Insulating Material and their Properties

The Electrical Insulating Material/insulating materials are the materials that inhibit
heat transmission, electric current, or noise. All the insulating materials have a
negative temperature coefficient of resistance and as such resistivity is reduced
with an increase in temperature. The function of the insulator is very important
without which no electrical machine can work, the majority of the breakdown in
the field of electrical engineering is due to the failure of insulation. The importance
of the insulating materials is ever-increasing in day by day as there is an
innumerable number of types of insulators available in the market. The selection of
the right type of insulating matter is very important because the life of the
equipment depends on the type of material used.
The insulators are the materials that have the valence electrons eight or nearer to
eight. When the valence electrons are eight obviously the atom is in a stable
condition and they offer very high resistance as there are no free electrons, also the
forbidden gap between conduction and valence band is more. The atomic structure
As shown in the above figure, that atom has eight electrons in the outermost
orbit, hence they are stable and it can be considered as an insulator. The
atomic structure of fluorine has seven electrons in their outermost orbit in a
valence electron. The atomic structure of insulating material fluorine is
shown in the below figure.
The atoms like oxygen which have only six electrons in a valence electron they can
be classified also as an insulator but the insulating properties of oxygen are less
than that of fluorine and neon.

The atoms having eight electrons and seven electrons in an outermost orbit
behave as good insulator compared to the atoms having six valence electrons.
What is Glass Insulator?
At high temperature, the glass insulators are designed or manufactured by mixing
the different types of materials, including quartz and lime powder, and then cools
in the mold. The main disadvantage of the glass insulator is, compared to the other
type of insulators the contaminations are observed easily by the glass insulator and
on the surface of the glass insulator, the moisture can be distilled easily.

Properties
The properties of the glass insulator are
•Dielectric Strength: The approximate value of dielectric strength is 140 kV/cm.
•Compressive Strength: The approximate value of compressive strength is 10,000
Kg/cm².
•Tensile Strength: The approximate value of tensile strength is 35,000 Kg/cm².
Advantages
The advantages of the glass insulator are
• Compare to porcelain the dielectric strength is very high in a glass insulator.
• High resistivity.
• The tensile strength is higher than porcelain.
• It is cheaper than porcelain insulator.
• Less cost

What is Polymer Insulator?

The polymer or polymeric insulator is also known as a composite insulator. It is a
light-weight insulating material and has high mechanical strength. The
disadvantage of the polymer insulator is if there is any unwanted gap between
weather shed and core their moisture may enter.
Properties
The polymeric or polymer insulator has excellent properties they are
hydrophobicity, lightweight, and anti-weather ability.
Advantages
The advantages of the polymer insulator are
• Compare to porcelain and glass insulator the polymer insulator is very
lightweight.
• Installation cost is low.
• Tensile strength is higher than porcelain.
• Better performance
What is a Porcelain Insulator?
The porcelain insulator is an aluminum silicate insulating material. In the present
day, this material is used for the overhead insulator. The week in tension and poor
shock resistance is the disadvantages of a porcelain insulator. The porcelain can
also be called as ceramic. The applications of this insulator are distribution and
transmission lines, isolators, transformer bushings, fuse units, plugs, and sockets.
Properties
• Dielectric Strength: The approximate value of dielectric strength is 60 kV/cm.
• Compressive Strength: The approximate value of compressive strength is
70,000 Kg/cm².
• Tensile Strength: The approximate value of tensile strength is 500 Kg/cm².

Advantages
• Compared to glass insulator the mechanical strength of porcelain insulator is
very high
• Leakage current is low
• It is less affected by temperature
• Long life
• Easy to maintain
• Highly Flexible
• Highly reliable
Properties of Insulating Material
All the insulators when used should not only behave as an insulator over a wide
range of electric voltage but must strong mechanically. They shouldn’t be affected
by heat, atmosphere, chemical effects and should be free from deformation due to
aging. Therefore before selecting an insulating material, it is quite essential to
know the various properties and their effects on insulation. The various properties
of insulating materials are electrical properties, visual properties, mechanical,
thermal, and chemical properties.

