals in the United States and
Canada. Yellow Bird (2008) defines Indigenous peoples as culturally and linguis-
tically diverse populations who reside on ancestral lands, share ancestry with
the original inhabitants, and regard themselves as different from those who col-
onized and control their lands. Although the terms American Indian and Native
American are commonly used in the United States, we wish to avoid the colo-
nialist implications of these terms. The terms Aboriginal or First Nations are
used sometimes in Canada, and to a lesser extent in the United States. We will
use the terms Indigenous or First Nations (capitalized) to recognize these diverse
peoples’ status as descendents of the original inhabitants as well as to recognize
their sovereignty and special connection with their ancestral and current lands.
The term “Indigenous religion” has many problems from a technical reli-
gious studies viewpoint (Cox, 2007). There are so many variations around
the world (and within North America) of historical circumstance, population
movement, contents of worldview, and social organization among peoples often
referred to as Indigenous that is difficult to make a definition that fits all situa-
tions. Cox’s critical review of the term concludes that the main distinguishing
features of Indigenous religions are that group identity is formed by kinship and
ancestor relations tied to a particular place and shared traditions. Some authors
(e.g. Fleming & Ledogar, 2008) use the term “Indigenous spirituality”. Following
our definitions, by Indigenous religions (or spiritual perspectives) we are refer-
ring to shared features of worldview as recounted by Indigenous peoples of the
United States and Canada. Each Indigenous culture has one or more religions in
the sense of an organized pattern of spiritual beliefs, values, and practices shared
by the community over time in traditions. However, most Indigenous religions
of North America are not organized according to bureaucracies or centrally con-
trolled doctrines. For Indigenous people who associate the term religion with
this style, or in particular with religions of colonizers, the terms spirituality or
spiritual perspective may be preferred. Further, Indigenous spirituality perme-
ates all aspects of individual and community life.
Given the wide range of diversity among Indigenous peoples, it is crucial
to remember that the descriptions of shared worldview are very general (Fire,
2006; Gray, Coates, & Yellow Bird, 2008; Voss, White Hat, Bates, Lunderman, &
Lunderman, 2005; Weaver, 1999). Social workers should become familiar with
Indigenous clients’ particular culture (named in their own language), religious
beliefs, degree of religiousness or spiritual interest (if any), and other variations
based on level of traditionalism or acculturation, reservation, urban, or rural liv-
ing situation, affi liations with one or more First Nations, and possible membership
168 exploring spiritual diversity

in nontraditional religions, such as a Christian denomination (McKenzie &

Morrisette, 2003). Another significant, but little addressed, religion is the Native
American Church (NAC). It is the largest specifically Indigenous, formally orga-
nized denomination (i.e. with a charter, formally organized chapters, and legal
status as a church) that is widespread across cultures in North America (Prue,
2008). The NAC developed from a blending of use of peyote as a sacrament
(stemming from Indigenous Mexican cultures), with American Indigenous spir-
itual ways and, for some, Christian elements. The English social work literature
focuses mainly on Indigenous peoples of Canada and the United States, rather
than Mexico, and even within that does not address the full range of Indigenous
cultures.
Shamanism is a common feature of many Indigenous religions (Canda, 1983;
Gray et al., 2008; Voss, Douville, Little Soldier, & Twiss, 1999). The term shaman-
ism covers a diverse range of religious healing traditions centering around the
practices of spirit-guided people within the context of an animistic worldview
that regards nonhuman beings (i.e. animals, plants, mountains, etc.) as living
persons with whom humans should live respectfully (Anderson, 1996; Eliade,
1964; Lehmann & Myers, 2001). Canda (1983), drawing on anthropology and
religious studies, defined shamanism as “a religious style which centers on the
helping ministrations of a sacred specialist, the shaman, who utilizes a technique
of ecstatic trance in order to communicate with spirits and other powerful forces,
natural and supernatural. The shaman obtains sacred power from the spiritual
realm to heal and edify the human community in harmony with the nonhuman
environment” (p. 15). Gray, Yellow Bird, and Coates said, “Acknowledging the
connection between all things, the shaman turns inward to his [sic] personal
psyche and also moves laterally and outward into the landscape and its many
voices . . . Today shamanism has come to connote an alternative form of therapy
with an emphasis on the curative power of nature and personal insight” (p. 55).
Frey and Edinburg (1978) and Canda (1983) pointed out that shamanistic
healing is the historical precursor of social work and other helping professions.
Shamanism probably originated within Paleolithic period gathering and hunt-
ing bands and tribes. It is the oldest documented religious approach to healing
and service in the world. There are currently many hundreds or thousands of
forms of shamanism in the world, given the great number of cultures in which it
appears. In addition, in many cultures, missionary religions, such as Christianity
and Buddhism, have been converged with older Indigenous shamanistic tradi-
tions, to form new varieties of shamanism. Unfortunately, shamanism has often
been persecuted by missionaries and colonizers throughout the world, including
North America.
There is also a recently developed religious movement in many countries,
which adapts general cross-cultural themes of shamanism to contemporary
urban life, by removing them from traditional culture-specific contexts and
formulating generic shamanistic spiritual beliefs and practices. This move-
ment is sometimes referred to as Neo-shamanism to indicate both its origins
Religious Perspectives and Insights 169

from and revision of traditional forms of shamanism (Cox, 2007; Doore, 1988).
Neo-shamanism began to emerge in the late 1960s with the writings of Carlos
Castenada (1968) and other counter-cultural writers. In the 1980s, centers for
(neo)shamanistic study expanded, including the Dance of the Deer Foundation
(by Brant Secunda), the Foundation for Shamanic Studies (by Michael Harner),
the Cross-Cultural Shamanism Network (by Timothy White), and the Sun Bear
Medicine Society (by Sun Bear, now deceased). Neo-shamanism involves loose
networks of people, mostly Euro-Americans, who are interested in exploring
diverse spiritual practices to support personal growth and healing as well as
ways of living in harmony with the earth (Townshend, 1988). Two related trends
of Neo-shamanism in the United States can be identified. The first has grown
directly from the teachings, workshops, and rituals of traditional Indigenous
shamans who have decided to share their spiritual ways with people of differ-
ent cultures from their own. The second trend has grown from mainly Euro-
Americans who have studied shamanism from traditional teachers and academic
research.
Some Indigenous people are opposed to Neo-shamanism, viewing it as an
inappropriate use of Indigenous spirituality by others and self-seeking Indigenous
teachers, which furthers the process of colonialism and cultural destruction for
Indigenous peoples (Canda & Yellow Bird, 1996; Gray, Coates, & Yellow Bird,
2008). Other traditional teachers from many regions of the world believe it is
time to share these teachings in order to change the course of industrial and
postindustrial ways of life that are destroying the earth.
This is a topic full of controversy (Buhner, 1997). For our purposes, we
believe that social workers should be aware that Neo-shamanism may be impor-
tant and valuable for some clients, usually Euro-American members of alter-
native spiritual groups. However, Neo-shamanism should not be confused with
Indigenous spiritual traditions. The remainder of this discussion will focus on
traditional Indigenous religions and their implications for social work.
In social work literature, there are two main approaches to Indigenous
religions. The first addresses culture-specific forms of Indigenous helping (e.g.
Mokuau, 1990; Nabigon & Mawhiney, 1996; Voss et al., 1999). The second
addresses the cross-cultural common features of Indigenous religions and sha-
manism (e.g. Bullis, 1996; Canda, 1983; Cataldo, 1979; Dumbrill & Green, 2008;
Fleming & Lodogar, 2008; Frey & Edinburg, 1978; Gray et al., 2008; Hart, 2008;
Laird, 1984; McKenzie & Morrisette, 2003; Weaver, 1999). We pool together their
insights, placing first priority on the ideas that come directly from Indigenous
peoples.

Basic Beliefs
The traditional Indigenous worldview is a holistic and collectivistic understand-
ing of intimate interdependence between whole person, family, community,
and the environment, especially in relation with the ancestors and places of the
170 exploring spiritual diversity

locale. The natural (nonhuman) world is a source of beauty and inspiration. The
earth and sky are often described as our mother and father, with all creatures
our relatives, since our lives are sustained by the natural environment. There
is a balance and order to the universe (Fleming & Ledogar, 2008; Hart, 2008).
Well-being consists of harmonious relation with this order as it permeates fam-
ily, clan, society, world, and the larger universe. For example, Voss et al. (2005)
explained,

For the Lakota, the sense of self has traditionally been associated with an
intimate bond with the group (Lakota Nation) and with a profound sense of
kinship with all creation, including the natural universe and ancestral spirits
articulated in the Lakota imperative Mitakuye oyas’in! which has been trans-
lated as “All my relations!” For the traditional Lakota, self-identity does not
exist apart from the spiritual world, the nation, and all creation. (p. 214)

Thus Indigenous identity and helping approaches are communal, focusing

on holistic and reciprocal relations with other persons and nature (McKenzie &
Morrisette, 2003). These authors emphasize that all things connect together with
a spiritual essence flowing from its source. Elders are respected as transmitters
of traditional wisdom between generations. Indigenous people also seek knowl-
edge through an inner-focused spiritual journey in order to support the harmony
and balance between all living things. This understanding is conveyed through
stories, symbols, and ceremonies that go beyond linear thinking (McKenzie &
Morrisette, 2003; Yellow Bird, 1995).
The Medicine Wheel symbolizes this understanding of the interrelated and
cyclical nature of life (Bruyere, 2007; Coggins, 1990; Dumbrill & Green, 2008;
Fire, 2006; Nabigon & Mawhiney, 1996; Verniest, 2006). There are many differ-
ent versions of Medicine Wheels within and between the Indigenous cultures
that use them (and not all do), but there are some common insights. Each direc-
tion can be related to aspects of existence, such as four human races (red, yellow,
black, and white), four seasons, (spring, summer, fall, winter), four aspects of
human being (spiritual, emotional, physical, and mental), four elements of crea-
tion (earth, air, water, and fire), four cardinal sacred medicines (tobacco, cedar,
sage, and sweetgrass), and four aspects of the life cycle (infant, youth, adult,
elder). All aspects of persons, community, and universe should balance and har-
monize throughout developmental processes. These distinctions are not hierar-
chical or concrete divisions, but rather an aid to achieve a holistic understanding
of interrelatedness and mutual honoring. Healing is a matter of completing and
restoring the circle of wholeness for individuals, families, communities, and
nation (Baskin, 2006).

Basic Values
Indigenous religions do not merely acknowledge interconnection in a techni-
cal sense, as Western science does. They value interconnectedness as a sacred
Religious Perspectives and Insights 171

basis of life and of well-being for individuals, communities, nations, and world
(Coggins, 1990; Dumbrill & Green, 2008; Saulis, 2006; Waegemakers Schiff &
Pelech, 2007). Nature is alive with the mutually sustaining web of all beings.
Human and nonhuman beings are persons and relatives, so humans should
regard other beings with respect (Bowen, 2005).
Harmony and reciprocity in communal relationships are valued, so that
all things fulfi ll their obligations for mutual benefit (Hart, 2008; McKenzie &
Morrisette, 2003). Human life itself is appreciated as a spiritual journey toward
balance, harmony, and reciprocity. Humility before elders and the sacred pow-
ers is important (Dell, Dell, & Hopkins, 2005). Hart highlights three values:
respecting all without imposing our own views; sharing what we have, know,
and experience; and recognizing the nonphysical spiritual world in all interac-
tions, including meditation, prayer, and ceremonies.

Social Work Implications

As we have seen, authors commonly recommend that practice with Indigenous
people should emphasize culturally appropriate knowledge, respect, use of com-
munity based support systems, holistic thinking, and awareness of spirituality
imbued in daily life. Weaver (1999, p. 223) provided a set of widely applica-
ble recommendations for social workers to work well with Indigenous clients.
Social workers should understand and appreciate diversity among and within
Indigenous groups; understand the history, culture, and contemporary ways of
the specific groups relevant to clients; employ strong social work skills emphasiz-
ing patience, listening, and tolerance of silence; develop self-awareness of biases
and needs for well-being; show humility and willingness to learn; be respectful,
nonjudgmental, and open-minded; value social justice; and remove colonialistic
and ethnocentric thinking from practice approaches.
Traditional healing and helping are not just a matter of reducing symp-
toms of individuals, but rather maintaining and restoring the relational circle
of harmony and balance for individual, family, community, nation, and world.
Holistic and transpersonal approaches to social work practice may be appropri-
ate when adapted to the particular cultural patterns of Indigenous clients and
communities. Even more importantly, approaches for effective social work with
Indigeneous people can best be developed by and with Indigenous social workers
and the trusted family members, spiritual teachers, healers, shamans, and elders
within specific Indigenous communities, whether based in reservations, rural, or
urban areas. This is not indigenization in the sense of starting with Eurocentric
social work and adapting it to Indigenous people, but rather building genuinely
Indigenous social work up from particular communities (Gray et al., 2008).
Historical trauma and acculturation stress are pervasive issues for many
Indigenous people due to the history of colonialization, genocide, and contin-
uing discrimination and oppression, including assaults upon traditional spiri-
tual perspectives and rituals (Cousineau, 2006; McKenzie & Morrisette, 2003;
172 exploring spiritual diversity

Verniest, 2006; Weaver, 1999; Yellow Horse Brave Heart, 2001). On the other
hand, Indigenous people are exemplars of resilience for surviving, reviving, and
thriving as a people in the face of such conditions (Chenault, 1990). Positive
participation in traditional activities and spiritual ways has been shown to sup-
port resilience (Fleming & Ledogar, 2008). Social work educational programs
that take an affirming approach to Indigenous worldview are likely to feel more
congruent for Indigenous students and prepare them for effective work in their
communities (Dumbrill & Green, 2008; Fire, 2006; Voss et al., 2005).
Social workers should gain knowledge of the regional Indigenous nations
and social support systems in order to be prepared to make referrals and to col-
laborate as relevant to Indigenous clients. Successful referral and collaboration
are more likely if the social worker has a respectful relationship with Indigenous
community leaders, healers, spiritual teachers, elders, and social service agen-
cies, or, with people who do have such relationships and can serve as brokers
and mediators. The details of spiritual practices and contacts of course vary by
each culture and community. Only the client can determine what is relevant
and whether traditional or other spiritual ways, alone or in combination, are
preferred. In general, the literature suggests the following as some potentially
beneficial supports: traditional ceremonies, for example the sweat lodge that is
prevalent in various forms among many nations (Gossage et al., 2003; McCabe,
2008; Smith, 2005; Waegemakers Schiff & Pelech, 2007, elders); understandings
of human life development and well-being that are holistic, such as Medicine
Wheels (Coggins, 1990; Dumbrill & Green, 2008; Gilgun, 2002; Nabigon &
Mawhiney, 1996; Verniest, 2006); consultation with respected elders (Bowen,
2005; Broad, Boyer, & Chataway, 2006; Zellerer, 2003); referral to or collabora-
tion with traditional healers, such as herbalists and shamans (Beatch & Stewart,
2002; Bucko & Iron Cloud, 2008; Struthers, 2003; Voss et al., 1999); use of nar-
rative and story telling (Stewart & Wheeler, 2002; Yellow Bird, 1995); and use
of talking circle style therapeutic groups (Thomas & Bellefeuille, 2006; Warner,
2003). Other family-based and traditional activities that may be important to
Indigenous clients include feasts to honor the deceased; pow wows, seasonal
feasts, naming ceremonies, give-aways, and fasting (Fleming & Ledogar, 2008).
Bullis (1996) offered guidelines for referral to and collaboration with sha-
manistic healers that are useful to consider regarding any type of Indigenous
healers. First, he suggested that the social worker should identify the healer’s type
of expertise, specific beliefs, healing practices, and possible impacts on the client.
Second, the social worker should ascertain the reputation of the healer within
his or her own community. Third, the expectations of the social worker within
the healer’s and client’s culture should be clarified to enhance cooperation and
culturally appropriate behavior. Likewise, the social worker should make clear
his or her own professional expertise (or lack thereof) and sense of respect for
the client’s culture. Fourth, the social worker should seek to establish an ongo-
ing knowledgeable and respectful relationship with the Indigenous culture by
approaching it as a learner. Fift h, the social worker should reflect with the client
Religious Perspectives and Insights 173

on the consistency between the healer’s assessments and planned helping strate-
gies for the client. Sixth, the social worker should ascertain what protective and
supportive strategies will be used to ensure the well-being of the client.
As we noted, social workers need to be cautious not to impose their own
ethnocentric or religiocentric biases on Indigenous clients. An important case
in point is the Native American Church. Some social workers and substance
abuse counselors mistake the sacramental use of peyote as a form of substance
abuse and dismiss spiritual insights from NAC ceremonies as delusions or hal-
lucinations. On the contrary, research has shown that NAC participation can be
a valuable source of social support, health promotion, and recovery from sub-
stance abuse (Bullis, 1996; Prue, 2008). Currently, the federal American Indian
Religious Freedom Act and most states authorize Indigenous people to use pey-
ote within the NAC.
Social work in general can benefit by learning from Indigenous traditions
of helping and healing. The concept of person-in-environment can be given a
more profound significance through the Indigenous ideal of harmony between
all beings as evinced in Medicine Wheel teachings. Although not all social work-
ers believe in spirits or have an animistic worldview, we could all enhance our
relationship with the world by regarding all beings, human and nonhuman as
significant and worthy of respect (Canda, 1983; Gray, Coates, & Hetherington,
2008). Therapeutic practice would also help the client to pay attention to the
quality of relationship with the natural environment, not only in terms of phys-
ical resource acquisition but also in terms of the client’s openness to the inspi-
ration and beauty of the earth, sky, and all the beings of this universe (Cataldo,
1979).
We can learn from shamanism to utilize a wide range of consciousness
states for both the practitioner and the client (such as meditation and trance to
heighten empathy and stimulate creativity of insights) and ways of stimulating
this through drumming, dance, song, and ritual. The kind and quality of ritual
celebrations of life transitions employed by the client could be examined and
improved where found lacking or dysfunctional (Laird, 1984). The shamanisti-
cally oriented social worker would practice personal disciplines that encourage
constant personal growth and resolution of fundamental existential issues and
crises, so that he or she is prepared to offer assistance for the clients’ spiritual
quests from a standpoint of personal experience (Canda, 1983). However, non-
Indigenous social workers should be cautious not to borrow, imitate, or appropri-
ate Indigenous symbols and ceremonies in a thoughtless or colonialist manner
(Canda & Yellow Bird, 1996; Gray et al., 2008). Given our commitment to social
justice, social workers need to be mindful of the history of colonial occupation
and religious persecution directed against Indigenous peoples by Europeans.
Until recently, Indigenous spiritual ways were actively persecuted by govern-
mental and Christian religious authorities. Therefore, suspicion on the part of
Indigenous people is common regarding the borrowing of their traditions by
others. If we are not careful, even well intentioned uses by non-Indigenous social
174 exploring spiritual diversity

workers can exacerbate historical trauma and injustice. Indigenous social work-
ers also must be attentive to the particular goals, beliefs, identities, and com-
munity affi liations for Indigenous clients, being sure to practice in a manner
congruent with that, rather than their own presumptions. For a social worker
(Indigenous or otherwise) to employ Indigenous healing practices in a profes-
sional capacity raises additional issues, such as how permission from traditional
communities can be (or should be) obtained, how the social worker can be prop-
erly trained, and how powerful transformative practices can be used safely in
a social work setting. Finally, social workers who work with Indigenous people
need to be aware of relevant U.S. treaty agreements and laws, such as the Indian
Child Welfare Act of 1978, and First Nations’ laws and social welfare systems.

Islam and Social Service

Origin and Contemporary Varieties of Islam

Islam originated among Arab Bedouins in the 6th century (Esposito, 1991;
Nielsen et al., 1993; Peters, 1982). The word Islam is derived from an Arabic
term meaning “surrender, obedience, and peace” (Nadir & Dzieglielewski, 2001;
Smith, 1991). Islam is a faith based on the person’s and community’s submission
to the will of God, Allah, in all spheres of life. Islam developed in the mono-
theistic stream of traditions that includes Judaism and Christianity. Each shares
a common basis in the biblical books of Moses (the Torah). Islamic monotheism
was in part a reaction against the polytheistic beliefs, preoccupation with striv-
ing for wealth and power, and feuding among Arab tribes prevalent at the time
of Islam’s founder, the Prophet Muhammad (c. 570–632).
Muhammad was born into a wealthy clan of Mecca. As a young man, he
spent much time in reflection upon problems of social corruption (Nielsen et al.,
1993; Haynes et al., 1997; Smith, 1991). At around the age of 40, while in soli-
tary meditation in a cave, he had a series of revelations. Tradition has it that the
angel Gabriel delivered God’s messages to Muhammad, and they were set down
in the Quran, the Islamic scripture. After 613, Muhammad spread his message
to his family and community, especially focusing on disadvantaged groups,
such as women, slaves, poor people, and children. Muhammad soon moved to
Medina, which accepted him as the prophet of Allah and agreed to fight on his
behalf. With support of people from Medina, Muhammad established authority
in Medina by 630.
From the time of the Prophet’s death in 632–661, his successors led cam-
paigns of conquest and proselytization that extended from north Africa to the
Indian frontier (Crim, 1981). Early in this period, a major division occurred
between Sunni Islam, the largest group, and the Shiite Muslims. The Shiite
Muslims identified Ali, Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law, as the Prophet’s
successor. Since that time, Islam has spread throughout the world, with large
numbers of adherents in the Middle East, Africa, Europe, India, and East and
Religious Perspectives and Insights 175

Southeast Asia. The Muslim population of North America is growing quickly.

In most countries except Iran and Iraq, the Sunni Muslims are the majority.
Thus among the worldwide community of believers (ummah, Arabic), there is
a fundamental unity based on common beliefs as well as wide variety based on
particular cultural contexts.
As mentioned in Chapter 4, in the United States there are now three major
groupings of Muslims: Muslim immigrants and their descendants (mostly Sunni),
converts to these traditional forms of Islam, and primarily African American
new Islamic groups, such as the Nation of Islam. There is great variety depend-
ing on ethnicity and, for immigrants, country of origin. The primary immigrant
Muslim national organization is The Islamic Society of North America (Corbett,
1997; Melton, 1992). The American Muslim Mission is the largest organization
of American-born Muslims. Sufism, a mystical form of Islam, was brought to the
United States in 1910 by Pir Hazrat Inayat Khan. The Sufi Order sponsors many
spiritual groups, meditation and ecstatic rituals, and educational programs.
Muslim mosques and student and community organizations in the United
States, such as Islamic Relief USA and Islamic Circle of North America Relief,
provide social support for Muslims and the wider society (Nadir, 2008). Over
90% of mosques in the United States provide cash assistance to members in
need. Many provide counseling, prison outreach, and assistance with food and
clothing. The Islamic Social Services Associations of Canada and United States
were established in 1999 to increase awareness of social service needs of Muslims
(see http://www.issausa.org/).

Basic Beliefs
The primary sources of authority in Islam are the Quran and the Hadith, the
traditions based on the life of the Prophet Muhammed (Smith, 1991). Islamic law
(shari′a) was written as a divinely inspired guide for living, elaborating on the
Quran and hadith. The Quran is an unchangeable divine text, whereas shari′a
is open to interpretation and modification based on different cultural contexts
(Crabtree, Husain, & Spalek, 2008). Muslims believe that Muhammad was the last
and final prophet, culminating the earlier Jewish and Christian prophetic revela-
tions (Corbett, 1997; Haynes et al., 1997; Smith, 1991). Islam is strictly mono-
theistic. The central tenet is that there is no God other then Allah, the supreme,
incomparable, inconceivable, personal creator deity. Muslims declare their sub-
mission to and reliance upon Allah in all things. Since Allah cannot be under-
stood in terms of any created thing, it is strictly prohibited to produce images of
the deity. The Six Pillars of Faith (Iman) include belief in the one Creator God;
reverence for angels, especially Gabriel, who live in obedience to God; belief in
all the revealed scriptures, including the Scrolls of Abraham, Psalms of David,
Torah, Gospel of Jesus, and the Quran revealed to Muhammad; reverence for
all the Prophets of God, for example Adam, Abraham, Moses, David, John the
Baptist, Jesus and Mohammad; belief in the after-life in which people return to
176 exploring spiritual diversity

God for judgment and relegation to heaven or hell; and belief in human free will
limited by divine destiny (Barise, 2005; Nadir & Dziegielewski, 2001).
Muslims regard the Quran as the culmination of the scriptures of Allah.
Muhammad is the final prophet. Jewish and Christian scriptures are respected,
but if there is disagreement with the Quran, the Quran takes precedence. None
of the Prophets are considered divine themselves, as that is a quality of God
alone.
The Five Pillars of Islam are the core duties (Barisse, 2005; Corbett, 1997;
Haynes, et al., 1997; Nadir, 2001; Smith, 1991). The first is daily declaration of faith
(shahada) that “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the last Prophet
of Allah.” The second is prayer (salat), which takes place five times daily facing
Mecca, and if possible, at a mosque on midday Friday. The third pillar (zakat) is
the giving of alms (2.5% of annual wealth after expenses) for care of the needy.
The fourth pillar is fasting (sawm), from sunrise to sunset, during the month of
Ramadan that celebrates the revelation to Muhammad and teaches empathy and
self-restraint. The fift h pillar is the pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca, which should be
done at least once in a lifetime if a person is able. This pilgrimage is a joining of
all the diverse peoples of the ummah in unity as people who will be judged by
God on the basis of their accordance with God’s will. These pillars of practice
assist the person and community to strive toward self-improvement and welfare
in all aspects of life.
Muslims also have beliefs related to distinctive cultural traditions. For exam-
ple, Al-Krenawi and Graham (2009) give detailed accounts of culture-specific
beliefs and appropriate health and mental health practices for Bedouin-Arabs.
Crabtree, Husain, and Spacek (2008) address family and community relations
issues in relation to health and social work in the United Kingdom and several
other countries.

Basic Values
Since the person and community should be wholly oriented toward the will
of Allah, there is no separation between religious and secular spheres of life.
Individual fulfi llment, family life, and community well-being are all related to
following the precepts of Islamic law. As Muhammad originally advocated for
social reforms on behalf of women, children, and disadvantaged groups, there
is a strong social justice value framework in Islam (Barise, 2005; Nadir, 2008;
Smith, 1991). Ideally, there should be a reciprocal relationship between individual
freedom and community obligations and responsibilities. People should be per-
sistent in their efforts toward self-improvement, both in actions and in feelings.
Family roles traditionally involve patriarchal gender roles, but women and men
are to respect each other. The aim of all life is to achieve peace through accor-
dance with God’s will and human freedom from all contrary forces (Barisse,
2005).The Islamic community of believers has a special mission from Allah to
create a just society for its members and to be a model for others (Esposito, 1991).
Religious Perspectives and Insights 177

The Quran recognizes differences in social status, wealth, and tribal origin, but it
promotes a unity and equality of all believers under Allah. The Quran condemns
exploitation of the poor, widows, women, orphans, and slaves. It denounces eco-
nomic abuse, such as false contracts, bribery, hoarding of wealth, and usury.

Social Work Implications

Since Islam means that all of life should be oriented toward Allah, social work
practice with Muslim clients should respectfully incorporate their beliefs and
practices (Hodge, 2005a). The close sense of community connectedness and
identity should not be confused with dysfunctional enmeshment, but rather
understood as a potentially strong source of support. Its community orienta-
tion provides an opportunity for social workers to consult and collaborate with
Muslim social support networks, Islamic teachers (imam), and friendship sup-
port groups. Sometimes problems may be defined in relation to Islamic law,
Hadith, and the Quran. In these cases, familiarity with relevant passages, as well
as family and ethnic customs, could be developed with guidance from the client
and qualified teachers. Almsgiving (zakat), has significant social welfare implica-
tions. Almsgiving is both an act of worship to God and a service to the commu-
nity. This payment is owed because people receive their wealth from the bounty
of God. Zakat reflects a broad concern for ideals of equality, mutual respect,
justice, and relief of the disadvantaged.
The Islamic view of social service emphasizes a complementary relation
between individual well-being and social welfare. The helping process itself is
a spiritually significant action and relationship, not only between worker and
clients, but also with the divine.
As our National Survey showed, there are fewer Muslim social workers in
proportion to the growing U.S. Muslim population. There is a significant need
for more Muslim social workers and Muslim based social service organizations
as well as non-Muslim social workers who are sensitive and competent to work
with Muslims (Nadir, 2008). After the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001,
anti-Muslim suspicion and discrimination in North America and European
countries also increased significantly (Crabtree et al., 2008; Nadir, 2008). Social
workers should be especially attentive to violations of human rights and other
acts of discrimination or oppression against Muslims. The unfortunate state of
conflict and war in many countries; often under the guise of religious and ideo-
logical positions of various kinds, presents social workers with a challenge to
promote a spirit of peace and tolerance in society and world at large.
As with all religions, social workers need to attend to diversity within
Muslim communities. In addition to variations based on sect (e.g. Sunni or
Shi′ite), ethnicity and national origin, as mentioned before, there are also varia-
tions based on individual and family interpretations and choices. There are
degrees of religious observance and conformance with family or community
norms. A good example is variety of opinion about Muslim women wearing the
178 exploring spiritual diversity

veil (hijab). Muslims and others variously interpret that as a sign of dignity, dis-
grace, individual choice and affirmation, or group oppression (Meshal, 2007).
Some Muslim women view the veil as an aid to women’s liberation from exploit-
ive sexualization; others think it is a tool to enforce male dominance. Traditions
for veiling or not veiling vary by cultures and religious groups. The social work
principle of self-determination would support the various choices of Muslim
women in this matter and encourage social workers to understand the particular
meaning given to the veil in a given situation.

Judaism and Social Service

Origin and Contemporary Varieties of Judaism

Judaism originated from the agrarian nomadic Hebrew tribes of Israel around
2000–1000 BCE (Crim, 1981; Neusner, 1979; Nielsen et al., 1993). During this
period, the tribal God came to be understood as the one true God, creator tran-
scendent over creation. According to tradition, the Patriarch of Israel, Abraham,
migrated from Mesopotamia to Canaan to leave the polytheistic past and to ded-
icate himself and his descendants to God. Later, Jacob and his people went to
Egypt during a time of famine. The people of Israel became oppressed by the
pharaoh. Finally, Moses led his people across the wilderness to freedom. Moses
received revelation of the Torah from God, confirming the covenant of God’s
care for the Jews and the Jewish people’s commitment to God. The first five
books of the Bible are attributed to Moses, though they were probably not com-
pleted in their present form until the 5th century BCE. Key themes of Judaism
were established during this time: monotheism; a covenant between God and
God’s chosen people; and endurance of suffering, exile, and liberation.
In 586 BCE, the temple of Jerusalem was destroyed and the Hebrews were
exiled to Babylonia. The tradition of the synagogue developed as a place for study
and worship. Many Jews returned to Israel around 500 BCE and reestablished
the temple in Jerusalem. During this period, priests took responsibility for reli-
gious sacrifice at the Temple; scribes studied and interpreted the scriptures; and
messianic Zealots struggled against foreign rulers. The core of Hebrew scriptures
(tanakh, Hebrew) was formed, including the Torah (Pentateuch), Prophetic writ-
ings, and other writings.
The Second Temple was destroyed in 70 CE by the Romans. After the destruc-
tion of the Second Temple, the rabbis (learned teachers) gradually emerged from
and supplanted the priests and scribes. The classical or rabbinical period contin-
ued to the 19th century along with dispersion of the Jews to many parts of the
world. Jews in the Diaspora struggled with various means of retaining cultural
distinctiveness and faithfulness to the Torah, often enduring discrimination and
oppression.
During the 19th and 20th centuries, various forms of Zionism emerged,
which emphasized the importance of Jews returning to Israel to establish a state
Religious Perspectives and Insights 179

and fulfi ll their religious and cultural aspirations. The holocaust of the Jews
amplified this Zionist movement, as the need for state protection and political
autonomy became a matter of survival. The holocaust also accelerated immigra-
tion of Jews to the United States.
Currently, there are about 5.2 million Jews in the United States (Gelman,
Andron, & Schnall, 2008). There are three major groups of religious Jews,
Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform; many Jews are not affi liated with a reli-
gious group. Since the late 1800s, there have been many forms of Jewish agencies
and social services in the United States. The strong Jewish tradition of commit-
ment to education and service is reflected in the percentage of Jews in our 1997
and 2008 National Surveys, which is proportionately much higher than that of
Jews in the United States overall.

Basic Beliefs
According to Neusner (1979), Judaism is a tradition built upon the scriptures
(tanakh, Hebrew), ethical commandments governing daily conduct (mitzvot),
Talmudic commentaries, faith in God, and membership in the Jewish commu-
nity. For religious Jews, Jewish law (halakhah) dictates that one should live in
accord with the covenant between God and the Jewish community. Friedman
(2001) summarized the foundation of Judaism as God, Torah, and the Jewish
community. Therefore, it follows that a Jewish perspective would emphasize that
social work with Jewish people should have an intimate connection with and rel-
evance for the Jewish community. Many Jewish communal service workers view
the heightening of Jewish identity and preservation of the Jewish community
as key issues in Jewish social welfare, because of the challenges of diaspora and
holocaust, and more recently, the large numbers of Jews who choose to live in
the United States, and high rates of intermarriage and secularism (Bubis, 1981;
Gelman, Andron, & Schnall, 2008).
Judaism is a way of life, not just a religious or philosophical system.
However, there is a great variety of lifestyle and belief within the Jewish commu-
nity pertaining to cultural backgrounds, degree of religiousness, and religious
affi liation. Humanistic Judaism focuses on social ethical relations between peo-
ple (Friedman, 2001). Reform Judaism gives a liberal interpretation to Torah and
adapts to American culture. Reconstructionism observes many traditions while
adding a more scientific and egalitarian approach. For example, the Bat Mizvah
for girls to enter adulthood was developed in complement to the traditional Bar
Mitzvah for boys. Conservative Judaism follows Torah rituals but allows inno-
vation in law. When Conservative Judaism began ordaining women as rabbis,
Traditional Judaism grew to preserve more traditional standards. Orthodox
Judaism closely adheres to Torah law and practices, but individual congrega-
tions vary along with the rabbi’s views. Hasidic Judaism uses parables, song, and
dance to celebrate the joys of being Jewish. In addition, some Jews identify with
their cultural heritage but not with religious practices or theistic beliefs.
180 exploring spiritual diversity

In the Judaic religious view, there is an inextricable connection between faith

in God and service, because the tanakh requires Jews to imitate God through
partnership in the ongoing process of creation, including social welfare activ-
ities (Eskenazi, 1983; Schecter, 1971). According to Eskenazi, the God of Israel
has neither identifiable appearance nor a name that Jews may speak. Yet God
sanctifies diverse and authentic emotions as well as fallibility. God transcends
human images but also sanctifies the uniqueness of human experience. I-Thou
(person to person connection and acceptance) is the proper mode of relationship
between people and God.
The details of this relationship are prescribed by the Torah and its commen-
taries pertaining to diet, Sabbath, morality, civil law, and Torah study (Ostrov,
1976; Friedman, 2001). There are also communal commemorations of annual
holidays (Passover, Shavuoth, and Succoth), holy days for repentance and intro-
spection (Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur), life events (birth, Bar and Bat
Mitzvah, marriage, divorce, death), and historical events (e.g. the Six-Day War).
Religious observance is most strict among Orthodox Jews.
According to Ansel (1973), Judaic thought views human nature as essen-
tially good, having been created in the image of God, including an innate
need for growth. However, this growth may be blocked by misunderstandings
of self or external conditions. When this growth runs contrary to God’s pur-
pose and moral relationships, one must practice t′shuva (repentance), involving
self-awareness and change of heart, to return to God’s will. This process may
involve a healthy feeling of guilt and reconciliation. Accordingly, Judaic thought
includes an understanding of human behavior in terms of sin. Yet the relation-
ship between sin and mental illness is a complex one in the Torah. Identification
of a person who has mental health problems as a sinner, in the pejorative sense,
is not appropriate (Wikler, 1977). However, Wikler (1986) pointed out that some
Orthodox Jews may attach a sense of stigma and community sanction (such as
damage to family reputation or reduced marriage prospects) to people with men-
tal illness.

Basic Values
In Judaic thought, since all people are created in the image of God, each person
has intrinsic worth. There are many commandments to set forth expectations
for social relations and care for the needy. The Torah injunction to love one’s
neighbor expresses through commitment to standards of righteousness, compas-
sion, and truth with regard to all people (Schecter, 1971). In particular, this value
expresses through systematic means of providing help to members of the Jewish
community in need. This is based on a sense of responsibility for mutually sup-
portive community obligations, rather then individual acts of kindness (Gelman,
Andron, & Schnall, 2008).
The devout Jew performs acts of loving kindness (hesed) and righteousness or
justice (tsedekah) out of a sense of compassion modeled upon the compassion of
Religious Perspectives and Insights 181

God (Linzer, 1979). Therefore, according to Linzer, the Jewish social worker should
extend compassionate help to clients while restraining his or her own self-needs
that may interfere with the client’s benefit. Yet Bubis (1980) asserted that within
the context of Jewish communal service, workers should uphold the Jewish com-
munity and advocate community values to the Jewish client when those values are
demonstrably essential to the continuity and prosperity of that community.

Social Work Implications

Biblical and Talmudic injunctions have supported community based welfare
since ancient times. For example, provisions were made for the benefit of the
poor, fair treatment of workers, fair credit, and for the care of widows, orphans,
strangers, and refugees (Friedman, 2001; Gelman, Andrin, & Schnall, 2008). The
value of justice has led American Jews to establish many formal social service
programs, most of which are independent from synagogues.
Since at least the late 1800s, numerous Jewish sponsored human service
organizations have provided services to indigent people, resettled refugees and
helped immigrants adjust to American life, responded to international crises,
fought anti-Semitism, and provided professional services for health and mental
health of Jews and the wider society. These include Jewish communal service
agencies, Jewish fundraising federations, Jewish community centers and family
services, hospitals and geriatric facilities, vocational services, and several social
work education programs, such as Wurzweiler School of Social Work at Yeshiva
University. The Journal of Jewish Communal Service is the most prominent
journal dedicated to Jewish perspectives on social work. There has been recent
growth in groups of Jews providing material aid, empowerment, and advocacy
around the world to vulnerable populations under the principle of tikkun olam,
which means, to heal or repair the world. Also, many alternative Jewish services
have emerged to address underserved groups, such as people with special needs,
lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people, interfaith couples, ortho-
dox Jews, and new immigrants.
When the focus of service involves issues specific to the Jewish community,
it is often helpful for Jewish workers to assist Jewish clients. The Jewish worker
who works with Jewish clients affirms Jewish identity, values, and experiences
(Berl, 1979). Therefore, the Jewish worker needs to understand Jewish history,
ideologies, geography, sociology, religious customs and teachings, and calendar
(Bubis, 1980). According to Eskenazi (1983), in order to be a good role model
for other Jews, the Jewish worker needs to uphold Jewish values in his or her
own life. This does not only apply to adherence to Jewish regulations, but also
to the inner cultivation of compassion, kindness, and restraint of egoism as per-
sonal attributes (Linzer, 1979). In essence, the committed Jewish worker needs
to combine professional knowledge and skill with personal Jewish commitment
(Miller, 1980). Sweifach’s (2005) survey of social workers in Jewish community
centers found that most recognize the importance of literacy with the Jewish
182 exploring spiritual diversity

community, utilize Jewish practice principles, and generally feel a satisfactory fit
between social work and Jewish roles.
It should be emphasized that diversity among Jews, including degrees and
types of religiosity, need to be respected by the Jewish worker. Wikler (1986)
found that some Orthodox Jews may prefer to see Orthodox workers or non-
Orthodox Jewish workers. Matching should be a matter of client preference
rather than presumption, as some Orthodox Jews prefer the greater confiden-
tiality possible in agencies outside their community (Lightman & Shor, 2002).
Wikler also found that many Orthodox rabbis may not refer people who could
benefit from mental health services to agencies. His study suggested that care-
ful work needs to be done to establish good ties of respect, mutual understand-
ing, and cooperation between agencies and Orthodox rabbis and communities.
Lightman and Shor (2002) explain how the askan (indigenous paraprofessional)
can be a valuable mediator and linkperson between ultra-Orthodox communi-
ties of Israel and Canada and social work professionals.
While the Jewish helping professional needs to be knowledgeable and sen-
sitive about the religious dimension of clients’ needs, he or she must also be able
to discern between functional and dysfunctional uses of religiosity (Ostrov, 1976;
Spero, 1981). In order to avoid nonconstructive over identification or collusion
between the worker and the client’s religious resistances, Spero (1981) recom-
mended that therapy begin with the following recognitions: that shared religious
beliefs may involve shared distortions of religious expectations; that shared
religious belief is not a legitimate motive for positive or negative regard; and
that both therapist’s and client’s religious beliefs will be subject to examination.
Ostrov (1976) urged caution in challenging dysfunctional religious practices and
beliefs. One approach is to attempt to deal with the underlying psychopathology
itself in order to free the client to develop more constructive religious expression.
If the religious issue is too great an obstacle to effective treatment, then con-
sultation with a competent religious authority who is sensitive to psychological
dynamics is advisable.
The increasingly nonsectarian nature of Jewish communal service demon-
strates that the Jewish ethos for service can be extended to non-Jewish people.
In this case, particular religious language and regulations would not be applied.
However, the spirit of tsedekah is relevant to all people.
When social workers who are not Jewish work with Jewish clients, it would
be useful to assess the meaning of Jewish identity for the client and the impli-
cations of religious or secular orientation. This can be a difficult issue, because
of differing qualifications for who is a Jew among different forms of Judaism
(Sweifach, 2005). If the client considers this relevant, aspects of Jewish his-
tory, customs, community support systems and religion could be affirmed as
strengths and resources. Social workers who are not Orthodox Jews may need
to be especially careful to connect in a culturally appropriate manner with such
clients. For example, Ringel’s (2007) study showed how Orthodox Jewish women
can feel fulfi lled and empowered as primary family caretakers with pervasive
Religious Perspectives and Insights 183

traditional religiousness. Danzig and Sands (2007) formulated a group specific

model of spiritual development that pertains to Jews who become Orthodox. On
the other hand, strongly religious Jews would need to make efforts to relate in a
client-centered manner with less or nonreligious Jews.

Conclusion

The religious perspectives we reviewed have significant contrasts in the content

of beliefs. But they also have a remarkable similarity in the core of their values
with regard to service. The commonalities imply possibilities for finding com-
mon ground. The differences provide many insights for various helping strate-
gies in social work. Comparisons and connections between spiritual perspectives
will be examined further at the end of Chapter 6. Next, we turn to nonreligious
spiritual perspectives on service.

EXERCISES

.. Exploring a Religious Perspective on Service

These descriptions of religious perspectives on service only touch the surface. It
is important for the reader to explore in more detail the religions that are rele-
vant to clients and communities with whom one is likely to work. It is helpful to
include both cognitive and experiential learning in order to increase both “head”
knowledge and “heart” understanding.
The first step is to choose one religious tradition that has special personal or
professional relevance. Consider whether you have a client or are likely to have a
client who could benefit from your increased knowledge. It would be most pro-
ductive for you to choose a tradition with which you are unfamiliar, uncomfort-
able, or have a desire to deepen or refresh familiarity.
The second step is to obtain further information about the religion. If it was
covered in the chapter, go to the sources cited for further reading. Use internet
search engines to check official and authentic websites maintained by these reli-
gions as well as scholarly websites about religious studies. You can get a start by
going to the online Spiritual Diversity and Social Work Resource Center (www.
socwel.ku.edu/canda) and exploring the relevant essays, gallery folders, and
internet links. In addition, identify the key religious texts for this tradition and
read some of them. You could focus by looking for passages relating to themes of
compassion, justice, and service.
In the third step, contact a member of the religious group for personal dis-
cussion in a comfortable and confidential location. If permissible, participate in
a religious ceremony, or visit a religiously significant place, and learn from your
contact person about proper conduct for a visitor and the meaning of the sym-
bols and actions involved.
184 exploring spiritual diversity

The fourth step is to think through ways this information can be used to
enhance your practice with clients who share the tradition, and for your gen-
eral social work practice. Clients and people they respect as religious authorities
are the best experts on this. Take a respectful and appreciative learner stance in
discussing possibilities with the client. You might also establish a focus group of
people familiar with the relevant religion and related client population to brain-
storm with you and agency staff on possible innovations.
 6

Nonsectarian Spiritual Perspectives,

Comparisons, and Implications for
Cooperation

Life is—or has—meaning and meaninglessness.

I cherish the anxious hope that meaning will
preponderate and win the battle.
Carl Jung, Transpersonal,
Analytical Psychology (1965, p. 359)

In this chapter, we examine two major nonsectarian spiritual perspectives that

influence spiritually sensitive social work: existentialism and transpersonal the-
ory. These perspectives grew out of humanistic intellectual developments in
Europe and North America. They reflect the concerns of industrialized socie-
ties and postmodern movements regarding reaction to dehumanizing aspects
of alienating and oppressive social conditions and the threats of global catas-
trophes, such as world wars, genocide, and environmental degradation. In the
contemporary world, all peoples in the global community are interdependent
economically, politically, militarily, and spiritually—for better or for worse.
Disenchantment with ethnocentrism, patriarchy, colonialism, religious rivalry
and violence, and positivistic science led to alternative ways of understanding
the spiritual purpose and developmental possibilities of human beings. Thus,
existentialism and transpersonal theory deal with basic spiritual issues of mean-
ing, purpose, and response to suffering by drawing on many religious and phil-
osophical views that challenge conventional thinking.
These perspectives are not sectarian or allied exclusively with any religion,
although they integrate many insights from religious traditions. Some of their
adherents belong to religious or nonreligious spiritual groups; some are atheists
or agnostics. They tend to question ethnocentric and religiously exclusive views.
They see the global interdependence of all peoples as an opportunity for creative
spiritual transformation of individuals and societies through mutual learning
and cooperation. They also recognize the all-too-common happenings of exploi-
tation, oppression, and environmental injustice.

185
186 exploring spiritual diversity

The current movement in social work toward inclusive and holistic under-
standing of spirituality is a manifestation of postmodern spiritual trends. In fact,
social work innovators often draw on these nonsectarian spiritual perspectives
(e.g. Besthorn, 2001; Cowley, 1996; Derezotes, 2006). It is possible to connect
their insights to many religious and nonreligious spiritual perspectives of clients.
In fact, many people who advocate these nonreligious spiritual perspectives in
social work are also, in their private lives, adherents to particular religions.
We present existentialism first because it sets historical context and philo-
sophical themes for transpersonal theory. After considering these nonsectarian
spiritual perspectives, we will compare all the spiritual perspectives on service
presented in Chapters 5 and 6. Then, we will consider issues of mutual under-
standing and cooperation among people of diverse perspectives within an inclu-
sive approach to spirituality in social work.

Existentialism and Social Service

Origin and Contemporary Varieties of Existentialism

Existentialism developed as a social critical school of philosophy in Europe
(Bradford, 1969; Dwoskin, 2003; Kauff man, 1956; Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda,
2006). During the late 1800s to the middle of the 20th century, many intellectu-
als began to react negatively to dehumanizing aspects of urban industrial life.
The close familiar ties of agriculture and small town life were supplanted by
more formal, task-oriented, anonymous modes of living in large industrial cit-
ies. Workers became reduced to commodities—labor was sold to produce mass
quantities of goods on assembly lines, or to work in health threatening condi-
tions in coalmines and oil fields to fuel the industrial life style. The two World
Wars and rise of the Nazi movement displayed with horrifying intensity how the
efficiency and power of science and technology could be applied to mass produc-
tion of weapons and mass destruction of people.
Some existentialists developed their thought primarily in the context of
political resistance to tyranny, such as the French atheist philosophers Camus
and Sartre. Some focused on critique of religious establishments and social
convention while remaining strongly religious, such as the Russian Orthodox
novelist Dostoevsky, the Danish Lutheran Soren Kierkegaard, and the Jewish
theologian, Martin Buber. Some philosophers, such as Husserl, reacted against
the reductionism and mechanistic view of positivistic science by emphasizing
the importance of human subjectivity and consciousness. Some psychologists
and psychotherapists developed humanistic approaches to therapy, focusing on
the human search for meaning and creativity in the midst of suffering, such as
Rollo May and Victor Frankl.
The major writing on existential social work has been done by Donald Krill
(e.g. 1978, 1986, 1990, 1995, 1996) and Jim Lantz (e.g. 1993; Lantz & Walsh,
2007). Krill drew on existential and humanistic thought as well as insights from
Nonsectarian Spiritual Perspectives 187

Zen and Christianity. Lantz applied the logotherapy approach of Victor Frankl
to family therapy and social work. Although existentialism has been discussed
in the social work literature for more than 30 years, its main impact on social
work has been through insights and values for practice. For example, uncon-
ditional positive regard for clients, therapeutic use of self, emphasis on the
empathic quality of the helping relationship, and promoting client creativity in
meaning-making help to shape social work, especially in the strengths perspec-
tive, social constructionism, narrative therapy, solution focused therapy, and
cognitive behavioral therapies.

Basic Beliefs
Existentialists focus on the immediacy of human experience and how people
deal with the human condition of impermanence, suffering, death, and the inhu-
manity of human beings. They are not concerned about abstract ideas of ulti-
mate reality or metaphysics so much as immediate reality, and how we make
meaning of it. In particular, existentialists are interested in how people respond
to situations that challenge our systems of meaning, such as natural catastrophe
and warfare, or, on a more personal level, crises of loss, confusion, and trauma
(Lantz, 1993; Lantz & Walsh, 2007). At such times, the socially constructed
nature of our meaning systems may become apparent. The hand-me-down truths
of social convention and religious tradition are put to a trial by fire. How can we
make sense when it seems nothing makes sense anymore? Humanly constructed
meaning is similar to a castle made of sand. When a high tide rolls in, the castle
washes away. Manufactured meaning is absurd in that it lacks absolute, essential,
or ultimate meaning or authenticity (Robbins et al., 2006).
Existentialists assert that individuals are responsible to determine the mean-
ing of their own lives. When social norms or religious teachings stand in the way
of human freedom to experience life fully and to discover and create meaning,
then they should be challenged. Authentic meaning derives from clear awareness
of one’s identity in relations with others in the constant process of moment-to-
moment change (Krill, 1978). The qualities of freedom and individual dignity
arise from the distinctive subjectivity of each person. This subjectivity of the
individual is not a matter of isolation, however. The human condition involves
inextricable intersubjective transactions between the self, other people, and the
world (Bradford, 1969; Krill, 1996).
Yet, a person’s subjective sense of potential for satisfaction and meaning
encounters inescapable human limits and finitude, most intensely with regard
to the fact of death and conditions of social injustice. Existential suffering is
inevitable because there is a creative force for growth at the core of the person
that brings her or him into experience of the conflict between desire and limit,
life and death (Krill, 1979). Existential suffering, often manifested in feelings of
dread, shame and guilt, is rooted in the problem of alienation within the self,
between self and others, and between self and the totality of being. People must
188 exploring spiritual diversity

deal with the contradictions between the drive to create meaning and the life
crises that expose the fragility and inadequacy of meaning systems. This aware-
ness invokes a sense of dread in the face of the absurd. Nonetheless, each person
must make choices, create or discover meaning, and learn to survive and thrive
through mistakes, obstacles, and social pressures toward conformity.
Being human involves self-responsibility for one’s choices in discovering
and inventing meaning. To be a free person means never allowing oneself to be
trapped in a personal comfort zone or a viewpoint dictated by external rules and
authorities (Edwards, 1982). In the view of Christian and religious Jewish exis-
tentialists, authentic meaning or authentic faith becomes possible when the indi-
vidual transcends limitations and anxieties through spontaneous and immediate
experience of others and God. Yet in the existentialist view, God is beyond the
limits of human concepts. Therefore, the spiritual emphasis is upon experience
rather than adherence to doctrines (Imre, 1971).
However, even in a nontheistic or atheistic view, authentic meaning or faith
is a crucial element in the successful creation of meaning. Edwards (1982) stated
that authentic faith is not belief in illusions or fantasies. Rather, it is an empathic
expression of self toward others. It is the moment-to-moment manifestation of a
spiritual communion that encompasses the being of individuals in interaction.
We forge authentic meaning as we creatively connect our experiences as beings
subject to the physical conditions of the world, who choose how to live in it, and
who take responsibility to care for others (Lantz & Walsh, 2007).

Basic Values
The existential perspective opposes the influence of depersonalization and con-
formity in contemporary society (Imre, 1971). In contrast to the pressures of
society toward conformity and to the daunting challenges of suffering and injus-
tice, the existentialist asserts human freedom and dignity (Krill, 1978). Each
person must take responsibility for one’s chosen views of self and the world
and their consequences in action (Krill, 1979). Existentialism also asserts that
merely rational means of knowing are inadequate, particularly in that they tend
to reduce understanding of human relationships to relations between things as
though people are mere objects. Satisfying truth arises from intimate genuine
interpersonal experiences (Bradford, 1969). In fact, individual determination
of meaning should occur through responsible and loving relations with others.
Although existentialism emphasizes the inherent worth, dignity, and responsi-
bility of individuals, it is not individualistic. Human being is being together with
others. Human being is a process of continual becoming through cocreation of
our individual and collective systems of meaning.
Krill (1979) said that human love is the effort to understand, share, and par-
ticipate in the uniqueness of others. Existentially authentic relationship involves
acceptance of a person’s intrinsic dignity and worth, expressed through caring
and helping. In the terms of Buber’s Jewish theological existentialism, this type
Nonsectarian Spiritual Perspectives 189

of relationship is called I-Thou, one subjectivity relating lovingly with another

subjectivity. For Buber, loving human relationship is rooted in humanity’s rela-
tionship with the eternal Thou, the divine source of being. The solidarity of
caring people helps them to hold the courage required to affirm meaning and
creativity in the face of doubt, suffering, absurdity, and oppression (Imre, 1971;
Krill, 1979, 1996; Lantz, 1993).

Social Work Implications

The existential social worker helps the client to overcome both social institu-
tional forms of oppression and psychological barriers that limit the expression of
freedom and dignity. Through the solidarity of a therapeutic I-Thou relationship,
the client is supported to actualize potential and meaning through clear self-
awareness and responsible relations with others (Imre, 1971; Krill, 1979, 1996;
Lantz, 1993; Lantz & Walsh, 2007). The helping relationship is intense, open,
and intersubjective, genuinely sharing the selfhood of the worker with the client.
The therapeutic encounter helps the client to develop keen awareness of self and
to tap one’s creative possibilities for attaining meaning and satisfying relation-
ships (Bradford, 1969). Given the concern about constraints on human freedom
and dignity, existential social work favors action on behalf of the disadvantaged
and oppressed; an attitude toward the client of caring, empathy, and affirmation;
present-focused, experiential, short-term therapies; and eclectic use of treatment
techniques within the spontaneous therapeutic relationship (Krill, 1978, 1996).
It discourages rigid diagnostic categorizations, stereotyped treatment plans,
and dogmatic uses of theory that strip clients of their distinctiveness and free-
dom (Krill, 1986, 1990). A significant advantage of an existentialist approach
to spirituality in social work is that it sensitizes the social worker to be alert
and responsive to themes of meaning, purpose, connectedness, responsibility,
and transcendence without requiring explicit discussion of religion or spiritual-
ity. This is very useful when clients do not have a religious affi liation or are not
comfortable with terms such as religion, spirituality, or faith. Existentialism also
reminds us to focus on the quality of the helping relationship as the foundation
of spiritually sensitive practice.
The existential therapeutic approach is client-centered, experiential, rapid
change focused, and sensitive to issues of values and philosophical or reli-
gious perspectives (Krill, 1978, 1979, 1996; Lantz & Walsh, 2007). According to
Edwards (1982), some specific treatment approaches that are consistent with an
existentialist view are brief and paradoxical therapy, family systems therapy, real-
ity therapy, rational emotive therapy, psychodrama, holistic therapies integrating
body and mind, relaxation and meditation methods, client-centered therapy, and
existential group therapy. Krill (1978) emphasized the importance of phenome-
nological, humanistic, reality-oriented, interpersonal and unselfish social action
types of helping approaches. He also incorporated insights and techniques from
Eastern and Western religious traditions. Krill (1990) developed many exercises
190 exploring spiritual diversity

for social workers to help us deepen in self-reflection and self-understanding as

preparation for authentic, spiritually sensitive relating with clients. These include
systematic introspection about our systems of meaning, identification of our
highest ideals and aspirations, distinguishing between realistic and unrealistic
guilt, and examination of religious images and their change over the life span.
Given the deep questions of meaning that commonly arise when people confront
serious illness and dying, existential approaches may be especially relevant when
social workers help clients deal with issues of illness, violence, cultural disrup-
tion, postcombat distress, social isolation, and dying (Gwyther, Altilio, Blacker,
Christ, Csikia, et al., 2005; Jones, 2006; Lantz & Walsh, 2007; Wintestein &
Eisikivots, 2005).
Lantz (1993) pointed out that the family is the primary locus for persons to
encounter each other intimately, to experience both the tragic and joyful pos-
sibilities of life, and to receive and reconstruct meaning. He discussed several
family therapy techniques that can assist family members to learn to know each
other more genuinely and to construct patterns of meaning and relationship that
are mutually fulfi lling. For example, paradoxical intention encourages the client
to do something that is perceived to be anxiety provoking or problem causing,
so that by confronting it with explicit awareness and reflection, the problematic
behavior can be resolved and the anxiety can be relieved. Paradoxical intention
can break a rigid pattern of meaning and behavior, opening up a new possibil-
ity. In Socratic dialogue, or “self-discovery discourse,” the family therapist asks
clients questions that probe the deeper meanings of people’s spirituality and
aspirations, helping them to discover meaning in the midst of suffering. Lantz
emphasized the importance of helping clients to link with sources of strength
and revitalization in their environment, such as spiritual support groups, reli-
gious communities, and natural places of beauty. Although some existentialist
therapeutic techniques involve a directive approach by the therapist, all tech-
niques should be done within the context of a therapeutic relationship of trust,
openness, honesty, permission, and sense of camaraderie in the process of mak-
ing meaning out of suffering.

Transpersonal Theory and Social Service

Origin and Contemporary Varieties of Transpersonal Theory

Transpersonal theory is a perspective on human experience, development, and help-
ing that focuses on our highest potentials for creativity, love, spiritual awareness,
and connectedness. It spans many disciplines, such as philosophy, environmental
studies, mental health professions, religious studies, medicine, political activism,
and social work (Ferendo, 2007; Wilber, 2000, 2006). It draws on ancient insights
from diverse Eastern and Western spiritual traditions as well as contemporary sci-
entific research (Canda, 1991; Cowley, 1996; Robbins et al., 2006). Like existential-
ism, it is a transdisciplinary perspective rather than a religious institution. Also like
Nonsectarian Spiritual Perspectives 191

existentialism, transpersonal theory promotes a nonsectarian, spiritually sensitive

approach to social work. Transpersonal theorists share with existentialists a cri-
tique of personal and social structural conditions that lead to a sense of alienation,
oppression, and meaninglessness (Cowley, 1996; McGee, 1984; Robbins et al., 2006).
Transpersonalists believe that the solution to this malaise can be found through a
developmental process in which a person works out a sense of individual wholeness
and harmony as well as profound connection with other people, other beings, the
universe, and the ground of being itself. In this way, transpersonal theory entwines
with ecophilosophies such as deep ecology and ecofeminism that recognize and
honor human/nature interdependence (Besthorn, 2001).
Transpersonal theory arose in response to limitations of Freudianism, behav-
iorism, and humanistic psychology. In 1969, Abraham Maslow announced the
arrival of the fourth force of psychology that would be dedicated to understand-
ing what he called the farther reaches of human nature. In his view, Freudian
theory reduced human beings to neurotic psychological defense mechanisms,
desire-based instincts, and unconscious psychodynamics. Freud viewed religion
as a social institution based on neurotic reality-denying fantasies and norma-
tive controls. In contrast, behaviorism reduced human beings to machine-like
or rat-like things at the mercy of inborn response patterns and environmental
conditions. For strict behaviorists, religion was considered irrelevant or unscien-
tific and misleading fantasy. Neither Freudianism nor behaviorism distinguished
between religion and spirituality.
Humanistic psychology (including existential psychology) emerged in the
1950s and 1960s in order to focus on positive and distinctive aspects of human
experience, such as creativity and loving relationships. Maslow and other human-
istic therapists and researchers found that many people who reported high lev-
els of life satisfaction also reported important transformative events that moved
them to explicit spiritual interests (Robbins et al., 2006). Experiences that move
one beyond a sense of limitation to the individual body/ego boundary (persona)
can be crucial to self-fulfi llment. Transpersonal theory focuses on understand-
ing these experiences, related varieties of altered states of consciousness, spiri-
tual development process, ways of living in accord with transpersonal insights,
and therapeutic techniques that facilitate transpersonal awareness.
Contemporary American transpersonal theory has several major influences.
There are many varieties of transpersonal theories (that do not always agree with
each other), so we are presenting common themes. Many theorists have refi ned
or revised the work of the Swiss psychologist, Carl Jung, who developed the the-
ory of the collective unconscious through study of clinical reports by clients and
cross-cultural study of mythology and religious symbolism (Jung, 1959). Since
the 1960s and 1970s, many researchers investigated the therapeutic aspects of
altered states of consciousness related to drugs, meditation, biofeedback, and
hypnosis. Stanislav Grof’s transpersonal approach to psychiatry, called holo-
tropic (wholeness-seeking) theory, arose from this (Grof, 1988; Grof & Halifax,
1977). One of the most influential transpersonal writers is Ken Wilber, who draws
192 exploring spiritual diversity

on many intellectual and religious traditions, developmental theories, systems

theorists, postmodern philosophers, and contemplative practices (Wilber, 1995,
1996). Since Wilber’s work now encompasses many fields of thought and applica-
tion, he refers to his work as integral (Wilber, 2000, 2006). His work and exten-
sive network of collaborators can be accessed at the Integral Institute website
(http://www.integralinstitute.org/). Many other transpersonal theory resources
and integral approaches to social work can be found at http://www.atpweb.org/
hosted by The Association for Transpersonal Theory and at http://csisw.cua.edu/
hosted by Catholic University of America’s National School of Social Service.
The Global Alliance for A Deep Ecological Social Work offers access to the work
of Fred Besthorn, John Coates, and other leaders in the movement to bring a
deep ecological understanding into social work (http://www.ecosocialwork.org/).
Transpersonal perspectives are beginning to shape theory and practice for social
work (e.g. Borenzweig, 1984; Canda & Smith, 2001; Coates, 2003; Cowley, 1993,
1996; Cowley & Derezotes, 1994; Derezotes, 2006; Larkin, 2005; McGee, 1984;
Smith, 1995; Smith & Gray, 1995; Thomas, 2004).

Basic Beliefs
Transpersonal theorists share an optimistic view of human nature. They believe
that people are intrinsically growth oriented. As long as adequate environmental
supports exist, people have a natural tendency to strive toward more compre-
hensive ways of understanding the world, more loving and responsible ways of
relating with others, and more creative ways of living (Grof, 1988; Jung, 1938;
Maslow, 1968 & 1970; Robbins et al., 2006; Wilber 2006). There is no guarantee
that individuals or societies will develop more caring and just ways of living, but
this is an inherent developmental potential.
There are two directions of growth for people. One is inward, toward a sense of
integration, balance, and wholeness within oneself. One is outward, toward a sense
of mutual fulfillment, co-responsibility, and communion between oneself and oth-
ers. These two trajectories of growth can be thought of as arcs, which curve around
to meet each other in a full circle. The complete or true Self is attained when one’s
awareness and actions encompass this full arc of inward and outward growth.
Transpersonal theories criticize most conventional theories of human
behavior and social ideals because they do not honor the full potential of human
beings. Conventional developmentalists generally claim that the formation of an
autonomous, personal, separate self (ego), bounded by body and social roles, is
the epitome of development. In contrast, transpersonalists advocate for further
developmental possibilities (Canda, 1988; Cowley, 1996; Robbins et al., 2006).
They generally recognize three major phases of development: preegoic (infancy
through early childhood) in which the young child has not yet developed a clear
sense of ego, distinct from caretakers and the environment; egoic (usually older
childhood and beyond) in which a person establishes a clear sense of ego auton-
omy and capacity for rational thought along with mature social relationships;
Nonsectarian Spiritual Perspectives 193

and transegoic (most likely in adulthood if at all) in which a person realizes one’s
fundamental connectedness and unity with all others. The transegoic or trans-
personal Self is able to utilize the egoic modes of thought, feeling, and action; but
the transpersonal Self is not limited to them. Wilber (2000b, 2006) points out
that there are actually many aspects of individual development (e.g. cognitive,
moral, spiritual, physical) that usually develops at different rates. With concerted
effort, a person can integrate these various aspects into an overall progression
into transpersonal levels of consciousness and daily functioning.
The transpersonal Self recognizes that true self-actualization is insepara-
ble from other-actualization. The transpersonal Self develops enhanced skills of
intuition, empathy, holistic thinking, and ultimately, a sense of complete unity
with all that is. Depending on the spiritual perspective of the person, the ulti-
mate level of development may be described as union with God, unity of true
self (atman) with the true nature of the universe (Brahman), enlightenment, or
cosmic consciousness.
Deep ecology and ecofeminism include a transpersonal perspective on the
fundamental unity of human beings and all other beings (Besthorn, 2001, 2002;
Besthorn & Canda, 2002; Besthorn & Pearson McMillan, 2002). The Norwegian
ecological philosopher, Arne Naess (1988), explained that people who realize
their inseparateness from the earth ecology expand their self-concept to become
ecocentered rather than egocenric or ethnocentric. This expanded self-identity is
called the ecological self. While many psychologically oriented transpersonal the-
orists focus on individual humans as the main concern, ecophilosophers focus
on the total planetary ecosystem (as well as bioregions) with humans as one type
of being within it.
When I (LF) taught social work students in Norway as a visiting profes-
sor in 1998, I found that most students insisted that they were neither religious
nor spiritual. On one level, this was understandable because Norway is a very
secular country, with low rates of formal religious participation (Zahl, Furman,
Benson, & Canda, 2007). However, I suggested that their love of the outdoors
and their apparent communion and harmony with nature could be considered
spiritual. They then agreed that they were indeed spiritual and transpersonal as
they were deeply integrated with their environment.

Basic Values
Transpersonalists believe that human development is purposeful and goal ori-
ented (i.e. toward integration, wholeness, and self-transcendence). However, they
also claim that few people ever achieve transpersonal levels of development. This
is largely due to restrictions imposed by lack of physical, emotional, and social
supports; social pressures toward egotism and conformism; and contemporary
materialistic scientific worldview that try to convince people that spiritual and
transpersonal experiences are mere fantasies. Therefore, transpersonalists advo-
cate for spiritual empowerment on several levels. They advocate for individuals
194 exploring spiritual diversity

to demonstrate self-initiative, exploration, creative nonconformity, and effort for

growth. They advocate for social structures that provide full access and opportu-
nity for all people to resources that support development. For example, Maslow
(1970) criticized religious institutions when they inhibit or punish their members
for spiritual experiences that challenge formal teachings. Wilber (1998) decried
dominator hierarchies, which are social structures that impose exploitive condi-
tions and restricting beliefs on people. They also advocate for local and global
initiatives and policies that promote the well-being of the entire planetary ecol-
ogy (Coates, 2003).
Cowley (1996) provided a summary of key transpersonal values pertaining
to the ideal of optimal health or well-being. These include seeking self-transcen-
dence, working toward personal balance and integration of self, and establishing
harmony between oneself and others. As a person experiences profound con-
nection with others, the value of compassion naturally arises (Dass & Gorman,
1985). Transpersonal compassion goes beyond the ordinary ideas of selfishness
or altruism. True self-actualization is reciprocal with other’s actualization; the
true Self is not limited to or owned by any one person or culture. The true Self is
one with all beings. Therefore, according to transpersonal theory, compassion is
to be extended actively toward all beings, not just human beings.

