PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF SELECTED

HYDRODYNAMIC AND MECHANICAL EFFECTS IN SHIP HANDLING

NOTE: Phenomena (effects) either positive or negative, dependent upon parituclar
situation (as existing in most manoeuvres of a new look)

‘KICK AHEAD MANOEUVRES’ (accelerated turns) p. 1/2

‘Short kick ahead' by engine/propeller as used to improve turning of ship, eg. for initiating,
keeping, or checking the yaw, practically with no regard to advance speed (forward or aft) –
rudder is effective, if propeller definitely works ahead, condition of ‘kick ahead’ – there must
be a positive difference between speed (/-) an telegraph order () (ie. briefly: ~ order > |speed|)
v xy [m s]
2 aspects (dependent on particular purpose): R[m]]  also for turns
 z [rad s] with constant radius
a) increase in angular speed (rate of heading change) 
b) increase in curvature of trajectory (decrease of turning radius)
‘Constant
‘C t tR Rate
t off T
Turn (ROT) technique’
t h i ’ - improper
i name, since
i
NOTE:
it’s actually ‘constant/fixed radius’ turn, often accomplished with
R’[L]=R/L= vxy / (zL) graphical tools (eg. VRM) of radar or ECDIS. Such turns should
– trajectory radius in ship length units [L] (as ~ inverse of relative angular velocity involve feasible radii for the ship and with certain safety margin ,
-see prev. semester – that is almost constant for most ships) is practically eg. rudder of ca. 15-20. Such a turn is more of navigational than
independent of size/length and speed of ship.
ship This implies a limiting absolute R
of purely manoeuvring type, since it deals with relatively small
(in Nm/cbl) available for ship. R mainly depends on rudder angle, if RPM (or
pitch)=const and ‘meets’ speed (what is equivalent to the initial steady movement). and only horizontal confinement of the area, that can be assigned
If we take IMO requirements, the minimal available radii (=> the tightest turns) to coastal navigation (rather than to confined/restricted area in
are 2-3L. Once the speed is ‘different’ than engine order (kick ahead), the transient manoeuvring sense) and usual route planning, here in terms of
radius additionaly depends on engine order (RPM angular speed speed, with no regard circular arc
arc. How to do: by means of rudder angle,
angle adjust the
to advance speed). angular yaw speed (ROT) to the instantaneous speed (! as
naturally being dropped during turning), for both to be in
!!!in praactical nautical units: proportion, in order to have R=const..
R[Nm]= (/3)v[kn]/min  v[kn]/min 1/15
 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF MECHANICAL EFFECTS
‘KICK
KICK AHEAD MANOEUVRES’
MANOEUVRES p. 2/2

Notes about turning kinematics:

a) tightest turning trajectories for max.
a)’tightest’ max rudder angle: first 1) rate of turn,
turn then
(after some time) 2) speed reduction,
b) ship’s initial speed (as far as engine order adjusted to current speed) of little
effect on turning radius (both in steady and transient phase).

Rules of conducting ‘kick ahead’ manoeuvres:

a) speed reduction
reduction,
b) first rudder, then engine, for returning – do inversely (not always a speed increase
is observed, as could be expected).

Cause of effectiveness – propeller slipstream (rudder flow and force) is mainly

dependent on telegraph order and easily correlates with ship’s rate of turn (yaw
y)
velocity).

2/15
 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF MECHANICAL EFFECTS
INSTANT PIVOT POINT (PP) p. 1/2

Notion/term absolutely !!! kinematic, location of PP directly (explicitely)

d
dependent
d on present/instant
/i values
l off lateral
l l and
d angular
l velocities,
l i i only l
indirectly (and often improperly) on steering forces (as there are yet ‘hidden’
forces, eg. of hull, wind)
 v y [ m s]
x PP [m] 
 z [rad s]