1. Electrical Properties
The electrical properties of insulating materials are divided into two types they are
insulating resistance and dielectric strength. The insulating resistance is again
classified into two types they are volume resistance and surface resistance. The
factors affecting insulating resistance are temperature, aging, applied voltage and
moisture and the factors affecting dielectric strength are temperature and
humidity.
2. Visual Properties
The visual properties of insulating material are appearance, color, and its
crystallinity.
3. Mechanical Properties
Some of the mechanical properties which are to be taken care of while selecting
the insulating material are tension & compression, resistance to abrasion, tear,
shear & impact, viscosity, porosity, solubility, moisture absorption, and
machinability and mouldability.
4. Thermal Properties
The thermal properties of insulating material are melting point, flash, volatility,
thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, and heat resistance.
5. Chemical Properties
The various chemical properties of insulating material are resistance to external
chemical effects, effects on other materials, chemical changes in the material,
hygroscopicity, and aging.
Classification of Insulating Material
The classification of insulating material is based on the thermal classification,
physical classification, structural, chemical classification, and the process of
manufacture.
Thermal Classification
Thermally the insulators are classified into seven types or seven classes they are
class-Y, class-A, class-E, class-B, class-F, class-H, and class-C.
1. Class-Y: The class-Y limitation temperature is 90° C and the materials come
under class-Y are cotton, paper, silk, and similar organic materials.
2. Class-A: The class-A limitation temperature is 105° C and the materials come
under class-A are impregnated paper, silk, polyamide, cotton, and resins.
3. Class-E: The class-E limitation temperature is 120° C and the materials come
under class-E are enameled wire insulation on the base of powdered plastics,
polyvinyl epoxy resins, etc.
4. Class-B: The class-B limitation temperature is 130° C and the materials come
under class-B are inorganic materials impregnated with varnish.
5. Class-F: The class-F limitation temperature is 155° C and the materials come
under class-F are mica, polyester epoxide varnished in the high heat resistance.
6. Class-H: The class-H limitation temperature is 180° C and the materials come
under class-H are composite materials on mica, glass, fiber, etc.
7. Class-C: The class-C limitation temperature is >180° C and the materials come
under class-C are glass, mica, quartz, ceramics, Teflon, etc.

Physical Classification of Insulating Material

The physical classification of insulating material is classified into three types they
are solid, liquid, and gaseous. The physical classification of insulators is shown in
the below figure.
 Physical
Classification
of Insulators

Solid Liquid Gaseous

The solid insulating materials are fibrous, ceramic, mica, glass, rubber, and
resinous. The liquid insulating materials are mineral oils, synthetic oils, transformer
oils, and miscellaneous oils. The gaseous insulating materials are air, hydrogen,
nitrogen, and Sulphur hexafluoride.
Structural Classification
The structural classification of insulating material is classified into two types they
are cellulose and fibrous.

Chemical Classification
The chemical classification of insulating material is classified into two types they
are organic and inorganic.

Process of Manufacture
The process of manufacture is classified into two types they are natural and
synthetic.

Some of the insulating materials are fiberglass, mineral wool, cellulose, natural
fibers, polystyrene, polyisocyanurate, polyurethane, insulation facings, phenolic
foam, urea-formaldehyde foam, etc.
Applications of Insulating Material

• Cable and transmission lines

• Electronic systems
• Power systems
• Domestic portable appliances
• Electrical cable insulating tape
• Personal protective equipment
• Electrical rubber mats
Magnetic Materials and their Properties
The permanent magnets are made from a very wide range of magnetic materials.
These materials vary in the nature of their elements and their composition. Each of
these magnetic materials has its own values, characteristics and consequently its
own uses.
Alnico is the most commonly used alloy in the manufacture of permanent
magnets. It consists of Aluminum, Nickel, Iron and Cobalt. The cobalt is costlier
than the others and Iron is the cheapest of all.
The magnetic materials or magnetic substances are the different metallic alloys
from which magnets are made. Depending on their nature and content, the
magnetic materials are broadly classified in three main categories:
• Ferromagnetic material
• Paramagnetic material and
• Diamagnetic material
Paramagnetic material: Paramagnetic substances are those which are attracted by
magnets and when placed in a magnetic field move from weaker to stronger parts
of the field.
Examples aluminum, manganese, platinum, crown glass, the solution of salts of
iron and oxygen.
Properties of paramagnetic materials
• If a bar of paramagnetic material is suspended in between the pole pieces of an
electromagnet, it sets itself parallel to the lines of force.
• When a bar of paramagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field the lines of
force tend to accumulate in it.
• If a paramagnetic liquid is placed in a watch glass resting on the pole pieces of
an electromagnet then it accumulates in the middle. It is because in the central
region the field is the strongest. If the pole pieces are not close together the
field is strongest near the poles and the liquid moves away from the center
giving an almost opposite effect.
• If one end of a narrow u-tube containing a paramagnetic liquid is placed within
the pole pieces of an electromagnet in such a manner that the level of the
liquid is in the lie with the field, then on applying the field the level of the liquid
rises. The rises in proportional to the susceptibility of the liquid.
• When a paramagnetic gas is allowed to ascend between the poles pieces of an
electromagnet it spreads along the direction of the field.