Social Work Implications

The transpersonal helping relationship is modeled on the principles of uncon-
ditional love and mutual compassion (Cowley, 1996). All clients are viewed as
having unconditional worth and unlimited possibilities for growth, regardless
of present difficulties. The social work value of self-determination is extended
to mean that each client’s self-defined spiritual strengths, resources, and aspira-
tions should be the focus of attention in practice. In this process, starting wher-
ever the client’s goals and needs, the potential for growth is encouraged. Th is
is a mutual process, because the social worker grows through this relationship
(Forster, McColl, & Fardella, 2007). From a transpersonal perspective, the help-
ing situation is an opportunity for both client and worker to deepen insight and
to grow toward their highest potentials (Robbins et al., 2006). Derezotes (2006)
draws on transpersonal theory in his model of spiritually oriented social work
practice. He says that the spiritually oriented social worker supports the spiritual
development of the client according to the client’s goals and spiritual beliefs. The
social worker also seeks mutual benefit for client, family, community, and nat-
ural ecosystem.
Transpersonal social work helps people to address situations of suffering and
existential confusion, first by establishing a clear sense of self-esteem and iden-
tity, and second, by helping people to go beyond the limits of the ego-bounded
self-identity. Crises are opportunities for growth, because crises fracture the per-
son’s ordinary psychosocial status quo and open up new possibilities (Canda,
1988c; Canda & Smith, 2001; Smith, 1995; Smith & Gray, 1995). Certain kinds of
Nonsectarian Spiritual Perspectives 195

crises directly relate to spiritual development, such as a crisis of faith, question-

ing of religious affi liation, or confusion resulting from experience of new states of
consciousness through practice of meditation, prayer, or ritual. Even dying can
be an opportunity for transpersonal growth (Nakashima, 2007). Transpersonal
social work is especially interested in helping clients to optimize the possibility
for transformation to an enhanced transpersonal awareness and creative rela-
tions with others (Moxley & Washington, 2001; Nixon, 2005).
Transpersonal theory challenges social work to broaden its conception of
the person and environment (Canda, 1988c; Canda & Smith, 2001; Robbins et al.,
2006). According to transpersonal theory, a person is not just an ego-limited
self. The environment is not just the small range of the relationships a client has
with significant others, which is usually the focus in practice. Rather the person
and environment are viewed as systemically interrelated and fundamentally one.
Social work’s commitment to assist personal fulfillment is thereby extended to
self-transcendence. Social work’s commitment to environmental supports and jus-
tice is extended to global justice and harmony for the entire life web of the planet.
Further, personal strengths are recognized to include intuition, beyond egoistic
emotion and thinking (Luoma, 1998). Environmental resources are recognized to
include the beauty and inspiration of nature as well as the client’s experiences of
spiritual beings and the ground of being itself (Besthorn & Canda, 2002).
Cowley (1996) suggested that transpersonalists can utilize any theories or
techniques for social work practice that fit the developmental level and interests
of the client. Theories that are particularly well suited to address the transegoic
levels of development are Jungian archetypal theory, Assagioli’s psychosynthesis,
Grof’s holotropic theory, and Wilber’s spectrum model of development. Larkin
(2005) and Thomas (2004) offered Wilber’s integral model as a way to bring
together insights from many different theories to understand both subjective and
objective aspects of individual and societal systems.
Transpersonal clinical skills and techniques could include any of those previ-
ously listed under existential social work, as well as meditation, yoga, disciplined
breathing techniques, guided visualization and healing imagery, holistic body
therapies, therapeutic use of symbolism and ritual, biofeedback, self-reflective
journaling, art and music therapies, and deep relaxation exercises (Robbins et al.,
2006). In addition, transpersonal social workers should assess whether clients uti-
lize any particular religious beliefs, practices, and support systems. If so, religion-
specific symbols, rituals, healing practices, and means of seeking reconciliation
or support in community can be utilized, either by collaboration and refer-
ral with relevant religious helpers, or by direct use by a qualified social worker
(Derezotes, 2006a; Derezotes & Evans, 1995). When social workers further rec-
ognize the human/nature interrelationship, additional micro- and macropractice
issues come to the fore, such as connections between environmental damage and
exploitation of low income communities and Indigenous peoples; energy waste
and pollution generated through social services provision; anxiety and stress
related disorders due to toxic work conditions; and depression related to loss of
196 exploring spiritual diversity

cherished places (Besthorn & Canda, 2002; Coates, Grey, & Hetherington, 2006;
Keefe, 2003; Muldoon, 2006; Ungar, 2002). Clinical practice can attend to thera-
peutic effects of intimate connections between people, pets, and wilderness. The
quality of human/nature connections in the client’s living place can be assessed
for qualities of human/nature mutual benefit and harmony. Clients who cherish
transpersonal experiences of communion with nature can be encouraged to draw
on them to sustain well-being in times of distress and crisis.

Comparison of Spiritual Perspectives on Service

Tables 5.1 and 6.1 summarize and compare key ideas of the nine spiritual per-
spectives on social service reviewed in Chapters 5 and 6. The tables can assist the
following comparison. The comparative summary of religious perspectives on
beliefs and psychotherapy issues in Richards and Bergin (2000) is an excellent
supplement to our discussion.

Comparison of Basic Beliefs

The Beliefs columns are organized according to issues and themes found in all
spiritual traditions: (1) the nature of ultimate reality; (2) major authoritative
sources for beliefs; and (3) propositions about the nature of human existence, suf-
fering, and ways to resolve suffering. A broad contrast is between spiritual per-
spectives that invest primary authority for truth in divine revelation and inspired
scriptures (i.e. Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and some forms of Hinduism), those
that hold certain texts in high esteem as teachings of enlightened or sagely fig-
ures (i.e. Buddhism and Confucianism), and those that emphasize direct personal
experience, guidance by living spiritual teachers, and unwritten community tra-
dition (i.e. Indigenous religions, Zen Buddhism, some forms of Hinduism, exis-
tentialism, transpersonal theory, and contemplative forms of Christianity, Islam,
and Judaism).
Some of the perspectives are theistic (i.e. Christianity, Judaism, and Islam;
some existentialists and transpersonalists, and some forms of Indigenous reli-
gions and Hinduism). Zen Buddhism, particularly as portrayed in the social work
literature, neither affirms nor denies theistic concepts, so it may be described as
nontheistic. Confucianism acknowledges the influence of heaven’s will and cos-
mic forces (such as yin and yang), but does not formulate an idea of a personal
deity. Existentialism encompasses theistic, atheistic, and agnostic variations. Like
Zen, it emphasizes the primacy of direct experience. Indigenous religions encom-
pass animistic and theistic beliefs. Transpersonal theory appreciates diversity of
belief systems within the context of holistic, inclusive, and integral worldview.
Regarding human nature, all perspectives recognize suffering and alien-
ation as basic to the human condition. Despite contrasting beliefs about whether
people are innately good, sinful, or undetermined, each perspective sees that
Nonsectarian Spiritual Perspectives 197

Table 6.1. Comparison of Nonsectarian Spiritual Perspectives on Service.

Perspective Beliefs Values Service

Existential (1) Theistic/atheis- (1) Primary life (1) I-Thou and freedom
tic/ nontheistic task to take promoting helping
varieties. responsibility relationship.
(2) Beliefs from for making/ (2) Aim to help client
direct experience discovering overcome inner and
and questioning meaning. outer barriers to
conventions. (2) Commitment free and responsible
(3) People are free; to uphold free- action.
experience is dom and dig- (3) Uses humanistic,
intersubjective; nity of person. eclectic, change pro-
people must cope (3) Mutual caring moting, client-cen-
with suffering and support tered, and experiential
by authentically between people. techniques.
making meaning.
Transpersonal (1) Theistic/atheistic/ (1) Primary life (1) Client-centeredness
animistic/nonthe- task is to attain and mutuality in help-
istic varieties. self integration, ing relationship.
(2) Beliefs from many ego-transcen- (2) Aim to help client
cultural contexts; dence and har- actualize and tran-
philosophical, mony with all. scend self in fulfi lling
scientific, and (2) Commitment relations with all
spiritual inquiry; to help indi- others.
personal and viduals achieve (3) May use religious and
transpersonal full potential nonreligious helping
experiences. within just practices as client
(3) Human nature society and wishes, e.g. medi-
is oriented balanced world tation, ritual, body
toward growth ecology. therapies, healing
to establish ego (3) Mutual benefit imagery, dream work,
and transcend it, between self- collaboration with
integrating whole actualization spiritual community,
self, others, and and other actu- wilderness retreats,
cosmos. alization. activism for environ-
mental justice.

Revised and expanded from Canda, 1988b; used with permission of publisher.

human beings have an innate drive to stop suffering by developing a sense of

meaning, purpose, and fulfi lling relationships. For Zen, this involves seeking
enlightenment through direct experience. For Confucianism, this requires con-
stant cultivation of one’s benevolent nature and expressing it in relationships.
For Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, it involves alignment with the will of God
in all aspects of life. In Indigenous religions, it involves finding balance and har-
mony in relationships between individuals, family, community, and all relations
of the local place and the earth and sky. Existentialism and transpersonal theory
offer a wide variety of ways to confront the fact of suffering with courage, soli-
darity among people, and transcendence of egotism, ethnocentrism, religiocen-
trism, and humanocentrism.
198 exploring spiritual diversity

All perspectives agree that human existence is intrinsically relational.

Individual fulfi llment is only possible through moral relations between self, soci-
ety, the nonhuman world, and ultimate reality. Traditionally, all the religions
tend to define standards of moral relationship in terms that are specific to cul-
tural or religious institutional norms and customs. In contrast, existentialism
and transpersonal theory emphasize that moral standards naturally arise from
authentic moment-to-moment interactions, rather than from norms or regula-
tions. These perspectives, as well as postmodern versions of the religious per-
spectives, question traditional religious and social norms and encourage people
to form their own beliefs based on exploration of alternatives, critical thinking,
and accommodation of human diversity in all its forms.

Comparison of Basic Values

The Values columns are organized according to the following themes: the pri-
mary purpose or task of human life; commitments to principles of service; and
basic moral orientation toward service.
While there is great diversity of beliefs, there is a striking similarity of fun-
damental values among these perspectives. Each perspective upholds the inher-
ent dignity of people. Some perspectives emphasize individual autonomy and
responsibility (American Zen, existentialism, and some versions of transpersonal
theory) while traditional religions emphasize interdependency and collectivity.
Yet every perspective advocates for caring and just relations between people,
the nonhuman world, and ultimate reality. Indeed, each perspective asserts that
compassion toward others is the natural outcome of authentic communion in
relationships.
However, the monotheistic traditions tend to emphasize compassion toward
fellow human beings. Although all of creation should be respected as God’s cre-
ation, human beings typically are seen as stewards of this creation, set above it.
Traditional Indigenous religions emphasize that respect, balance, and harmony
should pervade human relations and relations with all things, including the non-
human plants, animals, and spirit powers. Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism,
and some forms of transpersonal theory and ecophilosophy extend compassion
to all beings in the universe. In these Asian religious traditions, humans are
regarded as specially privileged with self-consciousness and capacity for spiritual
awakening; concomitantly, this special privilege entails special responsibility to
care for the earth.
In each of these perspectives, the prerequisite for genuine compassion toward
others is transcendence of one’s own selfish desires. In essence, one’s own fulfi ll-
ment requires a life of communion between self, society, the nonhuman world,
and ultimate reality. This means that compassion must be joined with justice. Of
course, the specific meanings of compassion and justice vary tremendously by
traditions, spiritual community, and situational applications. Of course, these
values are high ideals that few individuals or spiritual groups attain.
Nonsectarian Spiritual Perspectives 199

Comparison of Basic Approaches to Service and Social Work

The columns on Service address three themes: (1) the ideal quality of the helping
relationship; (2) the basic aim of helping; (3) particular helping strategies and
techniques.
Given the common value commitment to compassionate, just, and moral
relationships, each perspective approaches the helping relationship as one of
mutual growth and benefit. Each perspective is also holistic and ecological in
addressing the connection of bio-psycho-social and spiritual aspects of the client
and community. Each perspective sees the primary aim of helping as enabling
the client to overcome suffering and alienation in terms of both subsistence and
fulfi llment needs. Therefore, the client is helped to heighten awareness of self and
environment in order to establish mutually beneficial relationships.
Each perspective utilizes various techniques of prayer, meditation, ritual,
and social supports to assist both client and social worker. Each perspective
asserts that the professional helper must engage in his or her own process of
coming to terms with suffering and alienation in order to help clients effectively
and to model the process successfully for the client. Each perspective is also open
to cooperation between social workers and religious specialists. However, some
adherents of all religious traditions may be suspicious of social workers who
come from different religious or cultural backgrounds. Trust must be earned
in order to enjoin religious beliefs and practices and to cooperate with religious
specialists of helping and healing. Spiritually derived helping practices can either
be in a form specific to a particular perspective matching the client’s perspective,
or, can be in a generic form without explicit religious content (such as the mind-
fulness component in general stress management meditation).

Engaging in Dialogue and Cooperation Across

Spiritual Perspectives

In Part I, we advocated for an inclusive approach to spirituality in social work that

respects diverse religious and nonreligious forms of spirituality through spiritu-
ally sensitive and culturally competent practice in accord with professional eth-
ical principles. Inclusion does not mean ignoring differences and disagreements.
It does not mean forcing others into artificial or self-serving spiritual assump-
tions. Rather, inclusion means inviting others into dialogue and cooperation, as
whole people, within the helping process.
This is a tall order. As we have seen in Part II, there are numerous variations
of spiritual perspectives and associated practice issues and controversies—far too
many for any one social worker to master them all. However, each social worker
can adopt an inclusive attitude and respectful behavior in each practice situation.
The spiritually sensitive social worker should pursue the development of knowl-
edge and skills specific to the spiritual perspectives of particular clients and their
communities by following the leads and suggestions provided in this book.
200 exploring spiritual diversity

This requires the social worker to form a personal framework of spiritual

beliefs, values, and practices that encourage an inclusive approach. An inclusive
approach could be established on the basis of any of the spiritual perspectives
that we reviewed in Part II. As we noted, each perspective contains implica-
tions and insights that can be applied in service to its adherents, both by social
workers who share the perspective and by others who wish to cooperate with
it. Further, social work writings on each perspective have identified underlying
principles and practices that can be applied to innovative conceptions and prac-
tices of social work in general, without restriction to sectarian settings or partic-
ular religious language.
Significant communication and cooperation with clients and community-
based spiritual supports require us to engage in cross-perspective dialogue that
facilitates the helping alliance as well as our own continual growth in inclusive
consciousness and behavior. A spiritually inclusive approach to social work must
be practical. This takes more than lip service. We must be and act in a genuinely
inclusive manner.
The goals of the Parliament of the World’s Religions (2004) are apropos.
Through encounter and celebration among people of widely varied religious and
spiritual traditions, we can deepen spirituality and experience personal transfor-
mation; recognize the humanity of the other in a broadened sense of community;
foster mutual understanding and respect; learn to live in harmony with diver-
sity; seek peace, justice, and sustainability; and actively work for a better world.
According to the Parliament, “Too often, religion is misused as an instrument
for division and injustice, betraying the very ideals and teachings that lie at the
heart of each of the world’s great traditions. At the same time, religious and spir-
itual traditions shape the lives of billions in wise and wonderful ways. . . . When
these diverse communities work in harmony for the common good, there is hope
that the world can be transformed” (http://www.parliamentofreligions.org/index.
cfm?n+1 retrieved August 4, 2008). The organization Religions for Peace (2007,
p. 1) puts it this way: “At a time in history when pervasive violence threatens the
human family and religion is portrayed in the headlines worldwide as a source of
violent conflict and human suffering, religious communities face a stark choice:
the status quo that leads to escalating violence or the path of multi-religious
cooperation for peace.” We add that this challenge faces people of all spiritual
perspectives, religious or nonreligious. Given social work’s commitment to well-
being and justice for all people, we believe that the ideals and practical actions of
cross-perspective dialogue are extremely pertinent and timely.
The Museum for World Peace in Kyoto, Japan is dedicated to such an ideal
of peace through dialogue and cooperation. A large mural there depicts the fire-
bird of peace, which like the legendary phoenix, rises from the ashes of wartime
conflagrations into a new life of peace among nations (Figure 6.1). Although this
image was inspired by World War II, we believe it is a valuable metaphor for the
way social workers could contribute to local, national, and global peace.
Nonsectarian Spiritual Perspectives 201

Figure 6.1. The firebird of peace.

Steps for Dialogue Across Spiritual Perspectives

Raimon Panikkar, an influential figure in the field of interreligious dialogue,
offered valuable insights about prerequisites for genuine dialogue between people
of different spiritual perspectives. Pannikar is a Catholic priest who was raised by
a Spanish Catholic mother and an Indian Hindu father. He considers himself to be
fully Catholic and fully Hindu, not either/or a little of one and a little of another.
His personal experience gives depth to his approach to dialogue. He said that gen-
uine interreligious dialogue must be based on experiences of deep interaction. “As
long as I do not open my heart and do not see that the other is not an other but
a part of myself who enlarges and completes me, I will not arrive at dialogue. If
I embrace you, then I understand you” (2000, p. 834). His methodology for dia-
logue can be summarized in seven steps, which we adapt for social work purposes
(Krieger, 1996; Idliby, Oliver, & Warner, 2006; Raines, 2004). We add an eighth
step, bringing the dialogue into cooperative social service action. Social workers
can use these steps to learn from each other and members of the local commu-
nity. This is a process that can take many encounters. The steps are not linear;
they cycle and recycle through each other. While the steps might be modified to
support discussion with clients to learn more about their spiritual perspectives,
the helping relationship should stay focused on the goals of the client rather than
cross-perspective dialogue per se. The eight steps are summarized in Table 6.2.

Step : Understanding One’s Own Perspective Spiritual sensitivity

to others starts with spiritual sensitivity to oneself. We must know ourselves well
at a deep level. We need to be aware and clear about our spiritual beliefs, val-
ues, and implications for our practice as a social worker. We need to understand
how this is derived from and illuminated by the spiritual tradition or traditions
to which we are committed. This requires introspective insight as well as seri-
ous study of our inherited or chosen traditions. We also need to be aware and
202 exploring spiritual diversity

Table 6.2 Steps for Dialogue Across Spiritual Perspectives.

1. Understanding one’s own perspective
2. Learning about another’s spiritual perspective
3. Transforming ourselves
4. Engaging in spiritual dialogue with ourselves
5. Engaging in spiritual dialogue with others
6. All partners in dialogue engaging the previous five steps
7. Checking understandings with the partner in dialogue
8. Engaging in active cooperation for service

honest about our stereotypes and misgivings about other spiritual perspectives.
We need to process our internal chatter of negative judgments as well as anxiety
about encounters with people and situations that are unfamiliar or that stretch
us past our comfort zones.

Step : Learning about Another’s Spiritual Perspective Dialogue

presupposes more than one person and more than one perspective. In order to
prepare, we need to engage in serious study of another’s spiritual perspective
and its implications for social work. The summaries of spiritual perspectives and
the learning exercises of Part II of this book are helpful as a start. To do this
seriously requires concerted research, reading, internet exploration, and visits to
sites and teachers relevant to the perspective.

Step : Transforming Ourselves Deep encounter with a new spiritual

perspective necessarily engenders self-transformation. If one takes seriously
the worldview, rituals, and helping practices of another tradition, and to some
extent enters this perspective, one cannot avoid being transformed. This is gen-
uine communication—“communing with.” Who we are becomes inclusive of
the other spiritual perspective. This is not likely to happen with one encounter,
unless we prepare very well ahead of time. In fact, if we are not careful, a single
encounter can lead to misunderstandings and reinforce stereotypes. Thorough
self-transformation grows as we commit ourselves on a long-term basis to cross-
perspective learning. We must be willing to engage with differentness and stretch
beyond our comfort zones.

Step : Engaging in Spiritual Dialogue with Ourselves As we

continue to engage our own tradition, we engage with another. As we reflect
internally on the transformation happening within us, we need to dialogue
within ourselves between the two perspectives, to bring them into communion
with each other within our own hearts.

Step : Engaging in Spiritual Dialogue with Others Genuine

encounter with others brings into sharp relief the distinctiveness and disagree-
ments between our positions. It also opens the possibility for fi nding common
ground and empathy. Dialogue with people of different spiritual perspectives,
Nonsectarian Spiritual Perspectives 203

going beyond just reading and thinking about it, makes the encounter very real
and practical. This is what happens in social work practice. We must find very
practical ways to honor the client’s spiritual path, to help him or her along it,
or to change course, according to her or his own terms. We stretch our minds,
hearts, and actions and broaden our spiritual vantage. This opens the possibility
for mutual growth and transformation throughout the helping encounter.

Step : All Partners in Dialogue Engaging the Previous Five

Steps If we extend ourselves in dialogue across spiritual perspectives in the gen-
eral community and with professional colleagues, all partners in the process need
to engage the previous steps. “It takes two to tango” as the saying goes. Otherwise,
we have monologue or diatribe designed to control rather than to grow.
This step is different in relation to clients. It is not reasonable (nor often rele-
vant) to expect clients to transform their spiritual perspective in relation to ours.
That is not usually what they are seeking. Yet a genuine I-Thou helping relation-
ship is naturally mutually transforming. In some cases, a client is seeking help to
address questions, dilemmas, or new possibilities related to her or his spiritual
perspective. These steps of dialogue could enhance the therapeutic process as
long as they serve the purpose and beliefs of the client.

Step : Checking Understandings with the Partner in

Dialogue As we weave through these steps of dialogue, our understanding
of the other spiritual perspective will change. We form interpretations of for-
merly alien ideas to make them understandable to ourselves. We try to find areas
of agreement, common purpose, or common language. As we do this, it is nec-
essary to check the understandings with the client or other representatives of
the other spiritual perspective. If they do not confirm our understandings, we
need to reexamine our views. The purpose of dialogue is not to impose our own
understandings on others. We also need to give feedback to the partners in dia-
logue about their understandings of our own spiritual perspective.

Step : Engaging in Active Cooperation for Service For social

work purposes, the reason to engage in dialogue is to enhance service. Enhanced
understanding, including empathy, knowledge, and skill for connecting with
others, should be applied to effective action. Dialogue becomes the basis for
cooperation with the spiritual strengths and resources of clients and their com-
munities. Part III explains how to do this.

Personal and Professional Issues Regarding

Cross-Perspective Cooperation
We advocate for respectful cooperation within and across spiritual perspectives
in social work. We discussed many innovations and benefits that can result from
this. We also indicated some dangers in superficial, condescending, coercive, or
204 exploring spiritual diversity

unskillful attempts to connect across spiritual perspectives. The steps for dia-
logue just described can help avoid these dangers. I (EC) would like to take this
further now by considering more deeply the cultural and political contexts of
cross-perspective dialogue and cooperation based on my own experience. I do
not suggest that others should follow my spiritual path. But since my experience
involves interreligious dialogue and practice to a major degree, it offers an exam-
ple of possible benefits and concerns.

A Light of Many Colors

I have been blessed as a student, friend, and colleague of teachers and healers
from many different spiritual perspectives. I have already mentioned the impor-
tance to me of my Roman Catholic heritage. The teaching and guidance of my
extended family, Catholic religious teachers, and spiritual directors provided my
spiritual foundation. By facing both the positive and negative aspects of Catholic
tradition and history, I have learned to become more realistic. Particularly the
mystical, activist, and interreligious aspects of the Catholic tradition, as repre-
sented by the monk Thomas Merton (1961, 1968a, 1968b), have been the most
important to me.
I have also been fortunate to be taught, guided, mentored, and helped
along my way by wise friends and elders of other Christian denominations,
Confucianism, Buddhism, Korean shamanistic traditions, Indigenous North
American spiritual ways, and earth-centered spiritualities. They have nurtured,
encouraged, challenged, and helped me. They opened my mind to new ways of
experiencing and living. They opened my heart to a greater sense of compassion
for all. And they gave me skills of prayer, meditation, and ritual for my own
replenishment and for the help of others (Canda, 2009).
I met my wife, Hwi-Ja, in Seoul, Korea when I was a Graduate Fellow of
East Asian Philosophy at Sungkyunkwan University from 1976 to 1977. In our
personal lives, we have brought insights and practices together from our Euro-
American and East Asian spiritual traditions. She grew up in a rather traditional
family that drew on Confucianism, Buddhism, and shamanism while encour-
aging exploration of Christianity, without any sense of tension. I have studied
and engaged in Buddhist and Confucian spiritual practices over many years. My
wife (who became a Catholic) and I have been members of an inclusive religious
community named Shantivanam, the Forest of Peace Catholic House of Prayer,
in Kansas since 1989.
My personal life, relationships with family and friends, and professional
work have grown from this spiritual diversity. To me, all the insights and helping
approaches of these spiritual perspectives are wonderful and precious, including
the learning that comes from dealing with tensions and disappointments along
the way. Living in harmony with them all feels very natural and ordinary. But
that is certainly not the case for everyone I meet along the way. Many people
expect me to fit into a particular religious box. Often, if someone asks about my
Nonsectarian Spiritual Perspectives 205

spiritual perspective, they frame the question like a multiple choice test: You must
select one and only one answer from the options given, and if you don’t pick the
correct one, you are wrong. Sometimes this comes from a rigid, authoritarian way
of thinking that views all spiritual ways, other than one’s own, as wrong. This
may also come from people who have a very sincere and admirable commitment
to their own tradition, while respecting others. They may feel that to draw on
multiple spiritual perspectives can only lead to confusion or dilution.
During my visit to a Lao Buddhist temple in the Midwest, a monk asked me
about my practice of Buddhist meditation. I had stayed overnight with the monks
and participated in their religious practices, so he wanted to know more about
my spiritual orientation. I used the metaphor of sunlight. I said that sunlight
appears to be one color that we call white. However, when we hold a prism to
the light, we see it displayed as a brilliant array of colors, all finely blended from
one to another, even going beyond our ability to see. I said that I understand
spiritual truth that way. There is one light of truth that encompasses all. But it
can be perceived according to many different colors, each one in its distinctness
brilliant and beautiful and yet inseparable from the complete white light. Some
people choose to live within one band of spiritual color. Others perceive truth
in multiple bands and may even be able to move between them. I explained that
this is the spiritual way to which I am committed.
The monk said that unless I followed only one spiritual way, I would never
get very far. In a friendly manner, he urged me to dedicate my life to the supreme
Buddha Way if I had any hope of attaining enlightenment. His comment was
a valuable warning against superficial eclecticism, wishy washy spirituality, or
undisciplined wavering between this, that, and the other thing. I have heard
similar admonitions from teachers in many religious traditions. However, his
comment also missed my point. For me at least, this way of commitment to spir-
itual diversity, even in my personal life, is itself a particular discipline. In any
case, to be authentic, I cannot be any other way.
Although I do not recommend my personal spiritual style to others, I do feel
that there are very practical reasons that social workers must be able to at least
appreciate the many colors of spiritual insight shining through their clients. Just
as practice across different cultural contexts requires a bicultural, multicultural,
or even transcultural approach (while remaining faithful to one’s own cultural
identity and way of life), just so practice across different spiritual perspectives
requires an inclusive spiritual approach.
Dialogue and cooperation open the possibility to work for peace even across
conflicting views.

Interreligious Tension and Cooperation: The Example of

Refugee Resettlement
Refugee resettlement serves as an excellent illustration of the practical rami-
fications of cooperation across spiritual perspectives. Th roughout most of
206 exploring spiritual diversity

the 1980s, one of my (EC) major areas of service was practice, training, and
research in regard to Southeast Asian refugees. Although refugee influx to
the United States is mainly from other world regions now, the underlying
issues of dialogue and cooperation remain. In resettlement and postresettle-
ment services, a complex set of international, national, state, and local orga-
nizations must cooperate. The United Nations, International Red Cross, U.S.
Immigration and Naturalization Service, Lutheran Immigration and Refugee
Services, Catholic Migration and Refugee Services, local Christian congrega-
tions, local Buddhist temples, mental health centers, and state human service
departments are just a few of those involved. Each organization represents
various secular or religious humanitarian values and perspectives that must
link for all this to work well.
The principle of separation of church and state complicates this. Much refu-
gee resettlement is channeled through cooperation with religious organizations.
When they receive federal funds, they cannot proselytize or impose religious
beliefs on the refugee clients. However, the religious ethos of service pervades
the entire process of sponsorship and helping. On a practical level, many con-
gregations and family sponsors for refugee families have personal agendas to
welcome the refugee into the religious community to offer fellowship. Yet most
Southeast Asian refugees came from non-Christian traditions and practices,
such as Buddhism, Confucianism, and animism.
In order to explore this complexity, in 1990, I informally interviewed more
than 20 active participants in refugee resettlement about their experience with
interreligious and sectarian/nonsectarian connections. They represented many
vantage points: public refugee program administrators in two states, voluntary
religious agency staff, church-based volunteer refugee sponsors, private nation-
ally known consultants, federal Office of Refugee Resettlement administrators,
refugee ethnic mutual assistance association leaders, and shamans and monks
in Southeast Asian refugee communities. The following discussion is based on
these informal interviews, as well as my observations during 9 years of involve-
ment with Southeast Asian refugee services.
I observed three areas of possible tension in interreligious cooperation.
First, some representatives of refugee communities told me that they felt torn
between loyalty to their original religious beliefs and the expectation of their
local Christian sponsor that they convert or participate in the sponsor’s reli-
gious group. Commonly, Buddhist refugees told me that they felt comfortable
combining Christian and non-Christian beliefs and practices, since they all have
aspects of truth, caring, and helpfulness. However, if the Christian sponsor had
an exclusive view of spirituality, then the refugee was put in a bind. Respondents
typically said that they felt gratitude and indebtedness to their Christian spon-
sors, so they did not want to disappoint or alienate them. Neither did they want
to abandon the religious and cultural traditions that were precious to them. So
refugee respondents often said, “Please don’t tell my sponsor about my continued
practice of my traditional religion. I don’t want to cause trouble.”
Nonsectarian Spiritual Perspectives 207

Second, some professional refugee resettlement staff told me that they

believe some religious voluntary agencies do not want the federal government
to know about the religious pressures exerted upon refugees, because that might
jeopardize their public funding. So the topic is rarely discussed openly. It should
be noted, however, that the official policies of religiously based refugee services,
such as Lutheran and Catholic, prohibit imposing religious beliefs on clients.
According to interviewees, the difficulty usually comes at the local congregation
and family sponsor level.
Third, some staff at refugee service programs, health and mental health
organizations, and church volunteers exhibited the belief that Asian religions
and traditional healing practices are primitive, superstitious, or even demonic.
Therefore, staff may neglect to engage them in cooperative helping or may encour-
age proselytization and acculturation to Euro-American social conventions.
In one case, a Hmong couple brought their sick infant to a hospital. The
physicians diagnosed a cancer in the eyes that would require surgical treatment,
resulting in blindness. The parents were shocked and sought traditional sha-
manistic healing as an alternative. Child welfare workers and physicians became
upset about the parents’ delay in obtaining conventional treatment. They also
regarded the traditional healing as bizarre. They obtained custody of the child
by court order. According to news media investigators, the judge said that the
parents’ religious beliefs (Hmong shamanism) were not common in America,
and so did not deserve protection. The primary pediatrician said to me, “They
are in our country now so they better do things our way.” The infant was placed
in the hospital for mandated treatment. By now, the parents felt alienated and
persecuted, much as they had under conditions of war and refugee flight in
Laos. The professional helpers became the enemy. So the parents “stole” their
child from the hospital and fled to a Hmong community in another state. They
became “kidnappers!”
When refugee advocates became involved, they discovered that the profes-
sional helpers had not used translators and had not collaborated with refugee
sponsors or Hmong community leaders. The parents did not fully understand
what was happening to them and their baby, except for the obvious threat. The
cultural and spiritual arrogance on the part of the helpers destroyed the helping
relationship. Fortunately, the parents found a set of professional helpers in the
new community who engaged a multicultural and spiritually sensitive approach.
The child received necessary treatments while the family also benefited from the
Hmong community supports and traditional religious practices.
Despite these three areas of tension, it has been inspiring to see the generally
high level of cooperation across spiritual perspectives and religious institutions
in refugee resettlement. Many Southeast Asian refugees are comfortable com-
bining beliefs and religious practices from different traditions in their personal
lives. Sometimes, this is based on a philosophical principle, such as the view of
many Buddhists that all spiritual paths can lead to truth. Sometimes, this is a
matter of doing “whatever works” as when an ill Cambodian refugee consults a
208 exploring spiritual diversity

shaman, a Buddhist monk, a Christian minister, and a Western style physician

in order to find a cure for an intractable problem.
Spiritual diversity calls for creative responses within refugee families as
well. For example, a Cambodian community leader told me that Buddhism is
very important to him as an integral part of cultural heritage and as a source
of spiritual guidance. Yet, he explained, his children, who have grown up in the
United States, have become more comfortable practicing within a Christian con-
text, because most of their peers and friends are Christian and Christianity is a
major aspect of the American cultural milieu. This father encouraged his chil-
dren to attend the local Methodist church and often accompanies them. In addi-
tion, he educated them about Cambodian traditional culture and religion. He
encouraged them to attend the Buddhist temple for special religious festivals and
for learning Cambodian language and traditional arts. He viewed the Christian
message of love and the Buddhist message of compassion to be compatible. The
family has learned to combine both spiritual ways.
Some health and mental heath centers have traditional Asian medicine prac-
titioners on staff and will refer clients to shamans, monks, and traditional healers
as needed. Many Christian sponsors feel that the best way they can witness to their
faith is to help the client on her or his own terms, rather than to impose their own
religious agenda. For example, one of my Lao Buddhist clients was having severe
cross-cultural adjustment stress. He participated in the sponsor’s church services
comfortably. But he felt that the local Buddhist temple could help him through his
crisis. So the Christian sponsor, who was also a pastor, gladly arranged for him
to live for a time at the temple. There, the monks counseled the Lao client, guided
his practice of meditation, and performed healing rituals for him.
A more recent project illustrates the importance of the social worker plac-
ing the common good above personal issues in interreligious cooperation. From
2000 to 2005, The United Methodist Health Ministry Fund of Hutchinson,
Kansas provided generous funding for me to create the Project for Health
Through Faith and Community. This project developed curricular materials to
help adult members of Christian congregations to link their personal faith with
health and well-being in the family, community, nation, and world. It also devel-
oped online resources promoting broad understanding of spiritual diversity and
its contributions to health and social welfare (Canda, Ketchell, Dybicz, Pyles, &
Nelson-Becker, 2006; Spiritual Diversity and Social Work Resource Center via
www.socwel.ku.edu/canda). The Fund’s conception of and support for this pro-
ject showed how Christian faith and dedication to service can bring people of
many spiritual perspectives together.
Although the Fund promoted this inclusive approach, not everyone I met
shared it. For example, when I was giving a presentation at a United Methodist
conference on spirituality and health, I briefly alluded to insights from Tibetan
Buddhism to help people prepare spiritually for dying. A pastor strongly
objected that non-Christian ideas should not be introduced. Another mem-
ber of the group leaned over toward me and whispered, “They are all going to
Nonsectarian Spiritual Perspectives 209

hell anyway!” Others in the group disagreed with them and indicated interest.
In this situation, I had to be aware of my internal feeling of being offended so
that I could hold my reaction in abeyance. This allowed me to listen to all views
and to help discussion and cooperation continue. The important thing was not
my own opinion or feeling reaction, but rather how I could facilitate a valuable
learning experience and helpful outcome for the group. During the 5 years of the
project, I had to study the nuances of theological differences between and within
denominations and how these played out in Kansas communities. I had to learn
how to work with a religiously diverse and multidisciplinary advisory group. My
project team had to stretch beyond our comfort zones in order to help increase
the health, peace, and justice zone in the wider community.

Conclusion

Part I established fundamental values and concepts for spiritually sensitive social
work practice. Part II presented a more detailed base of knowledge regarding
spiritual diversity and implications for practice. Part III builds on this material
to apply a spiritually sensitive approach to social work practice.

EXERCISES

.. Exploring Nonsectarian Spiritual Perspectives on Service

Return to the exercise at the end of Chapter 5 (5.1) on exploring religious per-
spectives on service. Apply the steps to learn more about the nonsectarian exis-
tential or transpersonal perspectives on social work.

.. Dialogue Across Spiritual Perspectives

Think through the eight steps for dialogue across spiritual perspectives to help
you refine your exploration begun in Exercises 5.1 or 6.1. Reexamine how you
have begun to explore one of the perspectives in light of these steps for dialogue.
Engage in a dialogue process with a person or group, completing as many of the
steps as possible. If you only meet once for this purpose, keep your goals for the
discussion modest. Do not engage in controversial or painful discussion, since
one meeting is not enough to work through those issues. Focus on respectful
questioning, listening, and sharing. It is not likely you can achieve deep mutual
understanding, but you could at least raise mutual awareness and respect. The
discussion can alert you to ways you can learn more about spiritual perspectives
relevant to your clients. If possible, meet the person or group at least two or
three times. Keep a journal that helps you process feelings and think about how
to improve each meeting. Consider how to apply your learning to enhance your
social work practice.
210 exploring spiritual diversity

If you wish to extend this further, you could invite a small group of people
to meet on an ongoing basis for mutual exploration of spiritual perspectives.
Idliby, Oliver, and Warner (2006) present excellent suggestions and examples
for how to create what they call a Faith Club for more personal, intimate, and
extended activities. While their suggestions focus on dialogue among people of
monotheistic religions, the principles could be adapted more broadly. Their book
tells the story of how three women—Muslim, Christian, and Jewish—came to
know each other and work through the difficulties and joys of sustained trans-
formative interfaith dialogue.

.. Extended Dialogue in Established Organizations

If you wish to pursue long-term interreligious dialogue and cooperation, explore
organizations dedicated to this purpose. For example, you could join initiatives
of the Parliament of the World’s Religions or Religions for Peace as mentioned
in this chapter. You may also discover local interreligious dialogue groups by
doing an internet search using key terms interfaith, ecumenical, or interreligious
together with nearby cities’ names. If you are near a university, check if there is
a Department of Religious Studies or a university based ecumenical or interfaith
organization. You could also become involved with a social service community
network that includes representation of a variety of religious and secular spon-
sored agencies.
 PART III

Spiritually Sensitive Social Work

in Action
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 7

Creating a Spiritually Sensitive

Context for Practice

You shall love your neighbor as yourself.

Leviticus 19:18, Judaism and Christianity
(Holy Bible, Revised Standard Version)

The purpose of Part III is to develop a general inclusive framework for spiritually
sensitive practice that is applicable to a wide range of religious and nonreligious
clients. This general framework can then be tailored to the particular spiritual
perspective of a given client and her or his community.
Mencius, the Confucian sage, said that if an archer shoots an arrow at a target
and misses, the archer should not blame the target, but rather look to oneself for
the mistake (Lau, trans., 1970). Spiritually sensitive practice stems from the social
worker’s close examination of self, the helping relationship, and the human service
organization as the context for helping. If the context for helping is not spiritually
sensitive, then success in supporting the client’s spiritual growth can only come
despite it. A shaky arm shooting an arrow at a target is a dangerous thing! As
Sheridan (1997) encouraged, social workers can nurture the soul of social work
by recognizing the spiritual aspect in all that we do. Then we can encourage col-
laborating among colleagues, leading creatively, organizing to improve the human
condition, supporting workers to enjoy their work, regarding clients as respected
partners in the helping process, and being stewards of the earth. Accordingly, in
this chapter we describe a spiritually sensitive approach to the helping relationship
and process and their organizational and environmental context.

The Helping Relationship and Process

All the spiritual perspectives on service that we reviewed emphasized that the
helping relationship is the foundation of spiritually sensitive service. The full

213
214 spiritually sensitive social work

humanity of both client and worker should be honored in the nature of the rela-
tionship itself. Talk about spiritual ideals is empty without embodying those ide-
als in action and relationship. Principle and practicality need to join. We begin
our discussion of spiritually sensitive practice with five guiding principles for all
aspects of the helping relationship and context. These principles draw on the val-
ues and ethical guidelines established in Part I, as well as the common themes of
the spiritual perspectives presented in Part II. We offer suggestions and examples
for putting each principle into action. These illustrations make clear that spiritu-
ally sensitive practice is not merely a matter of discussing religion or spirituality
with clients. Spiritually sensitive practice is a way of being and relating through-
out the entire helping process. Every social work helping activity, from providing
access to food, shelter, and cash assistance, to in-depth discussion of life goals, to
community development work, can be conducted in a spiritually sensitive man-
ner without necessarily mentioning religion, faith, or spirituality. In our view,
spiritual sensitivity is the foundation of all good practice.
You will notice that many of these principles are consistent with standard
social work practice values and the values that pervade this book. We believe
that social work’s basic values reflect spiritual sensitivity, though they are not
always described as such. Further, these principles are eminently practical. For
example, over the past few decades, hundreds of empirical studies about factors
associated with enhanced client outcomes have shown that the helping relation-
ship is significant (Cooper, 2004; Elkins, 2005; Fitzpatrick & Irannejad, 2008;
Messer & Wampold, 2006; Pargament, 2007). As Elkins (p. 140) put it, “But what
does it mean that the relationship heals? From a spiritual perspective, I believe
this is another way of saying that the therapist nurtures the client’s soul, and
through this nurturing the client is healed. Love is the most powerful healer
of the suffering soul, and in the therapeutic relationship love takes the form of
empathy, respect, honesty, caring, and acceptance.”
In 1999, the American Psychological Association Division of Psychotherapy
Task Force conducted the largest ever review of empirical research on the ther-
apeutic relationship involving the feelings and attitudes shared and expressed
between therapist and client (Cooper, 2004). The study concluded that the
therapy relationship makes substantial contributions independent of type of
treatment and that practice guidelines should address these qualities. Three rela-
tional qualities have especially strong research support: collaborative relationship
between client and therapist; consensus and cooperation on treatment goals; and
therapist empathy. Seven additional qualities of therapists in relation with clients
were found to be promising and probably effective: positive regard; genuineness;
repairing tensions and breakdowns in relationship; appropriate professional self-
disclosure; giving feedback on clients’ ways of relating with others; and ability
not to act out toward clients with countertransference. Estimates of the impact
of relationship quality on variance in outcomes range from 7% to 30%. Miller,
Hubble, and Duncan’s (2008) review of numerous empirical studies on qualities
of excellence emphasizes the importance of getting clear ongoing feedback from
Creating A Spiritually Sensitive Context 215

clients about the relationship and progress toward outcomes, responding authen-
tically and practically to the feedback, and continually practicing to improve
performance throughout one’s career. This is a behavioral enactment of posi-
tive relationship qualities. All of this suggests that skills and techniques should
flow from a nurturing helping relationship and fit the specific circumstances and
goals of clients.

Value Clarity
The spiritually sensitive helping relationship is characterized by value clarity. The
worker needs to be clear about his or her feelings, opinions, beliefs, and moral
commitments that shape the approach to practice. One’s own strengths and
resources, including those based on spiritual and religious perspectives, need
to be identified and linked to social work in a way that is congruent with the
NASW Code of Ethics (see Chapter 2). One’s own limitations, biases, prejudices,
and negative attitudes also need to be identified, so that one can grow beyond
them. Major value commitments of the worker and agency that have an impact
on clients should be disclosed so that the client can exercise informed consent
or refusal of service.
For example, some social workers identify their mode of practice primarily
in religious terms, such as a “Christian social worker in a private group practice”.
In such a case, the name of the group practice, informational materials, and the
worker’s business card, should identify this clearly so that clients can decide
whether this is appropriate for her or him. But “Christian social worker” can
mean many different things. So the specific meaning of this and implications for
service should be explained in a brochure and initial meeting with the client.
Value clarity is a quality that should pervade the entire helping process.
Self-reflection by the worker and by the client and ongoing dialogue about the
process of helping should enhance each other. Value clarity requires openness to
explore and refine one’s values and moral and ethical understandings of oneself,
the client, and the helping process in an ongoing manner. This is the basis of
what existentialists call authentic faith.
Value clarity and ongoing self-reflectivity can be enhanced by regular activ-
ities of introspection. Traditional process recording can be very helpful (Wilson,
1980). We suggest that reflections on the interplay between the values, feelings,
thoughts, and actions of the worker and client include explicit attention to reli-
gious, moral, and spiritual concerns and dynamics.
The format for journaling that we explained in the exercises for Chapter 1
can be adapted to the practice setting. For example, the social worker can iden-
tify a particular interaction with a client as a topic for reflection. The worker
should obtain clear feedback from the client about the interaction and what the
client perceives as helpful or not helpful. Then, the worker can go through each
step of identifying: (1) What predisposes me to this way of interacting? (2) What
did the client find helpful or not helpful and why? (3) What does this suggest
216 spiritually sensitive social work

about my strengths and limitations in general and in relation to this particu-

lar helping situation? (4) What are specific implications for personal and pro-
fessional growth? (5) What are the steps I will take to accomplish this growth?
(6) How will I use this self-understanding, behavioral change, and growth to
help this person immediately and to improve in my future work with clients?
(7) What is my timeline for working on this within the current helping relation-
ship and in my ongoing development as a professional?

Respect
Spiritual perspectives have many ways of describing a respectful helping rela-
tionship: affirming inherent dignity and worth; nonjudgmental acceptance;
recognizing the divinity or sacredness of each person; upholding an I-Thou rela-
tionship; being mindful of the essential unity between worker and client. In each
case, the client is not to be perceived merely as an object or thing. In spiritually
sensitive social work, no client or client system is reduced to a label, diagnosis,
number on a chart, or demographic stereotype. Each person, group, or commu-
nity is given unconditional positive regard.
This may not be so easy, though. Partly as a matter of convenience, or pres-
sures from funders, insurance companies, and governmental and agency poli-
cies, clients tend to be processed in terms of fi xed categories, with predetermined
expectations, eligibility options, and services attached. The danger is that the
client becomes subjugated by this categorization. Imagine that a clinical social
worker learns that her or his new client has a diagnosis of borderline person-
ality disorder. On the basis of previous experience and stereotypes, she or he
might feel anxiety at anticipated frustration and mentally write off the client
as hopeless, without even meeting the client. Respect means encountering the
client with a fresh mind, unhindered by presumptions, and open to the mystery
and possibility of the person.
One way to encourage this fresh mind is to treat the first meeting with a
client as a precious opportunity not to be wasted. This first encounter involves
mutual uncertainty and testing. Th is also means many possibilities are open. In
order to keep the possibilities as open as possible, if appropriate to the helping
situation, avoid reading any assessment or diagnostic material about the client
beforehand. If it is necessary to read it, or you have heard information from
another source, avoid creating a mental foreclosure. Do not use standardized
intake or assessment forms as a checklist or rigid format for closed questions. If
you need to complete them, wait until after you have had a conversation with the
client. Invite the client to tell his or her story in the most open-ended way. Once
a rapport and basic understanding of the client’s goals and interests is estab-
lished, more specific assessment tools can be used as relevant. We will say more
about assessment in the next chapter.
At all times, avoid being carried away by inner mental chatter (Krill, 1990).
Our inner chatter labels, analyzes, categorizes, and judges ourselves and our
Creating A Spiritually Sensitive Context 217

clients. In the process, we miss what is really happening. In Chapter 10, we will
present basic relaxation and meditation techniques that can help you to avoid
the distraction of inner chatter. For now, whenever you notice your mind waiver,
become drowsy, or full of chatter, return awareness to the flow of your breath.
Then pay special attention to the sound of the client’s voice, the color of his or
her clothes, the nuances of body posture and motion, and the emotional tone of
his or her words. Perceive these details like you would smell a fresh cut flower or
taste a new kind of food. This simple activity can quickly cut through the mental
fog and open us up to the here-and-now experience of ourselves in relation with
the client.

Client Centeredness
Spiritually sensitive social work gives the value of client-centeredness special
nuances. If we truly respect the client, we honor her or his aspirations, self-
understandings, beliefs, and values. We recognize, as Gandhi put it, that we are
all on a search for truth. Professional education prepares social workers to assist
clients in achieving their aspirations, but it does not make us experts about what
is best for the client. Nor does it make us authorities about the nature of real-
ity or the validity of spiritual beliefs and practices. Client-centeredness means
taking the client’s worldview and spiritual experiences seriously. When we have
disagreements, detect signs of clients’ delusion or self-deception, or feel a respon-
sibility to intervene to protect the client or others, we still need to relate in a way
that respects the client. Proselytization or moralistic judging of clients based on
religious, political, theoretical, or other ideological positions is not an appropri-
ate activity for a professional social worker.
For example, social workers in mental health settings often encounter cli-
ents who report visionary experiences with religious imagery and meaning. As
we will discuss in Chapter 8, assessment of such reports needs to be done in the
context of the client’s own spiritual and cultural context, just as the Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition, text revision (DSM-
IV-TR) guidelines indicate (APA, 2000). Suppose that a person reports that he
or she has recently had an important conversation with her or his grandmother,
who has been deceased for several years. The significance of this experience can
only be ascertained by a careful open-minded dialogue with the client. Even if
the worker believes that such an experience must be a hallucination, the worker’s
belief is irrelevant to the actual significance for the client. It may well be that the
conversation with the spirit of her or his grandmother has yielded an important
insight and sense of spiritual support for the client. Indeed, within her or his
religious community, such experiences may be considered quite ordinary and
commonplace.
I (LF) recently experienced a situation in which the principle of client-cen-
teredness was violated (Furman, 2007). A woman I knew well, whom I will refer
to as Joy, was admitted to an in-hospital hospice due to having an advanced stage
218 spiritually sensitive social work

of a virulent form of cancer. A hospice social worker discussed the diagnosis

with Joy and her husband. They had been Lutheran missionaries in Brazil for 30
years. They recently returned to live permanently in the United States with their
adult children and grandchildren. They told the social worker that, although
they were devastated, they believed God would give them the strength to accept
the cancer situation and that God would empower them to follow His will just
as He had in the past. “Are you sure about that?” the social worker asked. Joy
responded, “Yes, for me to live is Christ, and to die is gain.” The social worker
responded incredulously, “Do you really believe that?” “Yes” she said. The social
worker then burst out crying and ran out of the room. When talking about this
incident with me, Joy said “It made me feel like the hospice social worker didn’t
approve of my religious faith even though that is all I have left now. I felt as if she
was challenging my faith. And when she ran out of my room in tears, I thought
she must feel my case is hopeless!” Joy died two weeks later.

Inclusivity
Spiritually sensitive practice goes beyond tolerance of spiritual diversity among
clients. It moves us to appreciation and advocacy for clients’ religious freedoms
and spiritual self-determination and the many variations of spiritual expression.
We have discussed in previous chapters the importance of this value and have
suggested guidelines for cross-perspective dialogue. For example, inclusivity was
demonstrated when Southeast Asian refugee resettlement took place through
interreligious cooperation and collaboration, bringing together governmental
and nongovernmental agencies and staff, local religious communities, and refu-
gees of various religious and cultural backgrounds.
One of the most difficult challenges is to be able to address exclusive spiri-
tual perspectives in practice. Some clients and community members believe that
their way is the only right way. They may reject dialogue and cooperation. They
may operate in a coercive or punishing manner toward people who don’t con-
form to their beliefs. Some clients use religious rationales to justify child abuse,
ethnocentrism, racism, homophobia, or violence against women. Some religious
communities, such as the Amish, wish to live separate from others in order to
maintain a unique lifestyle and moral commitments. In any of these situations,
there will be additional challenges for the social worker to establish trust, mutual
understanding, and cooperation. But there is hope for this connection if the
social worker himself or herself truly values inclusion and connection. We need
to have a broad enough sense of respect and compassion that we can genuinely
engage with clients and their spiritual communities, even when some aspects are
contrary to our own beliefs and values. Even if we don’t agree, we need to create
a relationship that encompasses agreement to disagree. If we advocate for change
of spiritual beliefs and values, change needs to occur in the context of the client’s
goals and a dialogue in which we also are open to learning and change as the
interaction continues.
Creating A Spiritually Sensitive Context 219

There may be four caveats to this. First, if the behaviors of clients are
demonstrably threatening to safety of self or others, then we have a duty to fol-
low professional standards and laws for protection and mandatory reporting.
Second, our practice could itself involve advocacy for empowerment of groups
in the community who experience discrimination or oppression. Then, our work
involves opposition to unjust behaviors and policies. We discuss this issue in the
next section on implementing change. Th ird, a client might express such severe
hostility or prejudice toward us that it is not tenable to work with him or her. In
that case, referral may be required. Fourth, in nonprofessional roles as members
of the general public, we advocate for our views of health and welfare in the
public arena. We suggest that this can be done in a spiritually sensitive, peaceful
manner along the lines of Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. and Mahatma Gandhi,
as described previously. In all four situations, we can treat the people involved
respectfully.
In a class on spirituality and social work, one of my (EC) students was a
charismatic and theologically conservative Christian. When she first introduced
herself and her beliefs in an unusually fervent way, my gut reaction was to become
cautious, expecting that she might try to proselytize or inhibit free discussion
and experiential exercises. There was a practitioner of Wicca who mentioned
misgivings with Christianity, so I expected a confl ict between them to develop.
Fortunately, we were able to let go of our presumptions and just relate to each
other person to person. As class participants came to know each other better, we
became impressed by both students’ inner spiritual life, deep sense of intuition
and inspiration, vivid experience of personal relationship with the sacred, and
resources of support in their spiritual communities. The two students who began
feeling polarized and suspicious of each other developed mutual understanding,
appreciation, and support. By the end of the course, they literally embraced each
other in a spirit of mutual acceptance.
Whenever I (EC) facilitate courses, intensive workshops, or dialogue groups
on spiritual diversity, I begin with an explicit statement of the ground rules
that are necessary for a fruitful experience. The following explanation could be
adapted in the formation phase of a course, intensive workshop, dialogue group,
family therapy, or groupwork.
The subjects of religion, faith, and spirituality can be very controversial. We
each have beliefs, values, and traditions that we hold dear. As we get to know
each other, we will discover common ground as well as areas of difference
and disagreement. In this course (or workshop, group, etc.) we need to cre-
ate a climate in which each person’s spiritual commitments are honored.
Therefore, I am asking that all of us make an explicit agreement to relate in
a manner that encourages open dialogue and mutual learning. Th is means
that we demonstrate appreciation for religious and spiritual diversity among
us. On occasions when we may disagree, we need to agree to disagree, while
still respecting each other. In this course (or workshop, group, etc.), we will
not engage in proselytization. We may well challenge each other to pursue
220 spiritually sensitive social work

new understandings of truth, but we may not coerce or denigrate each other
on the basis of our own versions of truth. (Group discussion follows until a
sense of closure and agreement is reached.) Now that we have agreed on this
mutual respect, let’s applaud ourselves to celebrate our beginning of this time
together that promises to be very rich and enjoyable.

Creativity
The spiritually sensitive helping relationship is creative. Possibilities for growth,
problem solving, crisis resolution, and solution finding are encouraged. All spir-
itual traditions identify that human suffering is only one aspect of our condition.
There is also the aspect of healing, reconciliation, salvation, enlightenment. As
we will see in Chapter 9, even in crises, breakdown of the person’s sense of secu-
rity, safety, and meaning opens an opportunity for transformation toward an
enhanced way of being (Canda, 1988a). This is not seeing the world with rose-
colored glasses or naive optimism. It is a recognition that every person has a
mysterious capacity for resilience and that there are creative possibilities in every
situation. To achieve transformation may well require pain and sacrifice. To use
a religious notion, the term sacrifice comes from the Latin root words meaning
“to make sacred.” By going through the hazardous tunnel of ego disintegration,
we may be able to come through to ego-transcendence (Smith, 1995; Smith and
Gray, 1995).
Creative possibilities need to be nurtured. The creative social worker
encourages creativity in the client. The spiritually sensitive social worker is like
a midwife, who provides a supportive, caring environment, helpful skills and
knowledge, and positive enthusiastic energy to help the client to give birth to a
new self and situation. The creative social worker needs to be flexible and spon-
taneous, clearly present in the moment with the client. The creative social worker
may feel inspired, as if “breathing-in” wisdom and energy from a sacred or trans-
personal source and then sharing that in empathic flow of being with the client.
In fact, following one’s breath is one of the simplest ways to keep the mind
clear, to stay focused with the client, and to encourage a creative process. I (EC)
once was called by a refugee resettlement agency to consult on a case of poten-
tially violent conflict between two Lao men who were roommates. One man had
threatened the other with a knife during an argument. Fortunately, I also had
the excellent assistance of a multilingual and multicultural Thai international
student, Thitiya Phaobtong (see Canda & Phaobtong, 1992). Thitiya and I went
to the apartment of the Lao clients to meet them and their church sponsor. We
were apprehensive, given the volatile nature of the situation.
Conversation proceeded through Thitiya’s interpretation. Disagreements
were aired, the knife incident was recounted, and threats were made. Heat of
anger and frustration mounted. I felt my stomach tightening. I became hyper-
alert, checking the closest exit, palms sweating. Thitiya ably relayed messages
between people, but the complexity of conversation between five people and the
Creating A Spiritually Sensitive Context 221

growing tension also strained her. Yet, I sensed the possibility for a resolution
behind the overt conflict. The roommates had shared goals and good times. The
church sponsor was supportive and open to any possibility to help. As soon as
I realized that I was feeling carried away into the tension of the conflict, I was
able to return awareness to my breathing. While Thitiya interpreted, I focused
on drawing deep and gentle breaths, releasing all tension, taking in the feelings
and possibilities of the situation with clarity. The obvious suddenly hit me—
everyone involved was spiraling out of control into tension, magnifying each
other’s anxiety. So I asked for a glass of water. I knew that customary politeness
would require the roommates to pause while one of them left the room to fi ll the
glass. That gave us all a moment of quiet. I followed my breath, feeling as though
the room itself settled down to a gentler quality of energy.
Those simple acts—following my breath and asking for water—made a shift
in the interactions. Afterward, we were able to reflect on the goals and aspira-
tions of the roommates, reaffirm their friendship, and discover a solution that
would meet their goals. After the session, Thitiya and I reflected on our feelings.
We had shared an unspoken connection in the process of mounting tension and
release. We felt that the pause, quiet, and breathing had averted a small disaster
and felt quite grateful for the small miracle of transformation that happened.
Thitiya and I had a rapport in the situation that allowed an intuitive sensitivity
to each other’s cues so we could flow toward a resolution. Often, creativity, intui-
tion, and transformation arise from just such simple things as breath, awareness,
and a glass of water.
The creative social worker attends also to the aesthetics of helping. We can
fi ll the place of helping with colors, sounds, and images with which the client
resonates. The helping relationship can put the client in touch with the aspects
of the human and nonhuman environments that feel like a boon or blessing. The
beauty and inspiring qualities of art and nature can be engaged.
A nurse for the Navajo (Diné) Nation once told me (EC) about the reaction of
many traditional Navajo people to a hospital there when it was first opened some
30 years ago. The hospital was built in a conventional manner with the usual
standards of efficiency, cleanliness, and technological proficiency. But many tra-
ditional people did not want to go there. The building was made of squares and
rectangles. The rooms were barren and cold. Patients were expected to divest
themselves of clothing and daily items that lend a sense of identity, community
connectedness, and sacred support. Inside those square barren rooms, people
felt cut off from the healing powers of earth and sky. The natural beauty way
moves in circles and cycles: the curve of earth, the roundness of moon and sun,
the rotations of day, night, and seasons. Hence, traditional homes (hogans) and
healing places are circular. Traditional lifeways are intimately connected with
the beauty and harmony of all around us and within us. The sacred spirit beings
are invited into the healing ceremonies and places. The hospital was just the
opposite of all that—cut off from beauty, circularity, community, harmony. In
order to avoid this problem, many current leaders in the health, mental health,
222 spiritually sensitive social work

and social service systems of the Diné Nation advocate for culturally congruent
and spiritually sensitive programs for treatment and prevention.
The boxed-in hospital is a great metaphor for the way helping in general,
and social work in particular, often happens. And the Diné spiritual perspective
reminds us to welcome back all the places, powers, beauties, relationships, col-
ors, sights, sounds, smells, tastes, dances, songs, and memories that can have an
inspiring, healing, and helping significance for our clients.
Teaching can also be enhanced this way. For example, each year from
2002 to 2006, I conducted an intensive study abroad course on spiritual diver-
sity in Korean social work for American students. (See http://www.socwel.
ku.edu/candagrant/korea/KAS%202002–06%20compressed.pdf.) Professor Park
Seung-Hee of Sungkyunkwan University was co-teacher and guide. Students
often expressed how their learning was enhanced by his creative approach that
included information together with humor, artistry, and sensitivity to the beauty
of places we visited. As one of the students put it:
Professor Park explained how we can use our six senses to learn about nature
and life in general. He told us that we first look at the mountain with our eyes
to see its beauty. Next, we hear all the noises the mountain has to offer; we can
hear six or seven noises at the same time if we listen carefully enough. Third,
we smell all of the scents of the mountain. Then we can taste the mountain
if we put bits of flowers and plants into our mouths. Fift h, we can touch the
trees, rocks, and dirt on the mountain with our hands and feet. Finally, he
explained that we can feel the mountain with our souls. This is how I believe
I truly learned the important lessons of how to look and listen.

A Holistic Approach to Social Work Practice

If we take together all the implications of these five principles for spiritually sensi-
tive practice, we can see many challenges to innovate holistic ways of understand-
ing and doing social work. The words heal, whole, and holy all have the same
root meaning. Holistic helping is healing—making and restoring wholeness with
clients, ourselves, our agencies, and educational institutions. In order to clarify
some of these possibilities, we suggest models for holistic understanding of the
person and environment and for a holistic approach to social work activity.

Holistic Understanding of the Person and Environment

Social workers often say that we want to address the whole person in the envi-
ronment. But usually in practice what we really mean by that is to pay attention
to some small parts of the person and his or her immediate social environment
that are relevant to our specialization or agency function. Spiritually sensitive
practice means reconsidering what is the whole person and what is the whole
environment.
Creating A Spiritually Sensitive Context 223

Spirituality encompasses and transcends the biological, psychological, socio-

logical, and spiritual aspects of a person. It engages the relationships between an
individual and his or her family, community, nation, the global community, the
planetary ecology, the cosmos, and ultimate reality, however understood. From
this vantage point, the “and” in “person and environment” should not be under-
stood as a separator, but rather as an interconnector. Person is always with, in,
and of environment. Person cannot exist without environment. Human nature
is human/nature. By connecting insights from traditional religions, existential-
ism, deep ecology, and transpersonal theory we can move toward an ecospiritual
(Coates, Gray, & Hetherington, 2006) or trans/ecological (Besthorn, 2001) under-
standing. For example, Indigenous and East Asian philosophical perspectives on
interconnectedness, balance, harmony, and dynamism among all aspects of the
person and world, as reflected in Medicine Wheels, mandalas, and Chinese yin/
yang, five elements theory can help us to envision and act holistically. Systems
theories can help us think about these various types and levels of systems and to
map them with genograms and ecomaps. We can draw creatively on insights from
many human behavior theories and practice models that address various aspects
of the whole person and environment, including transpersonal levels of con-
sciousness and functioning (Larkin, 2005; Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 2006).
Robbins et al. (2006) emphasized that application of theories to social work
practice should be based on careful critical reflection on their assumptions and
their implications for practice. Holistic practice can gain many insights by inte-
grating useful complementary aspects from many theories and perspectives,
whether rooted in science, philosophies, religions, or cultures. No one perspec-
tive can encompass all aspects of human experience adequately. Each one has
various advantages and disadvantages. Each one reveals important features of
human life and ways to enhance it. But each one obscures or omits important
features as well. As they put it:

The critically reflective approach (to theory) involves cultivating clear aware-
ness of one’s own values, goals, practice commitments, strengths, and limi-
tations. It also involves developing a thorough knowledge of a wide range of
theories that deal with the whole person and the environment. It requires mak-
ing informed evaluations about the strengths and shortcomings of each theory,
and it requires careful professional discernment about the relevancy of theories
to a particular situation in collaboration with the client. (p. 424)

For example, Kim and Canda (2006) developed a holistic model for social work
practice with people with disabilities by critiquing the limitations and integrat-
ing the complementary insights of the social model and the conventional med-
ical model of disability. These two models draw on different theories and are
often posed in opposition to each other. The social model emphasizes empow-
ering responses to structural barriers, social injustice, and socially constructed
stigma. The medical model emphasizes preventive or corrective responses to indi-
vidual functional impairments, psychosocial problems, and medical symptoms.
224 spiritually sensitive social work

The social model alone can lead practitioners into an adversarial mentality and
neglect of individual level challenges. The medical model alone can lead practi-
tioners into an authoritarian, pathologizing mode that neglects sociocultural and
structural issues and injustice. By bringing the useful insights of the two models
together in a strengths oriented holistic approach, the social worker partners with
the client in a way that addresses both the individual and collective aspects of
empowerment according to the client’s own aspirations and values. This holistic
approach respects and engages the whole person in her or his life context.
Robbins et al. (2006) use the metaphor of musical performance to describe
the harmonious joining of preparation in theory and skill with spontaneous
interaction with the client that should characterize good practice, what we refer
to as spiritually sensitive practice.

Indeed, in that moment of inspired performance, the theory and skill are, in a
sense, forgotten at the same time that they give form to the beauty and sponta-
neity of the music. In order to achieve such a harmonious expression of theory,
skill, and spontaneity, the performer must engage in a continuous process of
training, self-reflection, and performance. In social work, this quality of rap-
port, harmony, and spontaneous insight during helping is often called practice
wisdom. (Krill, 1990, p. 423)

Holistic Activity in Social Work

Imbrogno and Canda (1988) and Canda (1998c) developed a conceptual model for
viewing social work activity as a holistic system. Many times we get bogged down
in dichotomistic thinking and debates: cause versus function; process versus out-
comes; logic versus feeling; objective versus subjective; strengths versus patholo-
gies; qualitative research versus quantitative research; and on and on. By drawing
on insights from Chinese philosophy in the Book of Changes (Wilhelm & Baynes,
trans., 1967) and principles of general dynamic systems theory, they developed
a model of social work activity that shows the connections between all stages of
the helping process, as well as complementary aspects within each stage. Koenig
and Spano (1998) and Lee et al., (2009) discuss similar ideas related to Daoism,
Buddhism, the strengths perspective, and traditional Chinese medicine theory.
We modify and expand Imbrogno and Canda’s model here as on overall orienta-
tion to holistic social work practice, including the organizational context.
The stages in this model are (1) understanding the situation, (2) designing
and planning action, (3) implementing service, (4) evaluating the process and
results, and (5) integrating all these activities within a coherent system of activ-
ity. Each stage involves two complementary and contrasting aspects, analogous
to yin and yang (as described in Chapter 5 regarding Confucianism), which need
to be converged. All stages are interconnected. Although we may emphasize stage
related activities at certain times in practice, actually each stage and their related
activities influence each other and may repeat recursively throughout the helping
Creating A Spiritually Sensitive Context 225

process. Each individual social worker needs to integrate each stage and activ-
ity in her or his work. Each human service organization needs to integrate the
stages and activities of helping among its staff. As we grow and improve as indi-
vidual practitioners and as helping organizations, we spiral upward in creativity
and proficiency. Therefore, this model should be understood as cyclic and spiral
rather than linear. The vertical and horizontal cross lines show the interconnec-
tions between all stages. The encompassing circle shows the essential unity of all
the stages in the flow of helpful change. Each direction is labeled with the appro-
priate stage and two complementary and contrasting aspects of activity relevant
to that stage. One aspect (the yang side) of each stage is commonly addressed in
social work education, so we will focus more on the yin aspect that is typically
neglected, so that both aspects can be brought together. As you look at Figure 7.1,

Encompassing
environment.................
1. Understanding/
structuring
Structuring
problems
Problems
Intuition
Knowledge

4. Evaluating 5. System 2.Designing/

2.Designing/
services
Services integration
Integration planning systems
Planning Systems

Transformation
Transformation Wisdom Synthesis
Monitoring Management Analysis

3.Implementing
3.Implementing
systems
Systems

Reciprocity

Advocacy

Stages of activity Constituent elements

1. Understanding/structuring problems........................... 1. Knowledge and intuition

2. Designing/planning systems........................................ 2. Analysis and synthesis
3. Implementing decisions.............................................. 3. Advocacy and reciprocity
4. Evaluating outcomes and performance........................ 4. Monitoring and transformation
5. Integrating system activities........................................ 5. Management and wisdom

Figure 7.1. Social work as an holistic system of activity (by Imbrogno & Canda,
1988; used with permission of the publisher).
226 spiritually sensitive social work

which is flat on the page, image that there is a spiral coming up off the page to
represent the growth and improvement of the professional and human service
organization as they cycle through the holistic process of helping.

