FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL SCIENCE

PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS

I. CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Materials are classified as:

❖ Metallic

✓ Ferrous
Example: Steel, cast iron, wrought iron, malleable cast iron

✓ Nonferrous
Example: Copper, tin, zinc, aluminum, magnesium, and titanium

❖ Nonmetallic

Example: Wood, stone, brick, cement, concrete, resins

(plastics), rubber, leather, and ceramics

II. PROPERTES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

❖ CHEMICAL PROPERTIES – are properties of a material that relate to its

behavior in chemical reactions.

Some common chemical properties of materials are:

 Corrosion – is the partial or complete wearing away, dissolving, or

softening of any substance by chemical or electrochemical reaction
with its environment.

 Alloying - is the process of mixing one metal to another or mixing a

metal with nonmetallic material

 Composition – means the percentage of the various elements that

make up the metal

 Compound formation

 Crystal Structure – is the definite, repeating arrangement of atoms

and molecules in a material
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL SCIENCE

❖ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES – are those distinguishing qualities or

characteristics that are used to describe a substance in the absence of
external forces.
Some common physical properties of a material are:

 Specific Heat – is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature

of one gram of a substance by one degree, usually measured in
joules per kilogram per Kelvin.

 Thermal Conductivity – is the rate at which heat flows through a

material between points at different temperatures, measured in
watts per meter per degree.

 Thermal Expansion Coefficient is a thermodynamic property of a

substance, which relates the change in temperature to the change in
material’s linear dimensions.

 Density – is the mass per unit volume of a substance.

 Refractive Index - is the ratio, which relates the speed of light co in

vacuum to the speed of light cm in the medium.
 Electrical Resistivity – is defined as the resistance

 Specific Gravity - is the ratio of the density of the substance to the density
of some standard substance. The standard is usually water (@ 4 oC)
for liquids and solids, while for gasses, it is usually air.
 Poisson’s Ratio – is the ratio of the lateral strain to the axial strain of
the material.

❖ Mechanical properties – are those properties which describe the behavior

of materials under the application of force.
Some common mechanical properties of materials are:

 Strength- is the ability of the material to withstand force, pressure, or

stress.
 Hardness – is usually defined as resistance to scratching or
penetration.
 Ductility – is the property of a material by virtue of which it may be
plastically elongated.
 Elasticity – is the property of a material to regain its original shape
upon the removal of the external load.
 Plasticity – is the property of the material by virtue of which
permanent deformation can occur.
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL SCIENCE

III. STRESS AND STRAIN

STRESS
Stress is the measure of the strength of the agent that is causing a
deformation.
=F

WheRe  = stress, (N/m2 )

F = force, (N)
A = area, (m2 )
STRAIN

Strain is the unit deformation resulting from a stress

WheRe  = L

 = strain (unitless)
HOOKE’S LAW
L = change in length
L = original length
The Hooke’s law states that, “within the elastic range of materials, stress is
proportional to strain.”

STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM

Proportional limit is the point on the stress-strain curve below which, the
stress is proportional to strain.

The elastic limit of a body is the smallest

stress that will produce a permanent
deformation of the body.

Yield point is a point at which there is an

appreciable elongation or yielding of the
material without any corresponding
increase of load.

The ultimate strength is the highest ordinate on the stress-strain curve.

Rapture strength is the stress at failure.

FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL SCIENCE

IV. FACTOR OF SAFETY

The Factor of Safety of a material is the ratio of allowable stress to working

stress.

Allowable stress is that stress below which it is known that failure will not take
place.

Working stress is the actual stress under which the material is expected to
operate.

 Factors to be considered in choosing the factor of safety to be employed

☞ Variation of material properties
☞ Quality of the manufacturing operations
☞ The uncertainties of computations of stress, magnitude, and stress
distribution on the basis of assumption that have been necessary in
the theory employed.
☞ Dangers of personal injury from failure of the part of undue financial
loss
☞ The influence of uncertainties such as may be experienced in
corrosion and unforeseen types of loading
☞ Extent of inspection

V. SELECTION OF MATERIALS

 Factors to be considered :

 Strength requirement

 Ease of fabrication

 Cost of the material

 Availability of the material

FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL SCIENCE

ELASTICITY
ELAStICItY is the property of the material to regain its original shape upon the
removal of the external load.

YOUNG’S MODULUS OR TENSILE MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

The Young’s Modulus or tensile modulus describes the length elasticity of the
material. It is the ratio of the stress to strain within the limit of proportionality.


WheRe E = tension modulus of elasticity (Young's Modulus)
 = stress
 = strain

SHEAR MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

The shear modulus describes the shape elasticity of the material.

WheRe G = shear modulus of elasticity

E = tension modulus of elasticity (Young's Modulus)
 = poisson's ratio

BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

The bulk modulus describes the volume elasticity of the material.