Diamagnetic Substances
Diamagnetic substances are those which are repelled by magnets and when placed
in a magnetic field move from the stronger to the weaker part of the field.

Diamagnetic materials examples

Familiar examples of these are: Bismuth, Phosphorus, Antimony, Copper, Water,
Alcohol & Hydrogen
Properties of Diamagnetic materials
• When a diamagnetic substance is placed in a magnetic field it sets itself at right
angles to the direction of the lines of force.
• When diamagnetic material is placed within a magnetic field the lines of force
tend to go away from the material.
• When a diamagnetic substance is placed in a watch glass on the pole pieces of a
magnet the liquid accumulates on the sides causing a depression at the center
which is the strongest part of the field. When the distance between the pole
pieces is larger, the effect is reversed.
• A diamagnetic liquid in a u-tube placed in a magnetic field shows as depression.
• When a diamagnetic gas is allowed to ascend between, the poles piece of an
electromagnet it spreads across the field.
Ferromagnetic material: Ferromagnetic substances are those which are attracted
by the magnets and can also be magnetized.
Ferromagnetic materials examples
Familiar examples are: Iron, Nickel & Cobalt and their alloys

Properties of Ferromagnetic Substances

• The ferromagnetic substance shows the properties of the paramagnetic
substance to a much greater degree.
• The susceptibility has a positive value and the permeability is also very large.
• The intensity of magnetization I is proportional to the magnetizing field H for a
small value.
Superconductivity
Superconductivity is a phenomenon whereby a charge moves through a material
without resistance.
In theory this allows electrical energy to be transferred between two points with
perfect efficiency, losing nothing to heat.
Certain metals and alloys exhibit almost zero resistivity (i.e. infinite conductivity),
when they are cooled to sufficiently low temperatures. This effect is called
superconductivity. This phenomenon was first of all discovered by H. K. Onnes in
1911 when measuring the electrical conductivity of metals at low temperatures.

Critical or transition temperature (Or) Transition temperature:

The temperature at which the transition from normal state to superconducting
state takes place on cooling in the absence of magnetic field is called critical
temperature or transition temperature.
Properties of superconductors:-
1. It is a low temperature phenomenon.
2. The transition temperature is different for different substances.
3. Materials having high normal resistivities exhibit superconductivity.
4. Materials for which Zρ =10⁶ (where Z is a atomic number and ρ is resistivity)
show superconductivity.
5. For chemically pure and structurally perfect specimen, the superconductivity is
very sharp.
6. Ferro magnetic and Anti ferromagnetic materials are not superconductors.
7. Below the transition temperature the magnetic flux lines are rejected out of the
superconductors.
8. Superconducting elements, in general, lie in the inner columns of the periodic
table.
9. Those metallic elements having their valence electrons lies between 2 to 8
exhibit superconductivity.
10.Below the transition temperature the specific heat curve is discontinuous.
The Meissner effect:
When a weak magnetic is applied to a superconducting specimen at a temperature
below transition temperature TC the magnetic flux lines are expelled. This
phenomenon is called Meissner effect.