Stage 1: Understanding

Usually in social work education, we are taught to seek knowledge by establishing

facts through empirical observations, logical reasoning, and learning of facts and
theories from established experts and scholars. This type of knowing is neces-
sary, but not sufficient. We also need to pay attention to nonlinear, nonrational,
and spontaneous modes of awareness. We need to have an intuitive grasp of the
client and his or her situation. Intuition, in this context, refers to a holistic way
of knowing, which derives from rapport with the client as a whole person in his
or her situation. To achieve this, we need to become a participant in the client’s
world, listen to his or her stories, and relate to his or her feelings with empathy.
When rapport is established, we can experience the world from his or her per-
spective and realistically anticipate reactions. Intuitive awareness can give rise to
unexpected insights for what to do at just the right time. This is what Thitiya and
I felt in our meeting with the conflicting roommates. Koenig and Spano (1998)
described intuition as “all-at-once knowing,” that comes from immersion in the
moment and perspective of the client. Luoma (1998) discussed intuition as a pro-
cess of direct knowing derived from a sense of merging between the subject (the
knower) and the object (the known). Intuition arises before and beyond analytic
thinking that splits subject and object and operates in linear terms.
One simple technique that can encourage intuitive, creative insight into a
client situation is to ask for a dream or day dream about it. Before taking a nap,
going to sleep for the night, or just resting, become aware of your breath and
settle into a relaxed feeling. If you enjoy drawing, painting, or writing poetry,
try this before beginning your artwork. Then, call to mind the client situation
or relation with colleagues about which you feel a question or blockage. Recall
vividly your sense of sincere caring and connection with the other persons
involved. According to your own belief system, ask your deep self, your uncon-
scious, inspiring spirit, or God for a dream or symbol that relates to it. Be sure to
do this in a way that feels safe and comfortable. Don’t try to make it happen or
to grab at it. Just prime yourself for the possibility. Then, let go of it. It may well
be that something will occur to you at that time or maybe when you least expect
it— in sleep, in a daytime reverie, or while taking a shower. Most often, these
insights spontaneously arise when we are relaxed and receptive.

Stage 2: Designing

Understanding opens possibilities for action. When we creatively design a help-

ing plan, we need to apply both analysis and synthesis. Analysis involves rational
Creating A Spiritually Sensitive Context 227

evaluation of alternative results of actions, based on the best information avail-

able. The situation is broken down into components and characteristics such as
assessment categories, system levels, action steps, professional roles, and alterna-
tive outcomes. In analytic thinking, we link empirical observations and informa-
tion about the actual situation with starting assumptions, values, and theoretical
and policy models that seem relevant. If we use evidence-based practice, we
might work according to manuals that prescribe interventions in a certain way
with certain types of clients. This is the conventional mode of planning taught
in academia. Analytic understanding is necessary but not sufficient. When we
break a picture into its parts, we have a puzzle to be solved, but no longer the
actual picture.
Analysis needs to be converged with synthesis. In this context, synthesis
means that we use our immersion in the helping situation and our rapport with
the people involved to connect alternative and even opposing perspectives and
feelings. We don’t limit ourselves to neat roles, categories, theories, and ratio-
nal plans. Like a child having fun in a sandbox, we get into the messiness and
unpredictability of the situation. We seek possibilities of synergy, that is, creative
interaction between contrasting people and perspectives, so creative outcomes
that cannot be anticipated are possible. Analytically derived information and
possibilities can be brought into the dialogue and action, to be synthesized with
the spontaneous and messy realities of everyone involved. In agency planning
meetings and case reviews, we encourage divergent opinions and work them
through for a more comprehensive view. We engage clients as partners in the
helping process and take seriously there feedback about what works. We involve
community representatives and consumer advocates in planning and reviewing
agency goals and policies.
Brainstorming is a helpful approach to this. In brainstorming, no idea is
rejected. No possibility is impossible. Every sincere idea is given expression and
considered by the participants. For example, in a family therapy session, each
member could be asked to imagine her or his ideal family. How would each mem-
ber of the family be the same or different compared to how they are now? What
are the goals, aspirations, hopes, and dreams that color this picture of the ideal
family? Each member of the family could be asked to present her or his ideal with
a rule that no one interrupts, except for asking for clarification or examples. Then,
the social worker could help everyone consider the points of each person’s ideal
that are similar or different. The family can brainstorm about how to create a col-
lective ideal that incorporates the hopes and dreams of each member.

Stage 3: Implementing

Designing opens up possibilities for various roads we can travel. But we have to
travel down a particular road to get somewhere. Change requires implementing
the planned designs. Often, implementation of social work plans is called “inter-
vention” and helping activities are called “interventions.” Intervention implies
228 spiritually sensitive social work

that an external force intrudes upon some client system and directs it. The same
term is used in military strikes against enemies. To us, a metaphor more con-
sistent with spiritually sensitive practice is cultivation. The difference between
these two approaches to implementation is well illustrated by the metaphor of
gardening.
The intervention mode of social work is like the common American practice
of lawn care. Suppose a homeowner has a patch of earth to take care of. He or
she may think she “owns” this earth, so it is his or her job to control it, to make
it look like the neighbors expect it should. Cultural convention dictates that this
patch of earth should be covered with green grass, ideally to look like a minia-
ture golf course. If the grass is too long or too weedy, neighbors may complain or
even ask the city government to fine the owner and cut the grass. Heaven forbid
that lovely yellow dandelions should sprout up, lest they turn to seed. Wind or
fun-loving children might blow those seeds around to contaminate other peo-
ple’s lawns. For some reason, it doesn’t occur to this kind of gardener that dande-
lions are lovely or that they can be used to make salads or wine. Instead, grass is
planted for the desired texture and color. Since the grass often isn’t well suited to
the local growing conditions, the homeowner has to give the lawn frequent water
and fertilizer. If anything undesirable appears, like weeds, grubs, or moles, out
come the herbicides and pesticides. So in the process of keeping an ideal lawn,
that which grows well is killed and that which does not grow well is maintained
by willpower, hard effort, and time. Toxic runoff from lawns joins the toxic run-
off from farms, and then we drink the poisons from our tap-water.
Too often, we view clients like this. They and their situations appear to be
weedy with problems. We think we know how they should look, think, and act in
order to be “normal,” “functional,” “reality-based,” “healthy,” and “adaptive.” We
try to make clients fit into the artificial socially constructed standards of nor-
mality within our mental health, social welfare, and criminal justice systems. We
weed, prune, pull, and poison the behaviors, thoughts, and attitudes that don’t
meet our standards. This is the “social worker as expert” model of intervention.
But social workers can operate more like organic gardeners. In this case, we
identify the strengths, aspirations, and resources of clients. When clients focus
on problems and obstacles, we partner with them in working through challenges
toward opportunities. We help them to discern how these relate to their loved
ones, the workplace, the larger social environment, and the natural environment.
We help them to cultivate the natural growth potential already inherent within
them and their situations. We may not know what the end product will look like.
But we can experience directly that the process of getting there is affirming to
everyone involved. This kind of helping action has been called Daoistic change
(Brandon, 1976; Maslow, 1968), meaning that help flows along with the natural
course and potential of the client system in their situation. Th is is not passivity.
It is creative, harmonious action.
When the Confucian sage, Mencius, encouraged help and support between
people, he warned against two common mistakes (Lau, trans., 1970). He said
Creating A Spiritually Sensitive Context 229

that a rice farmer must be caring and attentive in cultivating rice. One mistake is
to do nothing; the other mistake is to be impatient and intrusively forceful. If the
farmer ignores the seedlings, they might be destroyed by lack or excess of water
or by feeding birds. On the other hand, if the farmer is impatient with the speed
of growth, he or she might tug on the seedling, to stretch it and encourage it. Of
course, the seedling will be uprooted.
Daoistic change means that the social worker joins with the client system
and situation, understands it with empathy and rapport, and encourages the
growth potential already there or helps the client to discover it. Th is is consis-
tent with the strengths perspective on social work (Saleebey, 2008). “Harmony
with” does not mean avoiding conflict, however. It means relating authentically
and realistically with situations as they are, conflict or not, and flowing with the
creative process.
There was an American student who had learned the Japanese nonvio-
lent defensive martial art of aikido (Dass & Gorman, 1985). His teacher had
always told him that aikido was for spiritual discipline, not for picking fights.
Still he longed to encounter a situation of threat when he would feel justi-
fied to try out his skills in actual combat. One day, he was riding a train
in Japan. A drunken angry man became belligerent and intimidating to pas-
sengers. The student became alert, ready for a fight in which he could rescue
everyone. While the student was poised to strike, an elderly gentleman called
out to the drunken man: “Come over here. What are you drinking?” “Sake,”
answered the man. Th is caught his attention and he lumbered over to the
elderly gentleman.
The old man said, “Ah, I love to sit with my wife and sip a cup of sake.” Then
the drunken man began to cry. He said that his wife had died and that he was
deeply sad. His anger and threat disappeared. He sat and commiserated with the
elderly gentleman, who had subdued him without flexing a muscle. The elderly
man, not the brash student, was the real master of aikido.
The gardening metaphor reminds me of a quandary that my wife and I (EC)
faced with my neighbors. Several years ago, we landscaped our backyard with
stone terraces, flower gardens, wild medicinal plants, a small pond, and Korean
style natural stone towers. The unusual project attracted so much attention that
strangers sometimes wandered around. I imagined we were making a private
meditation park but instead we had more intrusions than before. I was also wor-
ried that a curious child might fall in the pond. We did not want to close every-
thing off with a large fence, so we wondered how to solve this problem. Then it
struck us to try a Daoist approach. Rather than resisting public attention, my
wife and I invited all the neighbors and many friends to gather for a garden
opening party with tea and desserts. Many people came. Once they satisfied
their curiosity, no one intruded again. Nonresistance and going with the flow
succeeded.
This does not deny that there are occasions that call for forceful action to
protect someone’s safety. In a crisis, the client may feel overwhelmed, confused,
230 spiritually sensitive social work

or disoriented. If the person is a danger to self or others, then temporary pro-

tection, restraint, or support might be necessary. This is a naturally compas-
sionate response. But compassion also means that we help the client to become
empowered, reoriented, and proficient again, so that her or his aspirations can be
achieved in relationship with others.
We can summarize this by referring to two complementary aspects of help-
ing: advocacy and reciprocity. As an advocate, we identify a client or client sys-
tem and assist the accomplishment of the clients’ goals. In this process, we often
identify problems, barriers, opponents, and enemies that block the clients’ goal
achievement. While commitment to the client and zeal for justice are important
and necessary, these qualities become dangerous when they are pursued in a
one sided manner. One danger is that we don’t pay attention to harmful impacts
on other people or the natural environment that result from our advocacy. To
use a Christian expression, this is a sin of omission, that is, harming others by
not paying attention or caring. Another danger is that we act from an enemy-
mentality. We identify some persons or situations as enemies to be combated.
This is the militaristic implication of “intervention” taken to an extreme. We
might even feel glee at our victory over the opponent. In this enemy-mentality,
we perceive the other only as enemy. He or she is no longer precious or even
important. Ironically, if we exploit, damage, or diminish others in our efforts
for victory on behalf of the client system, we become exactly what we opposed.
This is a sin of commission, that is, committing acts of violence or dehumaniza-
tion. We despised the opponent for the indignities and harm they caused for the
client. And in returning indignity and harm to that opponent, we become just
like the enemy. This approach does not afford any possibility of reconciliation or
mutual benefit.
Jesus said that we should love our enemy; we should do unto others as we
would have them do unto us. Confucius said we should not do to others what
we would not have them do to us. All spiritual traditions proclaim their high-
est aspirations as love and compassion. If we take this seriously, there are major
implications for spiritually sensitive practice. In order to avoid falling into an
enemy-mentality, it is helpful to complement advocacy with reciprocity. In rec-
iprocity, we seek mutual growth and benefit through creative solutions. We
respect all parties involved, even when we disagree or conflict. When conflict is
unresolvable, we find ways to continue the conflict in a humane manner, or to
forgive and move on. Mohandas Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr. were excel-
lent examples of social activists who strove to put this ideal into action.
Of course, this is easier said than done. In 1997, I (EC) presented at a sympo-
sium on spirituality and social work at the Inter-University Centre in Dubrovnik,
Croatia. Another presenter was Arun Gandhi, grandson of Mohandas Gandhi
and director of the M.K. Gandhi Institute for Nonviolence in Memphis. Many
of the presentations addressed the ideals of compassion, forgiveness, reconcilia-
tion, service, and nonviolence. The fact that our building had only recently been
rebuilt since prolonged bombings on the city added an intensity and urgency to
Creating A Spiritually Sensitive Context 231

Table 7.1. Principles and Steps for Win/Win Solution Making.

1. Bring all parties into a dialogue based on mutual respect and willingness to understand
each other.
2. Do not reduce people to problems or enemies—get to know each other as fellow people.
3. Identify the positions of all parties and the most important principles and
aspirations underlying them.
4. Identify what each party feels will result in success from their point of view.
5. Identify the common interests and different standards for success.
6. Freely discuss to discover alternative solutions in which all parties would feel gain,
based on their various aspirations and standards.
7. Select solutions acceptable to all parties.
8. Develop an action plan and roles, involving cooperative teamwork by representatives of
all parties.
9. Follow up implementation of the plan, evaluating success in terms of common interests
and different standards.
10. Examine collaboratively the long-term impacts of the change and revise activity as
necessary.

our discussions. Croatian participants struggled with how to act on these ideals
while recovering from emotional trauma and the physical destruction of many
of their homes, loved ones, and social infrastructure. But at the same time that
the difficulty of this was shown, the importance was equally clear. Somehow, we
must all keep going on the way of peace in order to get out of the cycles of vio-
lence and victimization that all too often characterize human life.
A related trend in conflict mediation is called win/win problem solving or
solution making (McLaughlin & Davidson, 1994). In win/win strategies, victory
is not at the expense of others. It is intended for the mutual benefit of both sides
in the disagreement or conflict. Table 7.1 summarizes the major principles and
steps of the win/win approach.
The remainder of this book will give many more practical suggestions for
implementing spiritually sensitive practice.

Stage 4: Evaluating

Spiritually sensitive evaluation is an ongoing process of discernment. We reflect

gently yet consistently upon ourselves and clients in their situations so that we
recognize the impacts of our activity in both the process and outcomes of help-
ing. But this is not an egocentric type of reflection. To borrow an insight from
karma yoga, spiritually sensitive evaluation cares about helpful results but is not
egotistically attached to them. Evaluation is not for the purpose of guaranteeing
that clients conform to the expectations of social workers or their agencies. It is
for the purpose of helping the client to be aware of and encouraged by beneficial
change and to avoid the pitfalls of mistakes or ineffective helping strategies.
232 spiritually sensitive social work

The conventional aspect of evaluation is monitoring. We keep track of con-

tinuities or changes in the client’s functioning in relation to helping activities
and objectives. We adjust the help as needed to seek the most effective help-
ing approach. We learn many professional mechanisms for monitoring, such as
clinical dialogue, helping contracts, psychological measuring instruments, single
subject research designs, and consumer satisfaction surveys. We may have stan-
dards of progress dictated by agency programs or funding sources. Th is is all
useful. But if that is all we do, there are dangers. We may simply be measuring
client conformity, rather than genuine growth. As Imbrogno and Canda (1988)
put it, “All too often it happens that assessment of service delivery leads to a
quantitative increase of clients served or income earned (i.e. as an indicator of
change) with a decrease in the quality of service and client satisfaction” (p. 26).
Monitoring needs to be complemented by a process of transformation, in
which the client system and help provider system mutually shape each other.
Evaluation then is not just for imposing change on clients. It is for mutual reflec-
tion on the partnership of helping, in which both client and worker change each
other. The social worker and the agency are open to self-transformation of goals,
strategies, technologies, rules, and policies, based on learning from the clients,
community representatives, and consumer advocates.
I (EC) have often seen the ineffectual result in agencies when this is not the
case. I have done many trainings for cultural competence and spiritual diver-
sity in mental health and social service agencies and social work education pro-
grams. One aspect of the training is a study of the preparedness of the social
workers and the organizational setting. We may do surveys of clients, staff and
administrators, direct observation of organizational performance, brainstorm-
ing sessions and cultural awareness exercises. We might provide examples and
guidelines and bring in guest speakers. Enthusiasm raises as new possibilities for
providing services are identified. However, once this monitoring has finished,
the process of innovation often fizzles out. Genuine transformation may entail
long-term discussions about difficult issues such as racism, prejudice, religious
discrimination, and factionalism in the workplace. It may call for greater efforts
for recruitment, retention, and promotion of staff who are well qualified to work
with a wide range of diverse clients. It may require creating new multicultural and
spiritually diverse teams and community networks. It may require fundamental
rethinking of the theories and policies that structure practice and education. It
might require redistribution or generation of funding for new initiatives. These
changes challenge the status quo of the organization and the daily patterns of
the service providers. It may not be easy to engage in such transformation espe-
cially if the agency or educational unit is already struggling for survival in the
face of threatened funding cuts or some other organizational crisis. But without
self-transformation, evaluation can hardly be authentic or fruitful. Inauthentic
evaluation may create the illusion of change, for public relations purposes, but
it only serves to maintain a helping system more dedicated to the benefit of the
agency than the clients.
Creating A Spiritually Sensitive Context 233

Holistic evaluation relies upon modes of inquiry and research methods that
can tap into many different ways of knowing and a wide variety of spiritual per-
spectives and worldviews. This is consistent with heuristic and transpersonal
research approaches (Braud & Anderson, 1998; Tyson, 1995). These approaches
recognize that there are many ways of knowing that draw on human capaci-
ties for thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting. There are many techniques for
gaining knowledge, each with advantages and disadvantages, such as qualitative
and quantitative methods and contemplative practices that foster clear minded-
ness and creativity. There are many different worldviews that shape assumptions
about what can be known and how it is best to know it. Holistic understanding
requires bringing together (synergizing) many different ways and methods of
knowing.
Conventional social scientific research has long been rooted in the philo-
sophical tradition of positivism. Positivism asserts that reliable knowledge must
be based upon sensory experience subjected to logical analysis (Lincoln & Guba,
1985). Research methods most often associated with positivism are controlled
experiments, quantitative surveys, highly structured detached observations,
and statistical analysis. This is valuable as an advance over prejudice, untested
assumptions, or sloppy thinking. But the shortcoming of positivistic research is
that it does not utilize the full range of ways of knowing and it also presents an
overly simplified, reduced understanding of the world. Figure 7.2 illustrates that
the positivist domain of inquiry only addresses one quadrant of possibilities for
ways of knowing.
Spiritually sensitive research needs to be holistic, encompassing the full cir-
cle of ways of knowing and addressing both process and outcomes of helping.
Depending on the nature of the research question and the aspects of spiritu-
ality studied, experiments and statistical studies could be useful. But we also

Analyzing

Positivist
Synergizing
Domain

Sensing Feeling

Figure 7.2. Synergizing

ways of knowing. Intuiting
234 spiritually sensitive social work

need detailed case studies, narratives, field research, ethnography, historical and
hermeneutic studies, phenomenological research, contemplative methods, and
qualitative analysis.
Even if a social worker is not doing formal research, the evaluation of
practice involves some kind of systematic questions, information gathering,
and interpretation. Spiritually sensitive evaluation should emphasize the active
involvement of clients and other research participants in the formation, conduct,
and interpretation of the research design. The process and outcomes of research
should directly and indirectly benefit participants and/or people who have sim-
ilar issues. This approach to research is often called empowerment or partici-
patory action research (Chesler, 1991; Lincoln, 1995; Rapp, Shera, & Kisthardt,
1993; Suarez-Balcazar & Harper, 2004).

Stage 5: Integrating

All stages and aspects of the helping process need to be integrated. Imbrogno
and Canda (1988) placed system integrating at the center of the holistic helping
model in order to symbolize that it must pervade and connect the other four func-
tions of understanding, designing, implementing, and evaluating. Management
and wisdom are the complementary aspects of integrating holistic social work
activity. The integrating function is most closely connected with the administra-
tive and executive levels within human service organizations. However, this does
not mean that those involved with management are at the center of importance.
Clients and consumers of services are at the center of importance. Management
is at the functional center in order to bring the resources of the agency to bear
for the benefit of clients and for the support of workers’ well-being.
In conventional bureaucratic models of administration, the administrative
function is located at the top of a pyramidal shaped organizational structure.
There are fewer people at the top of the agency hierarchy, but they wield greater
power in forming policy, making decisions, governing staff behavior, and dis-
tributing resources (Netting, Kettner, & McMurty, 1998). The executive admin-
istrator oversees all the operations of the organization in order to maintain order
and integration of activities. If there is input from direct service staff and cli-
ents, the executive and administrators have predominant power and authority to
decide what to do with this input.
The bureaucratic management model is designed to maximize efficiency by
rational determination of goals and objectives. Staff behaviors are controlled to
be in conformance with achievement of the goals. The danger of this model is
that the power hierarchy may engender administrative exploitation of workers,
remoteness of administrators from clients and direct service staff, and inflexibil-
ity of rules and roles. It does not emphasize the importance of I-Thou relations
between all staff, clients, community, and nature. It does not attend to the human
growth and fulfi llment needs of its members. It neglects creativity in favor of
Creating A Spiritually Sensitive Context 235

conformity. When managers recognize that productivity and spiritual fulfi ll-
ment are complementary, then spiritually sensitive administration is likely.
Spiritually sensitive practice is more likely to flourish in an organizational
culture and structure that actively support creativity, flexibility, person-to-
person respect, input from all stakeholders in decisions, human development
needs, and well-being of the natural environment as well as organizational goal
attainment needs. For example, interviews with 11 social workers in a variety of
work settings found that that they felt it necessary to go around agency policies
and procedures in order to meet client needs, especially pertaining to spirituality
(Svare, Hylton, & Albers, 2007). When human service organizations (HSOs) fail
to address spirituality explicitly in their organizational culture, time and energy
may be wasted while workers circumvent or resist dehumanizing and distressing
policies, procedures, and management behaviors.
Managers and leaders are in key positions to inspire and support spiri-
tually sensitive HSO culture. In order to do so, they need to complement tra-
ditional management approaches with wisdom. As Imbrogno and Canda (1988)
explained, the central position of an executive (or administrative level of an
HSO) entails responsibility for the integrity of the service providing system as a
whole through appraising and connecting the performance of professionals at all
phases of activity in a constant creative development process of the service sys-
tem in interaction with its environment. Th is brings administration back to the
root meaning of “administer,” which is “to serve.”
Indeed, many empirical studies in business and human services demonstrate
that effective organizations have leaders who promote well-being and empow-
erment for both workers and clientele by engaging spiritual qualities of mean-
ing, purpose, sense of connectedness, integration of personal and work life, and
inspiration by higher ideals or sense of divine purpose (Benefiel, 2005; Chamiec-
Case & Sherr, 2005; Damianakis, 2006; Doe, 2004; Kinjerski & Skrypnek, 2008;
Marques, Dhiman, & King, 2007; Mitroff & Denton, 1999; Moss, 2005; Svare,
Hylton, & Albers, 2007). Effective leaders listen well to staff, regard them as
coworkers rather than subordinates, encourage participatory decision-making
with stakeholders inside and outside the organization, activate wide commu-
nication and collaboration, delegate to small groups for creative teamwork,
maintain manageable workloads, provide flextime and opportunities for worker
stress-management, support worker self-esteem, provide strengths-based evalu-
ative feedback, seek wisdom and knowledge from consultants for implementing
spiritually inclusive policies and practices, and ensure that organizational mis-
sion, objectives, and actual daily behaviors are congruent.
Organizations that have these qualities tend to experience greater profit,
lower worker turnover, lower absenteeism, and higher employee satisfaction. The
claim that humane management practices are too expensive is not borne out
by evidence. Therefore, humane spiritually sensitive approaches to management
are becoming more popular in business, challenging the traditional bureaucratic
authoritarian style that places profit or material productivity over the well-being
236 spiritually sensitive social work

of employees, clientele, and the natural environment. These studies show that
organizations that view the well-being of all stakeholders as having primary
importance actually tend to be more successful. Damianakis (2006) described
how workers in a small woman-centered agency felt that consciousness raising
(in the sense of critiquing oppression) and transpersonal awareness of intercon-
nectedness complement each other in affirming, respectful, and empowering
relationships. Chamiec-Case and Sherr (2005) presented the views of Christian
social work administrators who felt more fulfilled when they regarded their work
and relations with staff and clients as an expression of God’s will through loving,
accepting service. This type of organizational culture is referred to in business as
spirituality in the workplace or soul at work. In social work contexts, Doe (2004)
referred to this approach as spiritually based macropractice in human service
organizations and Aldridge, Macy and Walz (no date) developed a model named
humanocracy. Marques et al. (2007, p. 89) said: “Spirituality in the workplace is
an experience of interconnectedness among those involved in a work process;
initiated by authenticity, reciprocity, and personal goodwill; engendered by a
deep sense of meaning that is inherent in the organization’s work; and resulting
in greater motivation and organizational excellence.”
Social work administrators can generate many innovations in organiza-
tional culture by converging insights from spirituality focused management
approaches and expanding them with consideration of the transpersonal and
nonhuman natural aspects of organizational life. Given that this is becoming
more popular in the business sector, and that empirical studies support the effec-
tiveness of spirituality in the workplace, it is curious why social work has been
slow to pay attention to this. If we are to practice in a manner consistent with
professional values (as well as good evidence), we should become active in the
movement for spiritually sensitive administration in HSOs.
In our approach, the spiritually sensitive human service organization’s
(HSO) mission and its productivity goals should be designed to serve personal
well-being and social justice primarily. Economic considerations of income and
profit should be directed to maintaining services, subsidizing low income clients,
and supporting staff. Policies, rules, and roles should not foster alienation or
dissatisfaction among workers, clients, or the community. For example, if third
party payers require use of DSM-IV diagnoses in a mental health setting, the
diagnostic process should include client input and full consideration of the cul-
tural and spiritual beliefs and experiences of the client.
Innovation should be the shared responsibility of all staff, with meaningful
involvement of clients and other stakeholders. Administrators are in a special
position to be aware of all the facets of the organization. Therefore, they can
be especially valuable as facilitators of this innovation process. Table 7.2 lists
principles for spiritually sensitive organizational culture with brief examples of
innovations that would support them. Accompanying Table 7.3 adapts the prin-
ciples from Table 7.2 as a rating instrument for assessing the degree of spiritual
Table 7.2. Principles and Activities for Spiritually Sensitive Human Service
Organizational Culture.

General Structure and Functioning

Spiritually Attuned Mission, Goals, and Objectives. The mission of the HSO should reflect its
primary values and service priorities, in the context of a vision for peace, well-being, and jus-
tice. If the HSO is religiously affi liated, the mission may reflect its particular religious beliefs
and values. If it is not religiously affi liated, or if it prefers a broadly inclusive approach, the
mission can address its spiritual commitments without use of religious language in a spiri-
tually sensitive manner. The mission should also indicate respect for spiritual and cultural
diversity of the HSO’s clientele and community. The mission should link explicitly to spiritu-
ally sensitive goals, objectives, and specific organizational behaviors, including hiring policies
and program designs.
Human scale. The size and complexity of the HSO should be limited to a scale in which all
personnel can be familiar with each other personally and professionally. In large organi-
zations, such as state human service systems, area offices and departments should reflect
human scale; communication should flow smoothly between offices and departments.
Functional flexibility and integration. Staff should be prepared to be competent in multi-
ple organizational tasks, so that they can cooperate and shift roles across specializations as
needed. Responsibility for organizational goals should be shared between all administrative
levels. Examples of activities are cross-training, job sharing, interdisciplinary teamwork, and
shared worker/administrator ownership of the organization.
Rule flexibility. Agency policies, procedures, rules, and roles should be clear yet flexible. They
exist to serve people; people do not exist to serve them. Staff, clients, and other stakeholder
representatives are involved in the ongoing assessment and revision of all rules. Rules are
adapted to fit unusual staff and client circumstances. Examples are procedures for revi-
sion and appeal of rules, client-centered procedures for assessment of their challenges and
strengths, and periodic reviews of agency manuals.
Work environment aesthetics. The physical work environment should be designed in a way
that promotes health and well-being. Staff and clients should be consulted to assess and
design the work environment. Examples are ergonomic work stations, artwork, live plants,
aquariums, personalized decoration of work spaces and photos of places and events fond to
clients and staff, display of symbols that are significant and relevant to the spiritual perspec-
tives of workers and clients, comfortable waiting rooms, and avoidance of overt or subtle cues
that indicate religious or cultural biases that would offend or exclude staff and clientele.
Convivial technology. Technologies and information management systems should be sim-
ple to operate and repair for most staff or conveniently accessible consultants. They should
be used to increase staff and client comfort and goal achievement. Technologies should be
periodically evaluated with staff and client input. Examples are worker safety protocols for
technology use, user-friendly copy machines and computers, ergonomic work stations, and
multi-media technology that enhance the content and aesthetic quality of formal presenta-
tions, printed matter, and online resources.
Preparedness for spiritually sensitive practice. Policies, programs, and direct helping activities
should address clients’ spiritual needs and goals, if any, in a culturally appropriate manner
within the context of their religious or nonreligious perspectives and community support
systems. Practitioners are educated, supervised, and supported for including spirituality in
assessment, implementation, and evaluation of services. Ethical guidelines and dilemmas are
addressed systematically and explicitly.

(continued)

237
Table 7.2. Continued.

Meaningful Interconnectedness
Staff composition. Hiring and work task allocation should take into account the special
talents and aspirations of workers and should reflect a match between the cultural and
spiritual perspectives of clientele and the competencies of workers. For example, if there
are many Muslim clients or members of the community in the service area, the agency
should include workers who are respected members of the local Muslim community or
who have training and comfort for working with Muslim clients and collaborating with
Muslim community support systems.
Meritorious shared leadership. Formal leadership positions should be fi lled by people who
have the respect of staff and leadership of the service area community. Staff should be
meaningfully involved in selection of leaders. Staff could rotate through various leadership
positions. Informal leadership, based on qualities of innovation, collaboration, and com-
munication skills, should be recognized and rewarded officially. Leaders should have good
communication and listening skills, inspire colleagues, and encourage their self-esteem.
Examples are rotating directorships, rotating team leadership, and egalitarian collaborations
and teamwork.
Participatory decision making. All people who will be impacted by a significant decision
including staff, clients, and community members, should be included directly or indirectly in
the decision-making process. Examples of activities are brainstorming, anonymous sugges-
tion boxes, rewards for beneficial suggestions and critiques, surveys, inclusion of representa-
tives from all levels of staff and clients and community on advisory and planning groups,
and staff retreats for reflection on possible innovations. Decision-making meetings should be
conducted in an atmosphere of trust, encouragement of risk-taking, and willingness to work
through tensions or disagreements. Moments of meditation or quiet reflection can facilitate
mindful and respectful interaction.
Spiritual diversity innovation planning group. A committee should be formed to focus on
planning and implementation of spiritual diversity innovation on an ongoing basis. (See
Chapter 9 for related recommendations.) Th is group encourages and monitors the ongoing
spiritual innovation processes of the overall organization.
Interpersonal communication. All personnel in small agencies or in departments of large
agencies should be able to communicate with each other directly and personally on a regular
basis. If memos or email modes of communication are used, they should supplement and
enhance personalized communication rather than replace it. Communication should empha-
size respect, affirmation, honesty, enjoyment, and willingness to work through disagreements.
Holistic satisfaction of personnel aspirations. Aspirations for personal growth of staff should
be ascertained so that programs can be designed to support them. Satisfaction of growth
aspirations should be reflected in specific organizational objectives. Personnel should be
regarded as whole persons with opportunities for making personal and work life situations
complementary. Supervisory evaluations focus on identifying and building on strengths and
self-esteem while striving for excellence in performance. Patterns of staff stress, burnout,
absenteeism, and turnover should be tracked in order to develop preventive and responsive
activities. Examples of supportive activities are creative and challenging work assignments
that promote workers’ professional development, flex time, on-site day care for children,
stress management activities, subsidies for continuing education, medical insurance that
covers preventive and holistic care, and places and times for quiet reflection and centering.
Climate among colleagues. Staff of all levels and specializations should relate with each other
in a collaborative, respectful manner. Staff should appreciate each other for the value of
particular roles and talents that complement each other for the good of the organization.
Relations are not based on rigid hierarchy, condescension, coercive authoritarianism, or
destructive competition.

238
Creating A Spiritually Sensitive Context 239

Social and cultural environment rapport. The community environment of the HSO should be
enhanced by all aspects of organizational activity. Professional and grass roots community
leaders should be involved in program design and evaluation. Interagency and community-
based networks and teams should be established through formal interagency agreements,
task forces, and informal cooperative arrangements. Religious and nonreligious spiritual
leaders, helpers, and healers should be included in service collaboration, as relevant to clients.
Empowerment and justice principles relevant to the community should be demonstrated
clearly in work objectives and behaviors.
Natural environment rapport. The natural environment of the HSO should be enhanced
by all aspects of organizational activity. Damaging impacts should be identified and
eliminated or minimized. Nurturing and inspiring human/nature connectedness should
be evident within the HSO. Inspiring places of natural beauty should be included in
programs for staff and clients as desired. Examples are energy efficient vehicles and light-
ing, car pooling and recycling programs, use of biodegradable materials for cleaning, safe
disposal of toxic materials, developing neighborhood organic gardens, landscaping the
grounds around the organization with organic methods, indoor placement of live plants
or aquariums, opening window views and walking areas in the HSO location, client
opportunities for pet therapy or wilderness therapy, and arranging staff and client visits
to nature parks.

sensitivity in the organization. See also Chapter 10 for related recommendations

on spiritual diversity innovation in HSOs.
We recommend that staff development meetings should be held periodically
for open discussion about agency policies, procedures, and behaviors in rela-
tion to these qualities of spiritually sensitive HSO culture. Staff members at all
levels (e.g. management, direct service workers, support staff ), client representa-
tives, community advisory board members, and any other stakeholders could
complete this assessment form in an anonymous and confidential manner, or
the form could be used as a basis for individual and focus group interviews.
Information and suggestions gleaned from this study can inspire specific recom-
mendations for HSO innovation.
Benefiel (2005) pointed out that this involves a long-term commitment to
reflection, dialogue, planning, implementation, and review. Organizations some-
times are provoked into this type of self-reflection through crises, such as busi-
ness failures or lawsuits. Even after setting out on this path, crises may challenge
the organization again. Working through these crises can be a valuable process
of transformation. Mitroff and Denton (1999) recommended that organizations
should start with small, achievable changes and build on successes and proceed
in a gentle, soft way that respects all spiritual vantage points, in order to avoid
causing offense or being overwhelmed by the scale of challenge. They recom-
mended ongoing spiritual audits of the organization. Organizations should
expend as much energy in the process of integrating spirituality as they would
dedicate to any other significant goal. They recommended that these audits be
honest in identifying strengths on which to build and mistakes in principle and
practice that should be discarded or corrected. Mitroff and Denton emphasized
240 spiritually sensitive social work

Table 7.3. Rating Form for Assessing Spiritual Sensitivity in Human Service
Organization Culture.
Instructions: Rate your organization for the level it meets on each quality criterion
(see Table 7.2 for explanation) on a scale of 0–5, from 0 [nonexistent] to 5 [excellent].
Th ink of your reasons for each rating and an example and write brief notes. Tally the
total score. In discussing your rating with colleagues, feel free to include musings or
disagreements regarding any of the criteria. Discuss your overall impression of the
organization’s spiritual sensitivity. Identify at least one specific suggestion for innova-
tion by building on the HSO’s strengths or addressing its limitations.

General Structure and Functioning

1. Spiritually Attuned Mission, Goals, and Objectives. RATING (0–5)——
2. Human scale. RATING (0–5)——
3. Functional flexibility and integration. RATING (0–5)——
4. Rule flexibility. RATING (0–5)——
5. Work environment aesthetics. RATING (0–5)——
6. Convivial technology. RATING (0–5)——
7. Preparedness for spiritually sensitive practice. RATING (0–5)——

Meaningful Interconnectedness
8. Staff composition. RATING (0–5)——
9. Meritorious shared leadership. RATING (0–5)——
10. Participatory decision making. RATING (0–5)——
11. Spiritual diversity innovation planning group. RATING (0–5)——
12. Interpersonal communication. RATING (0–5)——
13. Holistic satisfaction of personnel aspirations. RATING (0–5)——
14. Climate among colleagues. RATING (0–5)——
15. Social and cultural environment rapport. RATING (0–5)——
16. Natural environment rapport. RATING (0–5)——
TOTAL SCORE (0–80)——

NOTES ON RATINGS AND OVERALL IMPRESSIONS:

RECOMMENDATION FOR ONE INNOVATION, WITH SPECIFIC ACTION PLAN:

that spiritually oriented organizations take into account both short-term mutual
benefits of all stakeholders and long-term implications for future generations.

Conclusion

In this chapter, we presented an overall revisioning of the helping relationship and

its organizational context. We drew from insights of many spiritual perspectives
Creating A Spiritually Sensitive Context 241

and empirical studies as well as humanistic and transpersonal approaches to

human service and organizational behavior. We emphasized that spiritually sen-
sitive practice is not just a matter of including religious or spiritual topics in
social work activity. Spiritually sensitive practice is a whole way of being and
relating within all aspects, stages, and environments of helping. Our suggestions
here open many possibilities for innovation, but they are a small beginning. We
hope that they encourage readers to examine themselves and their service set-
tings in order to find creative ways of enhancing their practice.
In the following chapter, we will consider spiritually sensitive ways to under-
stand and support human development through clinical practice.

EXERCISES

.. Linking Self-Understanding to Practice with Clients

This chapter includes many exercises in the body of the text designed to help you
link self-understanding to practice with clients. We suggest that you choose one
to carry out. We list them here. Return to the text for explanation about how to
do the exercises.

A. Journaling about a practice situation.

B. Experiencing the client with a fresh mind.
C. Dissolving inner chatter.
D. Developing an introduction on inclusivity for groupwork.
E. Asking for an intuitive insight.
F. Brainstorming.

.. Planning for Innovation in the Context of Practice

Each table and figure listed here depicts ideals, principles, guidelines, or sug-
gestions for creating a spiritually sensitive context for practice. We suggest that
you review each table and figure and reread the relevant section of text. Make a
commitment to one significant innovation and then write out a plan for how you
can accomplish it in your practice. The plan should include your objective for
enhancing practice, a specific course of action, and a timeline for implementing
the activity.

A. Making win/win solutions (Table 7.1).

B. Organizing social work activity in a holistic system (Figure 7.1).
C. Synergizing different ways of knowing (Figure 7.2).

Write out a plan for how you can accomplish this in your practice. The plan
should include your objective for enhancing practice, a specific course of action,
and a time line for implementing the activity. After you have completed the
242 spiritually sensitive social work

activity, evaluate the impact on yourself, the clients, colleagues, and any relevant
stakeholders. Then refine further use of the activity based on this evaluation.
Continue this process.

.. Assessing Spiritual Sensitivity of Organizational Culture

Use Table 7.3 as a tool for rating the spiritual sensitivity of your human service
organizational culture.
Quick Version. Complete the rating instrument yourself. For each principle,
write a brief explanation of why you rated the organization this way and give an
example. Then identify one way to begin enhancing the organization’s spiritual
sensitivity. State your plan in clear action steps. This could serve as the basis for
more extensive innovation.
Ongoing Spiritual Auditing and Innovation. Conduct a staff in-service
training session to begin group thinking about innovation in organizational cul-
ture. Ask each person to complete the rating instrument after you explain the
meaning of each principle. The total possible score is 80 points. Ask for volun-
teers to explain why they gave their ratings, asking for examples. Note the overall
range of scores (minimum to maximum) and invite participants to discuss why
they rated the organization differently. As discussion proceeds, help the group
reflect on emerging consensus or areas of disagreement. Identify specific sugges-
tions for enhancing spiritual sensitivity for each principle. Explore the level of
interest for the agency to commit to an ongoing process of spiritual auditing and
innovation. If there is interest, see Chapter 9 for more suggestions about creating
an ongoing planning and innovation process through transcultural teamwork.
 8

Understanding and Assessing

Spiritual Development

Wake up!
It is time to wake up!
The Dhammapada, Buddhism
(trans. Lal, 1967, p. 134)

The conceptual models of spirituality formed in Chapter 3 suggest two major

ways of thinking about human development. First, when we think of spiritu-
ality as an aspect of the person that strives for a sense of meaning, purpose,
connection, and transcendence, our attention focuses on the way people develop
meaning through immersion in spiritual groups and belief systems and through
questioning of meaning systems due to personal doubts and life challenges, such
as crises.
Second, when we think of spirituality as the wholeness of what it is to be
human, our attention focuses on how people develop toward a sense of integra-
tion and integrity between all aspects of themselves (bio-psycho-social-spiritual)
and in relation with other beings and the universe. For people who believe in a
divine ultimate reality, this actualization of wholeness is seen as an accomplish-
ment of communion between oneself, others, and the divine.
These two ways of thinking about human development are closely related.
The existential quest for meaning can motivate a person toward actualization
of wholeness and communion. Thus, the existential quest can lead us into the
transpersonal realm. Among those who believe in a divine plan or transcendent
goal for human existence, some would say that God, spiritual beings, or our true
self, of which the ego is yet latently aware, can reach out to us, reveal truths to
us, and call us onward toward integrity and wholeness.
These two developmental metaphors have been discussed widely by human-
istic and transpersonal developmentalists (Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 2006).
The first is the metaphor of innate human potential. In this metaphor, the

243
244 spiritually sensitive social work

potential for spiritual unfoldment is like a seed with which we are born. When
environmental conditions are sufficiently supportive and nurturing, the seed of
spirituality sprouts and grows. Our innate drives for meaning, purpose, and lov-
ing relationships express as we grow throughout the life span. Eventually, we
might form a clearly integrated individual self and move beyond it into trans-
personal awareness.
The second developmental metaphor is that of striving toward perfection or a
spiritual ideal. The person is like a green plant that naturally orients itself toward
light and grows to reach it. As the plant encounters light, it receives energy from
above that sustains and replenishes it. In this metaphor, the ideal of wholeness,
encompassing personal integrity and universal communion, is like the sun to
which we are drawn. For people who believe in divine beings, a cosmic order,
or a Supreme Being, they may feel that they are called toward perfection and
wholeness to rise up out of their ego-limited self into transpersonal awareness.
In theistic and animistic belief systems, this spiritual calling (vocation) may be
initiated by sacred powers, including nonhuman or nonphysical beings, such as
spirits, angels, deities, or a Supreme Being.
Both of these metaphors are related. The earth nurtures the seed of our
spiritual potential, allowing it to sprout and grow, but rain and light from the
sky are also necessary to feed and draw forth that growth. The first metaphor
emphasizes that innate and immanent qualities of spirituality require nurtur-
ance by a supportive environment. The second metaphor emphasizes ideals and
transcendent qualities of spirituality that draw forth human potential. It empha-
sizes the importance of the social, natural, and transpersonal environment not
only as a support, but also as a catalyst and even initiator of developmental
breakthroughs.
This chapter explores these themes of individual spiritual development.
First, we consider how spiritual development relates to everyday life. Second, we
discuss types of developmental phases and events, including gradual growth and
sudden transformational breakthroughs. Third, we relate these to life span devel-
opmental theories. Then we provide assessment practices that can help clients to
reflect on their spiritual development and to discern the difference and relation-
ship between growthful spiritual experiences and psychopathology.

Spiritual Development and Everyday Life

In Canda’s (1988b, 1988c, 1990c) study of social work educators’ views of spiri-
tuality, participants often emphasized that spirituality should be understood in
relation to everyday life, including the ordinary events and circumstances of our
personal lives and our professional work with clients. As Zen and existential-
ism emphasize, people enhance the quality of their lives when they pay atten-
tion to the preciousness of each moment day to day. Of course, there may be
occasions of powerful insights, spiritual crises, and breakthroughs. There may
Spiritual Development 245

be experiences of trances, visions, and revelations. People may feel powerfully

moved by sacred powers and divine beings. Yet these extraordinary events and
realities must be integrated into ordinary everyday life, or they disappear like a
flash in the pan.
Social workers have a mandate for practical action. We recognize that spir-
itual development is an ongoing process, day to day, night to night. The nitty
gritty tasks of obtaining food and shelter, washing the dishes, and raising chil-
dren are the spiritual ground upon which we walk during our spiritual journeys.
To borrow Maslow’s (1968, 1969) concept of the hierarchy of needs, the satisfac-
tion of subsistence, security, and self-esteem needs is the basis for the emergence
of loving connections with others, creativity, and transpersonal experience.
Unfortunately, Maslow’s idea is too often used superficially to imply that
spiritual development only starts after all these so-called lower needs are satis-
fied. Maslow’s point was that when a person’s energy and attention are preoc-
cupied with survival needs and fending off dangers or threats, it is natural that
there will be less energy and time available for artistic and mystical pursuits.
So when a homeless client states that her present goal is to find a shelter from
the winter cold, then that is the appropriate point to help. By starting where
the client is, by joining with the client’s present concern, we are already being
spiritually sensitive. We are acknowledging the significance of her priorities and
the preciousness of who she is just at this moment. Indeed, by relating with her
in terms of her own aspirations, we create an opportunity for a profound con-
nection and reflection. In pursing shelter, the client is already on the path of
spiritual development. When the shelter for homeless people reflects a humane,
caring, and uplifting physical appearance and social climate, the provision of the
shelter service nurtures the spiritual potential of the residents and staff.
It is often the times of greatest deprivation and oppression that call forth
a response of creativity, discovery of meaning, and sense of divine support. As
Victor Frankl, the founder of logotherapy (therapy of meaning) pointed out,
when people get in touch with an inner source of spiritual support and hold dear
the sense of their own and others’ integrity, they may find surprising sustenance
and resiliency in the face of tragedy (Frankl, 1969; Lantz, 1993). For example,
during the period of slavery, African American slaves and anti-abolitionists drew
on Christian hymns, both to glorify God and to proclaim their secret hopes and
strategies for winning freedom (Harding, 1990). The underground railroad was
not made of rails, but rather of prayer, song, risk, courage, mutual support, sac-
rifice, and tremendous effort.
When we realize that spirituality encompasses the wholeness of what it is
to be human, we become aware of the precious and wonderful nature of every
moment and interaction. There is a Zen expression that Zen mind is simply:
“When hungry, eat; when sleepy, sleep.” This does not mean that habitual, mind-
less routines and actions promote spiritual growth. Rather, the simplest act,
when done with mindful awareness, is an occasion for realizing the amazing
and mysterious quality of the moment (Welwood, 1992). Every day, as we work,
246 spiritually sensitive social work

play, love, become sick, heal, flame in anger, speak words of forgiveness, or go
through the process of dying, we can be moving along a spiritual journey toward
meaning and wholeness if we realize what we are doing.
Spiritual development is not one aspect of life. Rather, spiritual development
is everyday life. By calling human development spiritual, we are calling atten-
tion to the potential for deep meaning and realization of wholeness inherent in
human life. When we wake up to this potential, and dedicate ourselves to actu-
alizing it, then our lives become explicitly spiritual in orientation.
In 1976, while I (EC) waded in gentle waves lapping on the shore of the
East Sea of South Korea, I had an experience that made this point unforgettable.
Suddenly, a tall wave came rushing in. It knocked me down into the water and
an undertow pulled me out to the deep. I am not a good swimmer, but I strove to
keep my head above water. Each time I surfaced, another wave washed me under.
I could not find my way to the shore. This bobbing and submerging continued
for what seemed an endless time. I felt that I was being swallowed into a pitiless
void to die before my proper time.
Finally, my cries for help brought a Korean friend to my aid. He tried to
take my arms around his neck and swim us both back to shore, but the crushing
waves overcame us, so he had to release me back into the water to save himself
and to look for rescue on the beach. My hopeless bobbing continued. To my
amazement, my mind and body shifted into a state of strength and endurance
that seemed impossible. An inexplicable energy fi lled me. Everything in the uni-
verse collapsed into each intense moment, no hope for the future, no help from
the past. Finally, a Korean soldier who was stationed on the beach responded to
my friend’s summons and rushed to me with an inflated inner tube. He swam
me back to the beach, pushed the water out of my lungs and stomach, and put
me to rest in his encampment.
I lay on a cot, acutely aware of the miracle of my survival. All my senses
were heightened. The sounds of the soldiers talking about me, the radio music
playing in the background, the shining sunlight—all struck me as absolutely
amazing, precious, and wonderful. In contrast to the pitiless void from which
I had been rescued, each simple moment of life was brilliant and fantastic. A sol-
dier asked me, with a humorous tone of voice, “How does it feel to come back
from hell?” I said, “Wonderful!”
About a week later, I was rushed to a hospital in Seoul, due to an attack of
acute pancreatitis, which is an excruciating abdominal disorder that may have
been triggered by the physical trauma of drowning and life saving efforts. When
I came out of the hospital about a week later, again I was amazed at the glory
of life.
Almost exactly 22 years later, a Korean colleague kindly brought me back to
that place for a rapprochement. I squatted on the beach just out of water’s reach,
looked over the ocean, and contemplated. I put out my hand as if coaxing the
waves to approach near enough for me to touch them fondly. I thanked God and
the ocean for that near death lesson about the wonder of life. I gave thanks for
Spiritual Development 247

the 22 years I lived since then and renewed my commitment to use my remain-
ing life in the way I feel called. I gave thanks for my wife, the friend and stranger
who helped rescue me, and all the tiny and major events of my life that would
not have happened if I had succumbed in 1976.
This experience showed me was how each moment—whether dramatic or
boring, whether intense or gentle—is amazing and precious. The gentle lapping
of the waves; the drowning and rescue; the feeling of pitiless void; the mysteri-
ous life sustaining energy; the medical crisis; the care and love I received from
friends and strangers; the recovery and return to ordinary life; every subsequent
moment of 22 years—all were amazing.
I recount this experience to remind you of any experiences you may have
had that woke you up to the wonder of the ordinary. If you have not had such
an experience, we hope that you can wake up to how wonderful each moment is
without going through some catastrophe. This bright awareness can guide prac-
titioners in work with clients as they flow through the moments of their lives.

Spiritual Emergence and Emergencies

Stanislav and Christina Grof coined the term spiritual emergence to refer to the
developmental process in which people learn to orient themselves to their daily
lives with clarity and appreciation, to work out a sense of authentic meaning
and purpose and relationship with other people and the world, and to open up
to transpersonal awareness (Bragdon, 1990; Grof & Grof, 1989, 1990; Watson,
1994). As Robbins et al. (2006, p. 398) summarized, “Spiritual emergence is an
experience of relatively gradual, but progressive expansion of a sense of well-
ness, freedom, responsibility, and connection with the cosmos. The related expe-
riences and insights are rather easy to integrate into ordinary life.” Of course,
there are many twists and turns, steps forward and back, and leaps and falls on
this journey of spiritual emergence, but the overall trend is toward meaning,
wholeness, and communion.
Although spiritual emergence is usually a relatively gradual process, there
are variations of intensity during various developmental phases and transper-
sonal experiences. Spiritual awakenings sometimes occur to us in the most mun-
dane and ordinary circumstances and through gradual unfolding of spiritual
potential. Maslow (1970) described the plateau experience as a sense of profound
yet gentle happiness and enjoyment that elevates our awareness of the moment
beyond the taken-for-granted. He gave the example of a mother who watches her
baby playing and marvels at the preciousness and loveliness of this young life.
In general, people who say that they have a general sense of spiritual well-
being report a preponderance of positive feelings, such as joy, peace, love,
self-esteem, and rapport with other people, nature, and God or other spiritual
beings and forces, as well as the ability to work through serious life challenges
with resilience (Canda, in press). On the other hand, spiritual distress comes in
248 spiritually sensitive social work

many forms. For example, after a parent or significant other dies, some chil-
dren develop serious anxiety about death and troubling spiritual questions about
the fragility of life and possibilities of an afterlife (Crompton, 1998). Children’s
excessive anxiety, shame, and guilt can be provoked by parents and religious
authorities who convey punitive, threatening, or blaming ideas about God or
other supernatural powers. These kinds of patterns can persist into adulthood
and emerge in adult therapeutic settings. Young adults might experience spiri-
tual distress when they encounter challenges to their received spiritual teachings
from peers, from widening formal education, and meeting people from outside
their communities of childhood (Roehlkepartain, King, Wagener, & Benson,
2006). Adults who develop strong questions about their spiritual beliefs, consider
converting to a different faith, or who become life partners with a person of a
different spiritual perspective or style can experience distress while working this
through. Older adults and people with serious illnesses may experience spiritual
distress as they come to terms with mortality and dying (Moberg, 2001; Nelson-
Becker, Nakashima, & Canda, 2006). These periods of spiritual distress can,
when addressed as opportunities for growth, become gateways into enhanced
life and well-being in the midst of dying.
Sometimes we experience startling breakthroughs that are exhilarating and
enjoyable, as in periods of unusually fluid creativity, especially profound lov-
ing connections with other people, or meditative experiences of expanded con-
sciousness. When we are able to integrate these experiences relatively easily, then
our spiritual growth accelerates without any sense of crisis. But sometimes the
intensity is overwhelming. Our life’s status quo may be severely disrupted. We
may feel lost, disoriented, or panicked. When spiritual development becomes a
crisis, the Grofs refer to it as a spiritual emergency (Bragdon, 1990; Grof & Grof,
1990; Watson, 1994). They explain:

When spiritual emergence is very rapid and dramatic, however, this natural
process can become a crisis, and spiritual emergence becomes spiritual emer-
gency. People who are in such a crisis are bombarded with inner experiences
that abruptly challenge their old beliefs and ways of existing, and their relation-
ship with reality shifts very rapidly. Suddenly they feel uncomfortable in the
formerly familiar world and may find it difficult to meet the demands of every-
day life. They can have great problems distinguishing their inner visionary
world from the external world of daily reality. Physically, they may experience
forceful energies streaming through their bodies and causing uncontrollable
tremors. (Grof & Grof, 1990, p. 35)

Like any crisis, a spiritual emergency is fraught with both danger and oppor-
tunity. The danger is that the person may feel destroyed. But the opportunity is
that the person’s de-structuring can open the possibility of reconstructing a new,
more fulfi lling way of living. Ego shattering opens the way to ego-transcendence.
Spiritual emergency, when successfully resolved, propels us rather suddenly into
transpersonal realms of experience.
Spiritual Development 249

Grof (1988) contrasted two modes of consciousness that help to clarify this
process. The first mode is called hylotropic. This term literally means “moving
toward matter.” It characterizes typical ordinary waking states of conscious-
ness in which awareness of reality is limited to input through physical senses,
physical boundaries of the environment and body, and three dimensions of
time and space. This mode characterizes the typical mental orientation of egoic
development.
The second mode of consciousness is called holotropic. This term literally
means “moving toward wholeness.” This mode involves transegoic experiences
that become more common and typical as a person’s spiritual emergence moves
into the transpersonal levels. We will discuss the transpersonal levels of devel-
opment in more detail later in this chapter. For now, it is important to note that
spiritual emergencies involve sudden openings to transpersonal experiences that
can be a shock to the ego and to one’s significant others. The person’s sense of
identity and reality, and his or her usual strategies for living and relating, may be
thrown into doubt and confusion. Gradual emergence of transpersonal aware-
ness allows for a smoother transition to new ways of experiencing and relating
with the world while spiritual emergencies may temporarily overwhelm us with
a flood of mind-blowing insights, visions, sensations, and feelings.
Table 8.1 lists examples of various transpersonal experiences (Faiver,
Ingersoll, O’Brien, & McNally, 2001; Fontana, 2003; Grof, 1988; Marquis, 2008;
Yang, Lukoff, & Lu, 2006). These can be considered transpersonal in that they
involve surpassing the ordinary limits of the body/ego and ordinary sense of
time, space, and causality. However, as Wilber (2000b, 2006) often points out,
delusions, hallucinations, or preegoic fantasies might be confused with these.
Although most of these transpersonal experiences might appear to be positive
(e.g. experiencing profound joy), there can be distressing, frightening, confusing,
and painful versions. For example, in most traditional religions and cultures,
people believe in harmful spirit beings, magical attack, and other damaging
transpersonal forces.
Maslow (1968, 1970) made a useful distinction between two types of spiri-
tual breakthrough events. The peak experience is an intense life-changing event
that propels a person into a profound sense of communion with oneself, other
people, the universe, or divinity. A peak experience loosens or dissolves the lim-
iting ego-boundary, opening the person to transpersonal awareness and experi-
ences. For example, quite literally, a mountain hiker might suddenly come out
from a forest onto a peak and look out to an expansive valley far below. Standing
poised between heaven and earth, looking out to the vastness, the hiker might
feel swept away with awe at the beauty and magnitude all around. He might feel
suddenly at one and at peace with the universe. After such an experience, one’s
perspective on life can never be the same.
A peak experience is a sudden developmental breakthrough, but it does not
necessarily lead to a sense of emergency. Although the emotional valence of the
peak experience is positive, it may be so intense and contrary to expectations
250 spiritually sensitive social work

Table 8.1. Examples of Transpersonal Experiences.

• Expanded consciousness
• Profound and intense experiences of peace, joy, or love
• Sense of timelessness and spacelessness
• Identification or merging with other people
• Communication with plants, animals, and other beings of nature
• Communication with spirits of ancestors, deceased loved ones, and spirit powers associated
with nature
• Communication with deities, angels, saints, and spirit guides
• Communication with God or awareness of God’s presence and grace
• “Gifts of the Spirit” such as speaking in tongues
• Oneness with the universe or ultimate reality
• Remembrance of past incarnations
• Remembrance of planetary or cosmic evolution
• Awareness of subtle energies, such as qi or kundalini
• Experiences of influence by magic, ritual, prayer, or other nonphysical or supramundane
interventions
• Out of body travel
• Insight into universal symbolic meanings (archetypes)
• Extrasensory perceptions such as precognition, telepathy, and telekinesis
• Near death experiences
• Experience of the sacredness of daily life

that one’s sense of self and reality is shattered. Then it becomes a spiritual
emergency.
There is also the spiritual breakthrough event that Maslow called the nadir
experience. This is an intense life-changing event that plunges one into a pit of
confusion, despair or grief. If a loved one has died, one’s very sense of self, for-
merly closely connected with this person, could be shattered. The bereaved may
feel lost and hopeless. He or she may feel bewildered that a supposedly loving
God could allow such a thing to happen. Like Job in the Bible story, one’s sense
of reality and rightness may be dashed in a way that seems incomprehensible and
unjustifiable. But when a person is able to work out of this pit, one becomes able
to reorient self and relationships and to understand the meaning of life and con-
nection to the sacred in a more realistic, resilient, and profound manner. This is
the existentialist path of confronting the absurdity of life in order to come to an
authentic and more fulfi lling sense of meaning.
This is the kind of pivotal experience that I (LF) experienced when my hus-
band Phil, was dying of cancer. It was inconceivable that my husband, an ENT
(ears, nose, and throat) specialist who had surgically removed cancers from oth-
ers, now had an inoperable cancer himself. What happens when the silver bullet
of modern medical technology no longer provides the cure?
For Phil, it was not his renaissance intelligence that gave him courage or
his material estate that consoled him. What sustained him was his unwilling-
ness to give up hope that a cure would be found at the same time as he accepted
the inevitability of his death. The operant factor in this dual perspective was his
discovery of a profound faith in a very personal God who could empower him
Spiritual Development 251

in his own physical and spiritual vulnerability. Phil’s deep faith through this
experience was a personal gift to all of us, especially to me. Death or the threat of
death has been called the decisive teacher because it goads us into appreciating
what we have or what we can do. We can create our own opportunities from the
same raw materials from which other people create their defeats.
Initially I felt that I could not face the inevitable. I remember one evening
I was feeling angry that I had been given this bitter slice of life. Why was this
happening to me? Why was my husband dying, and how could I possibly live
without him? I did not have the strength to face the future—the terrifying short
term or the lonely long term. That moment of utter despair was the definitive
moment in my life. The reality of death was present there in our home, in our
very bedroom. But somehow, looking at Phil and seeing his incredible calmness,
I was able to enter into his dying experience. In a certain way, his cancer and his
response reached into my psyche and my soul and stimulated them to growth.
I realized that what I needed was to return to the foundations of my youth,
my religious and spiritual heritage. I needed to seek guidance in the Christian Holy
Scriptures and to find empowerment in personal and communal prayer. I also knew
that I needed the support of other human beings. Phil and I would go through this
experience together, but we needed guidance, and so we sought pastoral counseling.
I realized that grief issues would be most important for us to process. I would be
saying goodbye to a marriage of 25 years and preparing to be without him. Phil was
saying good-bye to his family he loved so well and to his medical practice. We both
needed help transitioning from the known to the unknown.
Phil’s illness had a profound impact on our marriage. Before his diagnosis,
our marriage and love for each other was like most other long-term marriages—
anything but perfect. There were times when we misunderstood each other, were
insensitive to each others’ needs, or demanded too much of each other. During
our first 23 years together, I realized that I did not know Phil very well. He was
busy with his career and I with mine and the raising of our sons. Marital quid pro
quo (you do for me, and I’ll do for you) was also prevalent in our marriage, as it is
in most other marriages. During the last years of Phil’s life, this type of thinking
totally stopped. Through Phil’s spiritual journey, he began to open up to me and
share his innermost feelings—his greatest joys and his deepest fears. I really got to
know him, and I fell in love with this wonderful, brilliant man all over again.
During those last years, our marriage had no visible quid pro quo. I was the
primary caregiver for Phil because I loved him, expecting nothing in return. But
Phil and his illness gave me psychological and emotional maturity. I experienced
a total acceptance of my husband, including the breakdown of his body and all
of its functions. In most relationships, it is easier to live in a fantasy of how we
wish the other person to be or how we think she or he is. These images may be
more positive or more negative than the person really is. They do not identify the
person in reality. As Phil lay dying, there was no room for an inaccurate image
of him. I saw the plain truth of his deteriorating body, the shutdown of his intel-
lectual mind, and his inevitable death.
252 spiritually sensitive social work

On the day of Phil’s funeral, I realized how far I had come up out of the pit
of confusion and despair. Phil’s example, his courage, honest intimacy with his
death, and my religious faith had worked a profound change in me. This cri-
sis tapped a source of spiritual support within me and revealed the integrity of
Phil’s life and his most dignified death.
It is never really possible to predict how we will react in a crisis. As in com-
bat, it is often unknown who will have the courage to stay and fight. I am thankful
that I chose to stay and fight because Phil’s illness and his courageous response to
his inevitable death presented me with enduring gifts. I have no feelings of guilt
for not doing enough; I did all I could. Not only am I no longer afraid of death, I
am no longer afraid of life. I have a fearlessness to tackle almost anything.
The unconditional acceptance of my husband as he lay dying carried over
into other areas of my life. As I examined what was most important in my own
particular beliefs and spiritual practices and as I began to put them to work
through the events of my husband’s illness and death, I was allowed to get out of
my own frame of reference and learn to see other people from their own perspec-
tives. This has resulted in taking a less critical stance toward those whose world-
views are considerably different from mine. I have learned to be less judgmental
and am cultivating more empathy and understanding. Most important, I have
moved away from being dependent on what others think and being concerned
with conformity towards an independence of spirit and a recognition of my own
individuality. The myth of my not being strong enough was peeled away by this
experience. However, as much as I value my independence and solitude now,
I still recognize a need for others in my life. Without interpersonal connections,
I would not have been able to grow throughout this life crisis nor would I be able
to continue to discover more about myself, deepen my personal experience with
God, and find ways to be of service within my community. For me, spirituality
has become an intimate communication with God and others.
The experience of the death of my husband from cancer motivated me to
explore the importance of religion and spirituality during a life crisis from a
professional and ethical position in both my teaching and international research.
In reflecting back over the years, I realize that for those who have experienced
and adjusted to the death of a loved one, positive life changes can result from the
event even though it has caused them great suffering.
Yet Maslow emphasized that the peak and pit types of experiences do not
necessarily result in an enhancement of life. We could try to deny the revelation
or forget the insight. In so far as we are dramatically changed by these experi-
ences, our customary patterns of relationships with other people will be chal-
lenged as well. In order to fit back into our psychosocial status quo, we might try
to deny and hide our profound experiences and insights. Our loved ones, and
helping professionals, might brand our spiritual emergency as a form of pathol-
ogy to be squelched by therapy and medications. Sometimes, even our spiritual
or religious support groups oppose us for daring to have insights, revelations,
visions, or communications with the divine that go outside the constraints of
Spiritual Development 253

their regulated beliefs. So integration of our transpersonal experiences into our

ordinary lives may pose a challenge to our social environment.
On the other hand, some people become spiritual thrill seekers. They
become so enamored of the intense highs or lows of peak and pit experiences
that they seek to repeat them on demand. In this case, ordinary life and relation-
ships may be discarded in order to chase after the next transpersonal thrill. In
some cases, this leads to abuse of drugs and self-damaging extremes of spiritual
disciplines. This approach can eventually lead to addiction or burnout. If the
spiritual insights are not integrated into ordinary life, they are merely fireworks
displays at night that wink out and leave only the darkness.
Even if a person is conscientious in the pursuit of spiritual growth, or
does not seek it at all, sometimes a spiritual emergency comes with such sud-
denness and overwhelming force that it is impossible to cope with it or integrate
it personally or socially. Spiritual emergency in the form of a debilitating crisis
imposes a serious risk for physical illness, psychopathology, and social disrup-
tion. According to some belief systems, such as shamanism, nonphysical entities
might disrupt our bodies and minds for the purpose of calling us into a new way
of life. Although this presents a great opportunity for growth, it can also be a
frightening and dangerous process.
When we are able to integrate transpersonal insights into our ongoing
daily life, we grow to an enhanced level of functioning and fulfi llment. Maslow
referred to this as another kind of plateau experience. This is a way of being
that is oriented toward compassion, beauty, wisdom, responsibility, creativity,
and profundity (Maslow, 1970). This is a developmental ideal and a major goal
of spiritually sensitive practice. In other words, we can support people not only
to recover from crises (restore the status quo), we can also support them to learn
and grow through the process.

Spiritual Emergence throughout the Life Cycle

Spiritual emergence occurs in the context of our growth through the life cycle,
from birth to death, and possibly beyond. Therefore, in this section we will
draw on three life cycle theories that shed light on the relation between spir-
itual emergence and stages of the life cycle: Erik Erikson’s (1962, 1963, 1968,
1969, 1982) psychosocial development theory, James Fowler’s (1981, 1996, 2000)
cognitive-structural faith development theory, and Ken Wilber’s (1995, 1996,
1998; 2000a, 2000b, 2006) integral model of development. Although there are
many spiritual development theories, these three provide helpful examples of
different approaches. For our purpose, it is not necessary to reiterate the details
of each stage in their theories. We are more concerned with their insights about
the overall flow and dynamics of spiritual development through the life cycle.
However, for the reader’s convenience we include Table 8.2, which summarizes
the names, stages, and major themes for each of these theorists by drawing on
254 spiritually sensitive social work

Table 8.2. Qualities of Spiritual Development Emerging Th rough the Life Cycle in
Three Stage Theories.
Usual Age of Erikson: Fowler: Wilber:
Emergence Ego Challenge Faith Stage and Consciousness Stage and
(if at all) Stage and Virtue Quality Quality
Older Ego Integrity vs. Universalizing Nondual: Union of
Adulthood Despair: Faith: Nonjudgmental, Ultimate and Ordinary
Wisdom Transcendent, Inclusive
View Causal: Formlessness, No
Separation

Subtle: Communion with

Divinity

Psychic: Communion
Middle Generativity vs. Conjunctive Faith: with World
Adulthood Stagnation: Complex and
Care Pluralistic View Vision Logic: Holistic
Early Intimacy vs. Individuative- Inclusivity
Adulthood Isolation: Love Reflective Faith: Critical
Reflection Formal Operational:
Sophisticated
Rationality
Adolescence Ego Identity Synthetic- Concrete Operational:
vs. Role Conventional Faith: Autonomous But
Confusion: Personalized Peer Conformist Perspective
Fidelity Referenced Beliefs
Older Industry vs.
Childhood Inferiority:
Competence Mythic-Literal Faith:
Middle Initiative vs. Loyalty to Community Late Preoperational:
Childhood Guilt: Purpose Beliefs Symbolic
Representational
Thinking
Early Autonomy vs. Intuitive-Projective Faith: Preoperational:
Childhood Shame, Doubt: Creative Fantasy Fantasy-Emotional
Will Power Centeredness
Infancy Trust vs. Primal Faith: Trust in the Sensori-physical: Body-
Mistrust: Hope Universe & Divinity Oriented Awareness

these sources. For further information, see the human behavior theory textbook
by Robbins et al. (2006) and the sources cited here.