It is safe to assume that for ahead movement (and M/E also working
ahead)) and steeringg ((lateral)) force at stern ((like of rudder)) - PP lies
practicallt at bow, although this location can reach ca. 1/3-1/4L counting
from bow towards stern (ie. with strong lateral movement of stern,
implying large local drift angle at stern – ‘the
the stern thrown away
away’,, but in
parallel with some although weak opposite movement of bow, that can
sometimes be of importance). The PP effect is crucial for negotiating bends
and self-berthing,
self berthing its location (as based on above formula and instant
motions) varies during a particular manoeuvre (but in limited way).
3/15
 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF MECHANICAL EFFECTS

INSTANT PIVOT POINT p. 2/2

Method of negotiating the bend
Inherent feature of kinematics – if MS trajectory (midship,
~C.G.) during turning goes equally between fairway limits
(banks, shorelines), then the stern ‘outward’ is closer than
400
the bow ‘inward’, ie. the stern dangerously approaches the
outer limit
limit. In case of so
so-called
called bank effect (see also slides
later on) – stern suction from closer bank – helps turning
(what is used by inland ships and hardly by sea-going ships),
300 if it is properly controlled, but simultaneously stern ‘goes’
ffaster ! towards outer bank...

On the other hand, keeping on the inner side before entering

200
the bend is of no advantage, since it delays the
moment/position of initiating the turn (due to little yet
essential
ti l bow
b ’s movementt inward
i d as result
lt off PP,
PP nearly
l att
100 bow but definitely little shifted in aft direction). If under
in this case, start additional bank effect, the ship will exercise lower angular
turning ca. 0.5L speed.
earlier
li
0 Best tactics (! under strong narrowness of bend) – just follow
-100 0 100 200 300 and start turning in fairway centre-line (also recommended
for safety of navigation), but in due advance (plan 1-2L
before ! ‘arbitrarily’ established turning point), as to enter
-100
100
the
h bbendd with
i h already
l d developed
d l d turning i rate. Then
Th MS
trajectory will be closer to the inner side, however, with equal
distances of FP/AP to both shorelines.
4/15
 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF MECHANICAL EFFECTS

WIND and WAVES p. 2/2

wind
(wave forces of 2. order, ie. so-called drift
f
forces, as opposed to ‘typical’ zero-mean oscillating forces,
!similar to wind in magnitude/direction)
A - tankers, bulk carriers
loaded
Role in manoeuvring – a ship must sail with:
B - most of the rest, incl.
1) drift angle (in order to balance lateral forces Fy, containerships, ferries,
or optionally to use anchor dredging on windward), ballasted ships
and
2) relevant rudder angle (for balancing yaw
moments Mz, rudder direction dependent on ship ship’ss A B
turning tendency due to wind/wave action)
AD. 1 – in accordance with general (kinematic) rule of classical
navigation in leading lights under strong beam wind, ie. keep course
deviated towards wind (to account/have allowance for drift), in order
to follow the line of leading lights with ship’s center.

5/15
 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF MECHANICAL EFFECTS
WIND and
d WAVES p. 2/2
Ship turning under wind (selected aspects)
2) wind
i d from
f abeam
b 2) wind from abeam

1) wind from stern 1) wind from stern

container carrier tanker/bulk carrier

car/passenger
/ ferry
f or cruise
i ship
hi i loaded
in l d d conditions
di i (even
( keel)
k l)
ballasted (trimmed) tanker/bulker

AD 1) <90
<90 helps,
helps >90
>90 impedes AD 1) helps over the whole turn (though
(turning PORT/STBD identically) with different level, turning PORT/STBD
AD 2) <90 impedes, >90 helps identically)
(turning PORT/STBD identically) AD 2) PB: <90
<90 impedes,
impedes >90>90 helps
LB: <90 helps, >90 impedes
6/15
 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF MECHANICAL EFFECTS

WATER CURRENT

uniform current-
example of resultant
oblique water inflow
to bow (in general,
V ground motion
i relative
l i to
water has to be
non-uniform current
considered for
turning/lateral drifting
effects rapid
p turn
V water>0)
ie. pressure centre
current from ahead far from midships
(Vground>V current),
or from aft instant pivot
(Vgr ound>V current>0), point
or lack of current
(Vwa ter,gr ound>0),