Under normal state the magnetic induction inside the specimen is

B = µ₀(H + I).
Where H is the external applied magnetic field and I is the magnetization produced
inside the specimen.
When the specimen is in superconducting state B = 0 (Meissner effect)
0 = µ₀(H + I).
H=-I
χ = I/H = -1
Thus the material is act as a perfectly diamagnetic (for diamagnetic material χ −= 1 )
Type I superconductors
Superconductors which one follows a complete Meissner effect is called type I
superconductors (also is known as soft superconductors).
When the magnetic field strength is gradually increased from its initial value 𝐻 <
𝐻𝑐 , 𝑎𝑡 𝐻𝑐 the diamagnetism is abruptly disappear and the transition from
superconducting state to normal state is sharp as shown in figure. These
superconductors are known as soft superconductors Examples: - Al, Zn, Hg and Sn
Type II superconductors:- Superconductors which does not follow the complete
Meissner effect is called type I superconductors (also is known as hard
superconductors).
In type II superconductors, the specimen is in pure superconducting state up to the
field 𝐻𝑐 1 (lower critical field) when the field is increased beyond 𝐻𝑐 2 (upper critical
state) the magnetic flux lines start penetrating. The specimen is in mixed state
between 𝐻𝑐 1 & 𝐻𝑐 2 . Above 𝐻𝑐 2 , the specimen is in normal state. This means that
the Meissner effect is incomplete in the region between 𝐻𝑐 1 & 𝐻𝑐 2 . This region is
known as vertex region. These superconductors are known as hard
superconductors. Examples: - Zr, Nb
 Differences between type I and Type II superconductor

Type I superconductor Type II superconductor

1. It follows complete Meissner effect. 1. It does not follow the complete
Meissner effect.
2. It has single critical field value 𝐻𝑐 . 2. It has two critical field values
𝐻𝑐 1 & 𝐻𝑐 2 .
3. There no mixed state. 3. There is a mixed state
4. They are soft superconductors 4. They are hard superconductors
5. Materials with pure form are type I 5. Materials with impurities or alloys are
superconductors type II superconductors
6. Examples; Zn, Al, Hg and Sn 6. Examples: Zr, Nb
When the transformer is in operation, heat is generated due to copper losses in the
windings and iron losses in the core. The removal of heat from the transformer is
known as cooling of the transformer.

Transformer Cooling Methods

1. For the dry type transformers

a. Air Natural (AN) Cooling
b. Air Forced (AF) or Air Blast (AB) Cooling

2. For oil immersed type transformers

a. Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN) Cooling
b. Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF) Cooling
c. Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF) Cooling
d. Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF) Cooling
Air Natural (AN) Cooling
The air natural (AN) cooling is used in dry type, self-cooled transformers. In this
method, the natural circulation of surrounding air is used for cooling of the
transformer. The windings of the transformer are protected against the mechanical
damages by a sheet metal enclosure. The air natural cooling is used for low voltage
small transformers upto a few kVA.

Air Forced (AF) or Air Blast (AB) Cooling

The air forced (AF) cooling is used in the dry type, forced-air cooled transformers.
In this method, a continuous blast of filtered cool air is forced with the help of a
fan through the core and windings of the transformer for cooling. This method is
used for cooling of the transformers upto 15 MVA
Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN) Cooling

The oil natural air natural cooling is used in oil immerged type transformers. The
most of the transformers of the medium and large ratings have their core and
windings immerged in dielectric oil, which acts both as cooling medium and
insulating medium.
The oil immerged transformers are enclosed in a sheet steel tank. The heat
generated in the core and windings being transferred to the oil. The heated oil
becomes lighter and rises to the top and the cool oil takes its place from the
bottom of the transformer tank.
The heat of the oil is transferred to the walls of the tank by natural circulation of
the oil and the heat is then transferred to the surrounding air through the natural
radiation and convection. Hence, the oil gets cooler and falls to the bottom.
Therefore, a natural circulation of oil takes place for the cooling of the transformer.
Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF) Cooling

In oil natural air forced cooling of the transformer, the heat generated by the core
and windings of the transformer is transferred to the walls of the tank and to the
radiator through the natural circulation of the oil. Now, the forced air is directed
over cooling elements (tank, radiator, tubes, fins etc.) of the transformer. Hence,
the transformer is cooled by the natural circulation of oil and blast of air.
This method of cooling is suitable for the large transformers upto 60 MVA.
Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF) Cooling

In this method of cooling, the heated oil is circulated from the top of the
transformer tank to a heat exchanger and the blast of air is forced through the heat
exchanger by turning on a fan. Then, the cool oil is returned to the bottom of the
transformer tank.
This method of cooling is used for higher rating transformers like transformers
which are used in substations and generating stations.
Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF) Cooling