Erikson’s View of Spiritual Development

Erikson’s psychosocial development theory is based on an epigenetic perspec-
tive that views development as a process of psychosocial responses to age related
changes in the body (i.e. physical maturation) and socially defi ned transitions
Spiritual Development 255

(e.g. marriage or retirement) that occur in sequential stages. Epigenesis means

that each stage presents particular tasks, opportunities, and challenges.
Development at each stage builds upon the accomplishments of the prior stages.
As the person responds to these challenges successfully, he or she accrues coping
skills, ego strengths, and social resources. When these challenges are not met
successfully, due to inadequate coping or lack of support from the social envi-
ronment, the person fails to learn effective coping patterns and carries on the
burden of unresolved issues.
Erikson’s theory reminds us to be aware of relatively predictable age
related challenges that may affect spiritual emergence, as determined by phys-
ical changes and socially programmed transitions. For example, the adolescent,
according to Erikson, typically is dealing with the challenge of forming a clear
sense of personal identity in relation to socially available roles, increasing emo-
tional ties to peers outside the family of origin, and exploration of budding
sexuality. Therefore it is expectable that many adolescents will be dealing with
spiritual challenges pertaining to reevaluation of family-based religious beliefs
and practices. Also, in so far as a society demarcates significant life cycle tran-
sition points, such as birth, marriage, child birth, retirement, and death, it is
expectable that people will have a heightened sense of preoccupation with exis-
tential issues of meaning and purpose, as well as practical behavioral responses
determined by spiritual and religious reference groups, such as rituals. When a
person experiences a lack of guidance from spiritual support systems at impor-
tant life cycle transition points, it is expectable that the person will have greater
difficulty meeting the challenge. However, when a person has accrued a wide
repertoire of internal strengths (which Erikson called virtues) and skills in uti-
lizing external spiritual support systems, then we can expect greater creativity,
sense of positive self-esteem, and resiliency in confronting crises, including spir-
itual emergencies.
Erikson suggested that people in late adulthood (after age 50) often review
their lives with increased interest and concern as the fact of mortality and phys-
ical decline become more evident. He believed that most people have a height-
ened sense of spiritual concern at this stage, because there is greater urgency to
establish a sense that one’s life has been meaningful and worthwhile. Questions
about the nature of death and the possibility of an after-death existence naturally
increase. The wise elder moving toward to end of life incorporates and reworks
insights gleaned from earlier stages of life, so that basic trust of infancy becomes
appreciation of human interdependence, learning control over the body in stage
two replicates as bodily deterioration in old age occurs, childlike playfulness
manifests as good humor, sense of life accomplishments is balanced with humil-
ity, complexity of life is more appreciated, love and empathy become more deep,
and the sense of wholeness of personhood transcends physical deterioration
(Robbins et al., 2006).
Erikson also suggested that some people have a precocious and unusually
strong interest in spiritual matters throughout life. Even in childhood, such a
256 spiritually sensitive social work

person focuses on questions about the meaning and purpose of human life. He
presented Martin Luther and Mohandas Gandhi as examples of such extraor-
dinary people, and referred to them with the Latin term homo religiosus, which
means “the religious person” (Erikson, 1962, 1969). In adulthood, the homo reli-
giosus extends the sense of responsibility to connection with other people beyond
family and one’s own society to all humanity and even the entire cosmos. Such
personalities are more likely to experience peak and pit experiences at early ages
and throughout the life cycle. Their approach to life overall is to integrate these
insights into ever increasing levels of spiritual plateaus. They are more likely to
build on unfolding psychosocial virtues to develop an overall way of living com-
mitted to joining personal edification with benefit for others. Therefore, they
often have an unusually high degree of facility with both inner self-reflection
(wisdom) and humane relations with others (compassion) leading to effective
action (service).

James Fowler’s Faith Development Theory

Fowler is a Christian theologian and developmental theorist who built on the
structural-cognitive perspective of Piaget and Kohlberg in addition to psychoso-
cial theory. In the cognitive-structural perspective, development reflects the pro-
cess of learning increasingly sophisticated and comprehensive ways of mentally
comprehending the world. Stages of development represent levels of cognitive
complexity achieved, rather than age determined tasks.
Fowler’s theory focuses on the formation and transformation of faith
throughout the life cycle. As we mentioned in Chapter 3, by faith, Fowler meant,
“the pattern of our relatedness to self, others, and our world in light of our relat-
edness to ultimacy” (1996, p. 21). “Ultimacy” refers to that which a person gives a
sense of first importance and greatest profundity in orienting his or her life with
fundamental values, beliefs, and meanings. Just as we have defi ned spirituality,
faith may take religious or nonreligious forms. Fowler depicted faith as a univer-
sal aspect of human nature that gives coherence and meaning to life, connects
individuals together in shared concerns, relates people to a larger cosmic frame
of reference, and enables us to deal with suffering and mortality. As Robbins
et al. (2006) summarized, “A stage of faith is a pervasive pattern of knowing and
valuing that orients us to ourselves, the world, and ultimacy. Transition through
stages is affected by challenges to the prevailing faith orientation that require
more complex, sophisticated, and comprehensive understandings” (pp. 281–282).
Challenges may appear from physiological changes, such as maturation or injury,
significant changes and losses in the environment, and God’s grace.
Ideal faith development is portrayed as a progression from childhood con-
formity to expectations of belief and behavior set by family and society with rel-
atively simplistic and concrete images of God or other spiritual realities; through
adolescent questioning and formation of a more personally tailored faith; to crit-
ically reflective, flexible, and even inclusive forms of faith. Fowler described a
Spiritual Development 257

mature faith stance as one that upholds one’s own particular beliefs and prac-
tices at the same time as being able to empathize and cooperate with people who
have other faith commitments.
Fowler provided a helpful set of categories to understand various contents
of a person’s developing faith. These are (1) the things or qualities with greatest
value to us; (2) the master stories that we use to guide and explain our lives;
(3) the images of sacredness or power that sustain us; and (4) our locus of author-
ity for what we consider moral and right (Robbins et al., 2006). Over time, people
refine and change their contents of faith, both within stages (at the same level of
complexity and sophistication) and by moving to a more advanced stage of faith.
The latter case is called conversion, which is sometimes rather sudden (Fowler,
1981). Sudden conversions can involve what transpersonalists call peak or pit
experiences, including spiritual emergencies. Given Fowler’s Christian perspec-
tive, he suggested that conversion may sometimes result from an unpredict-
able revelation of God’s grace and intentions for us to reform our lives (Fowler,
1996, 2000).
Fowler’s (2000) second highest stage, conjunctive faith, reveals the ideals he
holds for spiritual development of adults. The term conjunctive faith is derived
from the insights of the Christian mystic, Nicholas of Cusa (1401–1464) and the
depth psychologist Carl Jung, who both emphasized the way spiritually mature
people are able to reconcile apparent contradictions, polarities, and paradoxes
within a unifying consciousness. For example, the wise elder is able to hold
together in awareness polar tensions between youth and old age, masculine and
feminine, and constructive and destructive aspects of life. The wise elder views
truth as multiform, varied, and paradoxical rather than concrete and singular.
The wise elder is open to the truths of varied traditions and cultures. While hav-
ing a clear commitment to one’s faith, the wise elder is humble, open to correc-
tion, and appreciative of other views.
People who attain this ability to decenter from self and take others’ per-
spectives might move to the highest stage of universalizing faith. As Fowler put
it, “This process reaches a kind of completion in universalizing faith, for there a
person decenters in the valuing process to such an extent that he or she partici-
pates in the valuing of the Creator and values other beings—and being—from a
standpoint more nearly identical with the love of the Creator for creatures than
from the standpoint of a vulnerable, defensive, anxious creature” (2000, p. 56).
Mahatma Gandhi is Fowler’s exemplar for this stage.

Ken Wilber’s Integral Model of Development

Like Fowler, Wilber draws on the cognitive-structural theories of development.
But unlike Fowler, his spiritual assumptions are more influenced by Vedantic
Hinduism and Buddhism, while taking into account mystical contemplative
insights from many religious traditions. Wilber refers to his approach as inte-
gral because it addresses human development across four quadrants or vantage
258 spiritually sensitive social work

points (i.e. interior-individual; exterior-individual; interior-collective; and exte-

rior collective) and also through all levels of consciousness development from
preegoic through egoic into transegoic. This means that the subjective aware-
ness, objective/behavioral, cultural, and social dimensions of human experience
(in connection with everything else) coevolve and interface. In order to account
for this complex process, Wilber draws on thinking and evidence from more
than 100 developmental theorists across many scientific, philosophical, and reli-
gious fields (1980, 1993, 1996, 2000a, 2000b, 2006). His theory posits that human
development is a process of evolution toward increasingly comprehensive scopes
of consciousness with concomitant standards of well-being and justice becoming
more and more inclusive. His view of spiritual development is similar to Fowler’s
except that it goes into more detail with the transpersonal levels that relate to
Fowler’s universalizing faith. For Wilber, the goal of development is for each per-
son, culture, and eventually the human species as a whole, to attain nondual
consciousness integrated with individual and societal functioning. Each level of
consciousness includes yet transcends the capacities and points of view of the
lower levels. As we develop increasingly complex, comprehensive, and inclusive
modes of spirituality, we move from a preegoic orientation (early childhood), to
an egoic orientation (typically established firmly in adolescence or young adult-
hood), and (less commonly) to a transegoic orientation in adulthood.
Wilber is most interested in the transegoic levels of development, which
some people achieve in a stable manner during adulthood. He does not separate
adulthood into age-linked stages of spiritual development. The transpersonal
stages of consciousness progress through the way individuals take on the chal-
lenges of life, incorporate insights from transpersonal states of consciousness,
engage in diligent cultivation of consciousness by spiritual practices such as con-
templative prayer and meditation, and then influence each other and society at
large through dialogue and innovations in politics and other socially engaged
activities.
Wilber refers to his model as a holarchy, that is, an ordering of increas-
ingly comprehensive wholes. Although the model is often portrayed as a linear
sequence of stages, that is a simplification. One might better portray each stage
as a circle that encompasses the earlier stages as smaller circles. If one imagines
this three dimensionally, the circles of expanding consciousness spiral upward
more and more widely. In other words, at each stage, the person’s conscious-
ness is able to incorporate more aspects of reality and more modes of function-
ing. Each stage (or level) is epigenetic as are those of Erikson and Piaget. Each
stage has a structure or holistic pattern of experience, awareness, and function-
ing. Each stage can be thought of as a wave to highlight the fact that all stages
are fluid, flowing, and overlapping developmental processes that include regress,
progress, and wavering. In addition, there are many lines of development that are
interrelated but distinct, such as physical, cognitive, moral, spiritual, and emo-
tional. A person can be well developed in one line and less developed in another
line. For example, an inspiring spiritual teacher could be emotionally immature
Spiritual Development 259

with poor sense of social boundaries, and thus be prone to exploit or abuse stu-
dents or congregation members.
At the stage of transition from egoic to transegoic consciousness (vision-
logic), the person learns to perceive the world holistically and globally. In the
early transegoic stages (psychic and subtle and causal), the person realizes that the
self is not limited to ordinary space-time limits or ego boundary. Transpersonal
experiences such as extra-sensory perceptions and mystical experiences become
more common and consistent. Ultimately, the person’s identity may grow beyond
the confines of the self and culture-bounded ego, body, and social roles until it
becomes unified with the divine or totality of the universe.
The ultimate stage of development is called the nondual. The nondual stage
is characterized by a consciousness beyond all separations and distinctions. It
is really a nonstage, because it is experience of Pure Consciousness, the source,
process, and goal of all development. In the nondual stage, a person realizes that
every moment is already complete. Every particular thing including oneself, is
fundamentally one with all. Ordinary life becomes infused with awareness of
the sacredness of every experience. Wilber (1995, p. 301) proclaimed that the
nondual is “the Ground or Suchness or Isness of all stages, at all times, in all
dimensions: the Being of all beings, the Condition of all conditions, the Nature
of all natures.”
Wilber recognized that peak and pit experiences sometimes propel one into
the transegoic levels of consciousness, even while one is operating regularly at an
egoic or preegoic level. However, he noted that it takes time, effort, and practice
to develop proficiency and regularity of functioning at the transegoic levels. In
Maslow’s terms, temporary peak experiences can catalyze transegoic develop-
ment, but it takes dedicated and consistent work to stabilize at a transpersonal
plateau of functioning.

Critique of Stage Theories of Spiritual Development

We make use of insights from these theories for assessment and helping activi-
ties. However, there are weaknesses and controversies that limit their usefulness
for a client-centered spiritually sensitive approach to social work. Wilber’s ongo-
ing work is the most elaborately formulated and is attentive to many of these
concerns. We think that his work is useful to help social workers develop a holis-
tic, integral, and spiritually sensitive approach, as long as it is tempered by our
professional values, critical thinking, practice wisdom, and empirical testing.
One of the limitations of the stage theories is that they overemphasize the
emergence of spiritual issues in adulthood. Coles’ (1990) narrative interview
studies with children from many cultural backgrounds shows a great richness
and profundity of spirituality that needs to be explored further. Sometimes,
adult views of religion and spirituality become jaded and routine, as compared
with childhood open-mindedness and spontaneity. Wilber (2000b) acknowl-
edged that children may be more in touch with imaginative and emotional
260 spiritually sensitive social work

modes of spiritual experience and can even have peak experiences. However,
they typically experience spirituality in a fantasy-based or egocentered mode.
Adult development hopefully can recapture the positive features of childhood
spirituality that may have been repressed during early formation of the young
adult ego and social roles, while moving forward in more sophisticated modes of
spirituality. The importance of childhood as a key formative period for develop-
ment of spiritual propensity was demonstrated in our U S A National Surveys.
According to scatter plot analyses for both 1997 and 2008 surveys, the more
a social worker participated in religious (e.g. church) services and felt positive
about religious and spiritual experiences in childhood and adolescence, the more
likely the person would continue to participate and feel positive in adulthood.
Spiritual development through childhood and youth needs much deeper explo-
ration (Roehlkepartain, King, Wagener, & Benson, 2006).
All stage theories present an oversimplified picture of development because
they try to capture a highly complex and multifarious process in static mod-
els. These models are useful as heuristic devices. They sensitize practitioners
to themes and questions to explore with clients who wish to pursue spiritual
development. But practitioners need to remember that the map is not the terri-
tory (Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 2008). Since the models are standardized,
they cannot accommodate the tremendous individual and cultural diversity of
developmental experiences and paths. Although Erikson, Fowler, and Wilber
have all addressed concerns about diversity to some extent, there continue to
be many problems when trying to take into account diversity of gender, culture,
religion, sexual orientation, and cognitive abilities. Wilber’s integral approach
is the most fully developed, but there are metaphysical assumptions embed-
ded in it that are not congruent for all clients. Also, as religious studies schol-
ars commonly emphasize, it is important for us to understand individual and
group specific forms and histories of religious and spiritual experience, rather
than generalized and abstract ideas about it. Further, despite Wilber’s profound
calls for expanded consciousness, compassion, and justice, his tone of argument
is sometimes arrogant and demeaning toward different views (Robbins et al.,
2006).
On a practical level, if social workers take a stage theory too seriously, there
is the risk that we will not be open to the unique developmental story of each
client. We might assume that, at a certain age, a person should act and think in
such and such way, and then impose our prejudice upon the nonconforming cli-
ent. Instead of listening carefully for the particular themes, plots, sequences of
events, and interpretations within the client’s life story, we might be listening to
our internal dialogue based upon our own ideal version of a life story.
In addition, many people recount unexpected and complicated twists,
turns, detours, reversals, revelations, and breakthroughs that couldn’t fit any
preconceived notion of how development should proceed. We recommend that
spiritually sensitive practitioners become very knowledgeable about spiritual
development theories (stage based and otherwise) and use them to open up
Spiritual Development 261

possibilities for understanding and working with clients. However, they should
never be used to close down possibilities or drive a rigid or judgmental style of
helping. Therefore, in the following discussion of assessment, we draw on the
previously described theory base to formulate an individualized and contextual-
ized approach to understanding a client’s spiritual journey.

Assessing Spiritual Experiences and Development

Social workers may encounter spiritually interested clients in many situations

such as working through the gradual unfolding of spiritual awareness; drawing
on spiritual beliefs, experiences, values, practices, and social support systems as
strengths and resources for growth and resilient response to adversity; recount-
ing important peak or pit experiences in the context of understanding their life
story; being overwhelmed in a state of crisis; coping with abuse or discrimi-
nation in religious communities; or dealing with connections between spiri-
tuality and mental illness. It is therefore very important that we assess clients’
spirituality during the beginning of the helping relationship or as needed while
the helping process progresses. Table 8.3 lists a variety of purposes for spiri-
tual assessment by drawing on advice from social work, counseling, psychology,
and medicine (Ellor, Netting, & Thibault, 1999; Faiver et al., 2001; Frame, 2003;
Gorsuch & Miller, 1999; Helmeke & Sori, 2006; Hodge, 2001a; Marquis, 2008;
Nelson-Becker, Nakashima, & Canda, 2006, 2007; Pargament, 2007; Puchalski,
2006; Sperry & Shafranske, 2005). These sources contribute significantly to our
assessment guidelines.
According to our U.S.A National Surveys, most social workers are likely to
be open to spiritual assessment. For example, a majority of respondents reported
that they helped clients consider the helpfulness (in 1997 = 94%; in 2008 = 92%)
or harmfulness (in 1997 = 71%; in 2008 = 66%) of their religious or spiritual
support systems. We explore social workers’ views on assessment and practice
further in the next chapter.
There are many different approaches to spiritual assessment. The spe-
cific nature of the assessment process and questions are likely to vary by a cli-
ent’s goals and spiritual perspective, the theoretical perspective of the worker
(Sperry & Shafranske, 2005), the mandates of the agency, and the nature of the
helping relationship. There are many structured tools for spiritual assessment,
ranging from intake forms (Marquis, 2008) to instruments for assessing quali-
ties and degrees of individual well-being or for inclusion of the client in studies
of the effects of religion and spirituality. For many examples, see the section on
measuring spirituality and spiritual well-being in Chapter 3 as well as resources
listed in Frame (2003, p. 112), Gorsuch and Miller (1999); Helmeke and Sori
(2006), and Pargament (2007, pp. 234–236).
Here we present approaches to spiritual assessment that are more open
ended and flexible so they can be adapted to many different practice settings
262 spiritually sensitive social work

Table 8.3. Purposes for Spiritual Assessment.

Spiritual assessment can be therapeutic in itself, engendering client insight.
Spiritual assessment can identify:
• Importance of spirituality in the client’s life and family, community context
• Components of the client’s spiritual perspective relevant to the focus of helping
• The spiritual aspect of the person/environment in a holistic strengths oriented assessment
• Client’s interest in addressing spirituality within the helping process
• Proper fit between client’s spiritual perspective and the social worker or agency
• Client’s desire for referral to or collaboration with spiritual mentors of particular religious
or nonreligious spiritual perspectives and styles
• Ways in which the client’s past and present spiritual beliefs, values, practices, and group
participation (if any) are helpful or harmful to self-esteem, coping, well-being, and to
dealing with the presenting issue
• Specific spiritual strengths, such as inspirational religious or philosophical texts, music,
art; enjoyable participation in religious or nonreligious spiritual support groups; personal
practices of prayer, meditation, rituals; spiritually motivated healthy lifestyles; nurtur-
ing connection with God, nature, and other sources of profound meaning, sacredness, or
transcendence; sense of life meaning and purpose; sources of joy, peace, harmony; qualities
of empathy, compassion, wisdom, kindness, generosity, and other virtues; ability to forgive
and be forgiven; effective ways of working through crises; spiritual mentors, healers, and
friends; commitment to benefit family, society and world
• Spiritually based complementary or alternative health care practices (such as prayer, ritual,
healing visualization, yoga, acupuncture, herbs) that might interact with possible helping
activities and medications
• Attitudes about death and the afterlife, especially in bereavement counseling and hospice
• The nature of past or recent peak or pit experiences that shape the presenting issue
• Intergenerational and current family patterns pertaining to spiritual perspective and rela-
tionship dynamics
• Complications of mental disorders due to religious beliefs, such as in delusions, hallucina-
tions, unrealistic fears
• Struggle with spiritual problems not necessarily related to mental disorders, such as
spiritual emergencies; feeling of estrangement from God; religiously based inappropri-
ate anxiety, shame, guilt; loss of life meaning or purpose; deep moral perplexity; loss of
faith; loss of hope; sense of attack by harmful spirits or magic; abuse by clergy or other
spiritual authorities; abuse by parents or caregivers under religious rationales; experi-
ence of religiously or ideologically based discrimination or oppression; alienation from
or confl ict with religious groups; collective persecution and genocide based on member-
ship in an oppressed spiritual (religious or nonreligious) group

and client’s spiritual perspectives. We do not recommend assessment approaches

that are overly structured, religiously or ideologically biased, or ethnocentric.
For example, an agency intake form that limits exploration of spirituality to
religious affi liation by asking “Are you Christian, Jewish, or other” gives several
counterproductive messages: religious diversity is not appreciated; spirituality
is reduced to religion; nonreligious spiritual perspectives are not of interest;
and spirituality in general is of little consequence. In any case, the informa-
tion obtained is too vague to be useful. We suggest that practitioners review
the intake forms and assessment practices in one’s work setting in light of the
following guidelines.
Spiritual Development 263

General Guidelines for Spiritual Assessment

Spiritually sensitive assessment should be done in a collaborative manner with
clients within the context of a respectful, empathic, and client-centered relation-
ship and dialogue. The client has the primary role in defining and interpreting
the meaning and value of his or her spirituality. The client’s experiences and
behaviors should be understood within the context of his or her culture and
spiritual perspective. Assessment should be ongoing and dynamic, since self-
understanding and life circumstances continually change.
The topic of spirituality should not be imposed when the worker has no
information about its relevance to the client or when the client is not ready or
interested. Spiritual assessment should begin in the least intrusive and open
ended way. On the basis of the client’s responses, more detailed assessment could
be pursued or skipped. Wording of assessment questions should demonstrate
willingness to learn from the client’s cultural and spiritual views. If discussion
of spirituality continues, adjust terminology to fit the client’s cues about relevant
words. Themes related to spirituality (e.g. meaning, purpose, morality, connect-
edness, transcendence, most significant sources of support, or profound experi-
ences of joy, peace, and life turning points) can be discussed without use of the
terms religion, faith, or spirituality if they are not relevant or comfortable to the
client.
Spiritual assessment should never be a matter of hasty jumping to conclu-
sions. If the client poses a danger to self or others, a quick risk assessment and
appropriate action can be conducted in a respectful manner. If and when more
detailed assessment is possible, these full guidelines can be used.
We advocate for spiritual assessment within a holistic strengths perspec-
tive on social work (Eichler, Deegan, Canda, & Wells, 2006; Saleebey, 2008).
For example, the life domains within the strengths model of mental health case
management are daily living, financial/insurance, vocational/educational, social
supports, health, leisure/recreational supports, and spirituality. Marquis (2008)
places spiritual assessment within a comprehensive integral intake that covers
the four quadrants of Wilber’s model; this is similar to our holistic model of
spirituality in Chapter 3. In strengths assessment, the client is never reduced
to problems, pathologies, diagnostic labels, or pieces. If clients are dealing with
specific problems or disabilities, these are addressed within the context of the
whole person/environment, including spirituality. Clients are assisted to draw on
their talents, abilities, hobbies, capacities, and community connections to meet
their aspirations. Their spiritual strengths and resources are brought to bear on
ideals for growth or identified problems to achieve growth, recovery, and resil-
ience. Focus is kept on the present, but past strengths are recalled and future
hopes are invoked to catalyze growth.
When clients describe transpersonal experiences or experiences unique to
particular religious beliefs and practices, social workers must be wary of impos-
ing irrelevant, ethnocentric, or religiously biased assumptions and judgments.
264 spiritually sensitive social work

The social work dictum, “start where the client is,” means that social workers
need to take seriously the client’s current reality, even if it seems quite alien to
their own. Jung (1938, 1953, 1959, 1963) said that each person lives in a world
of mental experiences that are vivid and real to him or her, although they may
appear strange and bizarre to another. He referred to this as a person’s psychic
reality (i.e. the reality of the psyche). For example, if a client says that he is being
punished by God for some behavior he believes to be sinful, this is the reality
that must be the starting point for help. It does not matter if the social worker
does not believe in God, or thinks guilt is an inappropriate feeling, or objects to
the idea of a punishing God. To work with this client’s psychic reality means that
the social worker can help him explore the helpful and harmful implications of
his concepts of God, morality, punishment, and forgiveness.
Suppose that the client is an estranged Methodist and has not gone to church
for many years. In the course of therapeutic dialogue, it is possible that the client
will seek rapprochement with the church as part of the process of dealing with
the burden of sin and guilt. The social worker could help the client to find a faith
community that would be supportive and comfortable.
In the context of the strengths perspective, the social worker needs to sus-
pend disbelief in order to connect with the reality of the client. If a client feels
he or she is supported by a guardian angel, then this sense of support can be
enlisted at times of spiritual crisis. If a client believes he or she is under attack
from a demon, then collaboration with an exorcist in that client’s tradition may
be useful if this is not merely a case of delusion or the exorcism procedures are
not contraindicated for medical reasons. The important thing is to enable cli-
ents to tell their stories unhindered and to help them discover the themes, plots,
characters, and developments within these stories. However, starting where the
client is does not mean staying stuck there. It may well be that the client will
change the story, or reinterpret it, as the process of self-reflection and discern-
ment continues. Patterns of spiritual development vary widely and may or may
not move to transpersonal awareness. Spiritual emergence is a process of growth,
including ups and downs, and variations of intensity. It may include climbing to
peaks, descending into pits, and efforts to incorporate these experiences into our
ongoing daily lives. Sometimes these peak and pit experiences are so sudden,
drastic, and overwhelming that we cannot cope. We need assistance from loved
ones, healers, and helpers. But with assistance and our own effort, we can pro-
gress on our travel toward even higher plateaus. Spiritual growth is the total pro-
cess of development of meaning, morality, relationships, and orientation toward
ultimacy throughout the life span.

Implicit Spiritual Assessment

The least intrusive approach to assessment is implicit. First of all, by cultivating a
spiritually sensitive relationship with the client, without talking explicitly about
religion or spirituality, we cue the client to our openness, receptivity, interest,
Spiritual Development 265

and respect for whatever is important to her or him. We cue the client with
our mannerisms, clothing or jewelry, decorations in the agency or office, word
choice, or landscaping around the agency. If there is a home visit, then com-
ments of interest about items of obvious importance to the client can stimulate
conversation about spiritual matters. If a client feels comfortable with the help-
ing relationship and setting, then it is more likely she or he will bring up relevant
spiritual issues.
For example, during a rural home visit to a foster family with a Vietnamese
refugee unaccompanied minor, I (EC) noticed that the young man liked to spend
time in a tree house. I also noticed that he was reticent to talk in front of his
foster parents. So I mentioned that I really enjoyed tree houses when I was youn-
ger. He invited me into the tree house. We sat with many moments of quiet and
conversation off and on. We talked about the vegetation and squirrels and how
they compared to nature in Vietnam. The subject of recent movies came up. My
client mentioned that he had seen the movie Gandhi and was very inspired. He
said that he would like to live with that kind of dedication to peace. He reflected
on his own experience of war, refugee flight, trauma, and cross-cultural transi-
tion. He hoped to learn to deal with these challenges as Gandhi would. That gave
me an opportunity to explore further his spiritual beliefs and ideals for his life.
This put his current foster care situation into a more profound and inspiring per-
spective. This likely would not have been possible if I had used a structured and
intrusive style of questioning.
Implicit spiritual assessment can be facilitated by open-ended questions that
tap themes related to religion and spirituality through use of everyday nonreli-
gious language. Clients’ responses will give cues about whether and how to pro-
ceed into explicit spiritual assessment. Table 8.4 shows some sample questions
for implicit spiritual assessment, especially drawn from Eichler, Deegan, Canda,
and Wells (2006) and Pargament (2007).

Brief Explicit Spiritual Assessment

Social workers often work in settings with very limited time for interaction with
clients, such as managed care, hospitals, acute mental health settings, solution
focused therapy, other brief therapies, and adoption and foster care home stud-
ies. In these situations, brief assessments can quickly clarify whether spiritu-
ality is important to the client and relevant to the practice situation. Then the
social worker can decide with the client whether to engage spirituality directly
or to refer to clergy or other spiritually oriented helpers of interest to the client.
Caution should be used even in brief assessment not to pressure the client into
spiritually focused discussion or activities, especially given that clients often feel
less powerful or at the mercy of health care providers.
Since medical personnel typically work in outpatient or inpatient situ-
ations of brief interaction with patients, some guides have been developed for
spiritual assessment in health care settings. These usually consist of a few easy
266 spiritually sensitive social work

Table 8.4. Questions for Implicit Spiritual Assessment.

• What currently brings a sense of meaning and purpose to your life?
• What helps you feel more aware and centered?
• Where do you go to fi nd a sense of deep inspiration or peace?
• When do you feel times of great peace, joy, and satisfaction with life?
• What are the most important sources of strength and help for you in getting through times
of difficulty or crisis?
• Please describe some recent experiences when you felt a sense of important new insight,
such as an “aha” moment?
• Who are your most important mentors and why?
• For what are you most grateful?
• In what way is it important or meaningful for you to be in this world (or in this situation)?
• What are your most cherished ideals?
• Who is most important in your life?
• In what do you put your sense of trust and hope?
• With whom or what do you feel love?
• When do you feel most fully alive?
• What are the deepest questions your situation raises for you?
• What causes you most distress and confusion?
• What is it about this situation that shakes your sense of what is true and right?
• What is it about this situation that shakes your sense of who you are?
• What were your sources of deep meaning, peace, joy, and strength in time of past trouble
that helped you get through and how can they be applied to this situation?
• How can you draw on any of the past or present strengths and resources you identified in
order to respond better to this situation (or to achieve your goal)?
• If you had a magic wand, what would you change to make your life more meaningful and
fulfi lling?
• What is your goal for the near future and how can we work together to help you get there?

to remember topics with open-ended questions, including terms that refer to

spirituality or religion both implicitly and explicitly. This is important because
The Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations as well as
nursing guidelines require health care professionals to assess patients’ spiritual
interest and to address their spirituality if requested (Anadarajah & Hight, 2001;
Anonymous, 2002; Hodge, 2006; Koenig, 2007; Puchalski, 2006). In 2004, The
Joint Commission instituted a requirement that “Spiritual assessment should, at
a minimum, determine the patient’s denomination, beliefs, and what spiritual
practices are important to the patient. This information would assist in deter-
mining the impact of spirituality, if any, on the care/services being provided
and will identify if any further assessment is needed” (Retrieved from http://
jointcommission.org/AccreditationPrograms/HomeCare/Standards/FAQs). This
is a useful guideline for brief social service settings as well, unless spirituality is
clearly irrelevant to the service required.
By bringing together insights from health care assessment tools, guid-
ing questions about spirituality in gerontological social work (Nelson-Becker,
Nakashima, & Canda, 2006), and assessment themes in this chapter, we develop
a set of questions for brief spiritual assessment in social work settings. For easy
recall, we use the acronym MIMBRA, for Meaning, Importance, Membership,
Spiritual Development 267

Table 8.5. MIMBRA: Questions for Brief Explicit Spiritual Assessment.

Preamble: I am interested to know what is most meaningful and important in your life that
might be relevant to our work together. Please feel free to respond or not respond to the
following questions in any way that makes sense to you.
1. What helps you to experience a deep sense of meaning, purpose, morality, hope,
connection, joy, or peace in your life?
2. Are spirituality, religion, or faith important to you? Please explain why or why not.
3. Are you a member of any groups or communities (such as a religious group, support
group, or cultural group) that give you a sense of belonging and help you fi nd meaning
and support in life? Please explain.
4. Please describe any important beliefs, practices (such as prayer, meditation, rituals, or
holistic therapies), or values that shape your understanding and response to your current
situation.
5. From what we discussed so far, what if anything is relevant to your current situation and
your goals for our work together?
6. Is there anything we discussed that you would like us to act on in our work together? For
example, is there anything that has been helpful that we could apply or unhelpful that we
should avoid or deal with? Are there close friends, relatives, mentors, clergy, or spiritual
teachers whom I should be aware of or contact? Please explain. Thank you.

Beliefs, Relevance, and Action (Table 8.5). Please be sure to adapt wording to the
situation, the client’s background and goals, and any clues about the client’s spir-
itual perspective and culture you have from prior contact.

Detailed Explicit Spiritual Assessments

When clients express that they want to pursue detailed exploration of religion,
spirituality, or faith in relation to their situation and goals, social workers should
be prepared to respond effectively. Sometimes clients may desire referral to reli-
gious specialists, traditional healers, clergy, or spiritual mentors for this explo-
ration. However, if the exploration is important to successful response to the
presenting situation, the social worker can engage detailed spiritual assessment
directly. The best way is to pursue leads given by the client through spontaneous
questions that follow up comments of the client.
Assessing domains of spirituality. In order to give suggestions for topics and
questions that might stimulate your thinking about assessment possibilities,
Appendix A presents possible questions based on domains and issues identified
in our operational model of spirituality as an aspect of the person in Chapter 3.
Spiritual development timeline. Our review of transpersonal theory provides
us with a way to help clients recount their spiritual development over periods of
time or even their entire life span. By thinking about gradual phases of spiritual
growth, rapid transformational periods (peak and pit experiences), including
their expression as spiritual emergencies, and plateaus of relatively stable func-
tioning at enhanced levels in relation to preegoic, egoic, and transegoic stages of
development, we create a diagrammatic and pictorial presentation of the client’s
spiritual autobiography. In order to depict this development, we expand on the
268 spiritually sensitive social work

concepts of a spiritual development timeline (Bullis, 1996) and spiritual life map
(Hodge, 2005b).
The spiritual development timeline is useful for clients who want to put
their current situation in the context of their earlier life and hopes for the future.
Like in narrative therapy, the client is asked to tell stories about the plot, pivotal
life events, main characters, themes, and significance of their spiritual journey.
Clients can thus recall the learning from past experience, apply it to the pre-
sent, and draw insights to guide the future. In order to make life patterns clear,
the client draws a timeline that depicts spiritual development. Then the client
explains the meaning of the drawing. In this process, the social worker explains
and facilitates the timeline procedure, provides quiet time and drawing materi-
als, and encourages the client to adapt it however she or he chooses.
On the bottom horizontal axis, time points at even intervals are specified.
For example, if the span of life review is an entire life, then each interval could
be a year. If the client wants to think about a shorter timeframe, each interval
could be a day, a week, or month. The shorter timeframe allows going into much
greater detail of events. The life long timeframe gives the big picture. If the client
rather not be limited by time intervals, the line could be labeled with a desired
starting date on the left and an ending date (or the present) on the right.
The left vertical axis shows the three main phases of preegoic, egoic, and
transegoic consciousness development. The social worker can briefly and sim-
ply explain the meaning of each phase, so the client can think about particular
states of consciousness and general patterns of functioning that relate to the three
phases. If this concept is too complicated or unfamiliar to the client, then the
transpersonal development phases need not be indicated. The vertical axis can
refer to the ups and downs and steady phases of spiritual life, however the client
understands that. Technical jargon should be avoided. Then the client draws a line
that shows the ups, downs, swerves, gradual slopes, and steady plateaus of devel-
opment. The topics listed at the bottom of Figure 8.1 can help the client to think
about this along with key events, people, and spiritual strengths. In addition to
the line, the client may wish to draw symbols and pictures, use various colors, and
write in descriptive words or names of important people or events. Then the client
explains the flow of spiritual development and tell stories to illustrate.
There are infinite possible variations on this timeline. Periods of gradual
growth, gradual decline, sudden peaks and pits, and steady plateaus can all alter-
nate in any order and duration. By using the spiritual timeline as a basis for
life review, we can form an assessment of spiritual development in a way that
is entirely congruent with the person’s own spiritual orientation, cultural back-
ground, and personality. We do not need to start with any particular theoretical
assumptions or religious beliefs about how development should occur. We can
discover the person’s own self-understanding.
Figure 8.1 depicts a graph of a segment of a person’s life, from the age of
10–30 years. We name the fictional person Alice. The graph indicates that Alice
shifted from preegoic to transegoic plateaus of consciousness during this time.
Spiritual Development 269

T
R
A Peak
Integration
N experience
and stability at
S transpersonal
- level
E
integration
G
O
I
C
E
Recovery and
G
growth
O
Adolescent steady
I
growth
C
P
R
E Pit
- Childhood experience
E emergence of ego
G and spiritual
O perspective
I
C

Age 1 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Alice’s spiritual development timeline

At each developmental phase and transition, identify person’s significant:

• personal spiritual practices, such as prayer, meditation, inspirational reading

• experiential qualities of spiritual emergencies, peak and pit experiences
• quantity and quality of participation in spiritual/religious support systems
• spiritual exemplars, mentors, friends, and supporters
• key beliefs, symbols, rituals that support transformation

Explore how all this relates to the person’s overall life narrative and guiding story of spiritual
transformation.

Figure 8.1. Example and suggestions for constructing a spiritual development

timeline.

Ages 10 through 19 show a period of consistent, increasingly rapid growth.

In mid- to late childhood, Alice incorporated the beliefs and values of her par-
ents and religious community into her sense of identity and worldview. As an
adolescent and young adult, Alice began to question her Presbyterian religious
upbringing. Although the religious stories and images of childhood provided
a sense of security, she had come to feel that they were too narrow to address
her interests in extra-sensory perception, mystical experiences, and religious
diversity. She felt that her family’s way of understanding religious doctrines and
rituals did not help her to experience directly the sacred realities to which they
referred. Her locus of spiritual authority was shifting away from family, church,
and Bible toward her own inner experience and a few trusted friends.
At the age of 18, Alice joined a Zen meditation group recommended by one
of her close friends. She began practicing meditation on a regular basis. As she
became more adept at the technique, she felt herself becoming more centered and
270 spiritually sensitive social work

calm. When challenging events occurred, she was better able to deal with them
and could let go of any distress quickly. She felt herself changing in subtle but
important ways. She felt more empathetic in her relationships with loved ones.
And she was able to enjoy the beauty of nature during morning walks more deeply.
During this time, she found a job as an office receptionist that supplied her with
necessary income but also left time for her to pursue her spiritual interests.
Her values began to emphasize caring and compassion for all people and
beings. She became a vegetarian and an active volunteer in a hospice program.
The life story of the Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, became her guiding story
encouraging her to keep up consistent effort to attain enlightenment. She appre-
ciated the Zen emphasis on coming to conclusions about the nature of self and
reality through direct personal experience rather than unquestioning acceptance
of beliefs.
This phase ended rather abruptly after 2 years, at the age of 20, when she
went on an intensive meditation retreat. This meditation retreat precipitated a
peak experience. For 3 days, she and a group of retreatants practiced meditation
for 15 hours each day, punctuated by brief meals, and periods of silent work. The
first 2 days were very difficult to endure, as they caused a dramatic break from
customary patterns of sleep, eating, and communicating. The prolonged periods
of meditation and silence intensified her awareness of her mental chatter. As she
learned to let go of it, she experienced times of profound peace and clarity. On
the third day, Alice had a breakthrough in her meditation. She suddenly realized
that the person she had believed herself to be was not substantial and had no
lasting value. The self she defined in terms of physical appearance, social roles
and expectations, social status, and various possessions no longer seemed very
real. Alice became acutely aware that all this would disappear with death and
maybe even sooner.
This was somewhat frightening. Both her Christian upbringing and her
Buddhist learning did not prepare her for the intense and perplexing quality of
her experience. She suddenly experienced a tremendous doubt about the validity
of all values, beliefs, and religious images from any source.
However, she also experienced a deeper truer sense of self beneath all this
transitory surface. She came to call this her true self. She had heard such an
expression in Zen teaching, but until this it was just a fascinating concept. Her
realization was very exhilarating. Though she did not understand exactly what
this would mean, she committed herself to change her life to be more in accord
with this true self. After the retreat, she returned to her job as a receptionist and
to her hospice volunteer work. Although she was not able to keep the same vivid
awareness of her true self as during the retreat, she was able to retain the insight
at a transegoic level and began changing her life.
Until the age of 23, Alice continued her meditation practice. She made
moderate changes in her daily life to reflect her new insights. Overall, she felt
a greater sense of well-being than before the peak experience. Her friendships
became more satisfying. She decided to go to college and major in social work so
Spiritual Development 271

that she could obtain a job that matched her growing interest in human service.
Thus, she had arrived at a plateau of beginning transpersonal awareness in daily
life (Wilber’s Vision Logic to Psychic stages).
A pit experience began with a tragic precipitating event when Alice was
23 years old. Alice was in a car accident that caused a severe spinal injury. It took
several months of intense effort, medical care, and physical therapy to regain
health and mobility. This accident shocked her terribly. Up to the point of the
accident, she was feeling quite content with her life. She felt that she had a mean-
ing and purpose that she was able to express through her work and friendships.
She began to feel protected and nourished by the universe. But the accident
shockingly reminded her of her earlier peak experience insight with great stark-
ness—all this could pass at any moment, unpredictably. The universe no longer
felt safe. She questioned her sense of meaning and purpose. Overwhelmed with
physical pain and emotional turmoil, she gave up on her meditation practice. She
felt at a very low point in life, confused and disoriented at a preegoic level.
However, Alice never forgot about her meditation and transpersonal experi-
ences. This gave her a feeling of positive possibility, although it took about 6 months
for this to come to the forefront of her awareness as she began to work her way out
of this pit experience. Alice dedicated herself to physical therapy and met with a
social worker for counseling. The social worker recognized that Alice viewed her
life as a spiritual journey and that Alice was working hard to make sure that this
crisis would not be a dead end. The social worker helped Alice to recall the benefits
that she had received from meditation practice and connection with her Zen med-
itation group. Alice decided to begin her meditation practice again and to seek the
comradeship and support of her friends in the meditation group. This supported
her physical and emotional resiliency. Gradually but relatively quickly, she healed
to the point of being able to return to university at the age of 24.
Alice reestablished her precrisis range of activities and relationships.
However, as she continued to reflect on the implications of her accidental injury,
she decided to begin an even more concerted effort to transform her lifestyle,
relationships, and meditation practice so that there would be greater congru-
ence with her transpersonal insights. She was on guard against complacency or
taking anything for granted. Life seemed both more precious and more vulner-
able. She felt that there was a new strength emerging as she shifted her sense of
identity and reality more consistently in accord with her true self. This process
of recovery and growth took 3 years. During this period, Alice completed her
BSW degree. She found a social work job as a case manager for people with dis-
abilities. She felt good that she could use insights from her own experience with
a temporary disability to enhance her rapport with clients.
By the age of 26, Alice felt that she had stabilized with an even deeper
understanding about her true self through all of this. She learned to be com-
fortable with the unpredictability of life and to sense a mysterious yet significant
purpose behind all of it. Now she is 30 years old. For the past 4 years, she has
been rather consistent in her spiritual practice and daily lifestyle. Th is does not
272 spiritually sensitive social work

mean she has been stagnant. On the contrary, she has felt highly creative and
energetic. She did not feel adrift or chaotic. She now feels confident that she will
be able to deal with any unforeseen challenges with even greater resiliency than
she ever had before.
Alice’s values of compassion and respect for diverse peoples helped her blos-
som as a social worker. She felt a high level of congruence between her personal
values and the social work profession’s commitment to individual well-being and
social justice. She also developed a more comprehensive story of her life that
encompassed her Presbyterian upbringing and more recent Zen practice. She
found ways to connect these two traditions in her daily life. Alice started a local
spiritual support group for people who wanted to discuss the challenges around
linking various spiritual perspectives and practices. Recently, Alice arranged for
a Presbyterian minister who was also an authorized Zen teacher to lead a medi-
tation retreat for her support group.
Other narrative and pictorial assessments. Two exercises from earlier chap-
ters can be adapted to help clients depict their spiritual development. Exercise 2.3
(Symbols of Compassion, Chapter 2) can help clients identify their highest ideals
of compassion, caring, and justice as they developed from childhood, as they
exist now, and as they are growth goals for the future. Exercise 3.1 (What Does
Spirituality Mean to You?, Chapter 3) helps clients to define spirituality on their
own terms, to consider how their understanding developed over time, and how
they wish to grow spiritually.
There are other narrative and pictorial ways of representing spiritual life
and development that may be useful for social workers (Hodge, 2005c; see also
the online resource on assessment at http://www.socwel.ku.edu/candagrant/Bib/
BibliographyGrant.htm#Assessment). For example, the spiritual genogram depicts
kinship based and intergenerational patterns of spiritual development (Dunn &
Massey, 2006; Frame, 2003; Hodge, 2001b). The spiritual ecomap focuses on the
client’s present situation by depicting the client in relation to important social
groups (e.g. family, friends, and spiritual communities), nature, and God or
other spiritual beings and forces (Hodge, 2005c). Hodge developed the spiritual
ecogram that combines features of the ecomap and genogram.
The explicit assessment tools tend to be more suitable for adults. For chil-
dren, all of the previous assessment approaches can be adapted to their age,
maturity, patience, and interest (Crompton, 1998). For example, children could
be asked to tell favorite stories, bring in favorite toys or religious symbols, or
draw pictures that help illustrate their spiritual views and experiences, includ-
ing those that give them happiness or distress. Assessment exercises that require
complicated explanations or extended time would not likely be useful.

Considering Spiritual Propensity

Spiritual propensity is the degree and manner for which spirituality is expressed
for a person. We adapt this from the concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity
Spiritual Development 273

(Koenig, McCullough, & Larson, 2001; Paloutzian & Park, 2005) by changing the
terms and concepts to be consistent with our defi nitions of spirituality and reli-
gion. All of the assessment approaches we presented can shed light on the spiri-
tual propensity of the client.
Religious spiritual propensity (often called religiosity or religiousness) refers
to the degree and manner of expressions of a person’s spirituality given a pri-
marily religious orientation. Nonreligious spiritual propensity refers to the degree
and manner of expressions of a person’s spirituality given a primarily nonreli-
gious orientation. There are two styles of each of these: extrinsic and intrinsic.
Extrinsic spiritual propensity means that the person’s spiritual values, beliefs, and
behaviors are primarily embedded in external social groups or communities (that
may be religious or nonreligious) in conformance with group norms, consensus,
and group leaders’ directions. An extrinsically oriented person uses spiritual
involvement mainly for instrumental, utilitarian purposes of personal benefit.
Intrinsic spiritual propensity means that the person’s spiritual values, beliefs, and
behaviors (that may be religious or nonreligious) are integrated flexibly in daily
life, demonstrate inclusiveness and respect for others, and show commitment to
authenticity in spiritual growth. For the intrinsically oriented person, the spiri-
tual search and experience of connection are rewarding in themselves. There is a
stronger orientation toward compassion and altruism.
This results in a classification of four types of spiritual propensity (see
Table 8.6). These types should not be taken as absolute categories, but rather as
starting points for understanding the spiritual propensity of the client. Keep in
mind that religious persons can express spirituality through both religious and
nonreligious contexts and can have multiple spiritual affi liations. The distinc-
tions about types of spiritual propensity are useful to identify a client’s interest
and patterns of participation in religious or spiritual groups and activities before
planning explicitly spiritually based practice activities. For example, a client who
is nonreligious should not be approached in a religious manner. A client who is

Table 8.6. Types of Spiritual Propensity.

Religious Nonreligious

Extrinsic Person’s spiritual orientation Person’s spiritual orientation primarily tied

primarily tied to religious to nonreligious spiritual group member-
group membership, confor- ship, conformity, and personal benefits.
mity, and personal benefits.
Intrinsic Person’s spiritual orientation Person’s identity and spiritual orientation
primarily tied to religious primarily privatized or tied to nonreli-
group membership, and, gious spiritual group membership, and,
integrates spirituality into integrates spirituality into daily life with
daily life with flexibility, flexibility, inclusiveness, caring for others,
inclusiveness, caring for and commitment to ongoing spiritual
others, and commitment to growth.
ongoing spiritual growth.
274 spiritually sensitive social work

religious would more likely be interested in religiously based social work prac-
tice, referral, or collaboration.
A client who has an extrinsic spiritual propensity is more likely to rely
heavily on beliefs, values, and practices prescribed by spiritual reference groups
and authority figures (whether religious or nonreligious). She or he will more
likely be averse to social work practices that are unfamiliar or that are prohibited
or held suspect by the spiritual reference group. In contrast, a client who has an
intrinsic spiritual propensity is more likely to be willing to engage in self-reflec-
tion, to explore new spiritual insights, and to try new spiritual helping activities,
even if these are not officially approved by the spiritual reference group (whether
religious or nonreligious). Appendix A includes questions for exploring a client’s
spiritual propensity.

Assessing Helpful or Harmful Impacts of Participation

in Spiritual Groups
Clients sometimes wish to address issues of discomfort with their spiritual com-
munities, consider ways to enhance their involvement or the functioning of their
community, sort through a process of spiritual searching or conversion, or pro-
cess trauma from religiously based abuse or discrimination. It may be appropri-
ate to help the client reflect on the quality of fit between her or his needs and the
spiritual group as long as the practitioner is not steering the client according to
his or her own biases. For example, some social workers might have an elevated
concern about the possibility of harm for clients resulting from participation in
unfamiliar or alternative spiritual groups, especially when the worker brands
them as extremist, strange, or cultish. Unfortunately, discrimination and ste-
reotyping is sometimes directed against new or alternative spiritual groups in
the mental health and social work fields (Lewandowski & Canda, 1995; Robbins,
1997). For this reason, we do not use pejorative terms such as cult or superstition.
One person’s cult is another’s religious innovation. One person’s superstition is
another’s dearly held belief.
It is best for social workers to help clients assess helpful or harmful impacts
of spiritual group participation without prejudices about the validity of beliefs.
For this purpose, we present in Table 8.7 a set of suggested questions to facilitate
discussion, based on guidelines from Lewandowski and Canda (1995) and Canda,
Ketchell, Dybicz, Pyles, and Nelson-Becker (2006). Questions should be selected
and worded to fit the client’s presenting issues and spiritual perspective.

Differentiating between Spiritual Emergencies and

Psychopathology
When a person is in an acute state of crisis, such as a spiritual emergency, he or
she may be cognitively disoriented, extremely anxious, overwhelmed by real or
imagined events, and incapable of making rational decisions and engaging in
Spiritual Development 275

Table 8.7. Questions for Assessing Client’s Views on Spiritual Group

Characteristics.
• How satisfied are you with the leadership style of your group? Are you satisfied with how
leaders allow participation of community members in decision making? Do you have trust
and confidence in the leaders? How inspiring and supportive are they?
• How is recruitment of new members done? Is the community welcoming and supportive of
new members? Does it ever bring in participants under false pretenses?
• How do you feel about the sense of community or fellowship in the group? To what extent
do you feel supported in the group? When members are having personal difficulty, how
does the group respond?
• How does your involvement in this group impact your family and friends?
• How does the group respond to diversity of spiritual opinions, lifestyles, gender, political
views, culture, disability or other issues important to you?
• Have you ever experienced or observed abuse, neglect, discrimination or oppression in this
group? Please give examples.
• How do you feel about the sources of authority for spiritual beliefs, such as sacred texts,
spiritual teachers, or structures of authority?
• To what extent do you agree with this group’s spiritual beliefs, values, and practices? Please
give examples of agreements or disagreements.
• How does this group relate to the surrounding community and natural environment? Are
you satisfied with its involvement with community service, sense of justice, and caring for
others and nature?
• What are your group’s positions about social and economic policies and how much do you
agree with them? Please give an example.
• How well does your group address internal changes or changes in the environment? Please
explain.
• Are members free to leave the group if they wish to? How does your group deal with issues
of departure of leaders and other members? Please give an example.
• Are there ways you would like your spiritual group to be involved and supportive of our
work together? Please explain.
• Are you questioning the nature of your participation in this group and wish to explore how
you can enliven your participation or consider alternatives? Please explain.
• If there are any issues that came up in this discussion that you would like to discuss in our
work together, please let me know.

effective action (Golan, 1981; Simos, 1979; Yang, Lukoff, & Lu, 2006). The per-
son might experience anomalous perceptions and striking visions. Many of these
characteristics are shared with mental disorders. However, in contrast to most
forms of mental disorder, spiritual emergencies usually are characterized by a
combination of sudden onset, limited duration, and intense temporary distress.
Usually the person in crisis returns to a precrisis level of functioning, or grows
through the experience, within several months of onset. Although crisis reso-
lution sometimes requires assistance from social workers or other professional
helpers, people’s established coping patterns, resilience, creativity, and social
supports are the primary forces in healing. The helper works with these natural
healing capacities. When directive techniques or medications are used, they are
temporary measures designed to enable the client to restore self-sufficiency.
If the temporary symptoms of spiritual emergency are mistaken for men-
tal disorder, antipsychotic medications might be used inappropriately, causing
276 spiritually sensitive social work

more harm than good. Indeed, the symptoms of crisis are indicators of dramatic
change and potential for growth. If these symptoms are suppressed or pejora-
tively labeled by the actions of professionals, the person’s growth potential and
capacity to learn from the experience may be jeopardized.
Professional helpers who are unfamiliar with the special issues and symptoms
of spiritual emergencies may be likely to misunderstand them as expressions of
a mental disorder. As is well known, for example, schizophrenia and other psy-
chotic disorders, severe mood disorders, and severe substance-related disorders
often involve delusions, hallucinations, and preoccupations with religious themes
or images similar to transpersonal experiences. Many forms of mental disorder
and personality disorders involve a sense of confused identity, impairment of real-
ity testing, and loosening of the boundary between ego and others. Dissociative
disorders may include experiences of involuntary trance or other alterations
of consciousness. So when clients in spiritual emergency talk about peak or pit
experiences that entail ego transcendence, questioning the nature of reality, and
visions, alarm bells may go off in the mind of the mental health worker. Contrarily,
if a client is known to have a chronic and persistent mental disorder, mental health
professionals may be prone to dismiss all of her or his ideas and feelings about reli-
gion and spirituality as nothing more than symptoms of the illness.
However, studies of mental health service consumers’ views about the
strengths and resources that are most helpful to them in dealing with a mental
disability show that many people feel their spiritual and religious insights and
support systems are very important (Corrigan, McCorkle, Schell, & Kidder, 2003;
Fallot, 1998; Ridgway, McDiarmid, Davidson, Bayes, & Ratzlaff, 2002; Starnino,
2009; Sullivan, 1992). Unfortunately, consumers often report that their spiritual
and religious experiences and supports are ignored or dismissed by professional
helpers.
In our National Survey, more respondents stated that is appropriate to raise
the topic of spirituality (52%) than religion (37%) with a client who has a chronic
mental illness. These figures are within 1% of the 1997 findings. Given that 50%
of respondents (i.e. 908/1804) work in mental health settings, this indicates that
many clinical social workers might not be assessing clients’ spirituality and
most might not be assessing their religious involvement. This is counter to con-
sumer’s views on the importance of spirituality, guidelines for strengths assess-
ment in mental health case management, and instructions in The Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision
(DSM-IV-TR) that cultural and religious factors should be considered in mak-
ing a diagnosis and treatment plan. Spiritually sensitive social workers in men-
tal health settings need to attend to the religious or nonreligious spirituality of
mental health service consumers, if consumers so desire. Guidelines for mental
health assessment using DSM-IV-TR can facilitate this.
Through the last few editions of the DSM, there has been a general trend to
emphasize diagnosis as a process that examines symptoms in the context of the
person’s overall psychosocial functioning, experience of stressors, and relevant
Spiritual Development 277

medical/physical conditions. There has been greater attention to variations in

cultural and religious patterns, variability of norms, and the importance of the
meaning that individuals attribute to their experiences. Even the concept of
mental disorder is recognized to be overly simplistic, because it implies an arti-
ficial division between physical and mental aspects of the person. It is helpful to
restate the definition of mental disorder used in the DSM-IV-TR (APA, xxxi). A
mental disorder:

is conceptualized as a clinically significant behavioral or psychological syn-

drome or pattern that occurs in an individual and that is associated with pre-
sent distress (e.g. a painful symptom) or disability (i.e. impairment in one or
more important areas of functioning) or with a significantly increased risk of
suffering death, pain, disability, or an important loss of freedom. In addition,
this syndrome or pattern must not be merely an expectable and culturally sanc-
tioned response to a particular event, for example, the death of a loved one.

Spiritual emergencies do meet the criteria in the first sentence (i.e. a clini-
cally significant pattern in an individual, involving distress and risks). However,
not all spiritual emergencies meet the criteria of the second sentence. Some
spiritual emergencies are expectable reactions to dramatic life changes (such as
diagnosis of a terminal illness, traumatic loss, or sudden opening to transper-
sonal awareness in peak or pit experiences). Most have a limited duration, as
with other crises. A spiritual emergency includes the potential for growth as one
works through the process. In addition, there are peak and pit experiences that
catalyze rapid spiritual growth, but do not cause the debilitation of a crisis, and
hence do not qualify as spiritual emergencies.
For example, a peak experience, by definition, involves intrinsically pleas-
ant, even euphoric feelings, rather than distress. In theory of stress, this is called
eustress. Eustress is still stress, and too much of a good thing can cause over-
load and become distress. However, eustress mobilizes excitement, enthusiasm,
and creativity, rather than anxiety, hopelessness, and despair. Since peak experi-
ences may involve dramatic changes of states of consciousness and extraordinary
thoughts and feelings, care must be taken not to confuse them with hallucina-
tions or delusions.
Pit experiences, by definition, always involve intensely unpleasant feelings.
However, the associated psychosocial disruption may be manageable through a
person’s ordinary coping skills and resources. In this case, the pit experience
would neither qualify as a spiritual emergency nor as a mental disorder, but it
might involve struggle with a spiritual problem.
There is another important qualifier in the second sentence of the concept of
a mental disorder. The syndrome or pattern must not be a culturally sanctioned
response to a particular event. The DSM-IV-TR states:

A clinician who is unfamiliar with the nuances of an individual’s cultural

frame of reference may incorrectly judge as psychopathology those normal
278 spiritually sensitive social work

variations in behavior, belief, or experience that are particular to the individ-

ual’s culture. For example, certain religious practices or beliefs (e.g. hearing or
seeing a deceased relative during bereavement) may be misdiagnosed as mani-
festations of a Psychotic Disorder. (p. xxxiv)

This means that behaviors and beliefs held to be “normal” in one religious
or cultural context could be viewed as “abnormal” in another context. When
a practitioner does not share the spiritual framework of the client, there is an
increased danger of biased and inaccurate diagnosis related to the ethnocen-
trism, religious assumptions, and theoretical beliefs of the practitioner.
This matter of so-called normality is further complicated by the fact that
every spiritual and cultural group has variations within it. It is quite possible that
a person could have a valuable, life enhancing peak experience that is deemed
abnormal by members of his or her religious reference group. If the practitioner
merely takes the position that the standard of normality of the group should
be imposed upon the person, then practice becomes nothing more than norm
enforcement rather than spiritually sensitive helping. Maslow (1970) pointed out
that religious organizations can promote and support peak experiences. But they
also can inhibit and punish them. So spiritually sensitive dialogue with the client
is crucial in helping him or her to sort this out.
Although DSM-IV-TR takes into account cultural and religious variation,
there are still biased assumptions embedded within it. For example, the peyote
cactus is referred to as a hallucinogen. Although the manual mentions that pey-
ote may be used within established religious practices (implying this is normal in
that context), no guidelines are given for distinguishing this. As we mentioned in
Chapter 5, Native American Church participants regard peyote as a sacred plant.
Consciousness changes, insights, and visions in this context are religious revela-
tions rather than signs of hallucinogen intoxication. Peyote is better described as
an entheogen, which means a substance that opens consciousness to the divine
(Smith, 2003). On a broader level, transpersonal visionary experiences (with or
without use of entheogenic substances) are branded as hallucinations (i.e. false per-
ceptions), albeit “normal” ones if approved by the religious group of the person.
This assumes that the diagnoser knows what is a true perception. Sometimes
this is an obvious issue of incongruence between reported perceptions and
physical observation, for example, a tactile hallucination of insects crawling on
the skin when none are present. But sometimes nonordinary perceptions raise
important spiritual questions. As we have seen in the review of various religious
and nonsectarian spiritual perspectives, there are many different views of the
nature of reality, many of which contradict each other. Social workers (and all
other helping professionals) are not trained to be master metaphysicians and we
certainly have no authority to dictate spiritual beliefs to clients. So we urge great
caution in making any such judgments during assessment.
The same dilemma appears when trying to decide what constitutes a delu-
sion, an erroneous belief usually involving misinterpretation of perceptions or
Spiritual Development 279

experiences. How is the social worker to determine what is an erroneous belief

pertaining to spirituality? It is indeed an important question for people of all
spiritual perspectives to distinguish between false (but apparently real) percep-
tions and genuine perceptions—within the context of their own understanding of
reality as it is influenced by personal experience and their cultural and spiritual
group contexts. It is not important for people to make this decision based on
the social worker’s understanding of reality. Th is determination is up to clients,
not mental health professionals. In many Asian originated spiritual systems, the
common Western belief in the autonomy of an individual ego is considered to be
a delusion at the heart of greed, violence, egocentrism, ethnocentrism, and envi-
ronmental destruction. We mention this to point out the difficulties and profun-
dities that loom as soon as we try to make absolute judgments about the nature
of reality in a professional helping context.
Further, there are many states of consciousness besides ordinary waking
states (Robbins et al., 2006). A state of consciousness is an organized pattern
and style of overall mental functioning at any given time (Tart, 1975). An altered
state of consciousness is a pattern of mental functioning that is significantly dif-
ferent from the ordinary alert waking state. These include states associated with
dreaming, deep relaxation, various types of meditation, biofeedback, sensory
deprivation (e.g. fasting and isolation), sensory hyperstimulation (e.g. intense
drumming or dancing), and psychoactive drug use (Achterberg, 1985; Fontana,
2003; Grof & Halifax, 1977; Masters & Houston, 1966; Pelletier & Garfield,
1976; Robbins et al., 2006; Winzeler, 2008). Many kinds of altered states of con-
sciousness are actively promoted in religious groups so that they give access to
more profound understandings of reality, not “false” beliefs or “hallucinations.”
Perhaps the DSM-IV-TR should recognize this wider variety of states of con-
sciousness when making a distinction from hallucinations.
Actually, the DSM-IV-TR includes some categories of spiritually oriented
problems and mental syndromes that are unique to spiritual contexts. For exam-
ple, Appendix A includes a glossary of many culture-bound syndromes, that are
perceived as problematic within particular cultures, but may not be recognized
or present in others. Many of these have an explicit spiritual or religious conno-
tation. Some of these are ghost sickness (among some Indigenous Americans),
evil eye (mal de ojo) among Mediterranean peoples, spirit sickness (shin-byung)
among Koreans, and soul loss (susto) among Latinos.
Unfortunately, the descriptions are brief and often misleading. For example,
shin-byung is described as a Korean folk label for a syndrome characterized by
anxiety and somatic complaints leading to dissociation and possession by ances-
tral spirits. However, shin-byung is better understood as a culture-specific sha-
manic form of a spiritual emergency. The disorders associated with shin-byung
are manifestations of a call by spirits (not necessarily ancestors) to a person to
become a shaman. Therefore, it is not a mental disorder or syndrome, but rather
a transformational spiritual crisis, which, when successfully resolved, leads
280 spiritually sensitive social work

to a new social role as a shaman and skills in applying transpersonal states of

consciousness in this role (Canda, 1982).
Spiritual problems and crises that do not involve mental disorders can be
categorized under a V Code that was introduced in DSM-IV: V62.89 Religious or
Spiritual Problem (p. 741). It is described as follows:

This category can be used when the focus of clinical attention is a religious or
spiritual problem. Examples include distressing experiences that involve loss
or questioning of faith, problems associated with conversion to a new faith, or
questioning of spiritual values that may not necessarily be related to an orga-
nized church or religious institution.

Advocates for this new category distinguished between a religious prob-

lem and a spiritual problem (Lukoff, Lu, & Turner, 1992, 1995; Turner, Lukoff,
Barnhouse, & Lu, 1995). According to them, a religious problem relates to dis-
tressing experiences pertaining to participation in formal religious institu-
tions and adherence to their beliefs. Their examples include distress relating to
changes in religious membership or belief, unusually intense adherence to reli-
gious beliefs and practices, loss or questioning of religious faith, guilt at commit-
ting a transgression against religious principles, and participation in destructive
religious groups.
A spiritual problem relates to distressing experiences of a transpersonal
nature or that involving powerful questioning of one’s fundamental spiritual
values that underpin the sense of self and reality. These include peak and pit
experiences and spiritual emergencies. Their examples include distress associ-
ated with mystical experiences, near death experiences, meditation-associated
difficulties, and crises of meaning associated with terminal illness and addic-
tions. These could be related to participation in a religious institution, but may
not. The differentiating factor is the transpersonal nature of the experiences that
become distressing. The distinction in DSM-IV-TR is simpler and less specific:
religious problems pertain to religious institutional participation and spiritual
problems relate to spiritual issues outside of a religious context.
For our purposes, one crucial distinction is between a troubling spiritual
crisis (which should be designated by the appropriate V Code) and that which
contributes to or coexists with a mental disorder (which should be indicated by
the V Code along with the relevant mental disorder). Another important dis-
tinction is between a spiritual growth experience or emergency that superficially
resembles a mental disorder and bona fide mental disorders. The Religious or
Spiritual Problem V Code acknowledges that a religious or spiritual growth issue
or crisis merits clinical assistance, but it is not regarded as pathology.
As Lukoff and colleagues pointed out, religious or spiritual problems may
coexist and interact with mental disorders or physical illnesses. For example,
a person with schizophrenia, paranoid type, who also grew up with an idea of
a wrathful punishing God, may have delusions of being persecuted by God.
Spiritual Development 281

This would suggest that long-term treatment should address the mental dis-
order through appropriate combinations of medication, psychosocial support,
and community and strengths-based case management. As the person with
schizophrenia feels safe, coherent, and ready to engage in dialogue, the religious
problem could be addressed through spiritually sensitive discussion and collab-
oration with the client’s spiritual support system. This approach takes mental
disorders and disabilities seriously, but it does not reduce the person to the dis-
order. Rather, the person is helped to deal with the disability as well as possible
religious and spiritual strengths and resources for recovery.
Nelson (1994) cautioned against two extreme forms of argument. One
extreme is represented by the antipsychiatry movement, which views all psychi-
atric diagnoses and treatments as arbitrary, coercive, and spiritually destructive.
In some versions of this, mental disorders are seen as nothing more than social
constructions that justify enforcement of social conventions. Psychoses are seen
as mystical experiences that are misunderstood. In this view, preegoic or ego-
confused experiences are represented as transegoic experiences. Wilber (2000a)
refers to this as a kind of pre/trans fallacy, in which a preegoic (or confused
egoic) experience is confused with a transegoic experience.
The other extreme argument is to say that all transpersonal experiences are
nothing more than delusions and hallucinations, involving regression to pree-
goic modes of irrational functioning, flights of fantasy to avoid uncomfortable
realties, or delusions related to inability to clearly distinguish between the egoic
self and the environment. This mistake reduces transegoic experiences to pree-
goic (or confused egoic) experiences. This is another kind of pre/trans fallacy.
Nelson presented a detailed examination of mental disorders in relation to
transpersonal experiences and spiritual emergencies. He advocated for a holis-
tic approach to assessment and treatment of people with chronic and persistent
mental disorders, from a transpersonal theoretical perspective. His book would
be valuable for those who are working in the mental health field, especially
regarding schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and borderline personality disorder.
Table 8.8 draws on the transpersonal psychology literature cited here to show
common contrasting qualities of severe mental disorders and spiritual crises.
This is meant to suggest ways that clinicians can explore differential assessment
with clients. However it is not intended as a checklist. Each mental health assess-
ment needs to be tailored to the individual in her or his life context. The follow-
ing discussion elaborates on these characteristics.
The assessment process should help the client to tell her or his story of spiri-
tual development in the terms of her or his own spiritual perspective, unfettered
by the presumptions of the social worker. Therefore, we summarize topics that
could be used to help clients assess the nature and significance of transpersonal
experiences.
Describe the immediate situation. Initially, it is important to assess whether
the client perceives the transpersonal experience as a spiritual emergency. Is it
282 spiritually sensitive social work

Table 8.8. Common Qualities of Severe Mental Disorders and Spiritual Crises.
Contrasts
Severe Mental Disorders Spiritual Crises
Underlying biochemical/organic Absence of underlying physical
pathology pathology
Long-term duration Short-term duration
Meaningless chaos Meaningful transformation
Functional disabilities Brief functional disabilities with intensified
Incoherent communication perceptual sensitivities and insights
Religious delusions Poetic, metaphoric, and paradoxical
Hallucinations communication
Involuntary dissociation Spiritual inspirations and insights
Ego confusion or inflation Mystical visions or heightened
Psychosocial debilitation consciousness
Spontaneous or induced trance
Ego transcendence and expanded love
Psychosocial reorganization
Issues of Further Complexity
Psychopathology, medical crises, and spiritual crises can intersect
Mental and physical illnesses can be opportunities for spiritual growth
Standards for normality vary by cultural and religious context
Interpretations of transpersonal experiences may shift over time
Spiritual import of a mental illness or crisis may unfold over a lifetime
Thorough assessment requires in-depth dialogue with client

a peak or pit experience? If so, does it constitute a crisis? If not a crisis, the dis-
cussion can continue without a sense of urgency or danger.
If the client identifies the experience as a crisis, then a safety assessment
is necessary immediately. Is the person able to communicate coherently? If the
person is feeling overwhelmed, what can be done to provide a sense of secu-
rity, reassurance, and support by professionals, loved ones, and supportive
community members? Is the person at risk of harm to self or others? Is there
suicidal ideation, intent, or a suicide plan? Where there is immanent risk of
harm, then protective measures should be taken until the person establishes
sufficient emotional balance and cognitive function to enable continued ther-
apeutic dialogue.
Once safety is assured, the story of the transpersonal experience can be
explored in more detail. What occurred specifically? What was the physical place
of the event? What precipitated the experience? Was it entirely spontaneous? Did
it feel like a revelation or incoming of an insight or influence from a transcen-
dent or supernatural source? Was it associated with a specific practice, such as
prayer, meditation, visualization technique, group ritual, or use of a psychoactive
substance or entheogen? What was the experiencer’s state of consciousness? Were
there any paranormal or mystical experiences? What senses were involved?
Identify predisposing factors. What factors prepared the person to be open to
this experience? What inner spiritual strengths and coping skills had the per-
son developed that may have encouraged this experience? For example, is the
Spiritual Development 283

person very introspective? Has he or she been generally preoccupied with spir-
itual questions and quests? What environmental resources has the person been
utilizing in support of spiritual development, such as spiritual reading material,
religious group participation, being in touch with nature, feeling close to God?
Are there life stage developmental issues influencing this experience and its
interpretation?
Are there any distressing predisposing factors, such as physical or mental
disorders that could generate alterations of perception and consciousness? Has
the person been experiencing intense distress, related to a life stage transition
or psychosocial crisis? If yes, then medical and psychological assessment should
rule out pathogenic hallucinations or delusions. Even if physical or mental dis-
orders are involved in the experience, the possible meaningful aspects of the
experience need to be explored.
Explore interpretations of the event. How does the person interpret the mean-
ing and significance of the experience? Were there important insights or mes-
sages inherent within the experience? What values were conveyed? What images,
symbols, metaphors, paradoxes, or parables best relay the nature of the experi-
ence? Are there religious stories familiar to the client that provide understand-
ing? What are the implications of the experience for understanding and relating
with oneself, other people, other beings, and ultimate reality? Are there immedi-
ate fruits of the experience, such as enhanced energy, creativity, insights into life
problems, deepened sense of rapport?
If the experience has a strong negative tone, as in a pit experience, or sense
of dread, or attack by demonic forces, then special care should be taken. Again,
sense of safety should be assured. What spiritual or religious practices and
support systems could lend a sense of protection? Does the person wish to be
referred to a religious specialist who can perform a necessary prayer or ritual for
protection? What is the potential for resolution and growth through this nega-
tive experience?
Locate the experience within a complete spiritual development narrative. If
the person wishes to explore more deeply how this experience relates to his or
her overall path of spiritual development, the timeline for graphing spiritual
emergence can be used to help illustrate the client’s life story. First, identify other
key spiritual turning points in life by date and mark them on a long sheet of
paper to demarcate life phases. Consider how these turning points relate to grad-
ual emergence experiences, gentle breakthroughs of awareness, or pit or peak
experiences. Were any of these crises? How did they relate to life cycle events
and stages of physical or psychosocial growth? Each of the significant spiritual
turning point events could be assessed using the topics above.
Then, long-term patterns of development can be identified by observing
trends, themes, major characters, changes of spiritual styles, master stories, spir-
itually influential people and sources, key values, new or recurring symbols, and
altered states of consciousness. The pattern of flow from preegoic through egoic
to transegoic experiences and modes of consciousness can be identified.
284 spiritually sensitive social work

What is the future potential implied by the current experience in relation

to one’s overall spiritual emergence story? Are there indications about possible
changes of vocation? Is there any sense of what one should do next, in the near
or long-term future? In the case of a crisis, is there any indication of a “light at
the end of the tunnel?” How can the learning of the past and present be applied
to enhance one’s future spiritual development?