V(p) E
= =

WheRe  = bulk modulus of elasticity

P = change in pressure
V = change in volume
V = original volume
E = tensile modulus of elasticity (Young's Modulus)
 = poisson's ratio
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL SCIENCE

PLASTICITY

PLAStICItY is the property of a material by virtue of which permanent

deformation can occur.

❖ MEASURES OF PLASTICITY

 Ductility is that quality of a material by virtue of which it may be

plastically elongated.

MeASUReS OF DUCtILItY:

Percent Elongation:

 
=  100%
 

Reduction in area:

 
=  100%
 O 

 Malleability is the quality of a material by virtue of which it may be

plastically compressed.

❖ ORDER OF PROPERTIES FOR THE SIX MOST COMMONLY USED METALS WHEN IN THE
PURE STATE

ORDeR OF MALLeABILITy ORDeR OF DUcTILITy

1. Copper 1. Copper
2. Aluminum 2. Iron
3. Tin 3. Aluminum
4. Lead 4. Zinc
5. Iron 5. Tin
6. Zinc 6. Lead
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL SCIENCE

ENGINEERING
MATERIALS
 POLYMERS

A POLYmeR is a substance consisting of large molecules that are made of many

small, repeating units called monomers, or mers.

A copolymer or interpolymer is a large molecule with two alternating mers.

Homopolymers are polymers consisting of only one kind of repeating unit.

Elastomers are polymers with plastic properties similar to rubber.

❖ Some Common Polymeric Materials

▪ Elastomers
▪ Plastics
▪ Adhesives
▪ Fibers
▪ Asphalt
▪ Natural rubber

DEGREE OF POLYMERIZATION
The Degree of Polymerization (DP), is the number of repeating units in one large
molecule, typically several hundred to several thousand.

WheRe DP = degree of polymerization

mW = molecular weight
High Polymers are materials with a very high degree of polymerization.
Telenomers or oligomers are polymers with degree of polymerization of less
than 10

THERMOPLASTICS AND THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

Thermoplastics are polymers, which can be repeatedly softened by heating

and hardened by cooling.
Thermosetting plastics, on the other hand, harden permanently after being
heated once.
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL SCIENCE

Some Common thermosetting thermoplastics:

THeRMOSeTTING THeRMOPLASTIcS
Epoxy Acetal
Melamine Acrylic
Natural rubber (polyisoprene) Polyamide (Nylon)
Phenolic Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Polyester (DAP) Polyester (PBT and PET)
Silicone Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon)

 GLASS

GLASS is defined as supercooled liquids, because they do not crystallize when

cooled below their melting points. The basic ingredient of glass compositions
is silica, derived from sand, flint, or quartz

Properties of silica:

✓ At room temperature, silica is in the form of quartz.

✓ At 875OC (1607OF), the structure changes to tridymite.
✓ At 1470OC (2678OF), the structure changes to cristobalite.

Vitrification is the process a liquid glass solidifies without molecular change

when cooled below the melting point.

Some common glasses:

TyPe OF GLASS CHARAcTeRISTIcS USe

Fused silica Thermal shock resistant Laboratory equipment
Borosilicate (pyrex) Thermal shock resistant Cooking utensils
Aluminasilicate Thermal shock resistant Thermometers
Soda-lime silica Easy to form Plate, bulbs
Lead-alkali Dielectric Capacitors
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL SCIENCE

 CERAMICS

CeRAmICS are compounds of metallic and non-metallic elements.

Some common examples of ceramics are:
✓ Glass
✓ Brick
✓ Portland cement
✓ Refractories
✓ Abrasives

Properties of Typical Ceramics:

✓ High melting point

✓ High hardness
✓ High compressive strength
✓ High tensile strength (perfect crystals)
✓ Low ductility (brittleness)
✓ High shear resistance (low slip)
✓ Low electrical conductivity
✓ Low thermal conductivity
✓ High corrosion (acid) resistance
✓ Low coefficient of thermal expansion

 WOOD

A wood is a hard, tough substance that forms the trunks of trees, and that has
been used for thousands of years as a fuel and as a material of construction.

Softwoods contains tube-like fibers (tracheids) oriented with the longitudinal

axis (grain) and cemented together with lignin.

Hardwoods contains more complex structures in addition to longitudinal fibers

MOIStURe CONteNt:

WheRe MC = moisture content

WWet = wet weight
WOveN dRY = oven dry weight
NOte:

Wood is considered green if its moisture content is above 19%.

Wood is considered dry if its moisture content is between (12-15)%
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL SCIENCE

 ABRASIVES

An ABRASIve is a hard material that can cut other materials.

Abrasives are classified into two:

❖ Natural abrasives
Natural abrasives include emery (50-60% Al2O3, rest iron oxide),
corundum, quartz, garnets, and diamonds.