In the oil forced water forced cooling method, the heated oil is circulated from the
top of the transformer tank to a heat exchanger where the pressurised water is
used to separate the heat from the oil. The cool oil is then returned to the bottom
of the transformer tank.
This type of cooling is mainly used for very large transformers with a 100 MVA
ratings like at generating stations.
 Types of Motor Enclosures
The enclosure is a part of the motor used for the protection of the motor from the
environment and persons from being touch.
A mechanical fan cannot be left open that can harm the personnel in case of
accidental touch. That is the reason enclosures are necessary for safety.

Types of Motor Enclosures

Indian Standards (IS) 4691 have described codes for different types of enclosures.
The most common types of electric motor enclosures are given as follows −
• Open Protected Type − This enclosure provides free access to air and sufficient
mechanical protection to the motor.
• Scree Protected Type − This type of enclosure provides addition protection to
the motor. It has metal grids or perforated covers.
• Drip Proof Type − This type of enclosure has openings for ventilation which are
so provided that it prevents vertically falling water or dirt from entering inside
the motor.
• Splash Proof Type − With this type of enclosure, liquid or solid particles falling
on the motor at any angle between the vertically downward direction and 100°
from that direction cannot enter the motor.
• Totally Enclosed Type − In this type of enclosure, there will be no free
circulation of air between the inside and outside of the motor.
• Pipe Ventilated Type − In this type of motor enclosure, pipes or ducts are
provided for the continuous supply of fresh ventilating air.
• Explosion Proof Type − These enclosures are manufactured in such a way to
withstand an internal explosion and the motor frame will not rupture or burst.
• Weather Proof Type − In these enclosures, additional screens are installed to
prevent entrance of large particles of debris and rain into the motor.
Hydrogen Cooling

Hydrogen gas is used as cooling medium for cooling the alternators because of its
superior cooling properties. The hydrogen cooling of the alternators requires
completely seated circulated system. Mainly, oil-seated glands are used between
shaft and casing of the alternator. The oil absorbs both hydrogen leaking-out and
air leaking-in, so it should be purified periodically.
In the hydrogen cooling of the alternators, the hydrogen gas is circulated by
blowers and fans through the stator and rotor. Then, the heated hydrogen gas is
passes over cooling coils inside the seated casing. The cooling coils carry oil or
water to extract the heat from the circulating hydrogen.
The main reason that justifies the use of hydrogen cooling is that, it increases the
capacity of the alternator by about 25 % of the alternator of the same physical size
using air cooling. Also, the hydrogen cooling increases the full-load efficiency of the
alternator by about 1 %.
Advantages of Hydrogen Cooling of Alternator
The hydrogen cooling of alternators has following advantages over the air-cooling −

• Cooling with the hydrogen gas is faster. Since the hydrogen gas has a higher
thermal conductivity and 1.5 times heat transfer capacity as compared to the
air.
• Hydrogen gas has low-density than air at the same temperature and pressure.
Therefore, when the hydrogen cooling is used in the alternator, windage loss
and noise produced in the machine is reduced because, the revolving parts
rotate in the low-density hydrogen. Also, the efficiency of the alternator
increases.
• When air-cooling is used in the alternators, corona discharge may take place to
produce ozone, oxides of nitrogen, nitric acid, etc., which damage the insulation
of the alternator. Whereas, with the hydrogen cooling, the corona does not
occur and hence the life of the insulation of the alternator being increased.
Precautions with Hydrogen Cooling

Certain mixtures of hydrogen and air are explosive. Explosion may take place with a
range of 6% hydrogen gas and 94% air up to 71% hydrogen gas and 29% air. When
the hydrogen gas is more than 71% in the mixture, then the mixture is neither
combustible nor supports combustion. In practice, 9:1 ratio of hydrogen to air is
used in very large alternators.