Conclusion

In this chapter, we applied insights from many religious and nonsectarian spir-
itual perspectives to the assessment of a person’s spirituality and its develop-
ment. We wish to emphasize the importance of a sense of humility for helping
professionals. It is a privilege for a person to invite a social worker into the inti-
mate details of her or his spiritual journey. People often have a sense of mystery,
sacredness, destiny, or fate in the events and flow of spiritual emergence. People
may even feel propelled by spiritual forces beyond our understanding and drawn
to spiritual realities beyond their ken. In our efforts to provide guidance for
understanding and assessing spiritual development, we do not wish to diminish
or discount this mystery. Rather, we wish to honor it.

EXERCISES

.. Sharing a Transpersonal Experience

This chapter discussed many kinds of transpersonal experiences. However, it is
not common to discuss them in public, even though many people have them. This
exercise is intended to raise your awareness of such experiences and to extend
your comfort level about discussing them. Then you will feel more prepared to
discuss them with clients if they are relevant. See Table 8.1 as a reminder of var-
ious kinds of transpersonal experiences.
Find a trusted friend, relative, or colleague to discuss this. You and your dis-
cussion partner should each share a story of a transpersonal experience that each
of you directly experienced or heard someone else recount in your professional
practice or personal life. You should begin by telling a story while your partner
listens nonjudgmentally, asking only questions to help you expand on the story.
Then your partner can tell a story while you take the listening and questioning
role. Finally, discuss what you find especially interesting and similar or different
in your stories. As a last step, write a brief essay about what you learned from
this discussion that might enhance your practice with clients.

.. Assessing One’s Own Spiritual Development

Before trying to assess clients’ spiritual development, it is best to have a clear
understanding of one’s own development. Self-understanding provides a basis
Spiritual Development 285

for rapport with clients on their own spiritual journeys. In addition, it is best to
practice the developmental assessment approaches in order to become familiar
and comfortable with them before using them with clients. Review Table 8.3
about purposes for spiritual assessment.
Choose one of the assessment approaches presented in this chapter. First,
conduct the assessment on yourself, if it is relevant to your life. Then, conduct
it with a trusted colleague. Ask for feedback from your colleague about what
worked well or could be improved in your procedure. Write up a brief assess-
ment report for each, including suggestions for how you could apply this in
work with clients. We recommend that you find ways to practice thoroughly any
assessment approach prior to using it with clients, but for now start with one.

A. Implicit spiritual assessment (see Table 8.4)

B. MIMBRA assessment (see Table 8.5)
C. Assessing impacts of spiritual group participation (see Table 8.7)
D. Distinguishing between psychopathology and spiritual emergency
(see Table 8.8)
E. Spiritual development timeline (see Figure 8.1)
F. Detailed assessment of domains of spirituality and spiritual propen-
sity (see Appendix A)

.. Assessing a Client’s Spiritual Development

Now you are ready to try the selected assessment approach with a client who
wishes your assistance in understanding his or her spiritual experiences and
development. Be sure to adapt the assessment approach to the goals, interests,
beliefs, and comfort level of the client.
When you become familiar and comfortable with additional assessment
approaches, incorporate them into your practice.
 9

Ethical Guidelines for Spiritually

Sensitive and Culturally Appropriate
Practice

The beginning of wisdom is this:

Get wisdom,
and whatever else you get,
get insight.
Proverbs, 4:7, Judaism and Christianity
(The Bible, New Revised Standard Version)

In this chapter, we focus the principles and values of spiritually sensitive social
work down to the level of application in practice. We present ethical guidelines
for engaging spirituality in social work practice, indicating relevance to a wide
variety of helping activities. Then we offer suggestions for fulfi lling the ethical
requirement for culturally competent practice through transcultural teamwork
applied to spiritual diversity.

Ethical Guidelines for Using Spiritually Oriented Activities

Practitioners’ Behaviors and Attitudes about

Spiritually Oriented Activities
In order to set the context for our ethical guidelines, it is useful to consider the
range of spiritually oriented helping activities employed by social workers in the
field as well as practitioners’ views on their appropriateness. Our 1997 and 2008
U.S.A. National Surveys identified a wide range of spiritually oriented helping
activities employed by social workers and practitioners’ attitudes about whether
they are appropriate (see 2008 results in Table 9.1). These include activities done
directly with clients (e.g. spiritual assessment, prayer, meditation, or rituals),
activities suggested to clients as “homework” assignments outside of the session
(e.g. reading of scripture or inspirational material, journaling), activities done
by the social worker privately to prepare for practice (e.g. private prayer or med-
itation), and connecting with religious helpers and spiritual support systems.

286
Table 9.1. National NASW Survey: Practitioners’ Views on Spiritually Oriented
Helping Activities.
Is an Appropriate
Have Personally Done Social Work Helping
with Clients Activity (Intervention)

Question (%) (n) (%) (n)

8. Use or recommend religious or 55.8 985 76.5 1308

spiritual books or writings
9. Pray privately for a client 56.4 1003 68.3 1168
10. Pray privately with a client 27.1 478 44.8 750
11. Meditate to prepare for a client 66.3 1175 86.3 1478
12. Meditate with a client 30.5 539 60.4 1020
13. Use religious language or concepts 66.0 1169 73.3 1265
14. Use nonsectarian spiritual language 84.2 1491 90.7 1581
or concepts
15. Recommend participation in a 77.2 1373 85.3 1485
religious or spiritual support system
or activity
16. Touch clients for “healing” purposes 14.1 250 22.3 382
17. Help clients develop religious/spiri- 57.8 1030 77.1 1333
tual rituals as a clinical intervention
(e.g. house blessings, visiting graves of
relatives, celebrating life transitions)
18. Participate in a client’s religious/spiri- 17.5 311 32.3 553
tual rituals as a practice intervention
19. Encourage clients to do regular 51.1 905 78.8 1371
religious/spiritual self-reflective diary
keeping or journal keeping
20. Discuss role of religious or spiritual 75.3 1332 88.2 1536
beliefs in relation to significant others
21. Assist clients to reflect critically 57.4 1009 73.2 1253
on religious or spiritual beliefs or
practices
22. Help clients assess the meaning of 40.6 714 67.9 1155
spiritual experiences that occur in
dreams
23. Help clients consider the spiritual 69.3 1224 81.9 1417
meaning and purpose of their current
life situations
24. Help clients reflect on their beliefs 71.1 1258 88.1 1526
about what happens after death
25. Help clients consider ways their 92.2 1621 96.2 1667
religious/spiritual support systems
are helpful
26. Help clients consider ways their 65.5 1150 82.0 1403
religious/spiritual support systems
are harmful
27. Refer clients to a clergy person, or 74.8 1319 89.5 1551
other religious/spiritual helpers or
leaders
28. Collaborate with a clergy person or 59.2 1045 85.9 1473
other religious/spiritual leaders

Note: Valid percentages and frequencies are reported; missing cases have been excluded.

287
288 spiritually sensitive social work

Respondents in both years were similar in their use and approval of these activ-
ities. It is interesting to note that a higher percentage of respondents both years
indicated it is appropriate to use every spiritually oriented activity than those
who actually did use them.
More than two-thirds of 2008 respondents believed it is appropriate to use
all but four activities: pray with a client, meditate with a client (new item in
2008), touch clients for healing purposes, and participate in the client’s religious/
spiritual rituals as a practice intervention.. Among these, meditating with a client
had a rather high level of approval (60%). Also, except for the four least approved
activities and dream assessment, more than half of respondents have actually
performed these helping activities. This finding shows that most social workers
are likely to recognize the usefulness and ethical appropriateness of a wide range
of spiritually oriented practices. The four least approved practices are most direc-
tive and intimately involved with a client’s personal life space and boundary, so it
is understandable that workers would be cautious about them. Similarly, regard-
ing assessment, in our 1997 National survey, 35% agreed that the worker should
introduce the subject of religion and spirituality, whereas 52% felt that the client
should take the lead on such matters. Respondents in our 2008 National Survey
once again reflected this concern. Only 33% (N = 586) of respondents agreed that
they should introduce religion or spirituality by their own discretion; nearly 54%
(N = 949) felt that the client should first express interest. Other regional studies
of social worker attitudes have found a similar pattern of widespread approval
of spiritually based helping practices, with lower (but still significant) rates of
use, along with concern about intrusive practices, such as healing touch (e.g.
Sheridan, 2004; Stewart, Koeske, & Koeski, 2006).
In 2008, a minority of responders agreed that “integrating religion and
spirituality in social work practice conflicts with the NASW Code of Ethics”
(12.5%, N = 220) or “social work’s mission” (13.2%, N = 232). Over 84% (N =
1511) of responders believe that church-state separation does not prevent them
from dealing with religion in practice. Over 91% (N = 1636) believe it does not
prevent them from dealing with nonsectarian spirituality in practice. Although
2008 respondents did not differ significantly from the 1997 sample in terms of
dealing with nonsectarian spirituality in practice, respondents in the current
National Survey were significantly more likely (p < 0.001) to believe that church-
state separation does not prevent workers from dealing with religion in practice.
Compared with the 1997 National Survey, a larger minority of respondents in
2008, however, were significantly more likely to express neutrality or to agree
that integrating religion and spirituality conflicts with the NASW code of ethics
(p < 0.001) and social work’s mission (p < 0.01). Overall, these attitudes about
spirituality, ethics, and values show that most social worker respondents feel that
dealing with spirituality and religion in practice is consistent with professional
values at similar but slightly larger percentages than in 1997.
On the one hand, Table 9.1 shows that that there is a wide repertoire of
spiritually oriented helping activities that may be appropriate. As Part II of this
Ethical Guidelines 289

book pointed out, social workers can learn much about these and other help-
ing activities from religious and nonreligious spiritual perspectives. Also, as we
pointed out in Part I, spirituality and religion are important for understanding
the person in environment holistically. Indeed, if a social worker ignored or den-
igrated the religious or nonreligious spiritual perspective of clients, this would
be a form of discrimination prohibited by the NASW Code of Ethics and other
international standards for social work.
On the other hand, although there was rather strong support among our
respondents for using spiritually oriented activities, the table shows there is not
unanimity about any of them. Ninety percent or more of respondents approved
only two activities: using nonsectarian spiritual language or concepts and con-
sidering ways that religious/spiritual support systems are helpful. Curiously,
there was a slight downward trend in approval of some activities from 1997 to
2008. Respondents in the current survey were significantly less likely (based on
chi-square test) to use (p < 0.05) or approve of (p < 0.01) recommending religious
or spiritual books or writings, to approve of praying with clients (p < 0.001), to
use (p < 0.01) or approve of (p < 0.05) using nonsectarian spiritual language
and concepts, to recommend (p < 0.01) participation in a religious or spiritual
support system or activity, to use (p < 0.01) or approve of (p < 0.01) helping
clients develop rituals, to approve of (p < 0.01) participating in client rituals,
to approve of (p < 0.05) journaling, to use (p < 0.001) or approve of (p < 0.05)
discussing the role of religious and spiritual beliefs in relation to significant oth-
ers, to use (p < 0.001) or approve of (p < 0.01) critical reflection on religious or
spiritual beliefs or practices, to use (p < 0.05) or approve of (p < 0.05) activities
that help clients consider ways their religious and spiritual support systems are
helpful, and to use (p < 0.001) and approve of (p < 0.001) activities that help cli-
ents consider ways their religious and spiritual support systems are harmful. The
respondents in 2008, however, were significantly more likely to have used dream
assessment (p < 0.05).
For many of the helping activities, respondents in 2008 who had not
received education and training in religion and spirituality were significantly
less likely to use or approve of helping activities than 1997 respondents who also
had not received educational content. Th is finding may indicate that education
and training is even more crucial in helping social workers to assess and utilize
religious and spiritual helping activities should the need arise in the helping
relationship. It should be noted that the profession only began to attend much
to education and training in religion and spirituality within the last 15 years.
Perhaps for this reason, respondents below the mean age of 58 were significantly
more likely to use and to approve of most of the helping activities than those
respondents at or above the mean age of 58. Exceptions include touching clients
for healing purposes and dream assessment for which no significant differences
occurred.
In the 1997 survey, respondents were given the opportunity to add com-
ments to open ended questions. These comments shed considerable light on
290 spiritually sensitive social work

practitioners’ ethical considerations about spirituality (Canda, Nakashima, &

Furman, 2004). Overall, about 660 comments stressed the importance of uphold-
ing the NASW Code of Ethics. Numerous comments addressed broad ethical
principles such as not imposing the social worker’s perspective (551); necessity of
worker competency (332); fitting the timing and goals of clients’ developmental
process (179); establishing a helping relationship of empathy, respect, and mutual
understanding about spirituality prior to explicit engagement on the topic (85);
and having clear self-awareness (44).
Eighty-five of 87 comments supported assessing spirituality in initial
assessment. Most who commented about assessment (468/480) viewed spiritual
assessment favorably. For example, consistent with our recommendations in the
previous chapter, spiritual assessment was approved as a way of learning about
positive and negative impacts of spirituality. Some reasons for initial spiritual
assessment included identifying strengths and resources within a holistic assess-
ment, exploring sources of resilience and recovery, deepening knowledge related
to cultural diversity and human development, identifying harm and vulnera-
bility engendered by spirituality (especially religion), differential mental health
assessment, and generally understanding the meaning and significance of spir-
ituality for clients. These approving comments, as well as some disapproving
comments, emphasized the importance of maintaining professional ethical prin-
ciples of starting where the client is, respecting the dignity of the person, cul-
tural competency, client self-determination, nonjudgmentalism, avoiding harm,
and obtaining necessary training to address spirituality.
These ethical concerns were reflected in comments about spiritually oriented
helping activities other than assessment. Most comments about helping activi-
ties were favorable, with caveats for how to be client-centered. Consistent with
the quantitative data, controversial practices included using prayer, meditation,
visualization, or similar practices (i.e. 47 supporting comments vs. 22 opposing).
For example, several comments supported prayer with a client only when the cli-
ent requests it, believes in it, is comfortable with the specific form, and is dealing
with crisis or an anxiety attack. Some opposing comments objected to clients
relying on prayer or faith alone and to practitioners crossing church/state sepa-
ration, imposing spiritual assumptions, and overstepping their role.
We agree that it is very important to use explicit spiritually based practices
on the basis of careful ethical reflection. We are very encouraged by the eth-
ical reflection indicated by the comments of practitioners in the 1997 survey.
However, there is little evidence that many social workers are receiving edu-
cational preparation for how to engage in ethical decision making about using
spiritual-based helping practices. Therefore, we offer guidelines adapted and
expanded from Canda’s (1990a) ethical criteria for use of prayer in social work.
These were presented in the first edition (Canda & Furman, 1999). Since then,
the usefulness of the guidelines has been supported by Moore (2003), Sheridan
and Amato-von Hemert (1999), and Sheridan (2004). We expand our original
guidelines with insights from Nelson-Becker, Nakashima, and Canda (2006).
Ethical Guidelines 291

First, we identify a range of options for activities. Then, we suggest condi-

tions under which these options might be appropriate. We offer these guidelines
to help you engage in your own ethical decision making. We recognize that ethi-
cal decision making often occurs in fluid and unpredictable situations presenting
dilemmas that require taking into account general ethical principles (such as
client self-determination), determination of ethical priorities (e.g. protection of
public safety vs. client self-determination), and caring for everyone impacted by
a decision (Horner & Kelly, 2007). We propose our guidelines as starting points
for contextual decision making through dialogue with clients, rather than as
absolute or unilateral standards. Like spiritually sensitive assessment, spiritu-
ally sensitive ethical decision making should occur in partnership with clients
whenever possible. Discussion with wise supervisors and colleagues can help
sort this through. Also, ethical reflection is not necessarily an individualistic
process. A client could be an individual, couple, family, group, community, or
any other system. In addition, many clients belong to collectivist religious or
cultural groups, so they might view individual identity and decision making to
be inextricably linked with family and community.

Options for Spiritually Based Helping Activities

In Table 9.2, the options for using spiritually based activities are ordered accord-
ing to the degree to which the worker directly and explicitly utilizes them with a
client, from least to most direct and explicit. Listing activities in this order high-
lights the increasing level of care and caution necessary as we increase the risk of
infringing on clients’ self-determination and stretch our level of competence.
The first option, private spiritually based activities by the worker, refers to
the social worker’s use of religiously or spiritually based activities in his or her
private life, as preparation and support for doing social work practice. For exam-
ple, a worker might practice a form of relaxing meditation to relieve stress after
a difficult day and to clarify the mind in preparation for practice. Indeed, we
encourage spiritually sensitive social workers to engage in stress relieving and
spiritual growth-promoting activities in private life to develop a solid spiritual
foundation in daily life that will naturally infuse professional work with vitality
and insight and prevent burnout and compassion fatigue.
Some workers privately pray for their clients’ well-being, believing that this
supports their resilience and opens up a divine source of support for helping.
These private activities do not infringe on the client and may enhance the work-
er’s ability to help. So when the social worker is committed to a spiritual path
and practice, it seems artificial and unnatural to exclude such activities.
However, a caveat is in order. People pray for help and healing of clients
because they believe this is effective in some way. Indeed, there is mounting evi-
dence that prayer can impact health outcomes (Hodge, 2007a) and even that peo-
ple may be influenced by prayer at a distance without their knowledge (Dossey,
1993). Whatever the empirical evidence, if a social worker believes that a client
292 spiritually sensitive social work

Table 9.2. Ethical Considerations for Using Spiritually Based Helping Activities in
Social Work.

Conditions for Determining When Activities are Appropriate

A. Client has not expressed interest in spirituality (religious or nonreligious)
B. Client has expressed interest in spirituality
C. Spiritually sensitive relationship is well established
D. Worker has relevant qualifications for particular spiritually based activities

Options for Activities

1. Private spiritually based activities by worker to enhance readiness for practice
e.g. prayer, meditation, relaxation, journaling, receiving spiritual mentoring
2. Implicit spiritually sensitive relationship, context, assessment, and helping activities
e.g. strengths-based case management, existential therapy, mindfulness, dialectical
behavior therapy, art therapies, or wilderness retreats
3. Brief explicit spiritual assessment
e.g. MIMBRA assessment
4. Referral to outside spiritual support systems
e.g. spiritually sensitive colleagues in interdepartmental and interagency networks or
community-based clergy, spiritual mentors, traditional healers, or other resources match-
ing client interests
5. Cooperation with outside spiritual support systems
e.g. coordinated helping activities with spiritually sensitive colleagues or community-based
resources matching client interests
6. Direct use of spiritual activities by client’s request
e.g. any activities in Table 9.1 or others matching client request
7. Direct use of spiritual activities by worker’s invitation
e.g. any activities in Table 9.1 or others matching client interest

Conditions Present Appropriate Options

A 1,2; 3 and 4 with caution
B 1, 2, 3, 4; 5 with caution
B and C 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; 6 with caution
B, C and D 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; 7 with caution

Significantly revised and expanded from Canda (1990). Used with permission.

can be influenced by prayer or other remote spiritual helping practices, there

is an important ethical consideration—Is it proper to influence clients without
their informed consent?
Without the client’s informed consent, spiritual techniques to manipulate
the client are egocentric and presumptuous. If one were to pray for a specific out-
come, such as that a client should undergo a religious conversion or become free
of an affliction, this would imply that the social worker somehow had superior
knowledge, foresight, and power over the client. What human can really know
what is ultimately best for the client’s spiritual development? What the worker
ascertains to be an erroneous spiritual belief may really be the most appropri-
ate place for the client to be. Even with seemingly good intentions, such as to
relieve pain or distress, how can we know what role this affliction plays in the
Ethical Guidelines 293

client’s spiritual unfolding? A hidden manipulative agenda is certainly not what

we mean by spiritually sensitive practice. In scientific research settings, covert
experimental manipulation of people is highly suspect and is usually prohibited.
We believe the same caution should be exercised with spiritual manipulation.
Some healing traditions recommend that helping prayer, without the client’s
permission, should be of an open, humble, and compassionate nature. For exam-
ple, one might pray for the client’s support and healing according to the client’s
own best interests and spiritual path. One leaves it to the wisdom of the divine
and the choices of the client to work out the specifics. We recommend that social
workers maintain a consistent stance of humility and client-centeredness regard-
ing private prayer, healing visualizations, or other remote or undisclosed spiri-
tual practices directed at clients.
The second option is engaging an implicit spiritually sensitive relationship,
context, and helping activities. By implicit, we mean that there is no overt refer-
ence to religion or spirituality in the helping situation. Neither the worker nor
the client raises spiritual issues in an overt manner. For example, the presenting
issues may be practical, such as employment assistance or housing, or they may
involve existential or transpersonal matters, but the client does not use explicitly
religious or spiritual language to describe them.
As we pointed out in Chapters 7 and 8, it is not necessary to use overt reli-
gious or spiritual language in order to cultivate a spiritually sensitive relationship
and context for helping or to do an initial implicit spiritual assessment. When
the client is not interested in discussing religion or spirituality, it is certainly
better not to. But, in our view, establishing at least an implicit spiritually sen-
sitive relationship and context for helping is a prerequisite for competent prac-
tice of any kind. Genuine respect; empathy; rapport; compassion; understanding
of centrally important beliefs and sources of meaning and support; alertness to
transformative possibilities; incorporation of inspiring places, people, and sym-
bols; building on clients’ capacity for resilience, creativity, and mutual support;
attending to the impacts of practice on clients and their social and natural envi-
ronments; creating agencies and practice settings that are humane, empowering,
and ecologically responsible—all of these qualities are essential to good practice.
Further, as we saw in Chapters 5 and 6, there are certain approaches to prac-
tice that are closely allied with or derived from religious or nonreligious spir-
itual sources but have been detached from explicit religious language, such as
strengths-based case management with spiritual assessment, existential therapy,
mindfulness meditation, dialectical behavior therapy, many art therapies, many
transpersonal therapies, and ecospiritual practices such as wilderness retreats.
These or other approaches that are congruent with spiritually sensitive practice
may be especially useful with a wide range of clients since they do not require
explicit use of religious or spiritual language. Indeed, any helping activities rele-
vant to the client should be infused with spiritual sensitivity.
The ethical issue here is one of risk incurred when not relating in a spiritu-
ally sensitive manner. Here, the onus is on the worker to justify why one would
294 spiritually sensitive social work

not do this, since not to do so reduces the client to an “it” rather than a full
human being. Not doing so treats workers as expendable human resources rather
than respected and cherished colleagues. Not doing so denies our responsibility
as social workers for our part in the larger picture of social justice and human/
nature interdependence. Therefore, we advocate that an implicit spiritually sen-
sitive relationship and context for practice are relevant under all practice condi-
tions and circumstances.
Yet we wish to express an important caveat. There is a difference between
being implicitly spiritually sensitive and acting on a hidden agenda. For exam-
ple, if a transpersonally oriented social worker believed that all clients should
view their crises as “opportunities for growth,” this would lead to surreptitious
or incompetent manipulations. If a person is overwhelmed with grief, despair,
or anger, there is nothing worse than telling her or him, “Don’t feel bad; in the
long run you will grow from this.” If the social worker had a favorite transper-
sonal technique, such as healing visualization, and sought every opportunity to
insinuate it into practice, this would also be a problem for those for whom the
practice is irrelevant or objectionable.
The third option is brief explicit spiritual assessment. We discussed proce-
dures and guidelines for spiritual assessment in the previous chapter. Here we
remind readers that brief spiritual assessment should be conducted when rele-
vant to the client situation and in the least intrusive manner. Often implicit spir-
itual assessment will naturally lead into more explicit discussion of spirituality
for interested clients. Certain settings may require at least brief explicit spiritual
assessment, such as hospice, health care settings, substance abuse treatment, and
strengths-based case management. Workers’ familiarity and comfort with cli-
ent-centered, strengths oriented, or holistic assessment will usually be sufficient
background skill for conducting brief explicit spiritual assessment.
The fourth option is to refer the client to outside spiritually based social sup-
port systems. These might include spiritually sensitive colleagues within other
departments or work teams in a large human service organization (HSO), such
as a child welfare agency or hospital. This might also include members of the
clients’ social network such as clergy, religiously based healers, friends, family
members, spiritual mentors, or wise elders. These might include support groups
such as religious communities, 12 Step programs and other nonsectarian spiri-
tual mutual support groups, spiritual friendship groups, and groups for learning
and practicing various types of meditation, prayer, ritual, and spiritually ori-
ented physical disciplines, such as hatha yoga or taiji. Referral could also be to
places and things, such as beautiful natural parks, retreat centers, and inspi-
rational readings. Our summaries of social work practice implications from
religious and nonreligious spiritual perspectives gave numerous examples of
possible resources for referral.
Th is option presumes that the client has expressed interest and that the
referral is congruent with the client’s beliefs and interests. It might involve help-
ing the client to utilize a current support system more effectively, to restore
Ethical Guidelines 295

connection with a support that has been discontinued, or to create a new sup-
port system. Competent referral also requires that the worker know to whom
or what the client is being referred and that an assessment has been made that
the outside support will serve the interests of the client. Follow up should clar-
ify that the contact has been made successfully and that it is working well for
the client.
Option five, cooperation with an outside spiritually based social support sys-
tem, involves a cooperative relationship (but not necessarily active collaboration)
between the spiritually based helper or support group and the social worker. For
example, the social worker might, with a Christian client’s permission, inform
the client’s pastor about goals and progress in counseling so that the pastor can
coordinate pastoral counseling and congregational activities, social supports,
prayer, and ceremonies.
Option six is direct use of spiritually based activities by the client’s request.
By this we mean that the activities are utilized directly within the social work
relationship and setting. This could be the case with forms of collaboration in
which there is a multidisciplinary team operating within an organization, such
as chaplains, social workers, nurses, and physicians in a hospital. The social
worker and the religious helper might function as cotherapists or coworkers.
This option also includes the possibility that the social worker employ any of the
explicit spiritually based activities on his or her own with the client in the help-
ing session. This presumes that the client has expressed interest, that a spiritually
sensitive relationship is well established, and that the social worker is authorized
and adequately prepared to cooperate in this way.
This situation could also occur when a client requests a worker to pray with
her or to help him design a ritual that would mark an important life transition.
In community-based practice, social workers might interact with clients within
the context of their religious support systems or within a faith-based service
organization. So this option requires an even greater degree of specialized train-
ing on the part of the worker. For example, if a client asks a social worker for
advice about transpersonal experiences related to the practice of Zen meditation,
the worker would need relevant knowledge and skill of this particular practice,
as well as comfort, to respond directly. If the social worker is not prepared, then
referral or collaboration are more appropriate responses.
Of course, regardless of familiarity, a social worker should be very wary of
assuming the role of a religious leader with the client, even if the social worker
is authorized as such (e.g. is both a social worker and a pastor) since this risks
serious role confusion. This would require careful discernment with the client
to ascertain whether and how this dual role could be necessary and beneficial
and whether there are any better alternatives. For example, some social workers
in Indigenous communities might be authorized to lead sweat lodges. Indeed,
some tribally based substance abuse treatment programs include sweat lodge.
In culturally approved and congruent situations, rigid role separations might
not make sense. This is a good illustration of the need for situational, culturally
296 spiritually sensitive social work

appropriate, community-based ethical reflection, rather than rigid standards

imposed from the outside.
It is also possible that a client might feel an immediate need for spiritual
solace and support that can best come from a spiritual practice dear to him or
her. Yet the worker might feel unprepared or uncomfortable engaging in this.
For example, if a client invites a social worker to engage in Christian prayer to
support the work at hand, but the worker does not share that belief or practice,
the social worker could offer to be with the client respectfully, with an attitude
of quiet support, while the client prays. This response avoids a rude cutting off of
the client. It also respects the beliefs and level of comfort and competence of the
worker. It would certainly be inappropriate to share a spiritual activity without
sincerity and honesty.
Option seven, direct use of spiritually based activities by the worker’s invi-
tation, is the most controversial and risky. In this situation, a client has not
requested an explicitly spiritually based activity, but the worker might assess
that it could be helpful. Here danger of abrogating the client’s self-determination
or inappropriate proselytization is greatest. Even when clients seem amenable,
the social worker should be cautious about the possibility of undue (even unin-
tended) influence due to the perceived or actual power difference in the helping
relationship. For this reason, we only consider this option feasible if the client
has expressed at least general interest in exploring spirituality in practice, a spir-
itually sensitive helping relationship and context are well established (including
thorough assessment of the client’s spiritual interests), and the worker has spe-
cialized qualifications related to the spiritually based activity. In any case, we
believe that it is better to err on the side of caution.
This option is most safe when the practice is nonreligious in nature. For
example, the social worker may be familiar with a meditation technique that
has been derived from Zen mindfulness meditation (Keefe, 1996). Th is tech-
nique involves quiet sitting, watching the breath, and awareness of the contents
of ones’ thoughts and feelings without being attached to them. This technique
could be applied without using any Zen specific religious language or imagery.
Similar practices are used in the systematic desensitization technique of behav-
ior modification for teaching people to overcome phobic responses. Chapter 10
includes similar nonreligious (though religiously derived) helping practices.
As another example, Jungian psychotherapists have often recommended
a technique of symbol amplification to help clients explore the possible mean-
ings of a dream symbol (Jung, 1963; Sandner, 1991). Suppose a person is going
through a spiritual emergency. He feels that he is going through a major and
tumultuous life change but is not sure of the direction. He is trying to sort out
whether there is growth potential in the process. Then he dreams that he is
being dismembered by spirits, who tell him that he must change his life or die.
Although the dream is frightening, the man is intrigued by this message that the
dismemberment may have something to do with his life purpose. Since he has
no religious or cultural stories to explain this dream, it seems rather anomalous
Ethical Guidelines 297

and confusing. So in symbol amplification, the social worker could explore the
possible symbolic meanings of this dismemberment by spirits, fi rst with the cli-
ent himself. It emerges that the client sees the possibility that the dream may be
a portent of an important vocational transformation. In this case, the worker
might describe the model of therapeutic transformation in relation to spiritual
emergencies. She could further suggest books that describe the symbolism of
dismemberment and reconstruction of the self as part of a life transformation,
as in many shamanistic cultures (e.g. Halifax, 1982). The client could read these
books as part of a process of self-reflection, to determine whether any of these
associations are significant to him.
Note that in both these examples, the social worker’s invitation to the cli-
ent is tentative, is centered in the client’s own beliefs and goals, and is open to
rejection by the client. We do not recommend introducing any religious practice
without a foundation of interest expressed by the client.

The Ethical Mandate for Cultural Competence

Culturally Appropriate Practice

Our approach to spiritually sensitive practice includes within it the more com-
mon idea of cultural competence. We have in many ways pointed out the impor-
tance of being knowledgeable, respectful, and skillful in working within and
between diverse religious and nonreligious spiritual perspectives. We have noted
that spiritual diversity is interwoven with all other aspects of human diversity.
We would like to discuss some special ethical considerations pertaining to spir-
ituality and cultural competence.
The NASW Code of Ethics includes many principles pertaining to respect
for human diversity. In fact, in 2008 NASW revised four items to strengthen
this (1.05 on cultural competence, 2.01 on respect, 4.02 on discrimination, and
6.04 on social and political action; retrieved December 13, 2008 from http://
www.socialworkers.org/pubs/Code/code.asp). NASW’s (2007) standards for cul-
tural competence, building on the Code of Ethics, recognize the importance
of religion and spirituality in the lives of clients. It also recognizes that cul-
ture involves patterns of behavior and values that relate to social groups (not
just groups defined by ethnicity or national origin) including religious groups.
Several authors have emphasized the connection between spiritual diversity and
cultural competence (e.g. Bullis, 1996; Canda, 1998b; Hodge, 2007b; Nash &
Stewart, 2002; Raines, 1996; Rey, 1997). We concur with NASW’s (2007, p. 12)
view that cultural competence is “the process by which individuals and systems
respond respectfully and effectively to people of all cultures, languages, classes,
races, ethnic backgrounds, religions, and other diversity factors in a manner that
recognizes, affirms, and values the worth of individuals, families, and commu-
nities, and protects and preserves the dignity of each.” American social workers
are enjoined to promote social conditions of respect for human diversity in the
298 spiritually sensitive social work

United States and globally. This is similar to the position of the global standards
for social work discussed in Part I. Cultural competence, in this sense, is an
essential quality of spiritual sensitivity. Spiritual sensitivity and cultural com-
petence involve a never-ending process of living and learning to expand one’s
values, knowledge, skills, and relationships toward these ideals. We do not imply
that cultural competence means that an outsider becomes a technical expert in
another cultural group and imposes views or that culture is a static thing to
which one can adjust (Gray, Coates, & Hetherington, 2008). We regard cultural
competence as a process of social workers engaging self-awareness and profes-
sional growth, humble acknowledgment of limitations, searching for mutual
understanding with clients, and engaging in empowering partnerships with cli-
ents and communities. It is a process of expanding consciousness and behavior
through self-cultivation and respectful dialogue and collaborations with others,
based on the priorities and aspirations of our clients and their communities. In
order to emphasize a client and relationship-centered focus, it might be better to
use the term culturally appropriate practice, since the term “culturally compe-
tent” implies a focus on the social worker’s level of ability, rather than the trans-
actional helping relationship.
In order to promote culturally appropriate practice with spiritual diversity,
we advocate for a transcultural perspective (Canda, 1998b; Canda, Carrizosa, &
Yellow Bird, 1995), for which insight I (EC) am especially grateful to Professor
Daniel B. Lee of Loyola University in Chicago. This goes beyond cultural com-
petence if that is understood only as developing tolerance, knowledge, and skills
for cross-cultural interaction. As Canda (1998b, p. 101) explained:

A transcultural spiritual perspective would embrace diversity and common-

ality. Transcultural spirituality goes to the heart or center of what it is to be
a human being. When we “center” ourselves, we come to a clear awareness of
who we are most deeply and fundamentally, before and beyond cultural con-
structions, social roles, and personal idiosyncracies. We discover that our own
true nature involves a common-heartedness with all others. We realize that
all people are on a spiritual search for meaning. In keeping with the value of
mutual benefit, we realize that we all need to support each other on this quest.
When our disagreements and differences about truth encounter each other in a
respectful way, we can all embrace each other.

A transcultural approach to spiritual diversity embeds in social workers’

particular spiritual and cultural experiences of self, culture, and world; it con-
nects with other particular contexts relevant to the client, the helping process,
and wider movements for global ecojustice; and it transcends limitation to any
particular context. Thus it includes both emic and etic vantage points.
Figure 9.1 illustrates a transcultural perspective on spiritual diversity. The
outer circle represents a transcultural perspective that includes and honors par-
ticular spiritual views and also embraces them from a wider consciousness. The
four small circles around the rim of the inner circle represent the variety of
Ethical Guidelines 299

I Appropriate
activity within
particular
spiritual
Connections of respect context

Center
IV point of II
unity

Across differences

Transcultural
perspective
embracing & III
transcending
particular views

Figure 9.1. A transcultural perspective on spiritual diversity.

particular spiritual views that social workers and clients might hold. A social
worker needs to learn how to interact appropriately within each view relevant
to clients while also honoring her or his own view. When dealing with spiri-
tual diversity, this means that social workers who have multicultural compe-
tence are able to connect across different spiritual perspectives in an appropriate
and respectful manner. The circle in the center shows the common connection
point among spiritual perspectives that is our shared humanity and common
cause in promoting well-being and justice. A transcultural perspective enables
social workers to develop relevant self-awareness, knowledge, values, skills, and
relationships that facilitate mediating, connecting, collaborating, and reconcil-
ing across cultural and spiritual contexts. As Fowler’s and Wilber’s theories of
spiritual development point out, this is not easy or common to achieve. However,
we believe that it is important for social workers who are committed to spiri-
tually sensitive practice to work toward this ideal, since the process of growth
itself makes it more likely that helping professionals will relate in a spiritually
sensitive and culturally appropriate manner with a wide range of clients. Next,
we address some thorny value and ethical issues that arise when social workers
interact across different spiritual and cultural perspectives.

Cross-Tradition Exchange of Spiritual Practices

The use of spiritually based helping activities in social work raises a social justice
dimension of ethics, in addition to the direct practice considerations we empha-
sized so far. The review of religious and spiritual traditions of service in Part II
300 spiritually sensitive social work

demonstrated that there is a vast array of insights, institutions, and helping prac-
tices available to enhance social work practice. In some cases, these spiritually
based practices might be applied by a social worker who was raised with them
and has been authorized in a traditional manner by a spiritual community to
employ them. However, we are often in situations in which the client and worker
have different spiritual traditions. Appropriate use of, referral to, or collabora-
tion with practices and support systems from the client’s tradition might be nec-
essary for spiritually sensitive and culturally competent practice. In addition,
some social workers might wish to develop innovative theory and practices by
learning from the wisdom of many different spiritual traditions. Finally, some
social workers might be invited by teachers from spiritual traditions different
from their own to learn the practices and to share them with others.
In all of these situations, we need to address some special ethical issues that
relate to the macro-sociopolitical context of spirituality and social work. On the
one hand, as we suggested in Chapter 6, we wish to promote a respectful dia-
logue and cooperation among and between spiritually diverse people. On the
other hand, we wish to avoid the pitfalls of “superficial exploitive borrowing or
misuse of spiritual activities” (Canda & Yellow Bird, 1996, p. 1). In order to assist
in ethical reflection about cross-tradition exchange of spiritual practices, we
consider how the exchange is done and what is the political relationship between
individuals or groups involved in the exchange.
There are six common kinds of exchange between people: banning, steal-
ing, borrowing, sharing, selling, and gift ing. The first two options, banning and
stealing, occur in the context of overt exploitation and oppression. Banning
means that a powerful individual or group prohibits a spiritual practice or belief
of another group. For example, Euro-American dictated governmental and reli-
gious policies prohibited many traditional African and Indigenous spiritual
practices in the United States for hundreds of years in the context of cultural
genocide and slavery. Even today, there are attempts by social workers to ban,
denigrate, or pathologize spiritual experiences and practices that they consider
superstitious or irrational. Sometimes this takes on a legal struggle, as when
human service administrators in Oregon punished an employee, a member of
the Native American Church, for using peyote as a sacrament (Bullis, 1996),
causing legal repercussions through the Supreme Court and Congress. Banning
is clearly not consistent with the NASW Code of Ethics principles of justice and
nondiscrimination, nor is it consistent with the principles of spiritually sensitive
practice. The long history of spiritual banning and persecution, often of religious
adherents who are people of color or politically marginalized groups, gives rise
to a great deal of continuing suspicion toward social workers who want to engage
in cross-tradition spiritual exchange.
Stealing means that we take without permission for the purpose of our own
benefit at someone else’s expense. This might be tempting when a social worker
admires a spiritual practice from another tradition and seeks to appropriate it
for professional use. However, to make a play on words, appropriating something
Ethical Guidelines 301

is not appropriate. Suppose a social worker wished to develop a ritual of forgive-

ness for a client overwrought with guilt. The social worker heard of a Catholic
practice, called the Sacrament of Reconciliation, and thought it might be useful
to adapt. So the social worker donned the garment of a priest, told the client to
confess his sins, and then pronounced absolution. Any Catholic would think this
ridiculous and offensive. The problem is not in learning about the dynamics of
confession and reconciliation from Catholic tradition. The problem is not in help-
ing the client to work through feelings of guilt and to seek forgiveness, perhaps
through referral to a priest, if the client wishes. The problem is in mimicking the
sacrament, taking a religion specific form out of its religious context, and using it
without proper training or authority. Likewise, from a Zen Buddhist perspective,
no matter how enamored of Zen meditation, a social worker cannot proclaim
himself or herself a Zen Master (whether or not one is a Zen Buddhist).
Borrowing means that a social worker asks permission to use or adapt a
spiritual activity in professional practice. Borrowing also implies that one return
something. So, for example, I (EC) studied Korean percussion from a teacher
in the shamanistic tradition of nongak (agricultural music) from 1976 to 1977
(Canda, 1993). I experienced that the music of drums and gongs, when employed
in a meditative and ritual manner, can enhance therapeutic transformation for
people. By incorporating my learning from this Korean teacher together with
training in social work and cross-cultural religious studies, I developed a musi-
cal performance technique that can be applied in practice to facilitate transper-
sonal insights. As I was developing this, I corresponded with my Korean teacher,
to seek his advice and permission. In 1987, I was able to see him again shortly
before his death. I told him in detail about what I was doing and he gave me
his encouragement. He hoped that I would promote respect and understanding
of Korean nongak. By his permission, and the encouragement of other Korean
friends and relatives, I have sometimes employed percussion with clients, stu-
dents, and colleagues. When doing so, I explain the purpose, indicate where
I use traditional Korean forms or adapt them, honor my teacher, and give partici-
pants an opportunity to decide whether to participate. Whenever I can, I express
my appreciation for Korean culture and encourage others to learn about it, as
my teacher requested. I sometimes perform traditional Korean percussion for
Korean American community festivals. I also lecture and write about Korean
nongak percussion, as my teacher hoped, so that more people can appreciate it
as an artistic and spiritual form. Genuine borrowing leads to returning, and
“paying forward,” so that the circle of mutual benefit extends outward through
sharing.
Sharing is a mutual exchange of learning and support that benefits both
parties, and others, directly. It is a collaborative approach, in which people
involved share each others’ knowledge and help. For example, in my (EC) work
with Southeast Asian refugee communities, I developed panels to educate help-
ing professionals about the varieties of traditional healing practices and sys-
tems available, such as acupuncture, herbalism, shamanic rituals, and Buddhist
302 spiritually sensitive social work

meditation. The panels were composed of presenters from conventional helping

professions and a variety of Southeast Asian backgrounds, including professional
physicians and social workers as well as traditional shamans and monks. The
purpose was to generate mutual knowledge and respect so that cross-referral and
cooperation could be enhanced. This meant that people from various religious,
cultural, and helping perspectives connected to learn from each other.
Selling means that a person gives spiritual help in return for a specified pay-
ment. This is a controversial and complicated issue. Professional social workers
usually sell their help. Professionals expect to be reimbursed for services. On a
practical level, social workers hope to make a living for ourselves and our loved
ones through our work. In fact, state licensure boards may not even recognize
free (voluntary and pro bono) service as professional activity in qualification for
licensure. Yet some people feel that selling spiritually based help (including social
service) demeans it, by attaching it to materialistic or selfish gain. For example,
some Indigenous people consider it to be a violation of sacred trust to sell spir-
itually based helping and healing through professional service, workshops, and
retreats (Bullis, 1996; Gray, Coates, & Yellow Bird, 2008).
When spiritually sensitive social workers function in a professional paid
capacity, we need to be mindful of this problem. First of all, even if we are paid,
we should have service as the first priority. Ideally, we want to work ourselves out
of a job. Wouldn’t it be wonderful if no one needed social workers any more! If
we need to make a choice between profit and caring, caring comes first. In gen-
eral, we should always seek ways for clients to receive needed services through
social policy changes (such as those governing private or governmental insur-
ance and other third party payments), sliding fee scales, subsidy by philanthropic
individuals and groups, and pro bono work.
Regarding explicitly religiously based helping practices in social work,
whenever appropriate, social workers need to consider the feelings and wishes of
recipients in a given case. For example, if an Indigenous social worker is involved
in a substance abuse treatment program for Indigenous participants, it may well
be appropriate for a qualified social worker to conduct a sweat lodge purifica-
tion ritual for interested people going through the recovery program. But many
Indigenous people would consider it necessary to separate this from the formal
social work context and not to have a fee charged for the sacred ritual.
We also need to consider the risk of cooptation in professionalism. If we view
our vocation as nothing more than a paying job, or if we view our “spiritual”
helping activity as nothing more than a new technical gimmick, then we lose the
sense of sacredness in our service. Our capacity for compassionate action and
justice might be compromised by limiting our work to pay, for, as the saying goes,
“you shouldn’t bite the hand that feeds you.” This gives pause to consider why is
it that some of the most noteworthy social reformers in recent decades, such as
Mahatma Gandhi, Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr., Mother Teresa, and President
Nelson Mandela all did their most powerful work outside the confines of a formal
paying job, often under extremely difficult and life-threatening conditions.
Ethical Guidelines 303

Gifting means that a person gives without any expectation of return. Spiritual
teachers of many different traditions have done this and made their insights
available to all. So we have an incredible array of spiritually based helping sys-
tems, strategies, and activities available for social work. However, accepting a gift
means being respectful to the giver. So, especially when spiritual practices are
offered for help across cultural or spiritual traditions, it is important that social
workers use them according to the guidance, intentions, and highest purposes of
those who contributed them. Further, the first principle of the NASW Code of
Ethics encourages social workers to provide some pro bono services.

The Political Context of the Helping Relationship

Some of our examples indicate that ethical decision making requires taking into
account the political context of the helping relationship between worker and cli-
ent. For example, if a Euro-American social worker wishes to explore the pos-
sibility of an Indigenous client’s use of traditional spiritual practices, such as
the sweat lodge purification ritual, the political context should not be ignored.
Many First Nations people are understandably suspicious when Euro-Americans
inquire about their spirituality. The long history of insults, attacks, and prohibi-
tions against their spirituality makes it understandable for the client to have a
healthy mistrust. Self-protection requires caution. Further, some First Nations
people feel that the current interest among Euro-Americans in Native spiritu-
ality can be problematic (Bullis, 1996; Canda & Yellow Bird, 1996; Gray et al.,
2008). Sometimes sacred teachings and rituals are taken out of context, adapted,
and sold, without due regard for the feelings and intentions of Indigenous peo-
ple. This is a case of inappropriate appropriation.
However, we are not implying that social workers (including Euro-
Americans) should not learn from other spiritual traditions, convert across reli-
gions, follow their own genuine sense of spiritual calling into innovative paths,
or utilize new insights to help people. This is a matter of personal conscience and
religious freedom (Buhner, 1996, 1997). Indeed, despite the controversy about
this, many Indigenous elders have chosen to share their teachings widely, includ-
ing with social workers (Indigenous and non-Indigenous), in order to promote
understanding and respect for their traditions and to enhance services for their
communities. I (EC) have been privileged and honored to receive mentoring and
teaching from spiritual teachers and friends in many traditions beyond my cul-
tural upbringing, especially East Asian and Indigenous North American. My life
has been enhanced tremendously by this, so I am very grateful. We recommend
that when social workers act in a professional capacity, professionals should con-
sider the ethical and justice issues we have described in order to be consistent
with professional standards of ethics.
Special care and attention should be applied when the historical relation-
ship between cultural or religious groups represented by worker and client has
been one of oppression, colonialism, genocide, slavery, racism, discrimination,
304 spiritually sensitive social work

exploitation, homophobia, sexism, classism, disabling stigmas, prejudice, or

any other form of systematic harm. Even if an individual worker is not directly
responsible for the systematic harm of present or past, the memory, wounds, and
anger may still loom in the mind of the client. Posttraumatic stress, both for
individuals and for communities, takes a long time to process. Further, those of
us in relatively privileged social positions, despite good intentions, continue to
reap differential benefits from discriminatory, oppressive, and hierarchical social
structures (Pewewardy, 2007). In keeping with our professional value to promote
justice, the social worker has a special responsibility to work for the redress of
wrongs and the empowerment of disenfranchised people.
For example, a Japanese American worker would need to be mindful of the
possible sensitivity of a Korean American client, given Koreans’ experience of
Japanese colonialism. If a Mormon client is suspicious of a non-Mormon’s inqui-
ries about private spiritual practices and beliefs, again, one shouldn’t be surprised
given the history of persecution of the Mormons. Of course, the specific action to
be taken depends on the particular experiences, feelings, and attitudes of worker
and client. But we recommend that the worker tread lightly, especially because
spiritual matters can be so precious and private for people. Many times, the spir-
ituality of an oppressed people is one of the last areas of traditional value and
practice that has survived cultural persecution, and so it is protected carefully.

Transcultural Teamwork for Spiritually Sensitive Practice

Transculturally aware, culturally appropriate, spiritually sensitive practice

involves more than mere tolerance of diversity. It involves active appreciation
for diversity and proactive advocacy for empowerment and justice at both indi-
vidual and collective levels. If the ethical principle of cultural competency is to
be more than rhetoric, HSOs (including individual and group private practices)
need to institute ongoing policies, programs, and procedures to address diversity.
We touched on this critical component for forming spiritually sensitive HSOs in
the previous chapter. Here, we give additional practical suggestions for how to
develop a transculturally astute HSO in relation to spiritual diversity. We believe
that this effort should be connected with an overall process of developing HSOs
that are responsive to all forms of human diversity.
We propose eight steps of spiritual diversity innovation, summarized in
Table 9.3. These are based on prior cited works, especially my (EC) experience
consulting with child welfare agencies, adult mental health centers, refugee
serving agencies, and Christian congregations for enhancing engagement with
human diversity (Canda, 1988d; Canda, Carrizosa, & Yellow Bird, 1995; Canda,
Ketchell, Dybicz, Pyles, & Nelson-Becker, 2006). Our suggestions are geared
toward agency-based practice. They will need to be adapted by social workers in
private practice by emphasizing community linkages and interagency coopera-
tion to compensate for the limited resources and personnel available.
Ethical Guidelines 305

Table 9.3. Eight Steps for Spiritual Diversity Innovation through Transcultural
Teamwork.
1. Create an ongoing spiritual diversity innovation team and action plan.
2. Designate a team coordinator.
3. Identify the range of spiritual diversity in the service area.
4. Include service recipient and community representatives in the process.
5. Identify current preparedness of staff to respond to spiritual diversity.
6. Evaluate organizational policies, programs, and procedures for responsiveness to spiritual
diversity.
7. Establish a directory of spiritual resources in the community.
8. Form cooperative cross-site teams and partnerships.

(1) Create an ongoing team within the HSO for development, imple-
mentation, and monitoring of spiritually sensitive practice.
In our experience, most HSOs do not have a formal plan for spiritually sensitive
practice. Even if an agency has a plan to address cultural diversity, it is unlikely
that religious and spiritual issues have been a major focus. Sometimes health
care settings include a chaplain and a list of clergy resources in the community.
While this is a good start, it is usually not sufficient to build a spiritually sensi-
tive HSO that is ready to address the full range of spiritual perspectives among
clientele and community, especially in urban areas. Although religiously affi li-
ated agencies are more likely to address religious issues than secular agencies,
most do not have a formal plan for addressing spiritual diversity. This means
that most agencies will have a great deal of work to do if they wish to develop a
full-fledged approach to spiritual diversity. Therefore, an ongoing formal team
effort is important for sustained innovation.
Representatives from administrative and direct service staff in all agency
departments should be involved. In addition, membership should include staff
persons who have diverse spiritual perspectives and contacts with diverse types
of religious and nonreligious spiritual groups in the community. This range of
representation will make it more likely that the team can anticipate both agency-
based and community-based issues.
Of course, identification of staff persons’ religious or spiritual group affi lia-
tion should be voluntary. The most important qualification is not simply group
membership, but rather enthusiasm for the task and personal familiarity and
mutually respectful relationships with members of community-based religious
and nonreligious spiritual groups. If a cultural diversity innovation committee
already functions in the agency, its mission could be expanded to address reli-
gious and spiritual diversity.
The spiritual diversity innovation team should be authorized to create, guide
implementation, and monitor action plans. The team itself should consider how
to function in a spiritually sensitive manner, so that the process and outcomes
of change are congruent. It is best to start with easily achievable goals, related
306 spiritually sensitive social work

to behavioral objectives and timelines for completion. Successes lead to further

confidence, expanded goals, and more successes. For concrete suggestions about
forming organizational innovation groups, see “Congregational Social Action
Committees: Suggestions for Formation and Planning” (Canda & Dybicz, 2006,
available at http://www.socwel.ku.edu/candagrant/CSAC.pdf). Although these
suggestions are written for religious congregation-based planning committees,
they can be adapted to social service agencies.
In private practice settings, the practitioner and partners (if any) would all
need to be dedicated to this effort. So in effect, the “team” would be solo or the
entire group.
(2) Designate a staff person to coordinate the team and to oversee the
overall process of innovation.
Responsibility for ongoing professional education and innovation about spiri-
tual diversity should be shared by all staff. However, the team and agency’s wide
efforts need to be coordinated by a particular person so that momentum does
not fade. This should be a person with special interest (and ideally, preparation)
for addressing spiritual diversity. If there is already a staff person designated for
cultural competence innovation, it might be feasible to have this person incor-
porate spiritual diversity, or to cooperate with another team member who takes
on spiritual diversity as a focus of work.
If there is no staff member with formal preparation to address spiritual
diversity, it could be helpful for the team coordinator to go through the exercises
in this book.
(3) Identify the range of spiritual diversity in the service area.
In order to plan a response to spiritual diversity, it is necessary to know what
variety exists in the service area of the agency. It would be an overwhelming task
to prepare to address the full range of spiritual diversity present in the United
States. For local agencies, that is neither feasible nor necessary. So a study of the
current service recipients’ spiritual perspectives should be done. If the agency
keeps records of recipients’ spiritual affi liations or other aspects of spirituality,
these should be reviewed and a client population profi le can be constructed. As
a next step, a richer profi le of spiritual characteristics of service recipients can be
developed by adapting a uniform intake assessment from the MIMBRA assess-
ment tool.
A profi le of service consumers does not necessarily reveal the full range of
perspectives in the service area, however. In order to be proactive, and to pre-
vent last minute responses in cases of emergencies, spiritual groups of all poten-
tial service consumers should be identified. Diversity team members can find
this information by exploring through several kinds of sources: ask members
of the spiritual diversity team about any groups with which they are familiar
in the community; ask clients about the spiritual resources in the community
important to them; contact city government or university-based demographers;
Ethical Guidelines 307

explore religious listings in directories available in city phone books, newspa-

pers, university phone books, and online directory services; use internet search
engines about local organizations by using key terms (e.g. religion, faith, spirit,
interfaith, interreligious, and names of specific spiritual perspectives); contact
local clergy and community leaders who are active in interreligious organiza-
tions or social workers who are involved with interagency networks; if there is a
social work education program nearby, contact the director of field education to
inquire about social service agencies that attend to religious and spiritual issues
and culturally diverse populations; explore insights from staff of hospice pro-
grams and hospitals that are likely to have multiple religious contacts. As you
identify knowledgeable people, ask them to refer you to other good contacts. In
this way, you can branch out until you are likely to have identified the full range
of spiritual diversity in the community.
A community profi le of spiritual diversity can be developed by indicating
the range of religious and nonreligious spiritual groups as well as important
variations of spiritual groups pertaining to ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation,
disability, or other pertinent aspects of human diversity. Table 9.4 lists examples
of types of environmental spiritual support systems that could be explored.
(4) Include service recipient and community representatives in the
innovation process.
People who are affected by decisions should be involved in making them. This
is an important ingredient in empowerment and spiritually sensitive practice
generally. This can bring a practical benefit to the agency, since staff persons
can not be expected to know or anticipate all the needs and goals of recipients
and community members. Once the range of spiritual perspectives in the service

Table 9.4. Types of Possible Environmental Spiritual Supports.

• Family members and friends who contribute spiritual encouragement
• Informal spiritual support groups, such as philosophical/religious reading groups, informal
meditation or prayer groups, regular friendship groups for spiritual discussion
• Semi-formal spiritual support groups, such as classes for yoga, reiki, or taiji or short-term
spiritual retreat groups
• Formal nonreligious spiritual support groups, such as 12 Step programs
• Formal religious congregations and groups
• Religiously affi liated human service organizations
• Community-based traditional healers and helpers, such as shamans, faith healers, herbal-
ists, acupuncturists
• Professional helpers with a spiritual focus, such as spiritual directors and counselors, pasto-
ral counselors, chaplains, transpersonal mental health therapists, spiritually sensitive social
workers, parish nurses
• Places, mountains, valleys, lakes, oceans, rivers, plants, animals, the earth as a whole, and
other beings of nature experienced as helping, healing, replenishing, inspiring, or sacred
• Nonphysical beings within a person’s system of belief and experience, such as God, spirits,
saints, angels, Bodhisattvas, souls, ancestors
308 spiritually sensitive social work

area is identified, then representatives can be recruited as team members and

consultants. In communities with a large number of different spiritual groups,
it may not be possible to include representatives from every one. In that case,
it is a good idea to seek representatives from highly contrasting perspectives.
Representatives of community groups should be people who are formal or infor-
mal leaders, with a positive reputation among their constituents.
(5) Identify the current level and range of preparedness to address
spiritual diversity among the service providers.
The spiritual diversity innovation team should conduct a study of agency staff
persons’ level of interest and preparation for addressing spiritual diversity. Some
staff may have specialized training in ministry, pastoral care, or academic reli-
gious studies. Some may have taken courses and continuing education work-
shops dealing with various aspects of spirituality in human service. Many will
have developed personal familiarity pertaining to their own religious or spiritual
group affi liation. Staff who have formal experience with interreligious dialogue
or clergy-social worker collaboration would be especially helpful.
Expertise in particular types of spiritual development issues or helping skills
would also be desirable, for example, training and experience to help people deal
with spiritual emergencies. Staff members who are familiar with spiritual prac-
tices and therapeutic techniques that promote transpersonal development, such
as meditation, could also be helpful.
A directory of agency staff expertise could be compiled from this study. This
way, relevant staff people can be consulted on an as-needed basis for planning
and implementation or for helping with a particular case.
All staff can be encouraged to engage in continuing education and read-
ing to expand their competency to address spiritual diversity. As new areas
of expertise are developed, those staff persons can be added to the directory.
Unfortunately, our National Survey showed that nearly 65% of social workers
responding reported that they received no content on religion or spirituality
in their social work education. Although this shows an 8% improvement from
responses on the 1997 survey, it still shows that most social workers are likely
to lack educational preparation, reinforcing the need for continuing education
about spiritual diversity.
(6) Evaluate organizational policies, programs, and procedures for their
responsiveness to spiritual diversity.
Part III of this book gives many suggestions for policies, programs, and pro-
cedures for spiritually sensitive practice. Agency mission, goals, and objectives
should be examined to identify the extent to which issues of spirituality and
spiritual diversity are addressed formally or informally. If spiritual issues are
not addressed sufficiently, modifications can be made. Policies, programs, pro-
cedures, and service activities should also be evaluated and modified. Special
care should be taken to be sure that the policies, programs, and procedures are
Ethical Guidelines 309

appropriate to the full range of spiritual diversity among clientele and in the
community.
(7) Establish a spiritual resource directory for the community.
The previous steps will identify the spiritual resources and key link people in the
community. The spiritual diversity innovation team can compile this informa-
tion. Information from Step 3 can be used to identify basic information about
religious and spiritual groups, including addresses, telephone numbers, and
other contact information. Community representatives on the spiritual diversity
innovation team could help make contacts with other spiritual group leaders in
the area.
(8) Form cooperative cross-site service teams and partnerships.
In many communities, it would be impossible for agency staff to have personal
familiarity and expertise regarding the full range of spiritual diversity in the
service area. However, staff can engage in cooperation and mutual learning with
other people in the community who do have the relevant experience. So team-
work begins within the agency and extends into the community.
When there are likely to be frequent occasions of referral and collaboration
between agency staff and community-based spiritual groups, formal cooperative
arrangements should be made. Spiritually based clergy, healers, and helpers can
cross-train or at least meet together with social workers and other agency staff in
order to learn about each others’ perspectives and procedures, to facilitate cross-
referral and collaboration, and to establish ongoing partnerships that can be
quickly and easily activated on a case-by-case basis. In practice settings in which
sustained cooperation is necessary, as in refugee resettlement, hospice, substance
abuse treatment, and health care, formal multisystem teams (including secular
and religiously based service systems) can be established to coordinate commu-
nity wide planning and activity involving spiritual diversity. The steps for cross-
perspective dialogue (Chapter 6) could facilitate this relationship building.

Cooperation with Clergy and Religiously Affiliated Organizations

As we saw in the review of U.S. religious demographics, a majority of people
have ongoing contact with a local or community church or other religious group,
whereas they typically do not have such relationships with human service pro-
viders. Therefore, clergy are often the clients’ first contact for help and serve as
“gatekeepers” to other service resources (Henderson, Gartner, Greer, & Estadt,
1992). Indeed, many congregations provide social services to their members and
even the larger community, such as soup kitchens, preschool programs, health
clinics, day care centers, food and clothing aid, disaster relief, and many others
(Bilich, Bonfiglio, & Carlson, 2000; Cnaan, Wineburg, & Boddie, 1999; Furman,
Perry & Goldade, 1997; Tirrito & Cascio, 2003; Wineburg, 2001). Community-
based religious organizations, as well as nonreligious spiritual support groups
310 spiritually sensitive social work

such as 12 Steps programs, should be recognized as potentially valuable partners

for social workers. They can be sources of beliefs that support meaning, purpose,
hope, and connectedness; authoritative motivators for service and justice; indi-
vidual and group practices that promote spiritual development; volunteers; space
for meetings and service activities; funding; creative ideas; and focal points for
community-based networking and organizing. Collaboration between social
workers and clergy can avoid duplication of services (Turner, 1984) and integrate
psychological and theological perspectives which allows for more breadth and
depth in the healing process (Danylchuk, 1992) while providing an opportunity
to develop creative models of service delivery.
Since cooperation with religious or spiritual leaders is an important com-
ponent of spiritual diversity teamwork, it is instructive to consider findings from
our U.S.A. National Surveys on social workers’ use of referral and collaboration
with clergy. In 1997, 71% of respondents had referred a client to a clergyper-
son or spiritual leader. Among those who responded in 2008 (see Table 9.1), a
higher percentage (74.8%, N = 1319) had referred clients to a clergyperson or
other religious or spiritual leader than in 1997. Also, 89.5% (N = 1551) indicated
that referring clients to clergy was an appropriate helping activity. Over 59% (N
= 1045) among those who responded had also collaborated with clergy or other
religious or spiritual leaders, and 85.9% (N = 1473) believed that collaboration
was an appropriate helping activity. These findings are encouraging in that a
large majority of social workers may be receptive to referral and collaboration
as appropriate helping activities. However, social workers and clergy vary in the
comfort level and ability to cooperate with each other (Furman & Chandy, 1994;
Furman & Fry, 2000; Loewenberg, 1988).
For example, Furman and Fry (2000) studied the patterns of referral
between social workers and clergy in an upper mid-western state. The random
samples consisted of 640 social workers and 876 clergy who represented major
Christian denominations. Among those who responded, 209 were social work-
ers and 305 clergy. Of the social workers, 41% had referred individuals with
marriage and family problems to clergy, 30% had referred individuals with
mental or physical health problems, and 50% had referred individuals with reli-
gious and spiritual problems to clergy. More clergy had referred their congre-
gational members to social workers. Sixty-four percent of the clergy members
had referred congregational members with marriage and family problems and
39% had referred individuals with mental or physical health problems to social
workers. Clergy were not asked if they had referred congregational members
with spiritual and religious issues to social workers. Forty-seven percent of the
clergy and 50% of the social workers said that barriers such as confl icting val-
ues, issues of confidentiality, and differing religious belief systems prevented
them from making referrals.
Table 9.5 summarizes special considerations for social workers who work
with religiously affiliated HSOs, especially those funded under the Faith-Based
and Community Services Act H.R. 7. These considerations take into account
Ethical Guidelines 311

Table 9.5. Special Considerations for Working with Religiously Affi liated Human
Service Organizations (HSOs).
• Connect in a spiritually sensitive and culturally appropriate manner with the organization,
including its distinctive religious character
• Note the type and degree of the HSO’s connection to a religious auspice, for example,
congregation-based with religion infused in staffi ng and services, focused on member
services only or including community outreach; or professional social work agency with
mixed religious/state funding and with spiritually inclusive approach or inattentive to
spirituality
• Work to establish mutual understanding, trust, and practical collaborations between the
HSO leadership and social workers, if not already present
• Promote clients’ voluntary access to services, free from enforced proselytization or
discrimination
• Promote adequate training and preparation for volunteer and professional staff as relevant
to clients’ issues and spiritual and cultural backgrounds
• Promote accountability and transparency of HSO operation
• Balance legal principles of separation of church and state and freedom of religion
• Encourage service planning in collaboration with local leaders, rather than top down
governmental agendas
• Prevent governmental neglect of social responsibility via diversion to underfunded and
underprepared religious organizations

recommendations from NASW’s (2002) position on faith-based services and

insights from Tangenberg (2005), Tirrito and Cascio (2003), and Wineburg (2007).
We hope that our transcultural teamwork approach will encourage social
workers to reach out to community-based spiritual leaders, teachers, mentors,
and support groups.