A - loaded
A B
B - ballasted

HELP (for current effect assessment, in terms of lateral force

and turning moment, in transient conditions, ie. when yet no
drifting ‘equally with current’ developed: just check whether
and what incidence angle the water attacks the hull, eg.
according to ship’s heading, when stopped/slowed down over
ground, and direction of current. 7/15
 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF MECHANICAL EFFECTS
River navigation (non-uniform current, selected aspects)
negotiating bends – a role of heading angle vs
vs. current ( approach lateral speed during berthing)

YES NO

acquisition of soil material and extinction of current stopping a ship with current from aft

bend negotiation
NO with (down)/against (up) NO
the current
! avoid staying a long
time with ship’s side
towards the current flow

YES YES

faster ‘counter-action to
escape from current
8/15
 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF MECHANICAL EFFECTS

PROPELLER SIDE EFFECT (during ahead/astern work)

cause – throw of twisted slipstream (jet) on hull aftbody (!while astern,
astern lateral
force at the hull stern), excitation on propeller (~while ahead, lateral force at
propeller itself)
CPP is specific – a problem when STOP (zero
pitch) applied while high forward speed
right-handed conventional propeller (FPP, fixed pitch)
or left-handed controllable pitch propeller (CPP) left-handed CPP
- most frequent cases as nautically justified STOP order at high fwd speed => turning to PORT
if next
ne t astern order (even
(e en after short while),
hile) it happens this
tendency can not be overcome
!!! sometimes opposite tendency !!!
speed instant pivot
point
or
instant pivot point

speed

eg. HAS

STOP (zero pitch)

9/15
 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF MECHANICAL EFFECTS

SHALLOW WATER EFFECTS

1) Squat (change of UKC – average/‘sinkage’ and local/‘trim’, two

phenomena) – great role of !!!echosounder, especially at FP and AP (analytical
prediction methods of little accuracy), due to deformation of water free surface
(rising/crest at FP/AP, lowering/trough at MS) – not always observed at draught
marks.

2) Hull resistance increase – lower speeds developed (but actual speed

reduction for the same RPM sometimes tends to be moderate – against
g
expectations/theory).

3)) Turningg abilityy - cause: steering

g forces ((eg.
g rudder)) without change,
g , but !!!
higher hull forces and moment, ADVICE: apply large rudder angle till
initiation of turn, as to ‘catch’ hull moment, which thanks to develeped drift
helps with turning (in particular for loaded ships, on even keel).

10/15
 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF MECHANICAL EFFECTS

BANK/WALL (suction) EFFECT

Cause
Ca se - two
t phenomena
h (bow
(b wave – weaker,
k andd stern
t suction
ti - stronger),
t ) but
b t
always (in both situations) heading change towards channel centreline (!
allegedly good but...)

stronger
beneficial effect - for inland ships

PP PP

Counter-action:
C t ti rudder
dd ttowardsd b bank
k or NTH
NTH, mindi d
the engine telegraph (as could increase the effect)
11/15
 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF MECHANICAL EFFECTS
MANOEUVRING SPEED
Minimal steerable speed – does not exist and makes a lot
man-FAH (technically ~80% SFAH) of misunderstanding, unless the speed is considered at
does not ensure immediate reversing STOPped engine, that is the only feasible approach – then
(ie crash stop
(ie. stop, due to turbine/wind-milling eg. for
f FPP andd speedd <ca.
< 5 kn k (when
( h often
ft the
th propeller
ll
effect of propeller) – possible until additionally stops) – just being recognised as minimal
8-10 knots (SAH/HAH) - unless CPP is steerable speed – even max. rudder angle does not help
installed. check or start turning.
g
FENDER
Design assumption: parallel contact of ship with
berth ((even distribution of loads/energy),
gy), hence
max. allowable lateral speed F&A of contact as bbefore
f contact:
vy0(/), z0 (/)
practical berthing safety criterion, eg. 0.3-0.5kn
after contact:
or even 0.2kn, here for LNG carriers at SWINO
(although dealing with parallel position, often used for x fend ( )=z1 x
vy1()= xodb
oblique touch, sometimes thus modified).  z1(+) (from
momentum
Point contact (for oblique impact, applies to small and conservation))
medium ships, which berth on their own) - ship !!! 1