❖ Artificial abrasives.

Artificial abrasives include carbides and man-made aluminum oxide

(Al2O3).

Familiar abrasives include sandpaper, steel wool, emery boards, and whetstones,
but abrasives are also used in the forms of powders, grains, chips, and blocks.

Common uses for abrasives include grinding, polishing, buffing, honing,

cutting, drilling, sharpening, and sanding.

 CONCRETE

Concrete is a mixture of mineral aggregates locked in a solid structure by a

binding mineral (that is, cement).

Aggregates refer to the sand and rock particles that have been added to
increase mass and volume of concrete.

Sand that will pass through #4 sieve (openings less than 0.25 in or 0.6 cm) is
known as fine aggregates. Any particles that are larger than this are known as
course aggregate.

PROpORtIONS OF CONCRete MIxtURe:

This means that,

1 – part of cement
2 – parts of fine aggregate
3 – part of courses aggregate
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL SCIENCE

CEMENT

Cement is any material that hardens and becomes strongly adhesive after
application in plastic form. The term cement is often used interchangeably
with glue and adhesive . The most common cement is the Portland Cement,
manufactured from lime, silica, and alumina.

THe FIVe COMMON TyPeS OF PORTLAND CeMeNT:

❖ Normal Portland Cement

This is general-purpose cement typically used in sidewalks,
pavements, beams, columns, and culverts.

❖ Modified Portland Cement

This cement has a moderate sulfate resistance and is generally
used in hot weather in the construction of large concrete structures.

❖ High-Early-Strength Portland Cement

This cement develops its strength quickly and is suitable for structures
that must be put to early use or when long term protectionagainst cold
temperature is not feasible.

❖ Low – Heat Portland Cement

For used in massive concrete structures such as gravity dams. This
cement is required to minimize the curing heat.

❖ Sulfate-Resistant Portland Cement

This type of cement is used when exposure to sulfates is expected.

METALLURGY

MetALLURgY is the science and technology of metals, including the extraction

of metals from ores, the preparation of metals for use, and the study of the
relationship between structures and properties of metals

ExtRACtIve metALLURgY is the subject, which covers the refinement of pure

metals from their ores.
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL SCIENCE

CLASSIFICATION OF METALLURGICAL PROCESSES

 Chemical metallurgy is the branch of metallurgy which deals with the

reduction of metals from their minerals and the refining and alloying of
those metals.

 Physical metallurgy is the branch of metallurgy which deals with the

nature, structure, and physical properties of metals and alloys.

 Mechanical metallurgy is the branch of metallurgy which deals with the

working and shaping of metals and alloys, such as casting, forging, rolling,
and drawing.

ORES

An ORe is a combination of minerals, which can be profitably mined. Those ores

which contain a predominance of silica or silicate in the gangue are considered
as acid ores, while those with a predominance of limestone and magnesia are
considered as basic ores.

A gangue is a secondary minerals consisting of impurities of an earthy nature

such as rock, sand, and clay.

Primary metals are metals produced directly from ore.

Secondary metals are metals that are reclaimed from scrap.

Properties of Some Metals and Alloys:

✓ High thermal conductivity

✓ High electrical conductivity
✓ High chemical reactivity
✓ High strength
✓ High ductility
✓ h density
✓ Highly magnetic
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL SCIENCE

MATERIAL TESTING

❖ HARDNESS TESTING
 BRINELL TEST
This hardness test is used primarily with iron and steel casting. In Brinell
test a Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) is determine by pressing a hardened
steel ball (10 mm in diameter) into the surface of a specimen with a force
of 500 kg and 3000 kg for soft and hard materials, respectively.
P

− −

WheRe P = load , (kg)

A = area in contact
DB = diameter of the steel ball, (mm)
Dd = depression diameter, (mm)
T = depth, (mm)

 ROCKWELL TEST
A Rockwell test is a penetration test in which a diamond cone is used for
hard materials and a hardened steel ball (1/16 inches in diameter) for
soft materials. The Rockwell hardness is determined from the depth of
penetration and is read directly from a dial.

WheRe R = Rockness hardness

T = thickness or depth of penetration
C1 &C2 = constants which depend on the scale

 VICKERS TEST
Also a type of penetration test using a square pyramid as penetrator.

WheRe vhN = Vickers hardness number

P = load
Dm = mean diagonal
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL SCIENCE

 MEYER TEST
A Meyer Test is a form of penetration hardness test using a hardened
steel ball as penetrator.

WheRe mhN = Meyer hardness number

P = load
D = depression diameter

 KNOOP TEST
A Knoop Test is a form of penetration hardness test using asymmetrical
pyramid as penetrator.

WheRe K = Knoop hardness number

P = load
L = long diagonal
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL SCIENCE