Conclusion

In this chapter, we discussed social workers’ attitudes about and ethical guide-
lines for using spiritually oriented helping activities in social work. Then we rec-
ommended a transcultural perspective in response to the ethical mandate for
culturally competent practice in relation to spiritual diversity. We considered
value and political concerns in cross-tradition exchange of spiritual practices in
social work. Finally, we presented practical steps for spiritual diversity innova-
tion in HSOs. In the next chapter, we will discuss additional spiritually explicit
social work practice activities.

EXERCISES

.. Ethical Decision Making about Using Spirituality in Practice

Identify a past or present situation in which you have encountered an ethical
question about whether to include an explicitly religious or nonreligious spiritual
312 spiritually sensitive social work

helping activity. Review Table 9.1 as a reminder of possible activities you might
have considered or actually used. Then, use the guidelines in Table 9.2 to help
you clarify what you should have done or what you plan to do in the future.
Write an essay that explains the practice situation, the spiritually oriented activ-
ity (e.g. related to self-preparation for practice, assessment, cooperation, referral,
collaboration, or direct use of activities), reasons for why you decided whether
this was (or would be) appropriate, and how you engaged the client and other
relevant persons in the decision-making process. How well do these guidelines
work for you? Is there any way you believe they should be changed?

.. Cultural and Political Issues in Cross-Tradition

Exchange of Spiritual Practices
Reflect on the types of practices that you currently use (if any) that have been
inspired or learned from a spiritual or cultural tradition different from the one
in which you were raised. Are there any issues of a cross-cultural, interreligious,
or political nature that you feel you should pay more careful attention to? How
have you obtained or conveyed this practice (i.e. banning, stealing, borrowing,
sharing, selling, gift ing)? If you have exerted influence on a client to restrict or
discourage a spiritually based practice (i.e. banning), reflect on whether your
decision can be justified. How do you demonstrate respect and support for the
people or group from whom you received this practice?

.. Developing a Transcultural Team for Spiritual

Diversity Innovation
Review the eight steps for spiritual diversity innovation through transcultural
teamwork (Table 9.3). Put this in the context of a transcultural perspective
(Figure 9.1). Think about how you can cooperate with current efforts or initiate
new efforts in your professional practice setting. Gather a small group of staff
persons who share this interest and begin the steps.

.. Creating a Profile and Resource Directory of Spiritual

Diversity in the Community
One of the major initial projects for spiritual diversity innovation is to create
a profi le and directory of spiritual diversity recourses in your community. See
Table 9.4 for examples of possible resources. Follow the recommendations in
Steps three and seven of spiritual diversity innovation to begin this project.

.. Evaluating Relations with Clergy and Religiously

Affiliated Organizations
Reflect on the types and quality of partnerships you and your HSO have
with clergy, spiritual leaders, and religiously affi liated organizations in your
Ethical Guidelines 313

community. What are the patterns of cooperation, referral, or collaboration?

To what extent are the resources in your community (Exercise 9.4) actually uti-
lized? What is the level of trust, mutual, understanding, and practical coopera-
tion between social workers and religious personnel and organizations? How do
you address social work professional issues in working with religiously affi liated
organizations (Table 9.5)? Make a list of at least five ways that these relationships
could be improved to enhance service for your clients. Then, make an action
plan with a timeline for completion to implement these innovations.
 10

Spiritually Oriented Transformational

Practice

The way of the Creative works through change and

transformation,
so that each thing receives its true nature and destiny
and comes into permanent accord
with the Great Harmony.
The I Ching or Book of Changes
(trans. Wilhelm & Baynes, 1976, p. 371)

In this chapter, we present a conceptual model for understanding the flow of

therapeutic transformation in social work and also selected spiritually ori-
ented helping activities that are conducive to clients’ spiritual growth. Actually,
all forms and types of social work activities can be consistent with spiritually
sensitive practice when conducted within a framework of spiritually sensitive
values and contexts for helping. Everything that furthers the fulfi llment and
well-being of people, individually and collectively, is spiritually sensitive when
the practitioner is aware of and intentional about this. Again, this does not neces-
sarily require that the practitioner speak explicitly about this with clients—this
decision should reflect the best interests of clients. However, it does require a
keen spiritual vision of human capacity and possibility. This vision helps us to
breathe new life (literally, to inspire or to fi ll with spirit) into all our social work
activities.

Social Work Practice as a Transformational Process

Social workers often describe themselves as change agents. Of course, spiritu-

ally sensitive social work practice may be geared toward maintaining, support-
ing, and celebrating existing personal and societal conditions that are beneficial.
However, since people often involve in social work services because they desire
a change in themselves, relationships, and social structural conditions, spiritu-
ally sensitive social work often promotes growth, empowerment, and justice in

314
Spiritual Transformational Practice 315

ways that challenge an existing status quo. Indeed, spiritual growth and crises,
such as through peak and pit experiences, include in their nature a fracturing
of the status quo. In addition, social workers might proactively advocate for
change in social conditions, institutions, and policies to promote peace, justice,
and environmental sustainability. So spiritually sensitive practice involves cre-
ating conditions and activities that are conducive to growth and transformation
for individuals and communities and their natural environments. This means
that spiritually sensitive social work practice includes but is more than problem
solving or conflict resolution. It includes but is more than promoting coping,
adapting, or maintenance. In keeping with the strengths perspective, spiritually
sensitive practice identifies people’s talents, skills, capacities, and resources and
mobilizes them in the service of both their immediate goals and their highest
aspirations and potentials.
When change is transformational, it moves people forward on their life
paths. Transformational practice recognizes challenges and crises as opportu-
nities for growth. This does not mean that a social worker should hold a pre-
sumption about what the client’s aspirations should be. Rather, the spiritually
sensitive social worker helps in a way that supports the potential for growth that
is inherent within the client and his or her context.
When we pay attention to the transformational dynamics within the help-
ing process, we can flow with them like a rafter moving with the river current.
The social worker does not originate the transformational energy, but he or
she can help steer and channel the raft of change along with it. By drawing on
cross-cultural studies of transformational rituals for healing and life transition,
we present a conceptual model for understanding and working with the trans-
formational process. Of course this model is a simplification; but as a guide,
it can help us to flow more confidently on the river current of transformation
(Figure 10.1).

Therapeutic Transformation and Ritual Studies

The cross-cultural study of rituals has yielded a great deal of insight into the
ways that people create dramatic, artistic, and religious formats to mark impor-
tant life transitions. Contemporary ritual studies embrace many fields, ranging
from anthropology to the dramatic arts and religious studies (Bell, 1992; Bowie,
2006; Grimes, 1995, 2000a, 2000b; Heimbrock & Boudewijnse, 1990; Turner,
1992; Winzeler, 2008). These studies point out the great variety of rituals and
their purposes. They caution against over-generalization about universal pat-
terns of action and symbolism in ritual process, and urge us to be attentive to
variations by culture, situation, purpose, gender, and other aspects of human
diversity. However, they acknowledge that one of the remarkable commonalties
among human beings is our tendency to mark and to facilitate important life
transitions, such as a shift through a stage in the life cycle, changes in social
status or role, healing processes, and periods of personal and community crisis.
316 spiritually sensitive social work

Preparation Separation Flux Aggregation Congregation

Life disruption Separation from Liminal phase Reconstruction Creativity and

or proactive goal status quo; maximizing of enhanced ongoing growth
that motivate incorporation expectations and condition; plan to as changes are
help seeking and into helping possibilities for integrate changes integrated into
anticipation of process change into ongoing life; ongoing life and
therapy closure of help- relationships
ing process

“Falling apart” “Taking apart” “Neither here “Getting it “Having it

nor there; betwixt together” together”
and between”

Disturbing sense Protective order Creative chaos Creative order Ongoing cre-
of chaos or com- ative balance
pelling desire for of chaos and
life change order

Spontaneity Formal helping process Spontaneity

Figure 10.1. A conceptual model of therapeutic transformation.

This is not to say that all rituals are benign. Well-intended rituals can fail their
purposes. Rituals can sometimes be violent or serve to impose injurious and
oppressive social conditions and expectations on disadvantaged members of a
society or on members of other societies.
Therefore, our conceptual model emphasizes insights from ritual stud-
ies for helpful transformation of individuals and groups. In keeping with our
transcultural and transperspectival approach, we intend this model as a heu-
ristic device to open creative ways of understanding and enhancing the helping
process. We do not intend it to serve as a universal description of all rituals
across cultures or as a prescription for formulaic practice. However, we hope
that it will encourage readers to explore the specific forms of rituals within their
own and others’ cultures with genuine interest, respect, and willingness to con-
nect with the particular beliefs, values, and practices of the people for whom
the rituals are significant. As we will show later in this chapter, the model also
provides a theoretical basis for helping clients to utilize and design rituals and
ceremonies.
Rituals not only mark transitions, they also create them, celebrate them, and
help us to pass through them safely. Indeed, many rituals of healing and helping
can be understood as rites of passage that help a person to pass from a condition
of distress to a new condition of restored or enhanced life (Eliade, 1971; Frank,
1963; Kiefer & Cowan, 1979; Kiev, 1972; Lincoln, 1981; Scheff, 1979; Turner, 1965,
1969, 1974, 1992; Van Gennep, 1960; Wallace, 1966). Therefore, theory of ritual
process provides us with keen insight into the transformational process that is so
important in spiritually sensitive social work.
Spiritual Transformational Practice 317

Grimes (2000a, pp. 5–6) summarizes this well:

Life passages are rough, fraught with spiritual potholes, even mortal dangers.
Some passages we know are coming; others happen upon us. Birth, coming of
age, marriage, and death are widely anticipated as precarious moments requir-
ing rites for their successful negotiation. But there are other treacherous occa-
sions less regularly handled by ritual means: the start of school, abortion, a
serious illness, divorce, job loss, rape, menopause, and retirement. . . . Even a
single rite of passage can divide a person’s life into “before”“ and “after.” An
entire system of such rites organizes life into stages. . . . Effective rites depend on
inheriting, discovering, or inventing value-laden images that are driven deeply,
by repeated practice and performance, into the marrow. . . . The primary work
of a rite of passage is to ensure that we attend to such events fully, which is to
say, spiritually, psychologically, and socially. Unattended, a major life passage
can become a yawning abyss, draining off psychic energy, engendering social
confusion, and twisting the course of life that follows it.

By drawing on ritual studies, we present a model of therapeutic transfor-

mation that can guide our planning of activities in the helping process (adapted
from Canda, 1988a). The model supplements more conventional models of the
helping process by adding a focus on the potential for spiritual growth that is
inherent within social work processes.

A Conceptual Model of Therapeutic Transformation

Social work practice often produces therapeutic change, that is, an enhancement
of a person’s or social system’s situation. From the standpoint of spiritually sen-
sitive practice, we recognize that each enhancement is a move in the life process
of spiritual emergence. So we need to consider more carefully what we mean by
these two key terms: therapeutic and transformation.
There is a significant nuance of the expression “therapy,” which is generally
omitted from common usage in social work. The Greek word therapeutes meant
a healer who serves both the human and the divine (Hillman, 1975). So when we
refer to therapeutic transformation, we do not restrict ourselves to thinking of
social work as a form of psychotherapy, for social work’s scope is much greater
than that. Rather, we wish to emphasize a spiritual orientation to the helping pro-
cess in all forms of social work practice. To improvise with Grof’s term “holotro-
pic,” therapeutic transformation is change that moves people toward wholeness
in relation with oneself, other people, the earth, the universe, and the ground of
being itself, however people understand it.
As the Chinese Book of Changes (I Ching) points out, there are many
types, degrees, and speeds of change in human life (Wilhem & Baynes, 1976).
The wise person understands the particular kind of change involved at any point
in life and works with the potential inherent in the flow of change to maximize
the possibility of enhanced living in relationship. Some periods of change are
318 spiritually sensitive social work

Figure 10.2. Hexagram #23, splitting apart.

transformational—occasions of greater danger as well as opportunity. They call

for greater wisdom. By transformation, we mean a significant relatively rapid
or concentrated change of condition, such as developmental leaps through peak
and pit experiences. In this sense, especially as social work increasingly uses
brief modes of helping, such as solution-focused therapy, we are midwifi ng cli-
ents through transformational processes.
For example, I Ching hexagram number 23, named “splitting apart,” sym-
bolizes a time of life in which the status quo is breaking up (see Figure 10.2).
The five lower lines, which are broken, represent the walls of a house that are
crumbling down. The roof is ready to fall in. This can be frightening. It is defi-
nitely time to move! The symbolism of the hexagram includes advice for how to
respond to this situation. The upper three lines symbolize a mountain; the lower
three lines symbolize earth. So if one can keep a mind that is well grounded,
clear, virtuous, and open to insight (like a mountain resting on earth and rising
toward heaven), then the splitting apart can be an opening to something greater.
Another way to look at the symbolism of the hexagram is that the single unbro-
ken line at the top is a ripened fruit in a tree. When change goes to its maximum,
the fruit falls to the earth. This apparent death of one situation actually plants
the seed for the future.
As we have seen in the discussion of spiritual emergencies, transformational
experiences have great potential for enhancing a person’s insight, vitality, sense
of purpose, and way of life. However, getting to that point of breakthrough may
depend on first going through a period of breakdown. Transformational processes
often occur spontaneously, as in crises. Healing and helping rituals are procedures
to help bring a person through the passage to enhanced life. In this sense, social
work encounters with clients can be considered rituals. Note that in common
usage, the word ritual sometimes means something rote, stale, or meaninglessly
repeated. That is actually the opposite of the meaning of ritual in the context of
therapeutic rituals, which are lively, dynamic, intentional, and careful.
The conceptual model divides the therapeutic transformation process into
five phases that are like flowing waves rather than discrete steps. The preparation
phase involves all that has gone before the helping encounter, especially whatever
precipitates the client’s need for help and whatever the client does in anticipation
Spiritual Transformational Practice 319

of the beginning of the helping process. Formal helping begins at contact with
the social worker and moves through three phases: separation, flux, and aggrega-
tion. After formal helping, the person continues with life in a more spontaneous
way, hopefully more resilient and reliant on his or her strengths and resources
(congregation).
Therapeutic transformation is like the process of moving to a new home.
In phase one, some series of events and responses leads to the decision to move.
Sometimes the decision is proactive and agreeable. Sometimes, like in an evic-
tion, natural disaster or war, the decision is forced upon us. Moving one’s home
often is a significant life event, since the move disrupts the established patterns of
behavior, relationships, and comforts. Even if the status quo is problematic and
we have incentive to move, old habits and relationships connected to home may
be hard to break or alter. Once we decide to move, we need to make advanced
preparations. If we are forced out of home suddenly, then the lack of prepara-
tion complicates the move. In phase two, we dismantle our belongings and pack
them in boxes, hopefully with sufficient order that we can retrieve and reorga-
nize them later. In phase three, we go on a journey to a new place, uncertain of
the future. New possibilities emerge, bringing both hope and anxiety. If friends,
family, or a moving company are helping, this journey to the new home can be
relatively quick and safe. In phase four, we move into the new home, unpack,
and reorganize in a way that suits our new situation and purposes. In phase five,
hopefully, we reestablish life in the new home, with reorganized relationships
and daily activities. Social workers are like specialists in moving who facilitate
the packing, unpacking, and reorganizing of life.

Phase One: Preparation (Pretherapy Precipitating Events)

English idioms portray the transformation process vividly. In a time of crisis,
we might say that “I am falling apart.” This is the spontaneous phase of cri-
sis in which we feel overwhelmed and out of control. When this experience is
intense, we might seek help from someone who can help us to “get it together.”
Our previous life experiences predispose us to perceive and respond to a crisis
or life transition in a certain way. We are prepared by our learning of problem
solving strategies and acquisition of strengths and resources. However, when a
life challenge or proactive goal for change goes beyond our usual means and
resources, we are more likely to consult a professional helper. When a person
anticipates beginning a therapeutic process, she or he will begin to form expec-
tations, hopes, and worries. In some traditional rituals, the healer advises the
person to prepare by creating a hopeful anticipation and by reflecting on cul-
tural stories and patterns for successful transformation. The spiritually sensitive
social worker should be attentive to ways that oneself orthe agency cues clients
(subtly or overtly) about what to anticipate and how to prepare. When there is
an opportunity to encourage a client to prepare, it would be useful to provide
some guidance about what to expect and how to use the helping process in a
320 spiritually sensitive social work

way that would best serve his or her interests. For example, in a medical setting,
a social worker who discusses a patient’s transition into hospice care could refer
the patient and family to online and written materials about the principles and
practice of hospice. This could make the transition to work with a hospice team
more smoother.

Phase Two: Separation (Incorporating into Formal Helping) In

social work practice, the worker first welcomes a client into the helping rela-
tionship. A space, such as an office or the client’s home, is designated for a spe-
cial kind of encounter dedicated to helping. We cue the person that she or he
is being separated from the ordinary life situation in which they feel stuck. We
indicate our intentions to help. We identify the person’s story, troubles, and aspi-
rations. This is the phase of assessment and analysis, which literally means “to
take apart.” We help the client to deconstruct the situation and open up new
possibilities. At this phase, it is important to assure the client of respect, trust,
and safety in the helping relationship. If he or she had been feeling overwhelmed
by chaos, this phase of helping emphasizes restoration of a sense of protection,
cognitive understanding, and hope for the future.

Phase Three: Flux (Dynamic Changing) Disorder has its advantages;

chaos can be creative. The very fact that a client’s status quo is shaken up means
that she or he is likely to be more amenable to change and growth. As the help-
ing process continues, it is important for the social worker to help the client
open up more possibilities, new ways of looking at things, unforeseen solutions,
and to summon up all the personal strengths and environmental resources that
can support the change process. This means that old rigid patterns need to be
dismantled.
This is the phase of flux, in which maximum possibilities for creativity are
opened up. Idiomatic expressions for this are being “neither here nor there” or
being “betwixt and between.” The anthropologist Victor Turner (1965, 1969,
1974), drawing on the work of Arnold Van Gennep, referred to this as the lim-
inal phase, which literally means the passageway phase. When a person stands
in a passageway, he or she is not in any particular room (which can feel ambig-
uous and disconcerting), but he or she has possibility to move from one room to
another (which can feel hopeful and empowering).
Turner pointed out that healing rituals and rites of passage emphasize two
dimensions of this phase. One is the sense that ordinary personal or cultural
structures, habits, norms, and expectations are temporarily altered or suspended.
Many possibilities open. People who are going through this antistructural pro-
cess together tend to form a sense of community bond or egalitarian mutual sup-
port, which he termed communitas. However, this lack of structure needs to be
complemented by careful protection, support, and guidance by the helpers and
healers. Creative chaos is complemented by supportive order, thus catalyzing the
transformational process.
Spiritual Transformational Practice 321

The complementarity of antistructure and structure is similar to the con-

cepts of morphostasis and morphogenesis in dynamic systems theory (Robbins,
Chatterjee & Canda, 2006). Morphostasis means “form maintaining.” It is the
process of living systems that protects and restores the integrity of a living sys-
tem, so that it can survive over time. Morphogenesis means “form generating.” It
is the process that adapts, changes, and creates new patterns in a living system,
so that it can develop and grow over time. Morphostasis and morphogenesis are
complementary and necessary aspects of the dynamic transformation process
in living systems, called homeokinesis. Morphostasis alone results in stagnation.
Morphogenesis alone results in destructive chaos.

Phase Four: Aggregation (Reintegrating) It is necessary, but not

sufficient to open up possibilities. If a person’s life is only deconstructed, then it
is destroyed. It is critical that social workers help clients to continue through to
reconstruction at an enhanced level of functioning and fulfi llment. This is the
third phase of helping—aggregation. In this phase, social workers help clients
to incorporate insights, to stabilize lifestyle changes, and to work through these
implications with significant others. This is the phase of “getting it together.” A
sense of closure is reached and the client is helped to prepare for reentry into
ongoing living. In effect, this three-phase helping process assists the client to rise
above a constraining situation, journey to a peak of new possibilities, and then
integrate this new learning at a plateau of enhanced living.

Phase Five: Congregation (Post-Therapy Ongoing Living) When

clients achieve a sense of successful passage, their lives are again characterized
by spontaneous creativity and enjoyment. The person no longer relies on profes-
sional helpers (at least until another serious challenge). So one might say with
satisfaction, “I feel like I have it together.” During the aggregation phase, social
workers can prepare clients to incorporate the learning from the helping process
into self-help and mutual support in ongoing daily life in enhanced relation-
ships with others. In anticipation of congregation, clients might be encouraged
to commit to continuing new ways of thinking, feeling, acting, and relating after
the helping relationship ends. When individual changes are linked to familial,
friendship, and community support systems, then continuing of learning and
growth is more likely. This is also an opportunity for the social worker to occa-
sionally follow up with the client to help her or him continue to incorporate the
changes.

The Flow of Transformation

So far we described the process of transformation with reference to individual
growth over the course of an entire helping relationship. Whether the relation-
ship lasts an hour, a day, 10 weeks, or a year, it can be understood in terms of this
flow from spontaneous experience of life challenge through the helping process
322 spiritually sensitive social work

of separation, flux, and aggregation, and on to ongoing spontaneous living. Of

course, a person might seek help with transformation many times throughout
life, so this process would recur. In addition, there are often life events of trans-
formation and growth that do not involve professional helpers.
Within the total span of the helping process, there are many small transfor-
mational experiences. For example, each helping encounter proceeds through a
rite of helping, from initial greeting, through therapeutic work, to planning for
future work and how to make headway, for example through therapeutic home-
work assignments, and closure of the session.
Within each helping encounter, there can be moments of powerful insights
or catharses that break through habitual ways of thinking, feeling, and acting.
The model of therapeutic transformation reminds us to be careful about these
cathartic experiences. Catharses involve recalling and releasing painful memo-
ries and feelings. Therefore, social workers should only evoke them in the context
of a safe and supportive environment. The released pain needs to be converted
into creative energy that catalyzes growth. Cathartic episodes need to be pro-
cessed, and integrated emotionally, physically, intellectually, and spiritually so
that a sense of closure is reached before concluding a session.
The division of the formal helping process into three phases is an artificial
simplification of a flowing experience. We feel this flow in a musical composition
that builds theme and rhythm, crescendos, and then resolves. We sense it in the
plot of a story, in which a narrative world is created, tensions are introduced, and
then there is a denouement. Within each musical composition or story, as in all
transformational forms, there are many variations of this flow.
We can relate this model to the familiar stages of therapeutic group devel-
opment, from group formation and norm establishment (separation), through
conflict resolution and synergistic interactions (flux) to completion of goals and
reaching closure (aggregation) (Hutchison, 1999). And we know that in music
and story, as well as in therapeutic work, conflict, complications, and cathar-
ses can occur at any time. As each of these breakthrough events are worked
through, the sense of dynamic energy is enhanced.

Using Metaphors, Stories and Artistry in

Therapeutic Transformation
This model of therapeutic transformation encourages us to draw on metaphors
and stories pertinent to clients that demonstrate the spiritual growth poten-
tial inherent in their experiences. Once we identify the spiritual perspective of
the client, we can ask her or him to identify symbols and stories of transfor-
mation and crisis resolution that are inspirational and encouraging. For exam-
ple, Christians might look to the story of the passion, death, and resurrection of
Jesus. Jews might reflect on the exodus from servitude in Egypt. Hindus might
consider the story from the Bhagavad Gita about the crisis of the hero Arjuna
confronting battle and how the divine Krishna advised him. Many people are
Spiritual Transformational Practice 323

familiar with the legend of the magical phoenix that bursts into flame and rises
out of its own ashes into new life.
If no stories of transformation are familiar or appealing to the client, this
itself is an important indicator. It is much easier to wander aimlessly when we
do not have a map to guide us at a time of feeling lost. In this case, especially
if the client is not religious, nonreligious metaphors for transformation could
be explored, for example, the butterfly emerging from a cocoon, a baby bird
hatching from it egg, the moon moving through its phases, the setting and ris-
ing of the sun, or the passage from coldness of winter to new vitality of spring.
Sometimes symbols of transformation appear to clients spontaneously in dreams,
daydreams, and visions.
In any case, it is important to personalize these metaphors and stories.
Discussion with the client can explore how he or she has experienced trans-
formation previously. One could ask the client to recall important dreams that
depicted an experience of struggle and victory or resolution. Previous life experi-
ences of challenge and courage can be recalled, identifying successful strategies
and calling up reserves of resilience and courage. People who have been inspi-
rational to the client for their ability to grow, overcome crises, and transform
themselves and other people can be reflected upon. When these are ancestors,
relatives, and friends, a sense of spiritual kinship and solidarity can be mobi-
lized. If these inspiring figures are deceased ancestors or sacred beings, clients
might find insight by engaging in an inner dialogue with them, asking for guid-
ance and support. If they are living spiritual helpers, relatives and friends, clients
can consider reconnecting or deepening their relationship with these significant
people. People may also have special inspirational relationships with plants, ani-
mals, and other natural beings and places.
When we consider social work practice in the light of transformational rit-
ual, we are reminded to pay attention to its creative, aesthetic, emotive, and dra-
matic qualities. If we work in a bland square office and approach helping only
as an analytic discussion or problem solving task, our helping will hardly be
vibrant, beautiful, inspiring, or conducive to transformation. Symbols of trans-
formation and artistic modes of expression can be embedded within a thera-
peutic narrative and drama of resilience and growth. Siporin (2009, p. 1) said:
“It is from such an aesthetic, artistic perspective that social workers are to be
recognized as artists who create works of art through their knowledge and skills
of social work practice. A group of family members may be helped to resolve a
hostile, destructive set of relationships and to achieve an enduring state of an
acceptable level of mutual trust, affection and working together. Such a state may
be viewed as aesthetically beautiful, good and true, and thus as a work of art.”
Social work practice is essentially and primarily an art, and it is valid to consider
it to be a scientific art. It is a way of seeking experiential, meaningful truth and
producing aesthetic, transformative, helping actions and results. The following
example illustrates spiritually sensitive practice as an artistic and transforma-
tional process.
324 spiritually sensitive social work

An Example of a Transformational Helping Process

In spiritually sensitive practice, it is important to attend to these occasions of

transformation, both at particular moments of breakthrough and in the overall
process of helping. By supporting this transformational potential, we encourage
the ongoing spiritual development of our clients. The transformational power of
social work can be enhanced when the client’s personal experience is connected
with a spiritual tradition and community of support for the transformational
process. I (EC) composed the following example from several of my experiences
with former clients so that there is no identifying information.
Amy was experiencing stressors related to her personal spiritual develop-
ment at the same time as dealing with disruptive behaviors of her teenage son
and tensions with her husband. Although raised as a Catholic, she had recently
begun practicing Buddhist meditation and attending intensive meditation
retreats. I met with Amy and other members of her family over a period of sev-
eral months, sometimes with Amy or her son alone and sometimes with the
family together.
Amy had a series of dreams during this period in which she was trapped
in a house with no windows. In an early dream, she looked through a keyhole
in the door to the outside and saw a beautiful field. She longed to go out to this
field, but could not open the door. In another dream, the house in which she was
trapped was burning to the ground. These dreams were frightening. They sym-
bolized Amy’s feelings of being stuck, hopeless, and helpless in a tension fraught
home and family life. However, Amy’s view of another world outside conveyed
the possibility that there was an alternative, if only she could find out how to
open that door. This did not mean that Amy wanted to depart the family. Rather,
it meant she wanted to find a way to transform the situation for the benefit of
her whole family.
Since Amy was familiar with meditation and various visualization tech-
niques, we agreed to create a meditation experience that would explore the possi-
bility of liberation from this burning house. She began with her usual meditation
practice in order to relax and center herself. I then suggested that she reenvision
herself within the house from her dreams. She asked for inspiration about how
to find a way out. As she explored the house more carefully, she realized that
there was a trap door in the floor and she knew that she should go below.
Although she was nervous, she called upon her higher spiritual self for help.
I reminded her that while she was in this waking dream, she could call on any
powers needed to help her, just as in a sleeping dream. Feeling encouraged, she
opened the trap door and climbed down a dark stairway. Along a long passage-
way, she encountered some frightening creatures that blocked her way. However,
when she regarded them with compassion and let her spiritual light shine, the
creatures disappeared, opening the way ahead. Deep below, she discovered
an illuminated cavernous room with a pool of water. As she approached, she
noticed an old bearded man with a kindly and reassuring manner. The old man
Spiritual Transformational Practice 325

beckoned her to enter the water. She did so, and felt renewed and strengthened,
as though she had returned to her baptismal water of infancy. Afterward, the
old man led her through a passageway that brought her up through a hole in the
ground. She emerged into a beautiful sunlit field of flowers.
After this meditation journey, Amy felt that she rediscovered an inner reserve
of spiritual vitality and strength as well as a more vivid sense of divine help. She
felt confident that there would be a way out of her current crisis, although to get
there would require the courage to go deep into a dark place of uncertainty. Amy
decided to connect her personal experiences of transformation into her Buddhist
practices of meditation and group retreats. She understood the Tibetan Buddhist
concept that clear compassionate mind can transform poisons of affliction into
elixirs of enlightenment.
The dreams, meditation experiences, and religious practices did not make
Amy’s problems and worries disappear suddenly and magically. However, they
infused her efforts with a sense of hope, strength, and support. She was not going
through this alone or aimlessly. Rather, she was following a meaningful pattern
of suffering and transformation with the support of her social worker, her family,
Buddhist community, and her personal meditation practice.
Amy’s teenage son, Jim, was a focal point of family tension. In a sense, his
disruptive behavior was an expression of the family system difficulties. Marital
dyad tensions triangulated with the teenage son’s defiant behavior. Although his
mother’s strong meditation practice was a comfort to her, he felt that the style
was too restrictive. Jim was a drummer for a rock band. He liked to be with his
friends, playing rock music, and partying. Sometimes he got into trouble. For
example, he and his friends were driving down a street and noticed that someone
left television equipment outside while in the process of moving into the house.
On an impulse, he and his friends stole the television and sped away.
I met with Jim individually a few times. At fi rst, Jim was not interested in
talking about spirituality or doing meditation. Since I am also a percussionist,
we found common interest. I asked him to think about what it was like when
he played with his band. He reflected that in order to perform well, everyone
had to practice extensively and to form synergy as a group. He was able to see
that family life could also be like that. He had to learn to express himself fully
while at the same time complementing and synergizing with all the family
members.
I asked Jim to think about how he felt when he had a sudden impulse to do
something dangerous, such as stealing. He described the energy rush of excite-
ment. But he also acknowledged the painful consequences that came later. We
discussed how his strong energy and impulses were good—they fed his creativity
in music. His rapid action and high energy channeled into drumming resulted
in good music rather than harmful consequences to himself or others. Since he
recognized that, I asked if he would like to hear about how I use drumming
to improve centering, focus, and creative energy, based on something I learned
from my studies of meditative and ritual percussion.
326 spiritually sensitive social work

Jim thought this was a good idea. He was intrigued with the idea of drum-
ming spontaneously to express feelings, rather than playing preestablished music.
This could become a kind of meditation suited to his personality, skill, and inter-
est. We drummed together this way so that Jim could become comfortable with
it. Jim began the drumming by paying attention to his feelings and expressing
them. I joined in and together we flowed with the rhythms that emerged until
we settled down into quiet. In this way, Jim experienced how he could be aware
of his impulses and channel them in a creative way that gave him an energy rush
without extremes of unbalanced feelings or harmful rash actions.
In this example of family based social work, the overall time of working
with the family flowed through a transformational process. There were also par-
ticular transformational events that fueled and inspired the overall transforma-
tion process, for example, the waking dream meditation exercise with Amy and
the drumming meditation with Jim. In addition, we connected these in-session
transformational activities with out of session transformational processes, for
example, Amy’s meditation practice and Jim’s rock band performances. Although
the husband did not share interests in meditation or drumming, he was open to
discussing the insights of his wife and son, and sharing his own views, within
the family counseling sessions. Th is way, the particular spiritual interests and
talents of family members were engaged within a whole family process. Our
helping activities also matched my familiarity and training with Buddhist med-
itation, visualization exercises, and drumming.

Spiritual Growth Oriented Helping Activities

As discussed in Chapter 9, our National Survey of Social Workers showed that

a large percentage of social workers utilize a wide range of spiritually oriented
helping activities. Also, the spiritual perspectives on service (Part II) offer
many other helping techniques. The next section of the chapter provides a more
detailed introduction to the practice of some of these techniques to encourage
greater use of these valuable ways of helping.
Note that there are many spiritually oriented psychotherapy and social work
approaches that have specific theoretical presuppositions and concomitant impli-
cations for the helping relationship and specific therapeutic techniques (Sperry &
Shafranske, 2005). For example, helping practices could be embedded within any
of the religious or nonsectarian perspectives presented in Part II (e.g. Buddhist,
Christian, deep ecological). They might be rooted in particular psychotherapeu-
tic traditions such as spiritually-oriented cognitive-behavioral therapy, spiritu-
ally oriented psychoanalysis, existential therapy, or transpersonal therapies such
as holotropic breathwork. They might be very specific to particular communities,
such as the social work approaches that have been found useful with Beduoin
Arab communities (Al-Krenawi & Graham, 2009). Practitioners should be clear
about matching their practices with the cultures, spiritual perspectives, and
Spiritual Transformational Practice 327

comfort of clients and their communities. They also should consider the issue of
congruence between client background, chosen helping practices, and the the-
oretical assumptions behind them. It is beyond the scope of this book to pre-
sent detailed descriptions of techniques for the full range of client backgrounds
and theories. So we refer the reader to our extensive citations for these details.
We present techniques that may be relevant to self-care of the social worker as
well as a wide range of clients and contexts, keeping in mind the importance of
selecting or adapting them as appropriate.
We selected helping techniques according to several criteria. First, they pro-
mote spiritual development. They help clients move in a sense of healing and
wholeness on their chosen paths and aspirations. Second, their practice results in
an immediate perception of benefit, in the forms of clarified awareness of self and
others, reduction of tension and distraction, and new insights. Th ird, they are
conducive to transpersonal awareness and experiences. Fourth, they are so basic
to being human that there are versions in most, if not all, religious traditions
and cultures. For example, all people breathe and all religious traditions recog-
nize the significance of intentional, careful breathing. Indeed, many languages
have words that associate spirit with vital force and breath; for example, spiritus
(Latin), ruach (Hebrew), pneuma (Greek), prana (Sanskrit), and qi (Chinese).
Fift h, the techniques are nonreligious in form, although they may have been
derived from or inspired by religious traditions. Sixth, they can be linked to spe-
cific religious versions of the practice, if a client so desires. Seventh, they can
be applied to many different practice situations. Eighth, they are relatively easy
to learn. Ninth, they do not require extensive formal training, unless they are
taken to a refined level or they are practiced in the context of a specific tradition
or manualized therapy. Tenth, they involve low risk to clients. Eleventh, their
effectiveness is supported by extensive scientific evidence and/or long-standing
traditions.
Regarding this last point, although the scientific evidence base about these
practices is growing, social work and allied professions are still at a relatively
early stage of research (Ai, 2006; Cook, Becvar, & Pontius, 2000). Also, most of
the empirical studies use quantitative measures of outcomes and report findings
based on group trends. The evidence based practice movement encourages that a
specific treatment be well defi ned and described in a manual so that practitioners
can be trained in precise and consistent application of the treatment. Research on
outcomes with particular client groups can be conducted. When numerous stud-
ies are completed, findings can be compared and conclusions about effectiveness
can be made. For example, Pargament (2007) presents a list of nine manualized
treatments that have an explicit spiritual focus, varying in religious or nonsec-
tarian orientation, dealing with such issues as addiction, coping with medical ill-
nesses such as HIV/AIDS, anxiety disorders, sexual abuse, eating disorders, and
forgiveness. This kind of evidence can give helpful indications about possible rel-
evance and effectiveness, but it does not guarantee relevance or effectiveness for
a particular practice situation or particular individuals, cultures, communities,
328 spiritually sensitive social work

or situations. Manualization can enhance faithfulness of application of tested

treatments, but it can also sacrifice situation specificity, cultural appropriateness,
and spontaneity. Of course, if a client agrees to a manualized treatment, it is
necessary for the practitioner to apply it faithfully. However, we emphasize the
importance of applying any technique, manualized or otherwise, within the con-
text of a spiritually sensitive and culturally appropriate helping relationship. In
tandem with this, we emphasize the importance of evaluating client satisfaction
and impact of practices in each situation, through research methods that are
themselves spiritually sensitive and culturally appropriate.
We will present some general contraindications and cautions. Then, we will
present four ingredients of many spiritually oriented therapeutic practices: pay-
ing attention, intentional breathing, equipoise, and consistency. These are pre-
requisites for the other spiritually oriented helping activities to be described:
focused relaxing, caring for the body, doing ritual and ceremony, and practicing
forgiveness. These activities can be tailored to specific purposes and spiritual
beliefs as needed. Of course, when clients are interested in religion-specific spir-
itual practices, they can be incorporated into practice according to the ethical
guidelines described in Chapter 8. In describing these practices, we draw on
many works that the reader may wish to consult for greater detail (e.g. Bullis,
1996; Canda, 1990a; Chan, 2001; Hanh, 1987; Keefe, 1996; Krill, 1990; Lee, Ng,
Leung et al., 2009; Mace, 2008; Marlatt & Kristeller, 1999; McBee, 2008; McKay,
Wood, & Brantley, 2007; Press & Osterkamp, 2006).

General Contraindications, Cautions, and Indications

Any practice, no matter how ordinary or common, can lead to unexpected and
sometimes difficult experiences. Especially if a client is on the verge of a crisis
or spiritual emergency, any practice that opens up awareness to the inner world
of deep feelings or loosens the ego boundary can catalyze a breakthrough or
breakdown. For example, a simple deep relaxation exercise could put a person in
touch with a repressed traumatic memory. This could result in a valuable cathar-
tic experience. However, people sometimes need support for breakdown to lead
to breakthrough. It is important that practitioners stay alert to this, obtain feed-
back from the client about progress, and offer support and opportunity to work
things through as necessary.
We presume that the social worker is following the ethical guidelines pre-
sented in the previous chapter. For example, the NASW Code of Ethics requires
that practitioners have established competency before applying any particular
helping activities. So, one should not apply any of these spiritually oriented
practices with clients without first having significant personal experience and
sufficient formal training with them. Therefore, we introduce the practices as
exercises for the reader to do, before considering using them with clients.
If a client has a serious physical or mental condition that involves frag-
ile health or psychological instability, special precautions should be taken. For
Spiritual Transformational Practice 329

example, in the case of mental disorders or personality disorders, keep in mind

a simple principle of transpersonal therapy. Generally, adults should have a rel-
atively well-established ego, with sense of self esteem and positive relationships,
before it is safe to challenge and transcend the ego. Promoting transpersonal
(transegoic) experiences does not mean destroying the ego or denigrating it. It
means including and transcending it. So, for example, if someone already is con-
fused about who he or she is, it would not be appropriate to use a relaxation
technique for the purpose of dis-identifying with the individual body and mind
(Assagioli, 1965). If a person is experiencing uncontrollable and unpleasant hal-
lucinations, it wouldn’t be wise to induce further altered states of conscious-
ness. It would be better to engage a practice that helps to ground and center the
person.
However, the simple practices described here could also be helpful in dealing
with mental disorders. For example, people with anxiety disorders could learn
relaxation techniques. People experiencing depression could learn to do medita-
tive self-affirmations. People coping with certain types of schizophrenia might
be able to ground themselves and relieve hallucinatory or delusional episodes
through paying attention exercises. A person with bipolar disorder might bene-
fit from paying-attention exercises and relaxation, so that he or she can be more
alert to the beginning of mood swings in order to take preventive action (such
as changing medication) and in order to reduce the extremes of the swings. Our
point is that special care and training on the part of the practitioner is needed
to attend to serious acute or chronic physical or mental distress or disability
(Nelson, 1994).
In general, it is helpful to choose spiritual practices that build on clients’
strengths and provide a balancing complement to their problematic extremes.
For example, highly introspective clients would likely be comfortable with quiet
sitting, while the same activity might be frustrating to an extrovert. The extro-
vert might be more comfortable with body-focused therapies and meditative
practices done during physical activity like jogging, listening to music, or driv-
ing a car.
A person’s problematic extreme could be balanced by learning a new skill.
For example, if a person who is extremely introverted used introspective medita-
tion defensively to avoid dealing with physical issues or social interactions, this
would not help her or him to integrate whatever benefits come from meditation
into daily life. So physical exercise routines learned and practiced in a group,
such as hatha yoga or qigong might help the person to integrate spiritual learning
with the physical and social realms.
We have to be very respectful of clients’ spiritual beliefs and related atti-
tudes about spiritual practices. For example, some theologically conservative
Christians believe that forms of systematic relaxation or guided visualization are
tantamount to New Age brainwashing or demonic tricks. As always, our prac-
tice decisions need to be client-centered. So we have to find out what the client
believes about these things.
330 spiritually sensitive social work

Although it is unlikely with the exercises to be described here, it is possible

that someone might report an unusually intense or frightening experience that
goes beyond the understanding, worldview, or experience of the social worker.
An obvious example would be a sense of attack by evil forces. Our advice—don’t
pretend you know what you are doing and don’t minimize or discount the expe-
rience. Take it very seriously, whatever your own belief system. If this experience
is clearly a symptom of a mental disorder, then of course appropriate mental
health consultation is necessary. However, such an experience can occur in situ-
ations that have nothing to do with mental disorders. If necessary refer to or col-
laborate with a competent spiritual support person or religious leader who shares
a perspective similar to the client. And also, take care of your own feelings.
I (EC) recall an emotionally charged consulting visit to a mental health
center dealing with this in the early 1990s. Staff members asked me and a col-
league to talk with staff about an increasing incidence of clients who claimed to
have been traumatized in satanic rituals. This is a very controversial and com-
plex subject, that gained considerable attention in the 1980s and 1990s (e.g. see
Melton, 1993; Peck, 1983; Robbins, 1997). However, official satanic organizations
disavowed violence and police investigations in my state did not uncover any
satanic conspiracies, as had been alleged. Yet the bottom line was that some staff
people in this agency felt distressed and confused.
The major issue that emerged was that a few staff people were experiencing
similar frightening things. They were worried that somehow they could be under
physical or even magical attack. They were confused about the possible reality of
the clients’ reported experiences and the demonic forces and dangerous people
that were allegedly involved. Yet they had not been talking to one another out
of fear of embarrassment or sounding unprofessional. During our discussion, it
became clear that staff people found various ways of dealing with the stress that
made sense within their own religious beliefs and personal styles. Talking about
this openly relieved the feelings of isolation and strangeness. Staff decided that
they needed to be more open with each other, to help each other ventilate and
process feelings, to share effective coping strategies, and to give each other affir-
mation and support. These are excellent recommendations for any practitioners
in stressful working conditions!
On the other hand, techniques that open oneself up to transpersonal expe-
riences could lead to amazingly wonderful but surprising events, such as peak
experiences and revelations. As we noted in Chapter 7, even positively perceived
peak experiences can shake the foundations of one’s sense of self and reality. If a
peak experience generates a spiritual emergency, then the social worker certainly
needs to help the client work this through to a plateau of enhanced living.

Practicing Mindfulness and Meditation

Mindfulness practice originates from the Buddhist tradition in which clear

awareness of subjective experiences and their roots in subtle mental conditions
Spiritual Transformational Practice 331

can engender freedom from the bonds of attraction, aversion, and ignorance
that keep one enmeshed in suffering while also opening up a nonjudgmental
compassionate orientation to relieve the suffering of others (Hanh, 1987; Mace,
2008). The qualities of mindfulness can be found in many religious traditions of
meditation and contemplation, such as Christian centering prayer, Kabbalistic
Judaism, Sufism, and Confucianism (Sherman & Siporin, 2008). As Marlatt and
Kristeller (1999, p. 68) said in regard to mindfulness related meditation, “The
full value of meditative practices is best understood as tapping into the univer-
sal potential for the human mind to transcend its preoccupation with negative
experiences—with fears, anxiety, anger, and obsessions—and to become more
comfortable with the experiences of compassion, acceptance, and forgiveness.”
In the mental health and health fields, mindfulness is an important ingre-
dient in dialectical behavior therapy, spiritually oriented cognitive therapy, and
mindfulness based stress reduction therapy (Baer, 2006). Many mindfulness
related meditation practices are utilized to reduce stress and promote resilience
for both clients and practitioners in health, mental health, and social work fields
(Coholic, 2006; McBee, 2008; Press & Osterkamp, 2006; Sherman & Siporin,
2008). In a more holistic sense, mindfulness is an important quality of nonre-
ligious Zen inspired approaches to social work (e.g. Bein, 2008) and spiritually
sensitive practice, as we have described in this book.

Meditation and Mindfulness Defined

Meditation refers to a wide range of practices that involve intentionally focusing
attention, commonly joined with balanced well-poised posture (e.g. while sitting
or walking), letting go of ordinary preoccupations, distractions, and ruminative
thinking, and deepening one’s insight or experience of consciousness (Fontana,
2003; Fuller, 2008; Newberg & Newberg, 2005; Press & Osterkamp, 2006). Th ree
broad types of meditation can be distinguished by the intention behind them
although they are not necessarily mutually exclusive (Shapiro, Schwartz, &
Santerre, 2005). Concentrative meditation focuses awareness on a single object.
Mindfulness meditation attends nonjudgmentally to internal and external stim-
uli without being caught up in them. Contemplative meditation opens and sur-
renders oneself to a higher self, God, or benevolent other. Many concentrative
and contemplative techniques include qualities of mindfulness.
Mindfulness means paying attention to the present moment with a clear
mind that acknowledges what is without judgment (Coholic, 2006; Mace, 2008;
McBee, 2008). Orsillo, Roemer, Lerner, & Tull (2004, p. 77) define mindfulness
as “a process that involves moving toward a state in which one is fully observant
of external and internal stimuli in the present moment, and open to accepting
(rather than attempting to change or judge) the current situation.” There are a
variety of mindfulness related techniques that can be joined with specific thera-
peutic systems that are tailored to particular health or mental health issues.
Many meditative and mindfulness practices incorporate relaxation.
However, relaxation training intends to create a condition of low autonomic
332 spiritually sensitive social work

arousal. Meditation and mindfulness add the purposes of deepening insight into
the nature of mental processes, consciousness, one’s true identity, the nature of
reality, and developing optimal well-being or spiritual awakening.

Empirical Support for Beneficial Effects of

Meditation and Mindfulness
Specific types of meditation have specific related effects. There are more than
2000 published empirical studies of meditation, including mindfulness (Fontana,
2003; Koenig, McCullough, & Larson, 2001; Newberg & Newberg, 2005; Shapiro,
Schwartz, & Santerre, 2005). In general, therapeutic meditation is associated with
decreased stress, anxiety, nonclinical depression, cardiovascular disease, pain;
heightened capacity for sense of control, spiritual experiences, creativity, positive
affects, empathy, and acceptance; and heightened perception, reaction time, and
concentration. For example, some types of meditation can alter the autonomic
nervous system to decrease heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate, and
oxygen metabolism. Certain types of meditation can induce significant changes
of consciousness states, including mystical experiences, which may be associated
with changes in the neurochemical systems. It is now easy to obtain biofeed-
back equipment, such as a galvanic skin response device, to show immediate
physiological changes that correspond to subjective changes of relaxation. More
advanced equipment, such as PET scans and EEG monitors, reveal changes in
brain waves and activity in specific areas of the brain in relation to various med-
itation techniques. Mindfulness practices have been shown to be effective with
regard to a wide range of issues, including personality disorders, mood disor-
ders, severe mental disorders (psychosis), pain management, partner violence,
and coping with serious illness (Baer, 2006; Dimeff & Koerner, 2007).
We present basic meditative practices conducive to mindfulness, relaxation,
and mental clarity without Buddhist specific language and religious practice.
This has an advantage of making the benefits of meditation practice available to
a wide range of people, without discrimination on the basis of religion or cul-
ture. Many helping professionals who advocate mindfulness in this nonreligious
form (including both the authors) have received training by Buddhist teachers
who encouraged broad application for helping others.
However, it should be kept in mind that the application of mindfulness and
meditation practices outside of their original religious contexts and purposes
changes them in a profound way. For example, mindfulness is one practice in
a total Buddhist path of religious disciplines and lifestyle designed to lead to
enlightenment. In contrast, mindfulness within a mental health therapy is a tech-
nique designed to promote mental health outcomes, such as reduced symptoms
of anxiety or depression, reduction of harmful behaviors such as binge eating, or
promotion of self-esteem and positive feelings such as peace and joy. These ben-
efits do not necessarily lead to enlightenment. Attachment to such benefits are
actually hindrances to enlightenment in the Buddhist view. Indeed, some Zen
Spiritual Transformational Practice 333

meditation practices are designed to induce intense doubt and question about
the nature of self and reality in order to break through to deeper realization. This
can be quite the opposite of relaxation. As another example, Christian center-
ing prayer, as a meditative practice, includes beneficial health and mental health
effects, but those are not the aim. The aim is to rest in loving awareness of God
without attachment to results. Yet, we believe therapeutic application of mind-
fulness and meditation is congruent with the spiritual virtue of compassion. For
clients who wish to connect therapeutic goals with a deeper sense of spiritual
development, then meditation can support both narrow benefits and the quest
for enlightenment or spiritual awakening understood in other spiritual ways.

Paying Attention
The simple act of attention has a healing and restoring effect. When we notice
something, we are more acutely affected by it. When we pay attention without
attachment, we are acutely aware but not controlled by the object of attention.
When we pay attention to ourselves, we are alert to our thoughts, feelings, sen-
sations, and intuitions. When we pay attention to others, we can perceive them
accurately and empathize. When we pay attention to the world, the amazing
quality of each moment becomes clear. When we notice very carefully, we dis-
cover new things and we experience even very familiar things freshly and viv-
idly. Paying attention is free and leads to freedom of mind. It is a practice that
is always available.
Mindful paying attention involves clear awareness, moment to moment:
accepting without judging. We can be aware of our feelings, thoughts, and sen-
sations without being carried away by them. We can appreciate them without
being inappropriately attached to or enmeshed in them. We can liberate our-
selves from them without being inappropriately averse or rejecting them.
For example, if someone insults or contradicts you at a staff meeting, you
might feel angry and reply in an angry manner. This might trigger an ongoing
argument, elevating your own stress, emotionally injuring the other party, and
damaging the communication process of the group. This sequence of escalat-
ing unpleasant and counter productive actions can be prevented. By practicing
gentle clear awareness of communications in the meeting, as well as your own
internal responses, it will become possible to hear each person without judg-
mentalism and knee-jerk reactions. It will be easier to take the other’s point of
view. It will also be easier to express your own view with clarity and to facilitate
a constructive communication process in the group.
When I (EC) was director of our school’s Ph.D. program in social work
for the past 8 years, I practiced this skill in meetings with students and faculty
members many times. The more mindful I was, the better the process and out-
come of the meetings. Fellow faculty persons and doctoral students often said
they felt respected and listened to. There were few outbursts and arguments in
meetings. People often remarked that they felt more peaceful and centered when
334 spiritually sensitive social work

we met, especially when they entered the space of my office. However, I was not
(and am not) always mindful. When I became unfocused and carried away by
my own internal reactions and judgmentalism, I felt scattered and swayed and
had difficulty facilitating solution-oriented communication dynamics. On rare
occasion, I was the object of vociferous disagreement that rattled my composure.
But that kind of experience also is just part of the flow of human interaction.
So eventually I processed my feelings, moved on, and returned to mindfulness
practice later.
A simple exercise to begin with is to pay attention to any common object.
Suppose you are ready to eat an orange. Before beginning, look at it closely.
Notice the subtle colors of its peel. Do not assume what it looks like. Note every
shade of color, every rumple. Touch it and note its texture. Smell it. Then, open
the peel as if you are opening up a gift. Allow yourself to be surprised by what
is wrapped within. Be vividly aware of the pungent smell, the soft texture, the
dripping liquid, veins running through the flesh. Then, taste. Move the piece
of orange around in your mouth to sense it with every part of your tongue.
Discover the variations of flavor that come with each piece. If you do this, you
will discover a new kind of orange, even if you have eaten a thousand of the same
kind before!
Now, apply this learning to all aspects of life. While walking, savor the walk.
While conversing, savor the conversation. While showering, savor the cleansing
shower. While keeping company with a loved one, savor the loving connection.
Each moment is so precious yet it immediately disappears. Our enjoyment of life
can be greatly enhanced by such a simple thing as paying attention.
In my (EC) MSW course on spirituality in social work practice, I often
extend this exercise through a kind of mindful walking. For example, I often
bring students to a nearby pond. I ask the students to walk silently and individ-
ually around the pond, paying attention to each moment through open senses. If
they feel drawn to a place to stop and quietly sit, they may do so. All the while,
they just perceive. At the beginning, I say that I will ask them when they return
to report one experience they never had before. When we gather together after
the walk, I invite students to take turns recounting their experiences, while we
all listen with quiet nonjudgmental awareness. One person might notice how
they suddenly became quiet and peaceful inside. Another might perceive the
glint of sunlight on the water with greater vividness than ever before. Another
might express wonder at a butterfly that followed him or her around. Someone
else might report intrusive inner chatter and worries that he or she was unable
to release. Some notice how things that usually seemed mundane and taken for
granted became more lovely and significant.
A more difficult version of this is to pay attention to some uncomfortable
sensation. We suggest you start with something mild. Suppose you feel tired
from a long day of work. Try lying down in a comfortable position and just pay
attention to all the details of what it feels like to be tired out. Soon, the tiredness
Spiritual Transformational Practice 335

will be relieved. If not, this tells you to attend even more carefully to your need
for rest. Or, to go back to the example of a business meeting, practice just seeing
and hearing every other person in the room. Notice their tone of voice, what
they are wearing, the feeling they put into their comments. If you have a pen or
pencil, pay attention to its color, shape, size, and weight. Just notice these things
and qualities without judgment. Then, as someone makes a comment that you
find irritating or disagreeable, just notice the comment and your reaction. But do
not react to your reaction. Just be aware and let it go. Only respond after you are
able to accept the moment and the person with clear awareness.
It is important that paying attention be done gently and nonjudgmentally.
Especially if you are paying attention to a painful feeling or sensation, regard
yourself gently, lovingly, and soothingly. If you pay attention with harshness,
anger, or self-condemnation, you will surely intensify the negative experience.

Intentional Breathing
Of course, our lives depend on breathing. Yet we often take breathing for granted
unless our oxygen is cut short by lack of air in a stuff y room or by a respiratory
problem. When we pay attention to breathing, more benefits emerge. Of course,
it is perfectly natural to breathe automatically most of the time. However, tak-
ing periods through the day to watch the breath and settle into it can instantly
relieve stress and clarify the mind. It is easier to be mindful when our breathing
is smooth and peaceful.
In intentional breathing, we first pay attention to the fact that we are breath-
ing. This practice is easiest to begin by setting aside several minutes without dis-
traction. Find a position in which you are not physically strained, such as sitting
upright or laying down. Just notice that you are breathing. Notice the rate of
breaths in and out. How deep or shallow are the breaths? How do the abdomen
and chest move? Notice how changes of posture affect your breathing.
Now, take in a gentle but deep breath from the abdomen. Bring in the breath
to a comfortable extent, then release it slowly and gently for about twice the
length of time as the inhalation. Notice how your body and mind feel, already
calming and clearing of distractions and distress.
Take 10 breaths in and out like this. You may find it helpful to pause
slightly in between each inhalation and exhalation, noticing the quiet moment
in between. After 10 breaths, rest for a few moments in a sense of peace and
calm. Let your breathing settle into a gentle natural rhythm. Now, return to your
previous activity, but bring with you the rest and clarity from this breathing
exercise.
If you notice an increase of distractions or uncomfortable sensations, that is
a cue that you should pay attention to that uncomfortable feeling. As soon as you
can, take care of whatever physical, mental, emotional, or spiritual issue arose.
But when you do, try beginning with three intentional relaxing breaths.
336 spiritually sensitive social work

Equipoise
Another quality conducive to meditation and mindfulness that is consistent with
many spiritual practices is mental and physical balance. The body and mind are
poised free of strain or exaggerated motions. Even in some vigorous physical
practices, like trance dancing or ritual drumming, the body can be moved in a
way that does not strain or harm it. Otherwise, you will be worse off afterward.
There are exceptional practices that are designed to rapidly induce transpersonal
experiences or to sacrifice one’s comfort for others’ spiritual well-being, such as
enduring extreme austerities or intense physical stimulation and pain. But they
require special guidance and support (Achterberg, 1985).
Generally, balance of body and mind are important qualities to prepare for
spiritual practices. Literally, the body can be held in postures that are balanced
and free of strain. The mind can be poised in a state that balances relaxation
with alertness. This combination encourages moving into altered states of con-
sciousness, such as relaxed introspection, heightened awareness of the environ-
ment, or deeper meditative states.
It is best to do this in a quiet place at a time when you are not likely to be
disturbed and when your stomach is neither too full nor too empty. It is easy
for most people to begin this practice by sitting in a comfortable position. Many
people find it comfortable to sit on a low cushion with legs crossed. Some people
prefer to sit on a comfortable chair, with ankles crossed. In either case, it is best,
when possible, to keep the spine straight (but not forced) and to fi nd a natural bal-
ancing point. This is aided by being sure that there are solid points of rest for your
body: your seat on the cushion or chair and your legs or feet on the floor. Hands
can be folded in the lap or rested on the knees. The head rests in a balanced way
atop the neck and shoulders. The eyes can be gently closed or half open.
Adjust the posture for your own comfort and body type. When you find
a sense of physical equipoise, you will notice that it is easier to calm the mind.
The breath will also flow more smoothly. Once you are familiar with the feel-
ing of equipoise while quietly sitting, extend the practice of fi nding equipoise
while walking, jogging, and engaging in other postures and activities. Indeed,
the experience of physical equipoise can open you to a sense of equipoise in how
you conduct your life in general, for example, in well-poised relationships.

Consistency
In order to become proficient in any practice, consistency is necessary. Also,
while there are immediate beneficial effects of these practices, benefits accumu-
late and grow with consistent repetition. So it is best to set aside a quiet place and
time at least once every day, for at least 10 minutes, to practice these exercises.
Actually, the exercises all fit nicely together. You can combine them by fi nding a
comfortable, balanced posture, intentionally breathing, and paying attention to
your experience. Once you become familiar with this, you will be able to move
into a relaxed but alert state very quickly, within a few moments.
Spiritual Transformational Practice 337

Then you can extend the complete practice into your daily activities more
easily. When sitting at a boring meeting, try finding a comfortable posture and
pay attention to your breath. Soon the meeting will become more interesting
or at least bearable. When sitting with a client, try these exercises to help you
listen and respond more accurately, empathetically, and intuitively. The ideal is
to infuse all of life with these qualities of attention, breath (inspiration), and
equipoise.
These basic exercises provide a foundation that can be applied to many
other practices conducive to spiritual growth. We next discuss four such prac-
tices that can be further be applied to various purposes in social work practice:
focused relaxation meditation, mindful caring for the body, ritual practice, and
forgiveness.

Focused Deep Relaxation

Once you have learned to combine paying attention with intentional breath-
ing and equipoise, you already have begun focused relaxing. Focused relaxing
means there is a combination of focus and relaxation. The mind is neither wan-
dering aimlessly nor tightly controlled. The body is neither limp nor strained.
Most people fi nd that sitting is the easiest posture for focused relaxing, because
laying down increases the risk of falling asleep. But once one learns the tech-
nique, it can be used with any posture, depending on your purpose.
Many people find it comforting to begin with a brief affirmation of inten-
tion or prayer that centers one in a sense of goodwill and protection. As we dis-
cuss later, it is important to set a purpose for the focused relaxation, as that
can determine the specific technique of relaxation to use as well as the internal
activity while one is relaxed. Find a posture of equipoise, establish harmoni-
ous breathing, and pay attention mindfully. This sets the foundation for more
extended relaxation or meditation.
There are some common techniques for maintaining focus during extended
sitting. One is to follow the breath, as we already discussed. You might try count-
ing on each inhalation: one . . . two . . . three . . . up to ten; and then start over again.
If you lose count, your attention has wavered. No problem. Go back to one.
A common mistake in focused relaxing is being too impatient or judgmen-
tal. All you need to do is just let yourself be relaxed. It is natural for people to
settle into relaxation when given the chance. There is no need to force yourself
to relax. Suppose you notice that you’ve lost count. Then, in your mind, you
complain to yourself for being so distracted. That is a sure way to become more
distracted! Just return to one and begin counting again or you may become tense
because you are not yet relaxed enough. Just return to one.
This is very simple and natural. Watch a cat stretch and settle into relaxation.
No one had to teach the cat how to do that. Learn from a cat to just relax naturally.
Another common focusing technique is to use a word or brief phrase that
you repeat to yourself silently. Often this is termed a mantra, meaning sacred
338 spiritually sensitive social work

word, from Hindu and Buddhist traditions. But there are versions of focusing
words in all religious meditation traditions. It is often best if you choose a word
or short phrase that feels like it fits you well. It might have a special spiritual
significance to you. It might come from a spiritual teacher or tradition. Or it
might have no literal meaning. It should be short enough so that you can harmo-
nize its repetition with the inflow and outflow of breath. For example, breathe in
“peace;” breathe out “for all.”
If any distracting or disturbing thoughts, feelings, or sensations arise, just
be gently aware of them, remind yourself that you will remember them if impor-
tant after the session so you can attend to them. Then let them go. Best results
are obtained with a minimum of 10–20 minutes at a sitting.
If we add an intention to use relaxation as an entry for developing deeper
insight, then it transitions to meditation. An important ingredient of any medita-
tion or relaxation practice is purpose, such as just relaxing or cultivating insight.
A purpose is necessary to focus the practice’s direction and specific use. There
are three common directions for focus of awareness in various relaxation and
meditation techniques: outward, inward, and at the boundary in between. These
directions of focus can link with purposes for a meditation session.
If you want to clarify your awareness of the outside world, then an outward
focus of awareness will affect your technique. So, in quiet sitting, outward focus-
ing techniques include keeping your eyes open and gazing gently at an attractive
or significant but mild stimulus, such as a candle flame, or symbol, or a mean-
ingful picture. One could listen to music or natural sounds that are inspiring.
One could chant aloud a focusing word or phrase. Outward focus can also be
used to enhance walking, driving, or any other physical or social activity.
If you want to enhance awareness of your inner thoughts, feelings, sensa-
tions, intuitions, or stillness and quiet, then it would be helpful to close the eyes,
or keep them only slightly open, and to avoid loud or distracting sounds. Use an
inner focus, such as the breath or a silent focusing word.
You might also wish to cultivate an awareness that is not fi xed in either
the internal or external worlds, but is restfully clear between them. In this case,
you can follow the breath and/or a focusing silent word, keep the eyes gently
and slightly open, and let your attention rest at the border between inside and
outside yourself. For example, you could rest your gaze at a spot on the floor a
foot or two in front of you, without fi xing on the spot but also without losing
awareness of it.
Purpose also directs what you want to accomplish with your chosen prac-
tice. Actually, it is often very restful not to try to accomplish anything, but just
to dwell in the peace of the experience. But we might have a particular helping or
healing purpose in mind, or a spiritual practice for deepening insight that could
lead to other adjunct techniques. In this case, focused relaxation is a gateway
into some other practice. Here are several examples.
Inward directed focus can prepare one for various kinds of self discovery.
There are many learning exercises in this book based on self-reflection. So,
Spiritual Transformational Practice 339

inward focused relaxation can clarify awareness of one’s feelings, thoughts,

sensations, and intuitions and the reasons behind them, through introspec-
tive self-reflection. It can also prepare one to explore the creativity of imagi-
nation. For example, in the Jungian active imagination technique, the person
relaxes and pays attention to the spontaneous flow of images and inner dia-
logue in relation to some important life theme. One might seek out conversa-
tion with an inner guide, or an important inspirational figure, to seek advice.
In the Jungian form of practice, these are conversations with deep and wise
aspects of the transpersonal True Self. Active imagination can be applied
to exploring the meaning of dreams, as well, by reentering the dream situa-
tion and letting the dream play out further, or by dialoguing with the dream
figures.
One could also use inward focused awareness to prepare for religion specific
forms of prayer that involve getting in touch with the divine within yourself.
Some forms of contemplation or meditation involve going within oneself into
an experience of quiet and stillness that involves no contents of thought, feel-
ing, sensation, self, or object. In theistic traditions, such as Christian centering
prayer, this is described as a communion with God beyond all limiting images
and thoughts of God.
Outward focused awareness can lead directly into self-reflective journaling
or diary keeping, reading of inspirational books or scriptures, or artistic expres-
sions such as poetry, drawing, dance or musical performance. When applied in
therapeutic contexts, these practices can help clients open up many sources of
insight into self, one’s life situation, and creative ways of solving problems, work-
ing through crises, or growing.
In-between focused awareness has the advantage that it can prepare one for
activities that move in either direction, inward or outward. Of course, any direc-
tional focus can prepare one for any type of activity, if you shift direction while
continuing the experience of clarity. Indeed, focused relaxation is an excellent
skill to incorporate into the following practices.

Caring for the Body

Although we often say that, as social workers, we want to deal with the whole
person, bio-psycho-social (and now spiritual) aspects in all, we too often neglect
the body (as well as the spirit). Clients who feel stressed, hurt, and confused also
may tend to neglect their bodies. So caring for the body is an important ingre-
dient in holistic spiritually sensitive practice. In some religious traditions, this
notion is embodied (pun intended) in such expressions as “the body is the tem-
ple of the divine.” Whatever our beliefs, we know that we can’t live without the
body, so let’s make the best of it.
Everyone has occasions when they crave caring attention to their bodies.
For example, at a time of illness or dying, the body is especially tender and in
need of care. At such times, if we are able, we should tend to our own bodies
340 spiritually sensitive social work

with the same kind of careful paying attention as we use to prepare for focused
relaxation. Indeed, practice in focused relaxation can help put us in touch
with inner reserves of resilience and it can relieve pain and distress. When
our loved ones or clients are physically distressed, we can also help them to
fi nd the physical comfort and care they need. We intend that this goes beyond
the technical aspects of medical care. Medical treatments, unfortunately, may
be given without caring attention. Caring attention is the more fundamental
medicine.
We also suggest that caring for the body is a practice that should be done
everyday, whatever the state of physical health. This promotes overall well-being
and helps to prevent stress. There are many such practices possible; for example,
regular exercise, sports activities, walking in beautiful places, following a healthy
eating pattern, gardening, taking a relaxing shower or bath. One could learn phys-
ical exercise systems that have an explicit spiritual orientation, such as taiji or
hatha yoga. There are many types of body therapies that can be received from
trained professionals (or loved ones), such as therapeutic touch and massage. Any
type of physical care can be conducive to spiritual growth when it involves pay-
ing caring attention and is placed within the context of the person’s spiritual
aspirations.
We need to make a cautionary note on body therapies that involve touch-
ing clients. There is a great deal of potential for misuse or abuse of touching
clients. Even a simple gesture intended as a sign of friendliness, such as touch-
ing a client’s shoulder, can be an unwanted intrusion. In some cultures, touch-
ing the head is considered rude and jarring. More intimate kinds of touch,
like massage, are even more risky. If a social worker wishes to incorporate
these practices within his or her own work (rather than making referrals), it
is important to have clear, explicit, informed consent from clients as well as
appropriate training. It is crucial to be sure that psychodynamic issues don’t
complicate and confuse the meaning of touch if both psychotherapy and mas-
sage are combined. As we mentioned in Chapter 9, touching clients for healing
purposes was the least used or approved helping activity by respondents in our
National Survey. Th is is a little explored area in social work so far. A quote
regarding physical contact from the NASW Code of Ethics (standard 1.10,
p. 13) is noteworthy here:

Social workers should not engage in physical contact with clients when there
is a possibility of psychological harm to the client as a result of the contact
(such as cradling or caressing clients). Social workers who engage in appropri-
ate physical contact with clients are responsible for setting clear, appropriate,
and culturally sensitive boundaries that govern such physical contact.

This statement is vague as to what specific types of contact are prohibited.

However, it is clear that the onus is placed on the social worker to establish com-
petency, minimal risk for the client, and a good rationale for the practice.
Spiritual Transformational Practice 341

Table 10.1. General Qualities of Mindfulness, Meditation, and Systematic

Relaxation.