2
rotates around contact point, apparently less
energy
gy absorbed ((but ! the rest is still on/with
ship, for which we need to get ready)
12/15
 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF MECHANICAL EFFECTS
MOORING LINES (ROPES)
Technical parameters: elasticity (opposite to stiffness)
wires (wire ropes): 1-2%,
1 2% fibre ropes: 10-20%
10 20%
MBL
Manoeuvring features: wires – low tension (stress) [N] potential energy
energy absorption
b ti (in
(i dynamic
d i workk ship'ss kinetic energy)
(fm ship

conditions, i.e. related to ship’s linear

or angular speed), but at the same displacement (elongation, strain) [m] 

time low deviation from position fibre ropes

(in static and dynamic conditions),
‘fibres’ - oppositely,
pp y, but this is their
! MERIT in supporting (dynamic)
manoeuvres, eg. in STS operations wires
((‘ship-to-ship’,
ship to ship , eg.
eg bunkering at sea) ABOVE equall MBL and
ABOVE: d llength
th or both
b th ropes

Allowable ship’s kinetic energy for rope ‘dynamic’ operation (as not to break) -
proportional to product of 1) (relative) elasticity (%) and 2) rope length (m)
– as both affecting the so-called absolute elasticiity.
13/15
 MANOEUVRING ISSUES during PILOT BOARDING
and NAVIGATION IN VTS/TSS AREAS
Embarkation/disembarkation of pilot
Harbour authorities (local regulations) require their PILOT, unless ship’s captain has PEC (=>local procedure to getting
pilot exemption certificate). Pilots sometimes change on ship’s route, eg. every section/stage (route/transit/berthing-
mooring pilot etc.) – then pilots mostly manoevre for ‘other pilots’ and ‘release’ the captain from decision-making (only
partly !!! as captain assumes overall supervision responsibility and has ‘overriding’ authority.
General problem: at pilot position a ship must have a certain course and speed (and side and height above water for pilot
ladder).
) This info
f is usuallyy provided
p byy pilot
p station in advance duringg 1-st contact,, and modified
f duringg direct contact
with pilot boat (visual or VHF), but sometimes captain must take decisions. Course (heading) – resulting from nautical
conditions, local pilotage procedures, and weather at the site, taking into account a leeway for pilot boat. Speed -
resulting from ability of given pilot boat to berth/unberth to/from ship’s side, size of nautical area available for transfer
((the lower speed
p – the smaller room required,
q , but then a pproblem with own drift/rolling
f g can arise).
)
During pilot boat approach/transfer/departure, a ship must keep motion parameterx (course and speed), since the pilot
boat manoeuvres, often coming from behind ship’s stern. During transfer stage, apply STOP (just for case of pilot over
board ), if possible. Bridge-pilot boat VHF contact has to be absolutely maintained for coordination of manoeuvring,
including bridge-officer
bridge officer at the pilot ladder (eg.
(eg for first pilot orders from deck) and full readiness of pilot boarding equipm.
equipm
Pilot disembarkation – often with instruction from leaving pilot, in general similar problems like for boarding, but
sometimes different nautical and weather conditions, and different pilot boat.

Navigation in VTS (sometimes

( i with
i h TSS,
TSS often
f w/pilot)
/ il )
VTS reduces traffic flow congestion and keeps safety in waterway. General Navigation in TSS
problems: awaiting permission for entering and passing individual points in See - general operational problems of
jurisdiction, and for different ship’s actions if against local rules (eg. speed COLLREGs (entering, leaving, crossing,
i
increase – (?) sometimes
i to get time
i advantage),
d ) immediate
i di stopping i or speedd taking within, anticollision manoeuvres with
reduction while maintaining course – staying in drift, at anchor, speed HDG and SPD- ! with nautical constraints,
reduction up to controllability limits, passing with each other. In general – incl. other ships).
to be at a given position at a given time, since other ships in movement.. 14/15
 PILOT EMBARKATION CNTD. (equipment)
Pilot boarding (transfer) arrangement (plan)

15/15