Paying Attention
• Gently focused, consistent awareness
• To specific objects or inner focus
• Th roughout the flow of daily life, moment to moment

Intentional Breathing
• Simple awareness of breathing and gratitude for life with
• Special attention to inhalation and exhalation
• That can be aided by counting breaths, or
• Synchronizing breaths with mantra, prayer, or any brief word/phrase of significance

Equipoise
• Balance of body in unstrained coordinated posture
• Balance of mind in equanimity, unswayed by extremes, preoccupations, or aversions
• Ongoing balance in care for body, mind, spirit, relationships, and overall well-being

Consistency
• Regular practice, daily if possible, at least 10 minutes
• Developing proficiency and cumulative benefits

Focused Systematic Relaxation

• Letting go
• Going with the flow
• Nonjudgmental awareness

Purpose
• Setting sincere intention and practical purpose for a particular meditation session
• Clarifying link with a tradition of spiritual or therapeutic practice, if relevant
• Specifying focus of attention: within, outer world, border between

Specific Techniques
• Practicing techniques for specific spiritual and therapeutic forms of meditation,
if necessary, under guidance of experienced teachers
• Being responsible about indications and contraindications for yourself and clients
• Exploring what works best for the person in situation

Life as Meditation
• Extending benefits of meditation to pervade your life
• Regarding life itself as a meditative process
• Meditating everywhere, at all times

Further Possibilities
• Meditative music listening
• Meditative walking and movement
• Meditative dance
• Meditative chanting and singing
• Meditative group activities

We summarize the main generic qualities of meditation, mindfulness, and

relaxation practices in Table 10.1. Table 10.2 offers three brief meditation exer-
cises that can be learned quickly. Table 10.3 presents directions for a more in-
depth systematic relaxation exercise.
Table 10.2. Three Brief Meditation Exercises.
These exercises are especially useful to generate quickly a sense of rest and regeneration,
to release tensions and distractions, and to heighten clarity for helping self and others.
Practitioners might fi nd them useful to prepare for a clear fresh mind before meeting a client,
for releasing residual feelings after a session, and for replenishment any time. The exercises
could be taught to clients who wish to augment their stress management skills.

1. Letting Go of Stress
• Sit in a comfortable position, balanced but without physical strain
• Close the eyes gently
• Notice how you feel in the moment as you settle into quiet
• Take in one deep but gentle breath from the lower abdomen
• Release the breath and let yourself settle into a gentler, smooth flow of breathing in
and out
• Remind yourself to settle into peaceful relaxation together with clear bright mind
• Then begin a special breathing and visualization practice
• With each breath in, imagine you are fi lled with replenishing, refreshing air and energy.
If you wish, add a visualization that you are fi lled and surrounded with a light of your
favorite healing or soothing color
• With each breath out, imagine you are releasing all tension and distraction. If you wish,
add a visualization that all tension and distraction are drift ing up and away, like evapo-
rating mist
• Breathe like this for 5 minutes
• Just before concluding, sit quietly without special breathing or visualization, simply
being aware of yourself in the moment
• Finish by reminding yourself to bring with you any benefits from the relaxation session
to help yourself and to enhance your beneficial interactions with others

2. Breathing Peace
• Sit in a comfortable position, balanced but without physical strain
• Close the eyes gently
• Notice how you feel in the moment as you settle into quiet
• Take in one deep but gentle breath from the lower abdomen
• Release the breath and let yourself settle into a gentler, smooth flow of breathing in
and out
• Remind yourself to settle into peaceful relaxation together with clear bright mind
• Then begin a special breathing and mantra practice
• On each breath in, silently repeat the word “peace” or another word conducive to peace
and well-being
• On each breath out, silently exhale gently but about twice as long as the inhalation,
while quietly releasing the breath along with all tensions or distractions
• If you wish, on the breath out, silently repeat the words “for all” or some other expres-
sion of compassion for others
• Breathe like this for 5 minutes
• Just before concluding, sit quietly without special breathing or mantra, simply being
aware of yourself in the moment
• Finish by reminding yourself to bring with you any benefits from the relaxation session
to help yourself and to enhance your beneficial interactions with others

3. Instant Release Meditation

Th is mindfulness practice aids relaxation and freedom from control by habitual reactivity.
As soon as you notice an internal indicator of distress, distraction, or loss of clarity (e.g.
sweating palms, hampered or excessive breathing, moment of anxiety, self-defeating thought,

(continued)

342
Table 10.2. Continued.
other-attacking thought, demeaning judgment of self or other, wandering internal chatter, or
loss of awareness of the moment):
• Notice the indicator without judgment
• Observe it gently
• Realize that you do not have to be controlled by it
• Take in and release a breath, letting go of the feeling, thought, or chatter
• Settle into a smooth exchange of breathing, in and out
• Just observe the breathing process, accepting the moment without judgment
• Open your senses and pay attention to whatever is right before you in the moment
• If there is someone (including yourself) or something that you fi nd disturbing, regard it
with gentle kindness
• When you feel ready, respond to the situation out of clarity and compassion

Table 10.3. Systematic Deep Relaxation Exercise.

Th is exercise is likely to take 20–30 minutes. It is designed to increase general relaxation,
mental clarity, and awareness of the body. In this exercise, you will focus awareness on
various parts of your body in order to be aware of their condition and to release tension or
discomfort. Th is is especially useful to thoroughly release tensions and to become more aware
of physical and mental issues that may require attention later. If the purpose is to enhance
relaxation and clarity during the daytime, then maintain alertness throughout the exercise.
If the purpose is to assist falling asleep, then let yourself naturally drift off to sleep as you go
through the exercise.

• Sit in a balanced well-supported comfortable position, or, lie on your back on a flat
comfortable surface
• Close your eyes
• Just be aware of your feelings and sensations in this moment
• Notice that as you become quiet and pay attention to yourself, you already begin to relax
• Remind yourself to settle naturally into physical relaxation together with bright clear mind
• Next, gently pay attention to your right foot, noticing its position and sensations
• Then, gently curl the toes of your right foot, slightly tensing the muscles of your entire foot.
Hold the tightness gently for several seconds, saying to yourself, “hold it, hold it, hold it,
and . . . release.” Release all tension and distraction from your right foot. Let it float away
like evaporating mist. Feel the waves of relaxation flowing through your body. Feel any
distractions from your mind lift away and disappear
• Repeat the practice for your left foot
• As you continue, notice any sensations, thoughts, feelings, insights that come to you. If
this is just a pointless distraction, let it go. If it is a valuable message for something to
attend to (such as need for sleep or relief from pain in some part of the body, a reminder
of something important to take care of, or a valuable insight), gently tell yourself that you
will remember this for later and let it go. After the relaxation session, you can take
appropriate action
• Pay attention to your right leg, scanning awareness from your ankle, to your knee,
and your hip. Then, slightly tense the muscles of your right leg. Hold it, hold it, hold it,
and . . . release, letting go of any tensions or distractions from your right leg, noticing waves
of relaxation flowing through your body, and letting your mind be clear and bright
• Repeat the practice for your left leg
• Pay attention to your buttocks, following the same practice of gently tensing and releasing
• Pay attention to your right hand and arm, gently curling your fi ngers into a fist and tensing
the muscles of your right arm. Follow the practice of releasing tension
(continued)

343
344 spiritually sensitive social work

Table 10.3. Continued.

• Repeat the practice with your left hand and arm
• Notice your back, scanning awareness from the base of your spine, up the spine, around
the small of the back, up to the shoulder blades. Then, gently arch your spine at the small of
the back, slightly tensing the muscles. Hold it, hold it, hold it, and . . . release all tension and
distraction from your back, feeling the waves of relaxation moving through your body, with
mind clear and alert
• Notice your breathing. Be aware of the movement of your abdomen and chest with each
breath
• Now, take in one deep breath from the abdomen and hold it, hold it, hold it, and . . .
release. Let your breathing settle into an even deeper, gentler rhythm. Be aware with each
inhalation of the refreshing, replenishing air and energy you receive. Be aware with each
exhalation of releasing any remaining tensions or distractions, floating away like mist. Be
aware of the quiet pause in between each breath in and out. Let your breathing settle and
continue naturally
• Pay attention to your neck, all the way around, from the base of your neck to the meeting
point with the head
• Then, scan your awareness up the back of the head, over the scalp, down the forehead,
around the eyes and nose and mouth. Be aware of how your neck and head feel
• Gently, close your eyes and your lips a little more tightly, slightly tensing the muscles of
your face. Hold it, hold it, hold it . . . and release. Let all remaining tension and distraction
float away. Feel the waves of relaxation moving freely throughout your body, cleansing and
clearing body and mind
• Rest quietly in this relaxed condition as long as you wish
• Before concluding, remind yourself to bring back whatever insights and benefits you
received to help yourself and to enhance your interactions with others
• As you prepare to fi nish and reenter ordinary activity, gently flex your fi ngers and toes and
adjust your posture. Pay attention to your sensations in the moment. When you are ready,
gently open your eyes and look around the room
• Let yourself return to ordinary alertness and movement, bringing with you refreshment
and insights from the relaxation exercise. (If your purpose was to fall asleep, then you
probably fell asleep by this point.)

Engaging Ritual and Ceremony

As we discussed in the section on ritual studies, all cultures and religions include
ceremonies and rituals. They are ubiquitous features of human behavior, reflect-
ing our capacity for symbolism, narrative, and meaningful group interaction.
Ritual and ceremony have not been discussed extensively in the helping profes-
sions. However, their importance is recognized implicitly in psychodrama, cer-
tain family therapy techniques, narrative therapy, and art therapies. We believe
that ritual and ceremony deserve much more attention, study, and application
in social work.

Ritual and Ceremony Defined

Victor Turner (1965), a cultural anthropologist who had major influence on rit-
ual studies, made a helpful distinction between ritual and ceremony. Ceremony
refers to celebrations and confirmations of existing situations and conditions.
Spiritual Transformational Practice 345

Ritual refers to procedures that bring about a fundamental transformation of

existing situations and conditions. We will use the terms in this way. Traditional
rituals and ceremonies are well established and authorized within particular cul-
tural or religious communities. As we discussed earlier, clients might wish to
connect their social work process with them. However, sometimes clients would
like alternatives.
Laird (1984) pointed out that some people do not have well established ritu-
als (or ceremonies) to celebrate important life events and to encourage transi-
tions. For example, there is no ritual to mark the passage from adolescence to
adulthood that is generally accepted by most Americans. There are some reli-
gious rituals, such as Jewish Bar Mitzvah and Bat Mitzvah (Kahn, 1995) that
can help a person to make a clear statement of identity and to have that affirmed
and supported by others. But all too often, adolescents may take up activities
that are not necessarily beneficial in order to claim adult status, such as smoking
or drinking alcohol. For another example, divorce is a major life transition for
many married people, but the legal and economic rituals marking this change
generally are not set up to help people grow through the process. Other occa-
sions of serious loss or wonderful life transitions often have no standard means
of celebrating or assisting. The opposite problem is when people have a ritual or
ceremony that is too routine, rigid, or taken for granted. It no longer has a sense
of meaning or power for the client. So Laird suggested that social workers might
sometimes be called on to help clients to celebrate accomplishments and to move
through critical life passages safely.
Further, the model of therapeutic transformation suggests that all social
work practice situations promoting change can be viewed as a form of ritual. We
can enliven them by applying ritual techniques, if clients are so inclined.

Empirical Support for Beneficial Effects of Ritual and Ceremony

Most empirical studies of ritual and ceremony are qualitative and ethnographic.
As we saw in the review of ritual studies, field research around the world for sev-
eral decades has demonstrated the ubiquity, variety, and importance of ceremony
and ritual. These studies have shown that benign rituals and ceremonies can
lead to feelings of peace, joy, meaningfulness, reassurance, and even ecstasy for
participants. They also serve to reinforce social cohesion and collective feelings
of meaningfulness, or, transform and enhance personal and relational patterns.
In general, ritual and ceremony can enhance individual and collective sense of
control, harmony, balance, and order, as well as connectedness with the sacred.
Ceremony and ritual can connect with prayer and meditation, thus tapping their
beneficial effects (Spilka, 2005). With regard to our recommendations for help-
ing clients engage ritual and ceremony, there is no formal research of the partic-
ular practices. However, we can infer that engaging the therapeutic qualities of
a spiritually sensitive relationship, meditation, and meaning-making (which are
widely studied) within a ritual or ceremonial process is likely to be beneficial.
346 spiritually sensitive social work

Most importantly, client’s views are paramount in determining whether engag-

ing ritual or ceremony would be appropriate and beneficial.

Designing a Ritual or Ceremony

Designing ritual or ceremony can be emotionally moving and enjoyable. It links
clients’ self-reflection and dialogue with significant people whom they wish to
be present. It can involve joining with existing ritual and ceremonies in one’s
spiritual group to find affirmation and support there. It can involve renewing
lost ties to a spiritual group, to rediscover a community of spiritual caring. It
can involve creating an entirely new or personally tailored event, suited to pri-
vate and particular beliefs and circumstances. Actually performing the ritual or
ceremony, especially with a sense of support from loved ones, spiritual mentors,
one’s community, and (if believed) sacred or supernatural beings can be very
powerful events cherished for a long time.
In order to clarify this, I (EC) would like to give an example from a former
student who was a social worker for a Lutheran Social Services agency during the
1980s. He had established a peer support group for Cambodian refugee youth who
were resettled as unaccompanied minors. These youth were dealing with many
compounded stressors related to loss of homeland, family and friends; experience
of the genocidal killing fields; the dangerous and uncertain flight from Cambodia;
stay in refugee camps; and cross-cultural transition in the United States.
Over the course of support group meetings, it became clear that the youth
needed to tell their stories for healing, not only to each other but also to the
general public. Speaking the truth, including the pain, was an important step in
honoring the memories of loved ones lost, releasing the traumatic pain, and mov-
ing on. Therefore, the group meetings became a multimedia event. Participants
told stories, drew pictures, wrote stories and spoke to newspaper reporters. The
social worker recognized that a dramatic ritual of transformation was unfolding.
He documented this in records kept for the youth participants.
But there was still a lot of pain and much hope for the uncertain future
to address. The youth were Buddhist and so they asked to have a Cambodian
Buddhist monk visit them to perform a formal religious ritual of healing. They
worked with the social worker and the monk to tailor a ritual that focused all the
energy of healing from the entire process.
The youth found a beautiful location for the ritual in a field. They dug a
hole in the ground. They symbolically placed all their pain, grief, and loss into
the hole. The monk prayed for their help and blessed the process and the earth.
Then the youth planted a sapling in the hole, so that new life would grow up
from it. This tree symbolized their new life in the United States in which they
would continue to honor their culture of origin and their memories, but would
also forge a new identity and way of life. This ritual simply yet powerfully repre-
sented their healing transformation. This example beautifully reflects the guide-
lines we offered for ethical use of religiously based activities and transcultural
teamwork.
Spiritual Transformational Practice 347

Table 10.4. Guidelines for Designing Ritual and Ceremony in Social Work
Contexts.
• Ascertain client’s interest
• Clarify relevance to client’s spiritual perspective and helping goals
• Assess client’s prior experience with rituals and ceremonies, e.g.
° Traditional cultural or religious forms, if any, and level of satisfaction with them
° Established family-based or personal forms, if any, and level of satisfaction with them
° Coordinate with, refer to, or collaborate with client’s ritual traditions or personal prac-
tices, if client prefers
° Dialogue with client about designing a new ritual, if client prefers, and move on to next
steps
• Clarify client’s purpose for the event, such as affirmation and celebration of a life situation
or transformation into a new hoped for situation
• Codesign ritual or ceremony
1. Establish specific intent and hoped for outcomes (why)
2. Identify key themes, symbols, meaningful actions, music, art, decorations, or objects for
the event (what)
3. Clarify intended participants (who)
4. Decide timing of event (when)
5. Identify safe and conducive setting (where)
6. Compose process and structure (how)
° Create opening of event
° Plan activities marking transition or affi rmation
° Plan activities establishing sense of closure and way to carry benefits into ongoing life
• Client conducts ritual or ceremony with or without social worker
• Follow up results

In order to help you to design helping rituals or ceremonies for yourself

or your clients, we include a list of suggestions influenced by ritual studies and
practical suggestions by Paladin (1991) (see Table 10.4).
Ritual and ceremony need not be mutually exclusive; we see this as a matter
of emphasis. But we think it can be helpful to be clear about the general purpose
of your event. For example, you might wish to design a ceremony that empha-
sizes themes and symbols of celebration, confi rmation, appreciation, dedication,
affirmation, and continuation. You might wish to design a ritual that emphasizes
themes and symbols of transformation, movement, discontinuity, and newness.
At the conclusion of a ritual, it would be important to have an ending that con-
firms and celebrates the change and assists incorporation of benefits into ongo-
ing life.
Friends sometimes ask me (EC) to help them design and perform rituals.
Although I do that as a friend, there is usually a therapeutic quality to the event.
For example, a family who moved into an old house was experiencing some
transition difficulties. The family was composed of father and mother and their
7-year-old daughter. Since I would be visiting their city, the parents asked me if
I would help them do a “house blessing” ritual to help the family feel better con-
nected with the house and their new life situation. The parents had been doing
remodeling and encountered many structural problems. Th is was frustrating on
348 spiritually sensitive social work

a practical level. In addition, they said that various things were suddenly mal-
functioning in the house, moving in a line from the front of the house to the
back. During this period, the daughter had difficulty sleeping due to nightmares.
Overall, the family was happy about their move and new home, but there was an
unsettling feeling.
We had done meditative drumming together many times. So we decided to
adapt that familiar activity to this ritual. I came to the house on an afternoon
when all members were available. We discussed each family member’s feelings
about their situation in the house. We discussed various possibilities for how to
mark a sense of deepened good relationship with the house as a home.
We decided to sit together in the living room, near the front of the house,
where things had started to go awry. I gave each person a drum or rattle and
I had a variety of percussion instruments. First, we sat in quiet meditation, set-
ting an intention to make a good relationship with the house. Then we talked a
short time about what we experienced during the meditation. The daughter said
that she saw, in her mind’s eye, a wolf appear. The wolf snarled angrily. She didn’t
know why the wolf was angry. But she and the parents said this reflected their
uneasy feelings.
I began drumming with a heartbeat like rhythm. Everyone joined in. When
we formed a good musical pulse and synergy as a group, we stood up, continuing
to play our instruments. The father had a rattle and a bowl with incense. The
mother had her rattle and a flash light. The father and mother went ahead, lead-
ing us in a line around the living room and on through every room of the house.
I kept a steady pulse on a small Korean gong as we moved along. As we pro-
ceeded, we kept good intentions for making a relationship with each area of the
house. The sound and incense smoke spread our good intentions and cleansed
the space. In every room, the parents opened every door and drawer as we pro-
cessed along. The mother shined a light into every nook and cranny and under
every bed. The daughter played along with their instruments and looked into all
the spaces, relieving worry about anything hidden or creepy.
After we covered the entire house, the yard, and garage, we circled back to
the living room. We sat back down, continuing to play together. I brought the
pulse down to quiet. We sat quietly in meditation for several minutes.
Then I asked how everyone felt about the experience. Everyone said they felt
better connected with the house; it felt more like a home. The daughter said that
when she meditated at the end, the wolf reappeared. But this time, the wolf was
smiling. Everyone was happy and said this reflected their feeling of resolution.
I visited them again several years later, since we lived far apart. They talked
about their lives since my last visit and how good they felt about living in this
house. We reminisced about the house-blessing ritual. Then it suddenly occurred
to me that their pet dog, whom they adopted not long after the ritual, looked like
a wolf. In fact, the father explained, the dog was part wolf. The family had not
thought about this before, but they agreed it was significant that the dog they all
felt attracted to adopt resembled the wolf in the daughter’s vision. The father said
Spiritual Transformational Practice 349

that when they first saw the dog in the pet store, they were concerned about the
wolf ancestry and wondered if it would be a suitable family pet. But they all felt
such a good connection to the dog that they brought it home.
In this ritual, it was not necessary to analyze anything formally. We engaged
in a creative process of play, music, and meditation, letting the literal and sym-
bolic actions work on their own. Every family member and the house itself were
connected in a process that transformed the relationship. Amazingly, although it
was not planned consciously, even the daughter’s vision of making relationship
with a wolf came to be true as they bonded with their home.

Practicing Forgiveness

Forgiveness is addressed in many religious traditions as an important virtue

for self-healing, social reconciliation, and restoration of community and cos-
mic harmony (McCullough. Bono, & Root, 2005; McCullough & Worthington,
1999). Many religions have values and rituals encouraging forgiveness of self,
others, and sense of forgiveness by God, other spiritual beings, or one’s fellow
religious community members. Not surprisingly then, several studies suggest
that highly motivated religious people tend to be more willing and active to
forgive themselves and others (Mullet, Barros, Frangio, Usai, Neto, & Shafighi,
2003; Toussaint, Williams, Musick, & Everson, 2001). However, forgiveness does
not necessarily have a religious intention or context.
Forgiveness is now widely appreciated and included in the helping profes-
sions and social sciences (Frame, 2003; Griswold, 2007). For example, we asked
two questions that dealt with forgiveness issues in our 2008 National Survey.
Among those who responded, 63.8% (n = 1,127) indicated that it is important
to help clients assess whether they wish to work on forgiveness while 72.3%
(n = 1,271) of the respondents use techniques in their practice that deal with
forgiveness. This finding is similar to the 1997 National survey. At that time,
60% of respondents believed it was important to assess whether a client would
benefit from work on forgiveness, and another 74% used forgiveness techniques.
These findings show that most respondents address forgiveness. Yet it appears
that some do so without assessing whether the client wishes to do so. This puz-
zling result calls for a reminder of the importance of assessment and matching
a helping technique to the client’s preference. The following discussion presents
considerations for addressing forgiveness at micro and larger community levels
of practice.

Defining Forgiveness
The etymology of the word forgiveness refers to giving up anger, resentment, and
desire for revenge (Sanderson & Linehan, 1999). McCullough, Paragament, and
Thoreson (2000) defined forgiveness as an “intraindividual, prosocial change
350 spiritually sensitive social work

toward a perceived transgressor that is set within a specific interpersonal con-

text” (p. 9). Forgiveness of self or others can be an important step in releasing
pain and preoccupation with feelings of guilt, shame, or anger toward one-
self and anger and hostility toward others (Garvin, 1998). Generally, forgive-
ness is grounded in a moral relation between two individuals, one of whom has
wronged the other. The work of forgiveness is facilitated by communication and
reciprocity between injurer and injured. Forgiveness is not necessarily altruis-
tic, but when it is, it is a deep expression of concern, compassion, and love for
others, even when the other is an undeserving and blameworthy transgressor
(Witvliet & McCullough, 2007). Forgiveness, can take many forms, such as for-
giving a person who directly offended oneself; third party forgiveness, in which
wrongs done to others are forgiven, including wrongs done to victims no longer
living; forgiving oneself; forgiving the dead or unrepentant; forgiving God for
perceived unfairness of life or divine will; seeking God’s forgiveness for one’s own
offenses; judicial pardon; restorative justice in a criminal case; political apology;
economic forgiveness; political pardon; and metaphysical forgiveness (Griswold,
2007). People can forgive and still bring legal justice to bear as required by the
situation. Also forgiveness alone is distinguished from reconciliation in that for-
giveness is one person’s response to injury whereby reconciliation involves both
forgiveness and two people (and possibly a community) coming together again.
The injurer must realize his or her offense, see the damage done, and take steps
to rectify the problem (Enright, Freedman & Rique, 1998).

Empirical Support for Beneficial Effects of Forgiveness

Forgiveness is an increasingly researched topic in psychology because of its poten-
tial enhancement of psychosocial functioning. From 1998 to 2005, published
scientific studies on forgiveness increased from 58 to 950 (Doblmeir, Juday &
Schmidt, 2007). Forgiveness may be associated with psychosocial benefits by
reducing negative emotions and cognitions such as anger, depression, cynicism,
and resentment and by fostering qualities of affirmation, compassion, and proso-
cial behaviors (Hebl & Enright, 1993; Witvliet & McCullough, 2007). Forgiveness
is connected to physical health in that reduced feelings of hostility, revenge, and
anger may lower distress and associated physiological (especially cardiovascular)
damage (Koenig, McCullough, & Larson, 2001; Witvliet & McCullough, 2007).
Much of the research on forgiveness has focused on specific instances of for-
giveness, namely state forgiveness, which represents the extent to which a per-
son has forgiven a specific offender for a specific offense, and trait forgiveness,
which represents a person’s general tendency to grant forgiveness across a variety
of instances and relationships. The expression of anger-out, such as raising one’s
voice, sarcasm, or confrontation, was less positively associated with good health
than assertiveness in telling the offender how one honestly feels, working on the
problems with the offender, and expressing feelings openly (Kamat, Jones, &
Row, 2006). Research and computer simulations also demonstrate that mutually
Spiritual Transformational Practice 351

supportive, cooperative, and collaborative strategies of social relations, which for-

giveness can support, are conducive to personal well-being, satisfaction in close
relationships, and wider social group benefits (Sanderson & Linehan, 1999).
Lawler-Row, Karremans, Scott, Eddis-Matityahou & Edwards (2008) have
identified several findings associated with forgiveness and health. For exam-
ple, lower forgiveness was associated with poorer health habits such as alcohol
and cigarette use. Overall, the evidence supports the contention that both state
and trait forgiveness tend to be positively correlated with healthier physiologi-
cal responses, as measured by cardiovascular responses like lower blood pres-
sure and lower heartbeat. The authors also found strong negative correlations
between both state and trait forgiveness and number of medications taken, poor
quality of sleep, fatigue and somatic symptoms. In a sample of adults over 55
years of age, trait forgiveness was associated with higher levels of health behav-
iors. In summary, forgiveness appears to be an important psychological factor
that has an impact on physiological and health responses.
Worthington, Mazzeo, & Canter (2005) have developed a detailed protocol
for forgiveness therapy, including empirical testing of its effectiveness.

Therapeutic Forgiveness at the Microlevel

Therapeutic forgiveness of a transgressor does not mean “forgive and forget”
because it is often impossible and undesirable to forget an injustice or outrage.
Elder (1998) defined interpersonal forgiveness as “a willingness to abandon one’s
right to resentment, negative judgment and indifferent behavior toward one who
unjustly injures us, while fostering the undeserved qualities of compassion, gen-
erosity and perhaps even love” (p. 151). We need to take proactive stands against
indignity or injustice against ourselves and others, but without being stuck in
an adversarial mentality and way of life. Indeed, forgiveness can open up energy
and insight for more effective action. Thus, forgiveness can be a powerful thera-
peutic intervention (Fitzgibbons, 1986) that facilitates the client’s process of “let-
ting go of the need for vengeance and releasing associated negative feelings such
as bitterness and resentment” (DiBlasio, 1993, p. 163).
Studzinske (1986) listed reasons a client may not wish to work on forgive-
ness. These included lack of time and energy, preoccupation with the wrongdo-
er’s guilt, and a bias against forgiveness because of its association with religious
traditions. In addition, Smede (1996) posited that some people mistakenly believe
that if they forgive, they must reunite with the offender. Therefore, it is impor-
tant to assess whether clients wish to work on forgiveness. The social worker
should be aware, however, that although a client may not be interested in full
forgiveness (i.e. the diminishment of negative affect and full restoration of the
relationship), he or she may wish to work toward detached forgiveness (i.e. reduc-
tion of negative affect, but no restoration of the relationship), or limited forgive-
ness (i.e. reduction of negative affect and partial restoration of the relationship)
(Flanigan, 1998, p. 101).
352 spiritually sensitive social work

Regarding forgiveness of self, Krill (1990) made a helpful distinction

between appropriate and inappropriate feelings of guilt. In practice, a client can
be encouraged to reflect on feelings of guilt without self-punishing judgmen-
talism. This opens the possibility for distinguishing between appropriate guilt
(i.e. remorse for one’s harmful acts) and inappropriate guilt induced by harsh
evaluations of self, low self-esteem, or blaming by others. Honest acknowledg-
ment of appropriate guilt can shift a person from self-defeating preoccupation
with mistakes to constructive acts of acceptance of self, correction of mistakes,
and restitution. Recognition of inappropriate guilt can lift the weight of blame
and open up energy and insight for positive self-concept and refusal to accept
inappropriate judgments from self and others. Hope (1987) suggested that when
the therapist models an accepting attitude toward the client, the experience of
being valued in the present in spite of failures in the past may encourage clients
to forgive themselves for past mistakes and to develop a more forgiving attitude
in the present.
Regarding forgiveness of others, we construct seven phases of the forgive-
ness process based on several models (Coleman, 1998; Frame, 2003; Krause &
Ingersoll-Dayton, 2001; McCullough, Paragament, & Thoreson, 2000; Sanderson &
Linehan, 1999; Worthington, Mazzeo, & Canter, 2005). The first phase involves
identifying the hurt, including feelings of shock or denial at the offense and ensu-
ing anger or resentment. The second phase involves sorting through the pros and
cons of forgiving, including reflection on the negative effects on oneself from
holding on to anger and resentment. The third phase involves confronting the
wrongdoer either by letter, which may or may not be mailed, by therapeutic
exercises, or face to face. Powerful healing effects come from writing or speak-
ing about one’s loss or injury. People who only thought about their injury suf-
fered more negative mental and physical health symptoms than those who wrote
about or discussed their injury. If the client decides it is desirable and possi-
ble to dialogue with the offender, the offender is sincere in apology, and gives a
clear explanation for her or his behavior, then the client can validate the offend-
er’s remorse and change of behavior. The fourth phase incorporates dialogue to
understanding. It is important in the healing process to make sense of one’s suf-
fering and the offender’s behavior, if possible. If the offender is willing to engage
in this process, then dialogue can include the offender’s following up expressions
of remorse with commitment not to reoffend and clear changes of behavior. The
fift h phase is expression of forgiving, which can be an awkward leap of faith,
although it does not mean that the client has to trust the injurer. The sixth phase
involves letting go of the pain and resentment. However, for many the memory of
having been hurt will reappear now and again. The seventh phase is reconstruct-
ing one’s life and relationships on the basis of forgiveness. There is a possibility of
meaningfulness, a possibility that in spite of suffering or even because of it, peo-
ple will grow to a higher quality of well-being than they might have otherwise
known. If the forgiveness process included a restoration of relationship, then the
Spiritual Transformational Practice 353

one who forgives can engage in conciliatory behavior and the relationship can be
restored. This entire transformational process could be very long and go beyond
the confines of the professional helping relationship.
According to Worthington and DiBlasio (1990), it is necessary to evaluate
whether the client and the offender have sufficient ego capacities to seek or grant
forgiveness. These ego capacities include the ability of the client to empathize
with his or her offender and the ability of the offender to demonstrate remorse.
Holmgren (1993) said that the aggrieved must complete a series of tasks that
are central to his or her self-esteem and self-respect before he or she can for-
give. Worthington and DiBlasio (1990) emphasized that when clients demon-
strate defensive posturing and continuous denial, they are not ready to work
on forgiveness. In addition, DiBlasio (1993) stated that whether forgiveness is
appropriate depends solely on the beliefs, feelings, attitudes, and decisions of the
aggrieved person. If the client does not wish to forgive the offender, then the cli-
ent’s right to self-determination must be respected.
Sometimes clients feel anger and resentment toward God or the universe
due to the unfair and miserable conditions of life. Why do infants die? Why are
thousands of people swallowed up by tsunamis or volcanic eruptions? Why do
deceivers and cheats sometimes prosper while the righteous sometimes suffer
adversity? Why do groups wage war and commit genocide? And why does God
allow such things to happen? Metaphysical forgiveness is the effort to give up
resentment caused by the manifold imperfections of the world. It comes down
to forgiving the world for harboring natural adversities and moral evils such as
disaster, death, illness, physical decay, and all the wrongs people do to each other
(Griswold, 2007).
The activities of mindfulness, relaxation, and meditation can help clients to
get in touch with painful feelings gently, in the process of working through to
forgiveness. The social worker could also help an interested client to design a rit-
ual of forgiveness for self and/or others at an appropriate time. If the client par-
ticipates in a religious tradition or spiritual practice with an established ritual
for forgiveness, an authorized spiritual helper could be involved in the process
through referral or direct collaboration.

Restorative Justice and Political Forgiveness or Reconciliation

Restorative justice is a means of settling disputes, often in a criminal justice con-
text, in which aiding victims, forgiveness, reconciliation, and community res-
toration are sought rather than simply retributive punishment (Von Wormer,
2004; Zehr, 1995). This does not mean that perpetrators of crime do not receive
punishment. But if punishment occurs, it is within a context of communication
and mediation that seeks to uphold the humanity and dignity of all involved
and to restore the integrity of the larger community impacted by wrongdoing.
The restorative justice movement is influenced by Indigenous cultural practices
354 spiritually sensitive social work

and religious forms of justice, such as Mennonite practices. Restorative justice

emphasizes face-to-face communications, truth telling, personal empowerment,
and healing by all parties to the wrongdoing. Around the globe, such restorative
processes are offering hope for more constructive responses to harm infl icted by
humans on one another.
Restorative initiatives are not limited to work with individuals and families,
but also can be successfully applied to the unjust treatment of whole popula-
tions where the violator would be the state. Wartime persecutions, widespread
destruction of the land of the people, slave labor, mass murder, and genocide
are forms of crimes against humanity and the earth that demand some form
of comprehension and reparation for survivors and their families even genera-
tions after the initial events. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South
Africa is one of the most powerful examples of restoration, which often included
monetary exchange in addition to public acknowledgment of responsibility for
the crimes against humanity that occurred during the apartheid period. Other
examples of reparation are U.S. compensation to families of Japanese Americans
held in concentration camps during World War II and German compensation to
survivors of slave labor camps (Von Wormor, 2004).
Political apology and forgiveness include apology offered in a political con-
text and may or may not be accompanied by reparation. The relevant institutions
or organizations include corporations, churches, and other civic organizations.
Social workers can play a role in facilitating this process. The 20th and 21st cen-
tury challenges to social justice and human rights posed by transnational capi-
talism, growing global inequality, and social exclusion along with multiple forms
of violence confront the limits of the social work imagination and call for crea-
tive and critical interventions that focus on social justice (von Wormer, 2004).
Archbishop Desmond Tutu (1998), as chair of the South African Truth and
Reconciliation Commission, remarked that “the world is on the brink of disas-
ter if we don’t forgive, accept forgiveness and reconcile. Forgiveness does not
mean amnesia. For that is a most dangerous thing, especially on a community,
national or international level. We most forgive, but almost always we should
not forget that there were atrocities, because if we do, we are then likely to repeat
those atrocities” (p. xiv). Tutu (1999) declared that in South Africa there was
to be no general amnesty for members of the previous government. General
amnesty would victimize the victims of apartheid a second time around. Rather,
the victims had to tell their stories, which in a sense rehabilitated and affi rmed
the dignity and personhood of those who for so long had been silenced and
had been turned into anonymous, marginalized people. Perpetrators were also
expected to tell their stories honestly and to participate in social reconstruction.
So, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission granted amnesty to individuals
in exchange for a full disclosure relating to the crime for which amnesty was
being sought. A genuine truth and reconciliation process can support people’s
resilience, enabling them to survive, and emerge still human despite all efforts
to dehumanize them.
Spiritual Transformational Practice 355

In cases such as in South Africa, to the extent that the reconciliation pro-
cess reveals a public account of who did what to whom, and where some attempt
is made for restitution, important elements of justice have been achieved. South
Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) is a prime example of
where political forgiveness puts its faith in truth and the people are capable to
forgive in order to aid in the peaceful transformation of a regime. The South
African TRC went beyond most other such commissions by including public
disclosures by perpetrators, respectful public hearings for victims, individual-
ized amnesty hearings, and a focus on national reconciliation (Sacco & Hoff man,
2004). However, political forgiveness is not about clearing the victim’s heart of
resentment. Rather, it entails clearing a debt that the transgressor or debtor owes
to the victim or the creditor and revealing the truth of crimes and responsibil-
ities as part of a process of social and national reconstruction. Unfortunately,
in situations of catastrophic oppression and genocide, such as in South Africa
or Rwanda, given the nature of crimes, the scale of oppressions and atrocities,
the amount of restitution needed, and the absence of punishment, full sense of
justice and reconciliation will not likely be attained (Digeser, 2000). Yet political
apology and forgiveness can facilitate forgiving a debt (including economic for-
giveness whereby the debtor is released from the obligation of repayment), rec-
onciling the past, and restoring the civil and moral equality of transgressors and
their victims.
Enright and North (1998) said that forgiveness between nations, forgive-
ness between cultural groups, and forgiveness between communities are all
possible once the necessary steps have been taken. These steps include being
completely honest in the recognition that harm has been infl icted by one party
on another, expressing a willingness to forgo prolonging the hostility through
the acts of revenge, developing empathy and understanding between the par-
ties, and fi nally, renewing the community in the future. What is annulled in
the act of forgiveness is not the crime or wrongdoing but the distorting effect
that this wrong has upon one’s relations with the wrongdoer and perhaps with
others (North, 1998).
Sacco and Hoff man (2004) brought forth a statement of the social work pro-
fession’s complicity in apartheid for the South African TRC process. This was
formulated by some social work educators at the University of Witwatersrand
as part of the national truth telling and disclosure process. “Social work educa-
tors stated unequivocally that they were sorry for not challenging apartheid’s
vicious policies and outcomes sooner and with more vigour” (p. 163). The state-
ment itemizes ways that the school’s efforts to educate social work students and
address issues of diversity and justice fell short of fully challenging apartheid
and its impacts on black students. Sacco and Hoff man propose that social work
educators around the world engage in a reconciliation and reparation discourse
concerning their roles in indirect or direct complicity with injustice and oppres-
sion. We concur that this is an important process for social work to move to a
deeper level of promoting national and international justice.
356 spiritually sensitive social work

Table 10.5. Facilitating Therapeutic Forgiveness.

Assess the Situation (At outset and ongoing throughout the process)

Client’s Perspective
• Interest, readiness, and willingness to invest time and energy
• Relevant religious or personal values
• Willingness to work toward letting go of resentment and preoccupation with
wrongdoer’s guilt
• Level of self-acceptance and self-esteem
• Ability to empathize with the offender or let go of the relationship
• Intention and possibility for engaging the offender in the process
• The level of intended forgiveness (e.g. detached, limited, or full)
• Desire for working on forgiveness solely with the social worker or in collaboration with or
referral to a spiritual mentor and established traditional ritual
• If client and offender are willing to work together, assess:

Offender’s Perspective
• Interest, readiness, and willingness to invest time and energy
• Relevant religious or personal values
• Willingness and ability to engage in sincere communication and acknowledge
wrongdoing
• Ability to empathize with the client

Support the Forgiveness Process

• Model acceptance within the helping relationship

• Identify the client’s hurt, including nature of the offense and client’s feelings of shock,
denial, anger, resentment
• Sort through the pros and cons of forgiving
• Help client confront the offender directly or indirectly
° If directly, facilitate the offender’s expression of sincere apology, remorse, reparation,
commitment not to reoffend, and follow through with changed behavior
° If indirectly, help the client devise a way to symbolically communicate with the offender
and work toward forgiveness
• Continue dialogue through to understanding or acceptance of situation
• Facilitate a decision and action of forgiveness
• Help the client let go of resentment, anger, and desire for revenge
• Facilitate the client’s restructuring of life and relationships, including with the offender, if
desired and possible

Table 10.5 summarizes assessment and implementation issues in therapeu-

tic forgiveness of others. Although the focus is on forgiveness within a clini-
cal social work context, many ingredients may contribute to the interpersonal
level of forgiveness within larger social contexts, as in restorative justice and a
national truth and reconciliation process.

Conclusion

This chapter presented a conceptual model for therapeutic transformation

along with theoretical and practical guidelines for using meditation, ritual, and
Spiritual Transformational Practice 357

forgiveness. The following chapter provides concluding reflections on further

directions for spiritually sensitive social work in a worldwide view.

EXERCISES

Before you attempt to employ any of these practices with clients, you should learn
how to do them well yourself. Practice them repeatedly with yourself or col-
leagues until they feel familiar and natural. Seek training and supervision from
experienced practitioners if necessary. Once you are certain of your competence
with a practice, you might employ it with clients who express interest. Evaluate
the impact of the practices on the helping relationship and the client. The follow-
ing exercises are designed to help you manage stress, enhance your preparedness
for a spiritually sensitive relationship, and prepare for possible use with clients.

.. Social Work as Transformational Practice

Review the conceptual model of therapeutic transformation. Consider the pur-
poses and qualities of each phase. Reflect on how it is relevant to your own expe-
rience of important life transitions. Choose a practice situation for which the
model is relevant. Write an essay that presents a case example according to what
happened in each phase, the metaphors or stories that were significant to the cli-
ent, and how you approached the helping process artistically as an opportunity
for creative change. Then consider how the model was helpful in gaining insight
into the helping process and how this suggests ways you could enhance the
transformational process in future work. Describe any limitations of the model
and how you would improve it.

.. Basic Meditation Related Practices

Review the general qualities of meditation related practices in Table 10.1. Reread
the explanations in the chapter for Paying Attention, Intentional Breathing,
Equipoise, Consistency, and Caring for the Body. Choose one of these practices
to try out. Try it at least three times. Reflect on what happened and how you
could improve the experience. If you decide that the practice was not suitable for
you, then reflect on the reason. Then try a different practice at least three times.
Repeat this until you find one that works well for you.

.. Quick Meditation Exercises

Review the general ingredients of meditation related practices in Table 10.1 and
also the instructions for three meditation related brief exercises in Table 10.2.
Choose one exercise and try it at least three times. Reflect on what happened and
how you could improve the experience. If you decide that the practice was not
358 spiritually sensitive social work

suitable for you, then reflect on the reason. Then try a different practice at least
three times. Repeat this until you find one that works well for you. If you do not
find any that works well for you, review the chapter for other possibilities and
explore further.

.. Deep Relaxation Exercise

Review the general ingredients of meditation related practices in Table 10.1 and
also the instructions for deep relaxation in Table 10.3. Try the exercise at least
three times. Reflect on what happened and how you could improve the experi-
ence. If you decide that the practice was not suitable for you, then reflect on the
reason. Review the chapter for other possibilities and explore further.

.. Doing Ritual and Ceremony

Review the explanations of transformational process and ritual and ceremony,
including Table 10.4. First, design a ritual or ceremony for yourself that addresses
some significant life event or transition, or, engage in a traditional ritual or cer-
emony with an intention to focus on this life event or transition. Reflect on the
experience and its impact on you. Consider the implications of your experience
for how to help clients engage ritual or ceremony in their own growth process.
Before helping a client to design a ritual or ceremony, be sure you have done
this for yourself several times until you are comfortable with the activity. Then
consider the assessment and implementation issues in Table 10.4.

.. Practicing Forgiveness

Review the explanation of forgiveness along with Table 10.5. Think of an issue
in your life in which forgiveness would be important. Work through the forgive-
ness process around this issue. Reflect on the personal journey from experienc-
ing hurt to letting go or reconciliation. Use this experience to enhance your
empathy for clients and your ability to help clients work through forgiveness
when appropriate.
 11

A Worldwide View

The world before me is restored in beauty.

The world behind me is restored in beauty.
The world below me is restored in beauty.
The world above me is restored in beauty.
All things around me are restored in beauty.
My voice is restored in beauty.
It is finished in beauty.
Healing Ritual Concluding Prayer, Diné (Navajo)
(cited in Sandner, 1991, p. 193)

In this final chapter, we complete the framework for spiritually sensitive practice.
We have come a long way—from defining central values and concepts, to por-
traying the wide range of religious and nonsectarian expressions of spirituality
in social work, to setting a context for understanding, assessing, and practicing
spiritually sensitive social work, and to providing ethical and practical guide-
lines for spiritually oriented helping activities. Now we present an overview of
our recommendations for spiritually sensitive helping activities and resources
related to various fields of practice. Then we reflect on spirituality in social work
within a worldwide view.

Spiritually Oriented Helping Activities Revisited

We offered suggestions for many spiritually oriented helping activities through-

out this book. For your convenience, we list them together in Table 11.1. You can
find their locations by consulting the index.
We would like to reemphasize that these helping activities are not just tools.
For example, forgiveness is not just a hammer that we can use any time we find
a loose nail of grievance or remorse. Forgiveness is a process that engages peo-
ple deeply, heart to heart, in vulnerability, courage, and healing. A social worker
who facilitates forgiveness must have a rapport with the client and willingness to
engage his or her own deep feelings, process unresolved issues, and work through
a profound healing relationship and process with the client and other involved

359
Table 11.1. Examples of Spiritually Oriented Helping Activities.
Activities with Individuals, Families, and Groups
• Active imagination
• Art therapies and artistic qualities of practice
• Assessing spiritual emergencies
• Assessing spiritual propensity
• Assessing attitudes about sexual orientation diversity
• Biofeedback
• Brief explicit spiritual assessment (MIMBRA)
• Caring for the body, e.g. healthy lifestyles
• Complementary and alternative healing, such as acupuncture
• Cooperation with clergy, religious communities, and spiritual support groups
• Cooperation with traditional healers
• Creating a spiritual development timeline and narrative
• Detailed explicit spiritual assessment
• Developing and using transcultural teams
• Developing mutually beneficial human/nature relationships
• Developing or collaborating with rituals and ceremonies
• Dialoguing and cooperating across spiritual perspectives
• Differentiating between spiritual emergencies and psychopathology
• Dissolving inner chatter and distractions
• Distinguishing between religious visions and hallucinations or delusions
• Dream reflection
• DSM diagnosis, spiritually sensitive and culturally appropriate
• Ethical decision making about spirituality in practice
• Existential practice
• Exploring family patterns of meaning and ritual
• Exploring sacred stories, symbols, and teachings
• Family brainstorming
• Focused relaxation
• Forgiveness
• Guided visualization
• Identifying client’s defi nitions of spirituality and religion
• Implicit spiritual assessment
• Intentional breathing
• Intuition
• Journaling and diary keeping
• Measuring aspects of religiousness and spirituality
• Meditation
• Mindfulness
• Nature retreats
• Paying attention
• Physical disciplines for spiritual cultivation, such as hatha yoga or taiji
• Prayer
• Reading scripture and inspirational materials
• Reflecting on beliefs regarding death and afterlife
• Reflecting on helpful or harmful impacts of religious group participation
• Reflecting on ideals and symbols of compassion
• Reflective reading
• Refugee resettlement
• Religious tradition specific helping activities and resources (numerous, see Chapter 5)
• Spiritual development timeline and related assessment tools, such as spiritual genogram
• Transpersonal practice
• Win/win solution making
(continued)

360
A Worldwide View 361

Table 11.1. Continued.

Activities with Organizations, Communities, and World
• Advocacy for spiritual sensitivity in health and social service policy
• Almsgiving and donations
• Cooperation with clergy, religious communities, and spiritual support groups
• Cooperation with traditional healers
• Creating a spiritually sensitive administration and organizational culture
• Developing spiritual diversity innovation planning group
• Developing and using transcultural teams
• Developing mutually beneficial human/nature relationships
• Developing or participating in rituals and ceremonies
• Dialoguing across spiritual perspectives
• Exploring sacred stories, symbols, and teachings of spiritual communities
• International networking
• Lobbying and social activism by religious groups
• Promoting ecojustice and opposing environmental racism
• Reflecting on beliefs regarding death and after life
• Refugee resettlement
• Religious tradition specific helping activities and resources (numerous, see Chapter 5)
• Restorative justice
• Truth and reconciliation commissions
• Voluntary agency assistance to redress poverty and justice issues
• Win/win solution making

persons. Spiritually oriented helping activities should flow out of a spiritually

sensitive helping relationship and human service organizational context. This is
why we focused on developing a foundation of spiritually sensitive values, con-
cepts, knowledge, and context before going into detail on particular practices.

Linking Micro and Macro in Practice

In this book, there is greater emphasis on micro- and mesolevels of practice
(referred to as micro hereafter) rather than macro, because those are the sys-
tem levels in which most American social workers practice. However, micro and
macro really go together in spiritually sensitive practice. When social workers
expand their sense of identity and compassion to include others widely, the near
and the far are both close in mind.
In Table 11.1, we categorize helping activities according to their focus on
scale of human relational systems, including social work practice with individu-
als, families, and groups on the one hand and social work practice with organiza-
tions, communities, ecosystems, and international connections on the other hand.
As we said, “on the one hand . . . on the other hand.” We encourage the reader to
put together both hands in a gesture honoring the whole person/world. Effective
micropractice needs to take into account larger systems. The hallmark of social
work is its commitment to both individual well-being and social justice.
Many activities have relevance to both micro- and macrosystems, so they
are listed in both sections. Some activities focus on the individual and also set
362 spiritually sensitive social work

a foundation for well-being at all system levels. For example, starting with the
“hand” of micropractice, mindfulness focuses on the individual social worker
and/or client. However, mindfulness is a quality that can help the social worker
to approach any practice situation at any system level with clarity, centered-
ness, and compassion. Likewise, forgiveness can facilitate individual and rela-
tional healing both in clinical therapeutic settings and in restorative justice and
national or international reconciliation processes.
Starting with the other “hand” of macropractice, all helping activities that
promote justice and well-being for larger human systems and earth ecosystems
help to generate conditions of living that are conducive to the fulfi llment of indi-
viduals, families, and local communities. Indeed, as we described a holistic view
in Chapter 3, individual, community, and universe form a unity within pro-
foundly deep and wide spirituality.

Not just a private matter In our use of the term spirituality, it is not
merely a private or individual matter. Human beings are relational beings. We
live only because of our interrelatedness with other people and all other beings.
Certainly, there is a private dimension of spiritual experience, some of which a
person might never share openly with others. But even that could not exist with-
out others. Individual spirituality grows in the field of community: family and
friends; religious institutions or nonsectarian spiritual social groups; neighbor-
hoods and cities; cultures and nations; ecosystems of plants, animals, stones, air,
sunlight, moonlight, and clouds; the planet earth; the cosmos; and perhaps, as
many believe, communities of spiritual beings and the divine Ground of Being
Itself. Many religious traditions of service acknowledge and honor this related-
ness and it would be well for us to do so also.

Coresponsibility As we grow in our awareness of this interrelatedness,

we realize with gratitude our fundamental reliance on others. Our capacity for
empathy and our zeal for justice ripen. We experience that our own well-being
cannot be separated from the well-being of others. Our sense of compassion
extends from self and those familiar to us; out to others of different cultures,
religions, and ways of life; and out to other beings. A principle of coresponsi-
bility guides us. Spiritual responsibility is response-ability. As the saying goes,
together we rise, separate we fall.
On a practical level, spiritually sensitive helping requires a supportive context
of organizations and communities. So we need to attend to the way our human
service organizations (HSOs) are structured. We need to examine programs, pol-
icies, and procedures for the extent to which they humanize and support people’s
highest aspirations and transpersonal potential. We seek modes of social change
that nonviolently promote solutions for the benefit of all involved, including the
nonhuman beings with whom we share this planet.

Social policy and politics Social workers need to be very astute about
the use and abuse of spirituality in the political process (Canda & Chambers,
A Worldwide View 363

1994). Since social policies determine key social values and the distribution of
resources, we need to examine them for whether they empower people and sup-
port them on their individual and collective spiritual paths. The value and moral
dimensions of policy making are spiritual. They are best examined explicitly and
openly in the context of public dialogue and critical reflection, lest particular
religious or spiritual agendas dominate and harm people who are less influen-
tial in the policy-making process. Some politicians and activists openly appeal
to divine sanction, religious authorities, and politically charged religious groups
to bolster their positions and sway the public. Sometimes religious and nonreli-
gious spiritual ideologies are used to promote peace, justice, and reconciliation.
They also are used to foment divisiveness, terrorism, and war.
In order to avoid this danger, as well as to incorporate the positive insights
of careful spiritual reflection, we recommend that social workers assist people of
diverse and contrasting spiritual perspectives to become active in national and
international policy-making processes. We can work to create settings and processes
for policy debate based on win/win strategies and the value of mutual respect. We
view the ideal policy-making process as a societal and global movement toward
creating conditions that are conducive to all people’s spiritual development.

Solidarity and Spiritual Renewal Accomplishing large-scale social

change requires many people working together. So it is crucial that each person
in the effort is also working out her or his spiritual development. If a person feels
spiritually empty, one’s energy and motivation for justice, especially in the mode
of nonviolence, will be hard to sustain.
In 1979, I (EC) had a memorable conversation with two African American
activists, Dr. Vincent Harding, who was a theology professor at Iliff School of
Theology, and his wife Rosemarie (in memoriam), who was a social worker.
They were personal friends and associates of Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
I met them when I was a graduate student in religious studies at the University
of Denver, before I went into social work. Dr. Harding is now director of the
Veterans of Hope Project: A Center for the Study of Religion and Democratic
Renewal (http://veteransofhope.org/). The project mission is to share wisdom
and encouragement for compassionate and spiritually attuned personal and
social transformation that come from people who have been oppressed and mar-
ginalized. We highly recommend this website as a source of sayings and video
clips from wise and experienced social activists.
Vincent and Rosemarie told me of their heady times at the peak of the civil
rights movement. When the movement was going strong, there were tremendous
collective energy and mutual support. Charismatic leadership, group enthusi-
asm, and optimism carried them along. But after Rev. King and Malcolm X were
killed, the movement lost some steam and direction. Hopes and dreams began
to waiver. Some of the group momentum and energy seeped away. But the need
for justice and social change continued. They said that many, like them, went
through a period of discontent and emptiness. They needed new energy and
inspiration to help them keep on.
364 spiritually sensitive social work

They realized that they had over relied on outside forces and group momen-
tum to sustain them. They realized that they needed more inner spiritual strength
and vibrancy to sustain them over the long haul. So they took some time to
reconnect with their spirituality, to nurture it, and to gain new perspective. This
spiritual rejuvenation not only restored energy and direction for their contin-
uing local, national, and international peace and justice work for many decades,
it also deepened their grounding in compassion as a guide to their action.
They pointed out the wisdom of Black spirituals, the hymns of divine praise
and human liberation, so important in the African American community. These
hymns bond individuals into community and they sustain masses of people in
collective action for social transformation. They tap a power for perseverance by
joining spirituality and justice in a spirit of celebration.
The Hardings’ advice stayed with me so long, and I share it here, because it
is a valuable reminder for social workers to stay in touch with our inner spiritual
centers as we go out to do our work in the world.

Spirituality in Fields of Practice

Many times my (EC) MSW students have mentioned that it is difficult to broach
the subject of spirituality in their agency settings. They say that many of the
professional staff and their field instructors are not familiar with the topic, have
suspicions about it, and are stuck in long established routines of practice. I have
also found this to be true when I consult at agencies and social work educa-
tion programs about how to address spirituality in practice and education. Even
when there is some openness to the possibility, there are often feelings of being
habit bound or blocked by colleagues and administrators.
For example, a social worker in a psychiatric hospital setting said that the
social workers feel they are too busy to deal with spirituality (assuming that takes
too much time) and that the psychologists, psychiatrists, and physicians with
greater authority insist on using a reductionist medical pathology model. The
social worker says that the staff use an intake assessment form that only focuses
on DSM type diagnostic criteria. There is one vague question about whether the
client belongs to a religion, but most people do not bother to ask about that.
I found that an effective way to begin or expand innovation is to start with
the professional standards and resources that are accepted in a given setting.
Fortunately, in the United States, many social work fields of practice, as well
as the profession as a whole, do have standards and resources relevant to spiri-
tuality (see Appendix C). The problem is often that professionals are not aware
of them or simply do not bother complying. When an innovator points out the
standards and offers suggestions for how to meet the standards, then interest and
cooperation are more likely to grow.
In regard to the psychiatric hospital setting, as we discussed earlier, the Joint
Commission for accrediting healthcare organizations JCAHO sets requirements
A Worldwide View 365

that healthcare settings must address the spiritual needs of patients. Failure to
do so can result in penalties or loss of accreditation. Regarding the mental health
issues in this setting, the DSM itself requires that diagnosis take into account
religious, spiritual, and cultural factors. Failure to do so is a violation of diag-
nostic standards and can result in erroneous and injurious mental health inter-
ventions, such as the mistaken diagnosis and prolonged hospitalization of the
Tarahumara Mexican woman mentioned in Chapter 1. In addition, for social
workers, lack of respect for religious diversity and spirituality is a violation of the
NASW Code of Ethics and the NASW standards for culturally competent prac-
tice. Social workers who violate the Code of Ethics and/or state licensing regula-
tions can be publically sanctioned or have their licenses to practice suspended or
removed. Further, the mental health consumers advocacy movement continues
to grow, emphasizing strengths and recovery approaches that recognize spiri-
tuality as significant (Ridgway, McDiarmid, Davidson, Bayes, & Ratzlaff, 2002;
Starnino, 2009). This movement is increasingly calling for mental health service
providers to address spirituality.
As a negative motivator, when professionals realize that failure to address
religion and spirituality (or to do so in a negative discriminatory manner) can
open them to professional and legal sanctions, they may be more willing to invest
resources in innovation. I have seen several occasions when agencies were sued by
clients or consumer rights organizations for lack of proper attention to spiritual
and cultural diversity. When embarrassing stories appear in the press and when
legal pressures are applied, suddenly the supposedly unavailable resources for
innovation come forth to address the situation. When I do consultation for HSOs,
I recommend that it is best not to wait for negative consequences of spiritually
insensitive or culturally incompetent practice. A proactive approach addresses
spiritual diversity within the context of professional standards and expectations
in the nest interests of clients and their communities. When social workers act
on the basis of positive motivators (such as striving for professional excellence,
spiritual sensitivity, cultural competence, cultural appropriateness, and justice),
enthusiasm moves staff and the HSO forward to pursue spiritual diversity inno-
vation and transcultural teamwork, as we presented in Chapters 8 and 9.
But for innovation to succeed, staffs need more than negative or positive
motivators. Innovation is much easier when innovators have access to resources
about spiritual diversity in their field of practice, so they can build on profes-
sional values, empirical evidence, and practical experience. In order to assist
individuals and HSOs to engage in spiritual diversity innovation, we include
Appendix C. Appendix C presents a concise list of documents citing profes-
sional standards addressing religion and spirituality, selected books, articles, or
specialized journals that give comprehensive reviews of the field and relevant
organizational websites. We are not endorsing everything listed. But we hope
the appendix will give readers a helpful place to start their explorations of these
fields of practice. The reader should also consult the index for these and other
fields of practice.
366 spiritually sensitive social work

Actually there are thousands of publications and relevant websites available.

Appendix C and our references list serve as entry points. We recommend that you
begin with these materials, consult them for more resources and internet links, and
then expand your search from there. Keep in mind that website addresses change
and internet links break on websites. So examine the resources for terms to use in
internet search engines. Also, we recommend using websites with reputable aca-
demic sponsorships or official websites of religions, HSOs, and professional socie-
ties. Many internet sites put up erroneous information or have biased agendas.

Managed Care Issues Much social work practice takes place in the context
of managed care systems, restrictive insurance policies, and government-based
standards of utilization review. This creates pressures toward short-term, tech-
nocratic ways of service. To the extent that these pressures are inimical to spir-
itually sensitive practice, social workers can be active in movements for health
care reform, mental health policy reform, and advocacy with insurers and other
third party reimbursers. Actually, some third party payers are supporting holis-
tic and complementary approaches to health care, such as acupuncture and stress
management programs. Accreditation standards in many managed care settings,
such as health care, include spiritual needs. We can work creatively with these
trends to find ways to incorporate spiritually oriented helping activities.
Even when managed care requires short-term modalities of service, that does
not preclude spiritually sensitive helping. For example, brief solution focused ther-
apies are very consistent with both a strengths perspective and spiritual growth
issues (Hoyt, 1996). There are many therapeutic activities derived from human-
istic and transpersonal theories that are conductive to rapid breakthroughs in
spiritual awareness, such as holotropic breathwork (Grof, 1988). Many helping
activities in this book can be taught to clients to be done as self-directed “home-
work” outside of paid sessions (e.g. focused relaxation and journaling). Many
religiously affi liated HSOs include volunteers, pro bono professionals, and phil-
anthropic donations to make services affordable for those who do not have abil-
ity to pay. Careful discharge planning with clients in short-term settings, such
as hospitals, can include ongoing spiritual practices and referral to community-
based spiritual support systems, if clients wish.
Managed care pressures can be an incentive to find ways for clients to work
on solutions and growth in their home and daily life settings, free from the often
stultifying confines of hospitals, mental health centers, and social work agencies.
For instance, a medical social worker could assist a person with a chronic physi-
cal illness to access home-based health care and to draw on the loving, beautiful,
and supportive qualities of family, friends, spiritual support groups, the natural
environment, and activities such as meditation, prayer, or ritual.
Finally, spiritual sensitivity can pervade all situations and modalities of
practice. Clients can be treated with humanity, compassion, and concern for jus-
tice in managed care or any other setting. This depends on the quality of the
helping relationship more than on any particular technique.
A Worldwide View 367

A Worldwide View of Spiritually Sensitive Practice

We advocate for a worldwide view of spirituality in social work that embraces

micro- and macro-approaches to practice as well as local and global issues.
Part 1 presented a foundation of values and concepts for spiritually sensitive
practice that took into account a variety of national and international viewpoints
on professional ethics and meanings of spirituality. Parts II and III, up to this
point, developed a detailed framework of values, knowledge, and practices, pri-
marily within an American (and to some extent Canadian) context, but always
with a mind toward the world. Indeed, the discussion of spiritual diversity in
the United States showed how this country became a microcosm of the world
through the interactions of Indigenous and immigrant spiritual perspectives.
The experience of the American social work profession in dealing with cultural
and spiritual diversity, and its successes and failures, might serve as an example
to critique for social workers in other countries to develop culture and coun-
try specific approaches to social work, including dealing with spiritual diversity
within the given country.
To be sure, many of the issues and examples of practice we presented are
rooted in a distinctively American context—as is necessary for our primary
reading audience. However, we hope that our overall approach to spiritually
sensitive practice, including its underlying principles and many particulars that
draw on spiritually and culturally diverse inspirations, may be of use for inter-
national dialogue and collaboration. As we said in Part I, we encourage social
workers around the world to adapt what is of use and to discard what is not.
We also encourage North American social workers to do the same—and one of
the best ways to begin is by expanding point of view to global reach. Indeed, we
believe that this is one of the most exciting features of this fi ft h phase of pro-
fessional development on spirituality in social work, Transcending Boundaries
(Chapter 4).

Growing International Perspective in Social Work

Changing social conditions and service populations due to globalization have
had a profound impact on professional standards and social work education dur-
ing this fift h phase (Butcher, 2004; Hayes & Humphries, 2004; Morris-Compton,
2006; Gray & Fook, 2004; Moss, 2005; Sewpaul & Jones, 2004; Williams &
Sewpaul, 2004). Hokenstad and Midgley (2004) noted that “global interdepen-
dence is a reality of the 21st century. Economic and social interdependence
are now equally important to political interdependence” (p. 1). While calls for
stronger Indigenous and local approaches to social work grow (Gray, Coates, &
Yellow Bird, 2008), many personal and social problems in any given country
are becoming increasingly interconnected and generic, as the issues presented in
Link and Healy’s (2005) survey of curriculum resources for international social
work demonstrate.
368 spiritually sensitive social work

The U.S. Council on Social Work Education’s (CSWE, 2008) Educational

Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS) expects programs to include a global
perspective and prepare students to develop global awareness of oppression and
human rights and to comply with IFSW/IASSW ethical standards. The predatory
nature of global capitalism and its detrimental impact on humans and the envi-
ronment, the spread of infectious diseases, the drug trade, international terror-
ism and reactive racial profiling and wars, and the increasing number of refugees
due to poverty and ethnic and religious conflicts have placed demands on educa-
tors to prepare students who can effectively address discriminatory and oppres-
sive social, economic, and health practices (Hokenstad & Midgley, 2004; Link
& Healy, 2005). In recognition of the increasingly international scope of social
work, the CSWE established the Katherine A. Kendall Institute for International
Social Work Education (NASW, 2005) to guide and motivate future research-
ers, practitioners, and educators in the field. This trend has also generated more
collaborations between U.S.-based professional organizations and international
organizations such as IASSW and IFSW.
There has been a growing collection of research on international social work.
Representative publications include Midgley (1995), Healy (1995), and Hokenstad
and Kendall (1995), who have identified the state of international social welfare
research, activities, organizations, and social work education in the mid-1990s.
Alcock and Craig (2001) compiled a volume of comparative studies on welfare
provision and social policy in 12 developed nations. Hokenstad and Midgley
(2004) have also assembled a similar volume designed to impart innovations in
practice and social welfare policy from other countries to a U.S. audience. Link
and Healy (2005) compiled an indispensable collection of sample courses and
syllabi for educators that focus on international social work.
As global phenomena challenge the profession to define its worldwide
role, Midgley’s (1995) observation that the social work knowledge base can
be enhanced by investigating social phenomena in other societies, by testing
propositions in different cultural contexts, and by cross-national application of
social science findings is especially relevant to spiritually sensitive social work
in this fift h phase. Hokenstad and Midgley (2004) noted that “it is today gener-
ally accepted that mutuality and the reciprocal sharing of knowledge and prac-
tice approaches should characterize international exchanges in social work. Th is
implies that social workers in all parts of the world can learn from each other”
(p. ix).
Tripodi and Potocky-Tripodi (2007) identified a typology of approaches
to international social work research and examples of each approach. National
research addresses problems and issues within national boundaries, and does not
frame the research question, make reference to, or discuss implications for other
countries. Supranational research studies a population within one country but
frames the research question and discusses implications beyond the country in
question. Intranational research focuses on immigrant or refugee populations
within one country, but incorporates literature from, and discusses implications
A Worldwide View 369

for, the country of origin. Transnational research studies populations within two
or more countries, utilizes literature from the countries in question, and dis-
cusses implications for the countries involved.

Transnational Studies of Spirituality in Social Work

Most English language publications on spirituality in social work so far have
been of the first kind; lesser numbers have been of the second and third kinds;
and very little transnational study of spirituality in social work has yet been
done. Graham (2006) encourages social work scholars who write about spiritu-
ality to move beyond North American vantage point and to address it from the
perspective of the Global South, or “Asia, Africa, Central and South America,
and elsewhere” (p. 63). Indeed, a 2007 content analysis of items dealing with reli-
gion in Social Work Abstracts and Social Service Abstracts confirmed that the
vast majority of publications were by global North authors and dealt mostly with
Judaism and Christianity (Graham & Shier, 2009). Furman and Benson (2006)
advocate for the development of globally sensitive curricula and practice inter-
ventions, and for more large-scale national and transnational quantitative and
qualitative studies that examine the role of religion and spirituality in practice
and education. As a step in this direction, our approach to spiritually sensitive
practice incorporates materials from all four kinds of studies. We encourage
much more work of all four kinds and emphasize the importance of increasing
the third and fourth kinds that are most neglected.
An outstanding example of the fourth kind, transnational research, is
Al-Krenawi and Graham’s (2009) in-depth study of social work practice with
Bedouin-Arab people of the Negev, Israel. This study weaves together detailed
culture-specific understanding and practices that honor Bedouin Arab and
Islamic traditions, together with theoretical and practical guidance for cultur-
ally appropriate social work from various countries, and yields implications for
social work more widely. Another outstanding example is the development of an
Integrative Body-Mind-Spirit approach to social work with global relevance that
draws on insights from Chinese traditional medicine and philosophy, an inter-
disciplinary body of theory and knowledge from East and West, case examples,
and empirical studies of effectiveness (Lee, et al., 2009).
Our 2008 National Survey is part of a larger transnational study, that so
far included collaborative ventures between researchers in the United States,
Norway, Aotorea New Zealand (ANZ), and the United Kingdom (Canda,
Nakashima, & Furman, 2004; Furman, Benson, & Canda, 2004a; Furman,
Benson, Canda, & Grimwood, 2005; Furman, Benson, Grimwood, & Canda,
2004b; Furman, Zahl, Benson & Canda, 2007; Stirling, Furman, Benson,
Canda, & Grimwood, 2009; Zahl & Furman, 2005; Zahl, Furman, Benson, &
Canda, 2007). These studies have provided a platform for interdisciplinary
conversation, new theoretical understandings, and multiple perspectives on
religion and spirituality. See the website, International Study of Religion and
370 spiritually sensitive social work

Spirituality in Social Work Practice (http://spiritualityreligionsurvey.com/

default.aspx) for executive summaries. We would like to share some insights
from social workers across these four countries.

Raising the Topic of Religion and Spirituality.

This issue was explored in-depth via 22 questions that dealt with raising the
topic of religion or spirituality with clients dealing with specific practice issues.
These issues included terminal illness, substance abuse, foster parenting, sexual
abuse, partner violence, natural disaster, bereavement, mental illness, unemploy-
ment, difficult family relations, and criminal justice (e.g. see Table 11.2 for the
U.S. responses).
Th ree scales examined the relationships between religion, spirituality,
and client issues. The Religion Practice Issues Scale (RPIS) was constructed
for the U.K. (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.96), Norway (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.95), and
the ANZ, U.S. 1997, and U.S. 2008 studies (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.97, respec-
tively) by summing the 11 items on religion. The Spirituality Practice Issues
Scale (SPIS) was constructed for the U.K., Norway, ANZ, U.S. 2008 (Cronbach’s
alpha = 0.97, respectively), and the U.S. 1997 (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.96) studies
by summing the 11 items on spirituality. The range for the RPIS and SPIS is
11–55. Finally, a third scale, the Religion and Spirituality Practice Issues Scale
(RSPIS), summed the 22 religion and spirituality items for the U.K., Norway,
ANZ, U.S. 1997 (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.97, respectively) and the U.S. 2008
(Cronbach’s alpha = 0.98) surveys. Given the strong coefficient alphas, the scale
demonstrates good validity and reliability, even across cultural contexts and in
translation (English/Norwegian).
In summary, U.S. social workers in 1997 and 2008 felt somewhat comfort-
able about raising the topics of religion and spirituality when dealing with sev-
eral practice issues. In comparison, the U.K. and ANZ social worker respondents
were significantly (p < 0.01) more cautious, and Norwegians even more signifi-
cantly (p < 0.001) skeptical. This might be influenced by the degree of seculariza-
tion of social work and society across the countries, with the United States being
least secularized and Norway the most secularized. Further, Norwegian social
workers have been dealing with the topic only since 1999 or later. Although ANZ
is quite secularized, national legislation and social work standards give special
recognition and importance to Indigenous Maori worldview, which is highly spir-
itual, though distinct from the colonially imported Christian denominations.

Helping Activities The respondents were presented with a list of 17 help-

ing activities and asked to indicate which they had personally used with clients or
approved of the activities. For example, praying privately for a client, using reli-
gious language or concepts, using nonsectarian spiritual language or concepts,
helping clients develop religious/spiritual rituals, and encouraging the client to
do regular religious/spiritual self-reflective diary keeping or journal keeping (e.g.
see Table 11.1 for U.S. responses).
A Worldwide View 371

Less than 2% of the U.S. respondents in 1997 and 2008 who responded to
these 17 questions had not used any interventions, compared with 3% in ANZ,
8% in the United Kingdom, and 10% in Norway. This shows a relatively high
level of use of at least some spiritually oriented practices, even though there are
cautions in every country. Overall, respondents in New Zealand, the United
Kingdom, and Norway were significantly less likely (p < 0.001) to approve of
the helping activities as interventions compared with the 1997 and 2008 U.S.
national surveys. The higher rates of actual use in the United States and ANZ
may reflect the high level of spiritual interest in the United States (including
high level of religiousness) and the high level of recognition of Maori spirituality
in ANZ.

Significance of Spirituality The national surveys each explored

whether or not respondents agreed that spirituality is a fundamental aspect of
being human. More than 75% of respondents in each country agreed or strongly
agreed that it is (see Table 11.2). Further, more than half of all respondents across
countries agreed or strongly agreed that social workers should become more
knowledgeable about spiritual matters. This indicates that despite misgivings,
especially in the more secular countries, many social workers now recognize the
importance of spirituality and education about it.

Values and Ethical Issues The survey instruments included items

regarding ethical concerns related to the topic of religion and spirituality (see
Table 11.2). Among those who responded, a majority of ANZ (60.5%, n = 98),
U.S. 1997 (74.7%, n = 1529), and U.S. 2008 (66.7%, n = 1176) respondents
indicated that integrating religion and spirituality in social work practice
did not conflict with social work’s mission, compared with Norway (43.3%,
n = 257) and the United Kingdom (47.7%, n = 369). Many respondents in
ANZ (24.1%, n = 39), Norway (31.9%, n = 189), the U.K. (32%, n = 248),
and the U.S. surveys (1997: 16.5%, n = 337; 2008: 20.1%, n = 355) remained
neutral on this issue.
Nearly 64% (n = 1120) of U.S. 2008 respondents indicated that integrating
religion and spirituality in social work practice is compatible with the code of
ethics, compared with New Zealand (39.5%, n = 64), Norway (39.8%, n = 235),
the U.K. (46.8%, n = 358), and the U.S. 1997 study (68%, n = 1397). Again, a
large minority in New Zealand (31.5%, n=51), Norway (36.2%, n = 214), the U.K.
(37.6%, n = 288), and the U.S. studies (1997: 22.2%, n = 449; 2008: 23.6%, n =
415) remained neutral on this topic. Greater acceptance in the United States
on this topic may be due to changes since the 1990s in standards for education
and practice that include recognition of religious diversity and spirituality (see
Appendix C).
It is curious that most respondents in every country recognize the signifi-
cance of spirituality as a fundamental aspect of being human and the need for
education, yet many outside the United States are skeptical of dealing with this
on the basis of professional ethics and mission. This may be related to a general
Table 11.2 Values, Ethics, and Educational Issues in the Transnational Surveys.a
U.S. 2008 ANZ 2006 Norway 2002 U.K. 2000 U.S. 1997
(N=1804) (N=162) (N=601) (N=789) (N=2069)

Variable (%) (n) (%) (n) (%) (n) (%) (n) (%) (n)

Spirituality is a fundamental aspect of being human

Strongly Disagree 1.6 28 0.6 1 0.7 4 2.3 18 1.0 20
Disagree 2.9 51 1.9 3 1.7 10 4.5 35 2.1 43
Neutral 14.6 258 11.7 19 18.2 108 16.7 131 9.1 186
Agree 43.9 776 34.6 56 55.6 330 41.9 328 40.4 830
Strongly Agree 37.1 656 51.2 83 23.9 142 34.6 271 47.5 976
Integrating religion and spirituality in social work practice
conflicts with social work’s mission
Strongly Disagree 18.5 326 9.9 16 7.4 44 10.2 79 20.3 415
Disagree 48.2 850 50.6 82 35.9 213 37.5 290 54.4 1114
Neutral 20.1 355 24.1 39 31.9 189 32.0 248 16.5 337
Agree 9.3 164 12.3 20 19.1 113 13.7 106 6.4 130
Strongly Agree 3.9 68 3.1 5 5.7 34 6.6 51 2.4 50
Integrating religion and spirituality in social work practice
conflicts with the code of ethics
Strongly Disagree 16.5 290 8.6 14 6.1 36 8.0 61 17.1 346
Disagree 47.3 830 30.9 50 33.7 199 38.8 297 47.3 1051
Neutral 23.6 415 31.5 51 36.2 214 37.6 288 23.6 415
Agree 9.3 164 24.1 39 19.5 115 10.1 77 9.3 164
Strongly Agree 3.2 56 4.9 8 4.6 27 5.6 43 3.2 56
In your social work education, have you received content on
religious or spiritual issues?
No 64.7 1128 46.5 74 55.6 324 76.5 599 73.3 1516
Yes 35.3 616 53.5 85 44.4 259 23.5 184 26.7 553
Social workers should become more knowledgeable than they
are now about spiritual matters
Strongly Disagree 2.2 39 0.6 1 2.3 14 3.6 28 1.7 34
Disagree 6.5 114 8.6 14 3.7 22 9.8 77 5.9 120
Neutral 25.2 445 27.8 45 22.0 132 29.3 229 23.6 483
Agree 41.9 739 37.0 60 54.8 328 37.1 290 39.1 801
Strongly Agree 24.2 428 25.9 42 17.2 103 20.2 158 29.7 608
Social workers, in general, do not possess the skill to assist
clients in religious or spiritual matters
Strongly Disagree 8.2 145 1.9 3 2.7 16 2.6 20 3.1 64
Disagree 40.2 710 22.8 37 24.9 149 16.5 128 23.5 479
Neutral 26.7 471 25.3 41 30.4 182 23.0 178 36.0 735
Agree 21.3 376 40.7 66 37.0 221 45.1 349 32.3 658
Strongly Agree 3.5 62 9.3 15 5.0 30 12.8 99 5.1 104
a
Missing values have been excluded from the results.
374 spiritually sensitive social work

trend of responses in the surveys that showed greater caution whenever the
term “religion” was included compared to items about “spirituality.” Th is sug-
gests that increased international dialogue about a concept of spirituality that
includes diverse religious and nonreligious expressions, and an approach to spir-
itually sensitive practice grounded in professional ethics and mission, may be
very useful.

Education and Curriculum Issues

Among those who responded, a larger percentage of social workers in ANZ
(53.5%, n = 85) and Norway (44.4%, n = 259) had received content on religion
and spirituality in their social work education, compared with the U.K. (23.5%,
n = 184) and the U.S. studies (1997: 26.7%, n = 553; 2008: 35.3%, n = 616) (see
Table 11.2). Nearly 25% (n = 438) of U.S. 2008 respondents agreed that social
workers in general do not possess the knowledge to address religious and spiri-
tual issues, compared with ANZ (50%, n = 81), Norway (42%, n = 251), the U.K.
(57.9%, n = 448), and U.S. 1997 (37.4%, n = 762). This is very interesting, because
it shows that social workers in countries with higher levels of secularization and
social work skepticism about religion may actually be receiving more content
about religion and spirituality in their education than in the United States. It is
possible that this content is provided within the context of antioppressive and
antiracist education, which is stronger in these other countries compared to the
United States. This puzzling finding merits further discussion among social work
scholars and practitioners in these countries, in order to discover how religion
and spirituality are addressed within the more secular nations. Perhaps we can
learn from each other more about how to approach the topic even with skeptical
social workers.

Secularization We speculated that patterns of secularization might account

for some of these international differences. Secularization refers to a historical
process in which a society increases differentiation and autonomy between reli-
gious authority and governmental and public life and also emphasizes a ratio-
nal, utilitarian, and scientific/empirical outlook on life (Roberts, 2004). Since
the European Rational Enlightenment, some social theorists have predicted that
religion would fade under the impact of secular trends within science, industri-
alism and postindustrialism, capitalism, and socialism, but this prediction has
not materialized (Berger, 1999; Repstad, 1996).
There are many complicated variations on secularization. For example, the
United States constitutionally separates church and state and the social work
profession disavows specific religious bases for its values, knowledge, and prac-
tice. However, in the general population, religious participation is the highest
rate among industrialized countries, civil religion is pervasive, and many social
services are provided under religious auspices. Further, counter-seculariza-
tion trends, such as religiously conservative political movements, are strong.
A Worldwide View 375

In comparison, in the United Kingdom and Norway, there are state churches
(Anglican and Lutheran) although religious participation in the population is
much lower than the United States and the social work profession is highly sec-
ularized. In ANZ, the society and social work profession are highly secularized,
but there is official state and professional recognition and support for Indigenous
Maori worldview and spirituality. United Kingdom, Norway, and other northern
and western European countries are experiencing rapid increases in religious
and cultural diversification, especially due to immigration from Africa, Asia,
and the Middle East. Many of these immigrant groups are more actively and
pervasively religious than the general populations (Hayes & Humphries, 2004;
Modood, 2005). This is giving rise to more attention to spiritual diversity as an
aspect of cultural diversity in these countries.
Regarding Norway, Zahl (2003) and Zahl and Furman (2005) have observed
that religion and spirituality are still not areas of emphasis in social work practice
and education. Norwegian professional social work never had a strong religious
orientation. Norway’s occupation by the Nazis during World War II also halted
and negatively impacted the profession’s development. Furthermore, during the
1960s and 1970s, schools of social work were strongly influenced by Marxist ide-
ology. Religion and spirituality, however, are beginning to be considered due to
the most recent governmental General Plan for health and social work education
(1999:14). The General Plan mandates that the helping professions are to work in
accordance with a holistic view of clients, which embraces the physical, psycho-
logical, social, cultural, and spiritual aspects of human existence.
Professional social work trends in the United States, United Kingdom,
Norway, and ANZ are moving toward standards for holistic perspectives on
human well-being and justice, which international organizations such as NASW,
CSWE, IFSW, IASSW, the United Nations (1948), World Health Organization
(2006), and the European Union (2006) may reinforce. This is consistent with
our holistic model of spirituality for social work that points out spirituality is
a universal aspect of human experience not limited to religious forms and that
religious and nonreligious forms are due respect within holistic and culturally
appropriate practice. Indeed, whatever the ways of secularization and counter-
secularization in various countries, there will always be a need for spiritually
sensitive social work practice (as long as social work exists).

Conclusion

In this book, we have offered a framework of values, concepts, knowledge, and

activities that are conducive to spiritually sensitive social work practice. Our
framework springs out of our profession’s mission to promote a holistic perspective
and the well-being of individuals, families, communities, and world. But by reen-
visiong our profession’s conception of the whole person-in-environment, we hope
we have extended the range of that vision to bio-psycho-social-spiritual-ecological.
376 spiritually sensitive social work

We stretched the conventional mindset toward transperspectival, transdisciplin-

ary, transcultural, transnational, and transpersonal awareness. We hope that this
book encourages you, the readers, to continue your inner work on spiritual devel-
opment to inspire your service on behalf of others. We also hope this book helps
you to extend the range of your service vision to take in people of all religions,
spiritual paths, cultures, and ways of life, and further, to regard with compassion
and gratitude all beings and the total planet and cosmos in which we live.
By way of concluding, we would like to convey our appreciation to you for
reading this book. We designed the book so that reading it would usher you
through your own transformation process, your own journey of spiritual devel-
opment. We appreciate your willingness to participate in this.
As we know from the nature of therapeutic transformation, the end is the
beginning. So we leave you with a parting wish.
***
May any benefit you received
from reading this book
ripple throughout your life
like a pebble dropped into a pond.
And may the ripples of benefit extend
to all those whom you serve
to all people whom you meet
and to all beings
with whom you share this life.
***

EXERCISES

.. Linking Micro- and Macrodimensions of Spiritually

Sensitive Practice
Review the list of spiritually oriented helping activities in Table 11.1 and the dis-
cussion of interconnections between micro- and macropractice. Reflect on your
social work activity at micro- and/or macrolevels. Does your work emphasize
one over the other or even exclude one side? Identify one helping activity that is
currently part of your work and think of a way to connect it to the other side. For
example, if you use mindfulness practice in clinical work, how could you bring
this also into administrative or community action work? Or, if you are involved
in restorative justice work, how could the principles and practice of individual
forgiveness enhance the restorative justice process? Establish a plan for imple-
menting your innovation.
A Worldwide View 377

.. Enhancing Spiritual Sensitivity in a Field of Practice

Review the nine fields of social work practice listed in Appendix C. Choose one
that is closest to your own. If you are a U.S.-based reader, explore the relevant
professional standards and select some readings or websites to explore. Consider
how well your practice and HSO currently fulfi ll the professional standards. If
these standards are not yet known in your practice setting, bring them to the
attention of your colleagues and supervisors. Initiate a discussion of how prac-
tice in your setting can better fulfi ll the professional standards and make use of
the resources you have identified.
If you are not a U.S.-based reader, then consider whether the U.S.-based
standards are relevant to your field of practice in your country. Also, explore
whether there are field of practice-specific professional standards in your coun-
try and whether they address religion or spirituality. Also consider whether the
IFSW/IASSW standards have relevance. Critique any relevant standards (or lack
thereof) regarding the fit with your local context. Bring your ideas to colleagues
in your practice setting to initiate a discussion of how spirituality might be
addressed more thoroughly.

.. Expanding Your View Worldwide

Review the section on a worldwide view of spiritually sensitive practice. Explore
the internationally related websites and professional standards in the first part of
Appendix C, especially the IFSW/IASSW standards. Also, do an online search
for social work Codes of Ethics in at least two countries. Compare them for sim-
ilarities and differences. Consider implications for your own social work.

.. Making International Connections

If you would like to take this to the next step of engaging international dialogue,
visit the Directory of International Contacts in the Spiritual Diversity and Social
Work Resource Center (http://www.socwel.ku.edu/candagrant/HFC4.htm) as
well as websites listed in the first part of Appendix C pertaining to a country
different from your own. Or, identify the author of an article or book listed in
References who lives in another country and locate her or his professional email
address by internet search. In one of these ways, identify someone or an organi-
zation in another country and send an email message with a question of interest.
Most likely, you will receive a friendly and encouraging response. Th is is impor-
tant for extending and growing international networks and collaborations on
spiritual diversity in social work.
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 APPENDIX A

Discussion Guide for Detailed

Spiritual Assessment

Note: Begin with an implicit spiritual assessment or brief explicit spiritual

assessment to identify if a detailed explicit assessment is relevant to the client.
Make sure that a spiritually sensitive relationship is established. Select and mod-
ify these suggested questions as relevant to the client and the helping situation.
Avoid professional jargon. The introductory explanation and subsequent ques-
tions should be modified according to the client’s responses to the implicit or
brief explicit assessments.

Introduction

I am interested to learn about your experiences about spirituality and religion

as they may be relevant to our work together. For the purpose of our discussion,
I am defining spirituality as the way you experience life meaning, morally ful-
fi lling relationships, and priorities for what has greatest significance to you. This
may or may not involve belief in God or a supernatural aspect of the world. I am
defining religion as a set of beliefs, values, and practices that is shared by a com-
munity and focused on spirituality. Therefore, a person’s spirituality may or may
not be expressed through a religion. I would be glad to replace these terms and

Refer to guidelines for spiritually sensitive assessment in Chapter 8. Th is guide is

adapted from Appendix A of this book’s first edition and draws on insights from Table
74.1 of Nelson-Becker, Nakashima, & Canda (2006, pp. 801–802).

379
380 appendix a

definitions with any that make more sense to you. Please feel free to answer or
not answer my questions in any way that is comfortable to you. I am interested
in hearing your story in your own words.

Spiritual Group Membership and Participation

• Do you belong to or participate in any spiritual or religious groups?

If so, please name them.
• If you have more than one spiritual affi liation, what is your primary
affi liation?
• Would you describe yourself as religious or nonreligious? Please
explain.
• How important is religion or spirituality to you?
• Would you be interested in exploring how your spirituality or reli-
gion might be related to our work together? Please explain.
• If you do not participate in any spiritual or religious groups, do you
have other ways of expressing spiritual needs or interests? Please
explain.

Spiritual Beliefs

• What religious or spiritual beliefs are relevant to our work together?

• What beliefs give you a sense of comfort or hope?
• What beliefs do you question or find upsetting?
• Do you believe in God, a spiritual Higher Power, or some other
sacred force? Please describe.
• What are the most significant stories, teachings, or symbols that give
you guidance? Please describe them.

Spiritual Activities

• How often do you attend a place for religious or spiritual practice,

such as a church, temple, mosque, or a ceremonial site in nature?
Please describe.
• What kinds of spiritual or religious activities do you perform together
with a spiritual group? These might include prayer, meditation, rit-
ual, ceremony, reading sacred texts, telling and listening to inspira-
tional stories or speeches, participating in social support groups, etc.
Please describe them and indicate how often you do them.
• In what ways do you find these activities helpful?
• In what ways do you find them unhelpful?
Appendix A 381

• What kinds of spiritual or religious activities do you perform together

with your family at home? Please describe them and indicate how
often you do them.
• In what ways do you find these activities helpful or unhelpful?
• What kinds of spiritual or religious activities do you perform by
yourself privately? Please describe them and indicate how often you
do them.
• In what ways do you find these activities helpful or unhelpful?

Spiritual Experiences and Feelings

• When have you had feelings of great peace, joy, contentment, and
being loved? Please give examples.
• What have been the most profound and moving experiences that gave
you a sense of peace, wisdom, insight, or grace? Please describe them.
• What kind of feelings do you usually have when you participate in
religious or spiritual activities, if any? Please give examples of posi-
tive and negative feelings.
• When you have felt times of loss, grief, or crisis, how did your reli-
gion or spirituality help or hinder you in dealing with that?
• Do you experience a sense of connection with spiritual forces, such
as God, angels, saints, ancestors, nature, or deceased loved ones?
Please explain.
• Are your dreams ever significant or insightful for you? If so, please
give an example.
• Have you ever had surprising, troubling, or confusing spiritual expe-
riences and feelings? If so, please explain.

Moral and Value Issues

• What are the main moral principles and values that guide your life?
• Where do these principles and values come from?
• Are there any moral or value issues or questions that are especially
relevant to your current situation?

Spiritual Development

• Please describe your understanding and practice of religion or spiri-

tuality when you were a child. How did you learn these?
• Please describe your current understanding of religion or spirituality.
382 appendix a

• How is this similar or different from childhood?

• Describe your spiritual developmental path from childhood to now.
• What is your ideal for spiritual development in the future and how
would you like to achieve it?
• Who have been your most important spiritual friends and mentors?
Please describe them.
• When you have been at a time of crisis previously, what spiritual or
religious supports helped you most? Please describe them. Would
these supports be helpful to you now?
• When you have been at a time of great satisfaction and joy, what spir-
itual or religious supports contributed most? Please describe them.
Would these supports be helpful to you now?
• Describe any times of spiritual breakthrough or pivotal life events
that are relevant to you now.

Spiritual Sources of Support

• On the basis of the previous discussion, what spiritual sources of

support would be useful for you now? These might relate to your
inner strengths, spiritual practices, family, religious or spiritual
communities, nature, or the sacred realm, however you understand
that.
• When you have religious or spiritual concerns, whom do you talk to
or whom would you talk to if you could?
• What religious or spiritual sources give you a sense of protection,
comfort, and reassurance?
• Have spiritual or religious groups provided you with material things
like food or shelter when you were sick or in difficult times? Please
explain.
• Have spiritual or religious teachings or communities hindered you?
Please explain.

Spiritual Sources of Transformation

• What spiritual or religious sources help you to grow, change, and

thrive?
• What spiritual or religious sources help you to break through at
times when you feel stuck in life?
• What helps you to forgive and to experience forgiveness?
• What helps you to work through feelings of loss, grief, anger, despair,
or crisis into recovery, joy, hope, and new life?
Appendix A 383

Spiritual Well-being

• How clear is your sense of meaning and purpose in life? Please

explain how your spirituality or religion relates to this.
• How often do you feel like life is joyful and worthwhile? Please
explain how your spirituality or religion relates to this.
• How strongly do you feel a connection with something inspiring
that is greater than yourself, like God, nature, or sacredness? Please
explain.

Extrinsic/Intrinsic Styles of Spiritual Propensity

• How often do you agree with the teachings and values of your spiri-
tual or religious groups? Please explain and give examples.
• If you ever disagree or are uncomfortable with any aspect of your
spiritual or religious groups, how often do you address the issue or
tell people? Please explain and give examples.
• How much are your spiritual or religious principles and practices
integrated into your daily life? Please explain and give examples.
• In what ways, if any, do your family and work activities relate to your
spiritual development?
• When you meet someone from a different religious or spiritual per-
spective from your own, do you feel that you should persuade that
person to change to your perspective? Please explain.
• In our work together, are you interested in exploring ways to enhance
your religious or spiritual activities or to find new ones that might
help you deal with your situation?
This page intentionally left blank
 APPENDIX B

Methodological Summary for the

2008 National Survey of NASW
Members (U.S.A.) on Spirituality and
Religion in Practice

This national study explored the attitudes of NASW members in direct prac-
tice regarding their ideas about professional use of religion and spirituality.
The questionnaire defined religion as “an organized, structured set of beliefs
and practices shared by a community, related to spirituality” and spirituality as
“involving the search for meaning, purpose, and morally fulfi lling relations with
self, other people, the encompassing universe and ultimate reality, however a
person understands it.” According to these definitions, spirituality also can be
expressed through religious forms but is not limited to them.
The study followed the sampling methods used in the 1997 National Survey
of NASW members (For more details, see Canda & Furman, 1999). A stratified-
random sample of 8000 practicing social workers was selected from NASW mem-
bership lists (N = 78,879). This survey population was limited to social workers
in the following areas of professional practice: child/family welfare, criminal jus-
tice, medical/health care, mental health, occupational, social work-eap, school
social work, and other. The survey population was stratified by states into four
U.S. Census Bureau Regional Divisions (Northeast, Midwest, South, and West).
Two thousand questionnaires were mailed to each area.
Respondents had two options to complete the survey. Respondents could
complete a paper survey as in 1997, or respondents could complete the sur-
vey online rather than returning it via postal service. The online version of the
questionnaire was made as similar to the paper version as possible. A parallel
mixed-mode approach was used to accommodate budget constraints, to decrease

385
386 appendix b

response time, and to give respondents the convenience of another option to

complete the survey (Meckel, Walters, & Baugh, 2005).
Respondents who completed the survey online were directed to go to www.
spiritualityreligionsurvey.com, click on the survey link on the homepage, and
then enter a personal access code to begin the online survey process. Th ree hun-
dred respondents chose to complete the survey online, compared with 1504 who
completed the paper survey. The resultant 1804 completed surveys provided a
23% overall response rate with a sampling error of ± 2.3% at the 95% confi-
dence interval. Gay, Mills, and Airasian (2006) have provided guidelines for
determining the sample size needed to be representative of a given population,
including the observation that “beyond a certain point (about N = 5000), the
population size is almost irrelevant and a sample size of 400 will be adequate”
(p. 110). Generally speaking, the resultant NASW sample exceeds the minimum
sample size needed to be generalizable, or representative of the opinions of the
NASW membership in direct practice. Additional information on sampling can
be obtained at www.spiritualityreligionsurvey.com.
The 126-item questionnaire built upon and refined the survey instrument
originally used in the 1997 National Survey of NASW Members (Canda &
Furman, 1999). The 2008 survey instrument included items for demographic,
educational background, and practice information; past and current religious
and spiritual affi liation and involvement; and items regarding forgiveness and
referral to clergy. Other items explored possible conflicts between religion and
spirituality with the social work mission, the Code of Ethics, and separation of
church and state. Respondents were also given the opportunity to provide per-
sonal definitions of religion, spirituality, and faith, and to indicate their level of
religiosity and spirituality. Furthermore, the questionnaire requested informa-
tion about spiritually based “helping activities” that social workers used in their
practice and that they felt were appropriate to use. In addition, items on raising
the topic of religion and spirituality with clients from vulnerable populations
were added to the 2008 instrument. The items focused on ethnicity/national
origin, gender, sexual orientation, older adulthood, political beliefs, religious
beliefs, disability, and poverty.

Reliability and Validity

Reliability
A scale developed in 1997 that separated religion from spirituality was used to
assess social workers’ agreement with raising these topics in practice. Originally,
selected items had been used in previous investigations (Bullis, 1993; Dudley
& Helfgott, 1990; Sheridan & Bullis, 1991; Sheridan, Bullis, Adcock, Berlin,&
Miller,1992; Sheridan,Wilmer, & Atcheson,1994), but the 1997 instrument had no
track record. At that time, coefficient alphas were calculated for scales made up
of religion items (R), spirituality items (S), and a combined religion-spirituality
Appendix B 387

scale (RS). The R alpha was 0.97, while those for S and RS were 0.96 and 0.97,
respectively, which suggested that the religion and spirituality items included
in the 1997 instrument may be useful in future investigations as measurement
scales (Canda & Furman, 1999). The R (0.97), S (0.97), and RS (0.98) alphas cal-
culated for the 2008 instrument strongly suggest that the spiritually based and
religiously based items measure a trait we have called RS (religion/spirituality),
which deals with spirituality and religion as they manifest in social work prac-
tice. Similar results with the R, S, and RS scales have been achieved in Norway,
United Kingdom, and New Zealand.

Validity
Several sets of items were culled from past research, where their utility was
at least established through the peer review process (Bullis, 1993; Dudley &
Helfgott, 1990; Sheridan et al., 1991, 1992, 1994). Reworkings of items from past
studies and newly developed items were subjected to content and wording analy-
sis by 13 members of a university social work department. Items that faculty
members found conceptually confusing (validity) or difficult to understand (reli-
ability) were reworked in the light of their comments. Reviewers were asked to
comment on whether items tapped attitudes of social workers toward religion,
spirituality, and social work practice. The instrument evolved over several weeks
and permutations until the instrument was deemed satisfactory in terms of con-
tent validity.
Given that the religion and spirituality items could reliably be combined
into a scale (or scales), it is possible to use this scale as an initial check on the
criterion-referenced/concurrent validity of some of the other items. If the com-
bined RS scale is in fact tapping fundamental attitudes of social workers toward
raising these issues in their practices, then the scale should covary with other
items where the content is related.
For example, RS correlated positively with the number of religious/spiritual
helping activities reportedly performed (rxy = 0.449, p < 0.001 in 2008, compared
with rxy = 0.44, p < 0.001 in 1997) and with the number of religious/spiritual
activities nominated as appropriate for use with clients (rxy = 0.468, p < 0.001
in 2008, compared with rxy = 0.46, p < 0.001 in 1997). Social workers reporting
a higher level of personal spiritual involvement are more willing (and perhaps
able) to introduce religion and/or spirituality into their practice. In 2008, the
RS scale was significantly correlated with respondents’ participation in religious
activities (rxy = 0.185, p < 0.001) and spiritual practices (rxy = 0.237, p < 0.001).
A check on the discriminant validity of the R scale (and thus R items) in
2008 can be conducted by comparing the scores of atheists and agnostics with
those of Christians. Christians scored significantly higher on the R scale (M =
38.31, SD= 9.65 versus agnostics/atheists M = 31.9, SD = 11.54; t, d.f. = 203.53,
= 6.75, p < 0.001), suggesting that those identifying themselves with a specific
religion also responded to items dealing with religion in a predictable manner.
388 appendix b

It also means that Christians are significantly more likely to discuss the topic of
religion with clients than are agnostics or atheists.
Please refer to www.spiritualityreligionsurvey.com for executive summaries
of this study and the other national surveys, including more information on reli-
ability and validity.
 APPENDIX C

Resources for Addressing Spirituality

in Various Fields of Practice

Social Work in General

Professional Standards
International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) and
International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW)
Ethics in Social Work, Statement of Principles
http://www.apss.polyu.edu.hk/iassw/index.php?option=com_content&
task=view&id=7&Itemid=50
• 3 International Conventions
• 4.1 Human Rights and Human Dignity
• 4.2 Social Justice

National Association of Social Workers (NASW, USA)

Code of Ethics, 1996 & 1999
http://www.socialworkers.org/pubs/code/code.asp
• 1.05 Cultural Competence and Social Diversity
• 4.02 Discrimination
• 6.04 Social and Political Action
NASW Standards for Cultural Competence, 2001

389
390 appendix c

http://www.socialworkers.org/practice/standards/NASWCultural
Standards.pdf
• Introduction, p.8
• Cultural Competence, p. 11
• Standard 4 Cross-Cultural Skills
NASW Peace Policy Toolkit, 2007
http://www.socialworkers.org/diversity/peacetoolkit/peaceToolKit.pdf
• Numerous allusions to religion and spirituality

Council on Social Work Education (CSWE, USA)

Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards, 2008
http://www.cswe.org/NR/rdonlyres/2A81732E-1776–4175-AC42–
65974E96BE66/0/2008EducationalPolicyandAccreditationStan-
dards.pdf
• Educational Policy 2.1.4—Engage diversity and difference in
practice
• Educational Policy 2.1.7—Apply knowledge of human behavior
and the social environment
• Educational Policy 3.1—Diversity
See other country specific Social Work Codes of Ethics and educational stan-
dards via internet search
In U.S.A., see state specific social work licensure standards via internet search

Comprehensive Reviews and Specialized Journals

See Canda, Nakashima, Burgess, Russel, and Barfield (2003) for more than 700
social work publications, with many annotations, organized by fields of practice,
textbooks, and other topics.
See extensive references in the back of this book.

Journal of Jewish Communal Service

Journal of Religion and Spirituality in Social Work: Social Thought
The Social Work Forum (Jewish communal service focus)
Social Work and Christianity
Society for Spirituality and Social Work Forum

Websites

Aboriginal and Indigenous Social Work

• http://www.aboriginalsocialwork.ca/
Canadian Society for Spirituality in Social Work
• http://w3.stu.ca/stu/sites/spirituality/index.html
Appendix C 391

Centre for Spirituality and Health (Social Work focus for the UK)
• http://www.bernardmoss.org.uk/centre_for_health_&_spiritu-
ality.htm
Center for Spirituality and Social Work
• http://csisw.cua.edu/resources.cfm
Centre on Behavioral Health, Hong Kong
• http://cbh.hku.hk/
Global Alliance for a Deep Ecological Social Work
• http://www.ecosocialwork.org/
International Study of Religion and Spirituality in Social Work Practice
• http://spiritualityreligionsurvey.com/default.aspx
Islamic Social Services Association
• http://www.issaservices.com/
North American Association of Christians in Social Work
• http://www.nacsw.org
Research Guides to Jewish Studies: Social Work
• http://w w w.jtsa.edu/Library/Library_ Ser vices/Research_
Guides_to_Jewish_Studies/Jewish_Studies_and_Social_Work.
xml
Social Work for Social Justice (Catholic Social Teaching)
• http://www.stthomas.edu/socialwork/socialjustice/principles/
socialJusticePrinciples.html
Society for Spirituality and Social Work
• http://ssw.asu.edu/spirituality/sssw/
Spiritual Diversity and Social Work Resource Center
• http://www.socwel.ku.edu/candagrant/HFC4.htm

Child Welfare and Positive Youth Development

Professional Standards
NASW Standards for Social Work Practice in Child Welfare
http://www.socialworkers.org/practice/standards/NASWChildWelfare
Standards0905.pdf
See Community/local systems, p. 15, and
• Standard 8. Cultural Competence
• Standard 14. Out of Home Care
• Standard 15. Permanency
NASW Standards for the Practice of Social Work with Adolescents
392 appendix c

http://www.socialworkers.org/practice/standards/NASWAdolescents
Standards.pdf
• Standard 3. Knowledge of Family Dynamics
• Standard 6. Understanding Adolescents’ Needs

Comprehensive Reviews and Specialized Journals

Canda and Cheon (forthcoming); Crompton (1998); Roehlkepartain,
King, Wagener, and Benson (2006).
International Journal of Children’s Spirituality

Websites
• The Center for Spiritual Development in Childhood and
Adolescence, social work reading list
• http://www.spiritualdevelopmentcenter.org/Display.asp?Page=
SWreadinglist
Research Resources on Children’s Spirituality
• http://childfaith.net/database/

Disabilities

Professional Standards
General social work standards

Comprehensive Reviews and Specialized Journals

Gaventa and Coulter (2001); Vash (2001)
Journal of Religion, Disability, and Health

Websites
None located
See also resources on health, gerontology, and mental health.

Disaster Relief and Trauma Work

Professional Standards
Brief mention in NASW Standards for Palliative & End of Life Care
http://www.naswdc.org/practice/bereavement/standards/standard-
s0504New.pdf
Appendix C 393

Comprehensive Reviews and Specialized Journals

Koenig (2006).

Websites
The Institute for the Study of Spirituality and Trauma
• http://www.geocities.com/frbobparlotz/drbobparlotz.html

Faith-Based Human Service Organizations

Professional Standards
NASW Priorities on Faith-Based Human Services Initiatives, 2002
http://www.socialworkers.org/advocacy/positions/faith.asp

Comprehensive Reviews and Specialized Journals

Cnaan, Wineburg, and Boddie (1999); Cnaan and Boddie, (2006);
Tirrito and Cascio (2003); Wineburg (2001).

Websites
Faith and Service Technical Education Network
• http://www.baylor.edu/social_work/FASTEN/
Faith-based Community Initiatives
• http://www.faithbasedcommunityinitiatives.org/fbci_members.htm
Harford Institute for Religion Research: Faith based Social Services/
Charitable Choice
• http://hirr.hartsem.edu/research/charitable_choice.html

Gerontology/Aging

Professional Standards
NASW Standards for Social Work Services in Long-Term Care Facilities,
2003; see introduction, p. 5
http://www.socialworkers.org/practice/standards/NASWLongTerm
Standards.pdf

Comprehensive Reviews and Specialized Journals

McBee (2008); Moberg (2001); Nelson-Becker, Nakashima, and Canda
(2006, 2007);
394 appendix c

Nelson-Becker and Canda (2008).

Journal of Religion, Spirituality & Aging

Websites
Gerontological Society of America, Interest Group on Religion,
Spirituality, and Aging
• http://www.geron.org/Resources/Interest%20Groups/Formal
%20Interest%20Groups#religion
University of Kansas Office on Aging and Long-Term Care
Chapin, Nelson-Becker, Gordon, Landry, and Peng (2004). Spirituality
Resource.
• http://www.oaltc.ku.edu/gerorich/Reports/Spirituality.pdf

Health

Professional Standards
NASW Standards for Social Work Practice in Health Care Settings
http://www.socialworkers.org/practice/standards/NASWHealthCare
Standards.pdf; see the following sections:
• Social Work Guiding Principles, p. 8
• Biopsychosocial-spiritual Perspective, p. 9
• Case Management, p. 10
• Health Care Settings, p. 12
• Standard 3. Cultural Competence
• Standard 5. Knowledge
• Standard 6. Assessment
• Standard 7. Intervention and Treatment Planning
The Joint Commission on the Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations
(JCAHO)
Spiritual Assessment, 2008
http://www.jointcommission.org/AccreditationPrograms/HomeCare/
Standards/09_FAQs/PC/Spiritual_Assessment.htm

Comprehensive Reviews and Specialized Journals

Greenstreet (2006); Koenig (2007); Koenig, McCullough, and Larson,

(2001); O’Brien (2008).
Appendix C 395

Websites
The Center for Spirituality, Theology and Health
• http://www.dukespiritualityandhealth.org /
National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine
• http://nccam.nih.gov/
Spiritual Diversity and Social Work Resource Center
• http://www.socwel.ku.edu/candagrant/HFC4.htm
The George Washington Institute for Spirituality and Health
• http://www.gwish.org/
The University of Minnesota’s Center for Spirituality and Healing
• http://www.csh.umn.edu/

Hospice and Palliative Care

Professional Standards

NASW Standards for Palliative & End of Life Care, 2004

http://www.socialworkers.org/practice/bereavement/standards/stan-
dards0504New.pdf; See the following sections:
• End of Life Care Definition, p. 9
• Palliative Care, p. 10
• Hospice and Palliative Care, p. 11
• Grief, p. 12
• Standard 1. Ethics and Values
• Standard 2. Knowledge
• Standard 3. Assessment
• Standard 4. Intervention/Treatment Planning
• Standard 6. Empowerment and Advocacy
• Standard 9. Cultural Competence

Comprehensive Reviews and Specialized Journals

Berzoff and Silverman (2004).
Gwyther, Altilio, Blacker, et al. (2005).
American Journal of Hospice and Palliative Medicine
Journal of Near-Death Studies
Journal of Social Work in End-of-Life & Palliative Care
Omega: Journal of Death and Dying
396 appendix c

Websites
The Social Work in Hospice and Palliative Care Network
http://swhpn.org/lhp/index.html
(This site includes additional standards.)

Mental Health

Professional Standards
US DHHS Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
Consensus Statement on Mental Health Recovery; See section on
Holistic Perspective, p.1 and Professional Social Work and Health
sections
http://www.power2u.org/downloads/SAMHSA%20Recovery%20
Statement.pdf

Comprehensive Reviews and Specialized Journals

Fallot, (1998); Frame (2003); Helmeke and Sori, (2006); Koenig (2005);
Miller (2003); Pargament (2007); Paloutzian and Park (2005);
Ridgway, McDiarmid, Davidson, Bayes, an& Ratzlaff (2002);
Sperry and Shafranske (2003); Swinton, (2001).
Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health

Websites
Congregational Resource Guide on Mental Health
• ht t p://w w w.cong regat iona l resou rces.org /Show Cat.asp?
CN=35&SCN=49&SSCN=197
National Alliance on Mental Illness FaithNet
• www.nami.org/namifaithnet
Spiritual Competency Resource Center
• http://www.spiritualcompetency.com/
Spiritual Emergence Network
• http://www.cpsh.org/

Substance Abuse

Professional Standards
NASW Standards for Social Work Practice with Clients with Substance
Use Disorders, 2005
Appendix C 397

http://w w w.socialworkers.org/practice/standards/NASWATOD
Statndards.pdf; See following sections:
• Standard 3. Screening, Assessment, and Placement
• Standard 5. Advocacy and Collaboration
National Quality Forum, National Voluntary Consensus Standards
for the Treatment of Substance Use Conditions: Evidence-Based
Treatment Practices
http://www.qualityforum.org/pdf/reports/sud/sudexesummary.pdf;
See:
• Table 1. Practice Specifications for Treating Substance Use
Conditions

Comprehensive Reviews and Specialized Journals

Coggins (1990); Kus (1995); McGovern and Benda (2006).

Websites
12Step.org
• http://www.12step.org/
Inner Substance (Integral Alternative to 12 Steps)
http://www.innersubstance.com/philosophy.html
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Achterberg, J. (1985). Imagery in healing: Shamanism and modern medicine. Boston:
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Adams, P. (2008). The code of ethics and the clash of orthodoxies: A response to Spano
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 index

Absolutism, 12 implicit spiritual, 264–265, 266

Active imagination technique, 339, 359 MIMBRA, 266, 267
Administration/management, 235–237, 361 religiousness, 92–93
Advocacy vs reciprocity, 230 spiritual, approaches, 261–284, 378–382
African Americans, 122–124 spiritual development timeline,
Afrocentric approaches, 121–122 267–272, 360
Ahimsa, 164 spiritually sensitive evaluation,
Ai, A. L., 80 231–234, 263
Al-Krenawi, A., 176 spiritual propensity, 272–274
Alternative religions, 90 spiritual well-being, 93–94
Amish, 104 Atheism, 37, 62, 69, 116–117, 137
Arab Bedouins, 174 Avalokitesvara, 45
Art, 5, 7, 47, 85, 195, 221, 229, 262, 292–293,
323, 344, 347, 360 Bellah, R. N., 90
Artistic expressions, 339 Bergin, A. E., 196
Asian, 43–44, 62, 107, 112, 126, 130, 144–145, Besthorn, F. H., 113, 192
157, 159–160, 198, 204–208, 218, 223, Best practice, 11, 22–24
279, 301–302 Bible, 104, 130, 136, 151, 156, 178, 269
Asian American, 13, 115, 119, 146, Biestek, F. P., 153
160–161, 165 Biofeedback, 92, 166, 191, 195, 279, 332, 360
Assessment Black Elk, 50
brief explicit spiritual, 265–267, 267 Bodhisattva of Compassion, 45–46
client’s views on spiritual group Brahman, 88, 149, 163–164, 193
characteristics, 275 Brainstorming, 227
detailed explicit spiritual, 267–272 Breathing, 195, 220, 327, 342–344
helpful or harmful impacts of intentional, 341, 360
participation in spiritual groups, 274 Bubis, G. B., 181
holistic evaluation, 233 Buddha of Infinite Light, 46

441
442 index

Buddhism, 32, 107, 112, 130, 149, 198 Coates, J., 113–114, 168
beliefs, 145 Coholic, D., 133
Buddhist meditation, 205 Coles, R., 259
Mahayana, 45–46 Community organizing, 166
origin and contemporary varieties of, Comparison, between religions/spiritual
144–145 perspectives, 7–8
paramitas, 146 Compassion, 21–22, 25, 30, 32
Pure Land, 145 awakening, 41–44
social work implications, 146–148 Bodhisattvas, 45–46
Theravada vs Mahayana, 144 common heart of, 50–51
Tibetan, 145 personal commitments, 34–38
values, 146 profession’s historical commitment, 32–34
Zen, 80, 83, 85, 91, 107, 145, 196 and religious tradition, 44–45
Zen-oriented worker, 147 Complementary and alternative healing, 360
Bullis, R. K., 69, 172 Confucianism, 13, 112, 130, 149, 196, 198
beliefs, 157–158
Canada, 167–168, 176, 182 neo-Confucian ideal of, 18–19
Canadian Society for Spirituality and Social Neo-Confucianism, 157
Work, 114 origin and contemporary varieties of,
Canda, E. R., 62, 66, 69, 72, 146, 154, 168, 156–157
223–224, 232, 234–235, 244, 246–247, social work implications, 159–162
250, 265, 274, 290, 298, 346 tradition of East Asia, 18–19
Canda, H., 146, 274, 290, 298, 324–326 values, 158–159
Casteneda, C., 169 Consciousness state
Center/centering, 18, 27, 87, 89, 139, 189, altered, 279
217–218 holotropic, 249
Ceremony hylotropic, 249
beneficial effects, 345–346 Constable, R., 33
defi ned, 344 Contraindications, 328–330
designing of, 346–349 Council on Social Work Education’s (CSWE)
Chamiec-Case, R., 236 Educational Policy and Accreditation
China, 39, 45, 69, 144–145, 156 Standards, 15, 112–113
Christianity, 80, 149, 196–197, 219 Cowley, A. S., 194–195
African Americans, 120–122 Cox, J. L., 64, 167
beliefs, 151–152 Crisis, 35, 45, 48, 62, 83, 195–196, 208, 220,
Born-again or Evangelical Protestants, 126 229, 232, 247–248, 252, 261, 266, 271,
Catholicism, 103–105, 120, 126, 129–130 274–276, 279–280, 282–284, 290, 315,
Euro-American forms, 103–104 319, 322, 325, 328, 380–381
ideological responses to homosexuality, Cross-perspective cooperation, 203–204
134–137 Cults, 90
love, 32–33 Cultural competence/appropriateness, 65,
origin and contemporary varieties of, 232, 297–299, 306, 365, 387
148–151 Curanderismo, 127
passion of Jesus, 47
Protestant denominations, 105–106, Dalai Lama, of Tibetan Buddhism, 3, 145
120, 131 Daoism, 59
sexual orientation diversity, 134 Daoistic change, 228–229
Social Gospel movement, 105 Dass, R., 31
social work implications, 153–156 Death and dying, 30, 37, 47, 88, 146, 248,
values, 152–153 255–256
Chung, D., 162 Deep ecology, 162, 191, 193, 223
Civil religion, 90 Derezotes, D. S., 69, 113, 194
Civil rights, 42, 106, 121, 124, 155, 165, 363 Development, spiritual
Client-centeredness, 217 assessment, 261–284
Cnaan, R. A., 111 Erikson’s view, 354–356
Index 443

and everyday life, 244–247 Ethical guidelines, for spiritually oriented,

relation between spiritual emergence and 293–297
stages of the life cycle, 253–262 brief explicit spiritual assessment, 294
spiritual emergence and emergencies, cooperation with an outside spiritually
248–253 based social support system, 295
Dharma, 164 cooperation with clergy and religiously
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of affi liated organizations, 309–311, 311
Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text cross-tradition exchange of spiritual
Revision (DSM-IV-TR), 276–279 practices, 299–303
biased assumptions, 278 culturally appropriate practice, 297–299
categories of spiritually oriented problems options available, 291–297
and mental syndromes, 279 political context of the helping
defi nition of mental disorder, 277 relationship, 303–304
Dialogue, across spiritual perspectives, practitioners’ behaviors and attitudes,
199–200 286–291
beliefs, 196–198 private spiritually based activities by the
personal experiences of author, 204–205 worker, 291–293
refugee resettlement, case example, referring client to outside spiritually based
205–209 social support systems, 294–295
steps for dialogue process, 201–204 transcultural teamwork, 304–309
values, 198–199 Eustress, 277
Dignity USA, 136 Evidence-based practice, 23
Diné (Navajo), 221–222 Exclusivist spiritual perspectives, 16–17
Disability, 9, 12, 20, 223, 271, 275–277, 281, Existentialism, 197
307, 329, 384 beliefs, 187–188
Dissociative disorders, 276 Buber’s Jewish theological, 188
Diversity, 7, 10–11, 15–17, 20, 22, 38–39, 50, origin and contemporary varieties of,
53–54, 61, 65, 69, 76, 101, 103, 106–108, 186–187
110, 113–114, 118–133, 137 social work implications, 189–190
Doe, S. S., 236 therapeutic I-Thou relationship, 189
values, 188–189
Ecofeminism, 191, 193
Ecojustice, 298, 361 Faith, defi nition, 80–81
Ecological self, 193 Faith-based human services, 80, 391
Ecophilosophy, 22, 88, 198 Faiver, C., 72
Edwards, D. G., 188–189 First Nations, 36, 49, 103, 115–116, 118, 126,
Egoic, preegoic, transegoic phases of 167, 174, 303
development, 192–193, 249, 258–259, Forest of Peace Catholic House of Prayer, 204
268–271, 281, 283, 329 Forgiveness
Eliade, M., 63, 70 beneficial effects, 350–351
Emergencies, spiritual, 248–253 defi ning, 349–350
Emmons, R. A., 71 political, 353–355
Empirical evidence, 1, 4, 6, 291, 365 therapeutic, 351–353
impact of religious participation, 22, 70, 114 Fowler, J., 256–257
spiritually based helping practices, 14, 22, cognitive-structural faith development
288, 290, 300, 326–327 theory, 253–254, 256–257
Empowerment, 10, 52–53, 61, 121, 124, Frame, M. W., 72, 261
136–137, 161, 181, 193, 219, 224, 234, Freudianism, 191
239, 251, 304, 307, 314, 354 Furman, L. D., 69, 72, 310, 369, 375
Environmental racism, 54, 361
Equipoise, 328, 336, 341 Gandhi, Mahatma, 14, 86, 163, 302
Erikson, E., 254–256 Genocide, 54, 146, 170, 185, 262, 300,
view of spiritual development, 354–356 353–355
Eskenazi, D., 181 Global Alliance for a Deep Ecological Social
Espiritismo, 127 Work, 192
444 index

Graham, J., 114, 176 Inner chatter, 216–217, 334, 360

Gray, M., 168 International
Grof, S., 191, 249 collaborations, 110, 378
conferences, 113–114
Hallucinations, 278, 281 Jewish communal services, 181
Hanh, Th ich Nhat, 18 micro- and macro levels of practice,
Hare Krishna movement, 107, 163 361–362
Healthy religiousness, 77 organizations for standards for social
Healthy spirituality, 75–76 work, 375, 377–378, 387, 389
Helping practices, 327–356 organizations in resettlement and
Helping relationship, 213–217 postresettlement services, 206
Hill, P. C., 64, 70, 93–94 reconciliation initiatives, 361–364
Hinduism, 107, 112, 130, 149, 196, 198 restorative initiatives, 354
beliefs, 163–164 social injustice, 54
karma yoga, 163–164 social work professional value system, 32
origin and contemporary varieties of, spiritually sensitive practice in the United
162–163 States, 22
Sanatana Dharma, 162 standards for social work. See National
social work implications, 165–166 Association of Social Workers’ (NASW),
values, 164–165 Code of Ethics
Hispanics, 115, 119, 126–129 surveys of social workers, 64–74
Historical phases, 109–110 viewpoints on professional ethics and
History, 4, 19, 21, 25, 29, 33, 38, 40, 73, meanings of spirituality, 367–375
103–118, 120, 126, 137, 162, 171, 173, International Federation of Social Workers’
181–182, 200, 204, 300, 303–304 (IFSW)/International Association
Hodge, D. R., 154, 156 of Schools of Social Work (IASSW)
Holistic approach, to social services “Ethics in Social Work, Statement of
conceptual model, 224–240 Principles,” 15
designing/planning systems, 226–227 International Society for Krishna
evaluating outcomes and performance, Consciousness, 163
231–234 Intuition, 226
implementing decisions, 227–231 Islam, 80, 107, 115, 116–117, 150, 196
integrating system activities, 234–240 beliefs, 175–176
to learning by social workers, 21–22 Black Muslims, 120
principle of, 123 Five Pillars of, 176
Rating Form for Assessing Spiritual origin and contemporary varieties of,
Sensitivity in Human Service 174–175
Organization Culture, 240 Six Pillars of Faith (Iman), 175–176
understanding of person and social work implications, 177–178
environment, 222–224 values, 176–177
understanding/structuring of problems, Zakat, 177
226 Islamic Circle of North America Relief, 175
Homeokinesis, 321 Islamic Relief USA, 175
Hood, R. W., 93–94 The Islamic Society of North America, 175
Husain, F., 176
Japan, 37, 45, 69, 144–145, 155, 200, 229
Imbrogno, S., 224, 232, 234–235 Japanese American, 146, 304, 354
Immigration, 120, 162, 179, 206, 375 Jesus Christ, 37, 42–43, 47–48, 105, 120,
Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978, 174 124, 127, 148, 151–152, 156–157, 175,
Indigenous religions, 150 230, 322
beliefs, 169–170 Jewish, 32, 36, 41, 50, 63, 65–66, 104–106,
origin and contemporary varieties of, 108, 110–112, 115–118, 122, 130–131,
167–169 133, 148–150, 175, 178–179–183, 186,
social work implications, 171–174 188, 210, 262, 345
values, 170–171 Jewish Americans, 107
Index 445

Joint Commission on Accreditation of Marxism, 90–91

Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO), Marx’s Concept of Man (Fromm, Erich), 42
69–70, 266 Mary (Blessed Virgin or Our Lady of
Joseph, M. V., 65 Guadalupe), 127
Judaism, 80, 134, 150, 197 Maslow, A., 24, 191, 194, 245, 247, 249
beliefs, 179–180 McCullough, M. E., 93–94
origin and contemporary varieties of, Measurement, of aspects of religion and
178–179 spirituality. See Assessment
religious orientation of social workers, Medicine Wheels, 170, 172–173, 223
115, 116–117 Meditation, 21–23, 25, 34, 42–44, 67, 79–80,
social work implications, 181–183 85–86, 89, 91, 144–148, 154, 157, 160,
Torah law and practices, 179–180 163, 166, 171, 173–175, 189, 191, 195,
values, 180–181 197, 199, 204–205, 208, 217, 229, 258,
Jung, Carl, 191, 264 262, 267, 269–272, 279–282, 286,
290–291, 293–296, 301–302, 307–308,
Karenga, M., 121 324–326, 330–345, 348–349, 353, 360,
Karma, 38, 163–165, 231 366, 379
Keith-Lucas, A., 138, 153–154 Melton, J. G., 104, 107
Kim, K. M., 223 Mencius, 30, 156–157
King, Rev. Martin Luther, Jr., 124, 165, 302 Mengzi. See Mencius
Knowledge, 226 Mennonites, 104
Koenig, H. G., 69, 71, 93–94 Mental disorders, qualities of, 282
Koenig, T. L., 224, 226 Merton, T., 21, 42, 204
Korea, 19, 43, 45–48, 69, 144–145, 156–157, Mexican Americans, 10, 126
204, 246, 301, 304 Micro social systems, 148, 195
Korean American, 301, 304 Miller, W. R., 70, 261
Kreitzer, L., 52 Mindfulness, 11, 18, 83, 85, 147–148, 199,
Krill, D. F., 186, 188–189 292–293, 296, 330–344, 353, 360, 362
Kuan Shi Yin, 45–46 Mitroff, I. I., 240
Kwanzaa, 121–122 Moksha, 165
Moreira-Almeida, A., 71
Laird, J., 133 Morphogenesis, 321
Lakota, 50, 170 Morphostasis, 321
Lantz, J., 186–187, 190 Moss, B., 114
Larson, D. B., 93–94 Mystical experiences, 63
Lee, M. Y., 224
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender Nadir experience, 250
(LGBT) people, 103, 134–140, 181 Naess, A., 193
Local and global perspectives, 11, 22, 54, 61, Nakashima, M., 37, 146
108, 114, 131, 140, 148, 166, 194, 200, National Association of Social Workers’
307, 309, 362, 364, 367 (NASW), 4, 287
Love, Jewish and Christian values of, 32–33 Code of Ethics, 15, 22, 32–33, 51–52, 138,
Lukoff, D., 280 288–289, 297, 300, 303, 340
Luther, M., 148 summary of survey, 383–386
National Conference of Catholic Charities,
Macropractice, 7, 22, 195, 236, 361–364, 152
367, 376 Native American Church, 173
Macro social systems, 22, 148, 156 Nature
Macy, H., 236 deep ecology, 162, 191, 193, 223
Mahesh Yogi, Maharishi, 163 human relation with, 22, 43, 53, 75,
Mainstream religions, 90 113, 131, 144, 150, 171, 193, 195–196,
Malcolm X, 120 222–224, 239, 262, 272, 360
Mandela, President Nelson, 3, 302 of religion and spirituality, 60, 63, 86, 88
Manualized treatment, 327–328 Navajo people, 221–222
Maori of Aotorea New Zealand, 78 Nelson, J. E., 281
446 index

Nelson-Becker, H., 38, 274 232, 236, 263, 276, 279, 282, 291, 305,
Neusner, J., 179 309, 330–333, 365–366, 368, 383, 394
New Age Movement, 107 older adults, 37, 78, 108–109, 168, 248,
New Zealand, Aotorea, 4, 32, 67, 69, 254, 384
370–371, 385 substance abuse, 394–395
Nongak, 301 young adulthood, 258
Nonjudgmentalism, 153 Practice wisdom, 3–4, 18, 23–24, 224, 259
Nonsectarian spiritual language, 289 Princess Pari, Korean myth of, 48–49
Nontheism, 62 Professional standards, 387
Norway, 4, 67, 69, 370–372, 375, 385 cultural competence, 297–299, 387–389,
392–393
Operationalization, in research on nondiscrimination, 16
spirituality, 70, 81–82, 91–92, 378–382 of practice, 23, 52, 219, 303, 364
Organizational culture, 235–239, 361 religion, 309–311, 311
Ostrov, S., 182 spirituality, 291–295, 299–303, 309–311, 311
Prophet Muhammad, 174
Paden, W. E., 73 Puerto Ricans, 127
Paganism, 132 Pure Land Buddhism, 107
Paloutzian, R. E., 71, 92–94 Pyles, L., 274
Panikkar, Raimon, 201
Paradoxical intention, 190 Quakers, 103
Pargament, K. I., 71–72, 261, 265, 327 Quran, 150, 174–177
Park, Seung-Hee, 19, 222
Parliament of the World’s Religions, 201 Ramirez, Bishop, 127
Participation in spiritual groups, helpful or Randour, M. L., 132
harmful, 274 Reamer, F. G., 33
Patel, I., 164 Reciprocity, 230
Paul II, Pope John, 21 Reflectivity, 338–339
Peak experience, 249 Refugee resettlement and social service,
Pit experience, 277 205–209
Plateau experience, 253 Refugees, 22, 62, 119–120, 127, 140, 144–146,
Pneuma, 130 181, 205–209, 218, 220, 265, 301, 304,
Policy, 3, 40, 55, 123, 126, 155, 227, 234, 302, 309, 346, 360–361, 368
362–363, 366, 368 Relativism, 13
Positivism, 233 Religion, 3
Posttraumatic stress, 304 alternative, 90
Practice fields civil, 90
children and adolescents, 43, 123–124, defi nitions in social work, 64–67
130–131, 133–134, 156, 158–159, 174, in Europe, 73
176, 207–208, 218, 228, 245, 248, 259, formal defi nition, 76–77
272, 389–390 mainstream, 90
disabilities, 9, 12, 20, 223, 271, 275–277, practitioners’ defi nitions, 67–69
281, 307, 329, 384, 390 quasi, 90
disaster relief and trauma work, 390–391 relation with spirituality, 78–80
faith-based human service organizations, and symbols of compassion, 44–45
391 universal grammar, 102
gerontology, 391–392 Religiosity/religiousness, 70–72, 77, 89,
health, 6, 69–72, 75–77, 81, 84–85, 93–94, 92–93, 167, 179, 183, 273–274, 371
108, 114, 123, 132, 147–148, 153–154, Religiously affi liated human service
157, 160, 163, 173, 176, 186, 194, organizations, 309–311
208–209, 263, 265–266, 271, 274, 276, Religious problem, 280
291, 295, 340, 351, 368, 383, 392–394 Religious studies, 4, 43, 47, 64, 70, 72–74,
hospice and palliative care, 393–394 167–168, 190, 260, 301, 308, 315, 363
mental health, 6, 10, 13, 40, 69, 114, 157, Research, 7, 12, 22–24, 37–38, 40, 44, 55, 60,
176, 180–182, 190, 206–207, 217, 221, 63, 65, 69, 72, 80–81, 91–95, 106, 110,
Index 447

114, 129, 155, 169, 173, 190, 202, 206, 140, 155, 157, 171, 173, 176, 236, 272,
214, 224, 232–234, 252, 293, 327–328, 294, 299, 354, 361, 387
345, 350–351, 368–369, 385 Social policy, 3, 109, 155, 302, 362–363, 368
Respect, 15–17, 21, 32, 34, 38, 44, 51, 54–55, Social workers
57, 59, 65, 70, 76–77, 86, 88, 103, call to compassionate service, 38–44
109, 111–113, 118, 121–123, 132–133, effective practices, 22–24
136–139, 141, 150, 152, 158–159, holistic approach to learning, 21–22
161, 164–165, 171–173, 176–177, 182, moral principles, 16–17
198–200, 213–214, 216–217, 220, 224, personal commitments, 34–38
231, 235, 239, 265, 272, 290, 293, professional value system, 32–33
296–297, 299, 301–303, 316, 320, 353, reflectivity, 17–19
363, 365, 375 relativism vs absolutism, 13–14
Respect for diversity, 15–17, 21 respect for diversity, 15–17
Restorative justice, 353–355 strengths and empowerment, 19–21
Ritual Society for Spirituality and Social Work
beneficial effects, 345–346 (SSSW), 113
defi ned, 345 Sophia, 130
designing of, 346–349 Spencer, S., 65
Robbins, S. P., 24, 223–224, 247 Spero, M. H., 182
Russel, R., 113 Spiritual crises, qualities of, 282
Spiritual development
Sacred, 21, 23, 32, 48–50, 53, 55, 59, 63, assessment, 261–284
66–67, 69–86, 88, 90–91, 93–95, Erikson’s view, 354–356
102–103, 110, 123, 126, 129, 131, 137, and everyday life, 244–247
141, 154, 164, 168, 170–171, 216, relation between spiritual emergence and
219–221, 244–245, 250, 257, 259, 262, stages of the life cycle, 253–262
269, 275, 278, 302–303, 307, 323, 337, spiritual emergence and emergencies,
345–346, 361, 379, 381–382 248–253
Sai Baba, Sathya, 163 Spirituality, 3
Santiguando, 127 as an aspect of the person, 75–76
Satyagraha, 15 attributes of, 74
Scherer, B., 73 comparison of vantage points, 24–25
Schizophrenia, 276 conceptual models, 74
Secularization, 109–110, 112, 370, 374–375 in counseling psychology, 72
Self-determination, 153 debate about appropriateness of raising
Self-disclosure, 12 the topic, 8–9, 9
Seligman, M., 93 debate about its role in social
Seung Sahn, Zen Master, 45 work, 6, 7–8
Sexual orientation, 9, 12, 15–16, 102, defi nitions in social work, 64–67
133–139, 260, 384 expressible vs inexpressible, 62–63
Shamanism, 47–50, 112, 168, 173, 301 functions, 83–85
Shari’a, 79, 150 and group dynamics, 89–91
Sheridan, M. J., 69, 213, 290 guiding principles, 11, 11–25
Sherr, M. E., 236 in healthcare fields, 69–73
Sherwood, D. A., 139, 152 holistic model, 87–89
Shim, W., 13, 161 individual’s or group’s perspectives, 85–87
Silence, 17 Latin meaning, 71
Siporin, M., 33, 65 meaning, 59
Slavery, 120–121, 131, 245, 300, 303 nonreligious spiritual perspective or
Smart, N., 73 group, 90–91
Smith, H., 51 in nursing, 71
Snyder, C. R., 71 open conceptualization, 64
Social activism, 15, 86, 109, 163, 361 operational model of, 81, 82
Social justice, 13, 20, 33–34, 36, 42–43, 50, particular vs universal, 59–62
52–54, 72, 105–107, 112, 121, 127, 135, patterns of coping and adaptation, 85–86
448 index

Spirituality (Continued) Tangenberg, K. M., 80

patterns of resilience and Tao, 60, 63
transformation, 86 Taoism, 112, 130, 134
practitioners’ defi nitions, 67–69 Teresa, Mother, 302
relation with religion, 78–80 Thoreson, C. E., 70
research aspects, 91–94 Tibetan Buddhism, 107
resources for addressing, 387–395 Tillich, P., 152–153
role in social work practice, 5–10 T’oegye, 18
spiritual drives, 81–83, 82 Torah law and practices, 179–180
spiritual experiences, 83, 102 Towle, C., 65
support groups, 89–90 Traditional healers, 172, 208, 267, 292, 307,
in transpersonal psychology, 72 360–361
universal warp of spiritual drives, 101–103 Transcending boundaries, 113
Spiritually sensitive practice, 5 Transcultural perspective, 298–299, 299
client-centeredness, 217–218 Transcultural teamwork, 304–311
and competence, 55 Transformation process, 232
creativity, 220–222 Transformation/transformational practice,
education and curriculum issues, 374–375 324–326
ethical principles, 51–55 body care, 339–344
examples, 360, 360–361 consistency in practice, 336–337
helping relationship, 213–215 engaging ritual and ceremony, 344–349
and importance of human relationships, focused relaxation, 337–339, 341, 343–344
54–55 forgiveness, 349–356
importance of spirituality, 364–366 intentional breathing, 335
inclusivity, 218–220 maintenance of mental and physical
macropractice, 7, 22, 195, 236, 361–364, balance, 336
367, 376 meditation, 331–333, 341–343
and managed care issues, 366 mindfulness practice, 330–333, 341
micro- and mesolevels of practice, paying attention, 333–335
361–364 process of, 321–322
principles and activities, 237–239 social work practice as, 314–323
raising the topic of religion or spirituality spiritually oriented helping activities,
with clients, 370–374 326–330
respectful helping relationship, 216–217 therapeutic change, 317–321
and secularization, 374–375 therapeutics and ritual studies, 315–317
social change and social justice, 53–54 use of metaphors, stories and artistry,
transnational studies of, 369–370 322–323
and trustworthiness, 55 Transnational studies, of spirituality in
value clarity, 215–216 social work, 369–370
virtue of compassion, 32–34 Transpersonal experiences, 66
worldwide view of, 367–375 Transpersonal theory, 196, 197, 198
Spiritual problem, 280 beliefs, 192–193
Spiritual propensity, 273 origin and contemporary varieties of,
Spiritual vocation, 35, 244 190–192
Spiritual well-being, 93–94 social work implications, 194–196
12 Step programs, 294 values, 193–194
Strengths perspective, on social work, 19–21, Transperspectival approach, 14, 61–62, 316, 376
62, 93, 187, 224, 229, 263–264, 315, 366 Trauma, 146, 150, 171, 174, 187, 231, 246,
Sufi Order, 175 265, 274, 328, 330, 346
Surveys of social workers, 35, 64, 67–69, 80, True self, 194
106–108, 114–118, 232–233, 260–261, Truth and reconciliation process,
286, 310, 370–374, 383–386 354–356, 361
Sutras, 149
Synergy, 227, 325, 348 United Kingdom, 4, 67, 69, 114, 177, 370–372,
Synthesis, 227 375, 385
Index 449

United Nations Universal Declaration on War, 3, 42–43, 54, 104, 106, 121, 124,
Human Rights, 16 126–127, 177, 180, 200, 207, 265, 319,
United States. See also Spirituality 353–354, 363, 375
African American spirituality, 119–125 Weaver, H., 172
contemporary spiritual diversity, 106–108 Well-being, spiritual, 93–94
Hispanic American spirituality, 126–129 Wicca, 132
history of spiritual diversity, 103–106 Wikler, M., 180, 182
homosexual population sexual orientation Wilber, K., 13, 72, 86, 191, 193–194, 249,
diversity, and spirituality, 133–139 257–259, 281
Indigenous religions, 167–174 Integral Model of Development,
patterns of spiritual orientations among 257–259
social workers, 114–118, 116, 117–118 Wineburg, R. J., 111
relation between spirituality and social Win/win strategies, 231
work practice, 109–114, 110 Witchcraft, 132–133
spiritual perspectives among American Women and spirituality, 129–133
baby boomers, 108–109 in conventional religions, 130–131
trends of spiritual belief and practice, Jewish life cycle ritual for
108–109 women, 133
women and spirituality, 129–133 perspectives, 131–132
social work implications, 132–133
Value clarity, 11–15 Worldwide view, of spiritually sensitive
Vedanta, 149, 162–163 practice, 367–375
Vedantic Hinduism, 88 Wounded/healed healer, theme of, 48–50
VIA Signature Strengths, 93 Wycliffe, J., 148
Virtue theory, 34
Visualization, 166, 195, 262, 282, 290, 294, Yellow Bird, M., 167–168
324, 326, 329, 342, 360 Yin and yang, 158
Vivekananda, Swami, 162–164 Yip, K., 52, 161
Vodoun, 121, 128–129
Voss, R. W., 170 Zen Buddhism, 80, 83, 85, 91, 107, 196
Zen Buddhist, 36
Wairuatanga, 78 Zen Peacemaker Order, 147
Walz, T., 236 Zinnbauer, B. J., 71–72