Also, in order to prevent the explosion of the mixture of hydrogen and air in the
alternator, the pressure of the hydrogen gas should be maintained above the
atmospheric pressure to prevent inward seepage of contaminated air.
Limitations of Hydrogen Cooling of Alternator
Following are the limitations of the hydrogen cooling used in the alternators or
synchronous generators −

• Because of the necessity to provide explosion proof construction and gas-tight

shaft seals, the hydrogen-cooled alternators have expensive frame than the air-
cooled alternators.
• Cooling coils carrying oil or water inside the casing are to be provided to extract
the heat from the circulating hydrogen.
• Means are necessary to admit hydrogen gas to the alternator without creating
explosion. There are two ways to achieve this −
• Purifying the air with CO2 and then admitting the hydrogen gas.
• By vacuum pumping the unit to of the atmospheric pressure and then admitting
the hydrogen gas.
Ducts are provided in the stator and the rotor cores and also in the field coils of the
generators or machine for increasing the surface area which is in contact with the
cooling air. Depending upon the direction of the air flow these ducts can be radial
or axial.
Radial Flow Ventilation System
In the radial flow ventilation system, the cooling air enters the ducts through stator
by way of the air gap and passes radially to the back of the stator from where it is
removed.
Advantages of Radial Ventilation
• The energy loss for ventilation is minimum.
• The system is applicable both to the small and large machine.
Limitations of Radial Ventilation
• It makes the machine less compact since ventilating ducts occupy about 20
percent of the armature length.
• The heat dissipation is less as compared to the other system. In certain cases, the system
becomes unstable because of the quantity of cooling air flowing through the machine.
Axial Flow Ventilation System
In the method, the air is forced in the Axial direction through passages formed by
the holes in the stator and rotor. It is highly effective, except for machines with
considerable axial length. The disadvantage of axial ventilation is non-uniform heat
transfer. The air outlet part of the machine is cooled less because the air in passing
through the axial ducts has time to become heated.
Circumferential Ventilation
In this method air is supplied at one or more points on the outer periphery of the
stator core and forced circumferentially through the ducts between the
laminations to suitable outlets. In this method, the duct area can be increased.
In some cases, this method is combined with the radial flow system, but the
resultant interference in the two streams of air has to be avoided. For this, the
alternating radial ducts are closed on the outer surface.
Requirements of Cooling Air
The air should be clean and free from dust. These will clog the ducts to reduce area
which results in reducing heat transfer by conduction. Air filters and cheese cloth
filters are used. Sometimes air has to be washed in a spray chamber. In most cases,
the air is cooled by water coolers and used again.

Limitations of Air Cooling

For large capacity machines, the sizes of the fans required for circulation of air
increases and required considerable power. Thus, auxiliary equipment are
required, which are expensive.

There is an optimum rating of the machine beyond which air cooling will not be
able to keep the temperature within safe limits.
Direct Water Cooling in Synchronous Generator
As hydrogen cooling is not sufficient to extract heat generated in large turbo alternators of sizes
500 MW or more. For such large machines, the volume of hydrogen gas required may be so large
that its use may become uneconomical.
In such cases, the direct water cooling is used. In very large turbo-generators, rotors are direct
hydrogen cooled and stator windings are direct demineralized water cooled. Water is circulated
by an AC motor centrifugal pump. Cartridge filters are used to filter water. These filters are
designed to prevent metallic corrosive particles generated in winding and piping from entering
into winding hollow conductors.
Advantages of Water Cooling Over Hydrogen Cooling
• Water cooled system is faster and more efficient because the thermal conductivity of water is
higher than that of hydrogen.
• The duct area of water is smaller to allow more space for conductors in the slot.
Disadvantages of Water Cooling
• The water, which is used for cooling should be highly purified so that the conductivity of water
does not increase.
• Water cooling is more expensive than hydrogen cooling.
Temperature Rise In Electrical Machines
Heat is developed in all electrical machines due to the losses in the various parts,
• Copper loss(I²R loss) in conductor,
• Hysteresis losses and eddy current losses in iron and
• Mechanical losses (in the rotating machine only) due to friction of the bearing,
air friction, or windage causing the temperature of that part to rising.

(The temperature rise continues until all the heat generated is dissipated to the
surroundings by one or more of the natural modes of heat transfer i.e Conduction,
Convection, and radiation)
The temperature rise depends upon
1. The amount of heat produced and
2. The amount of heat dissipated per 1°C rise of the surface of a machine.
According to Newton’s law of cooling the rate of loss of energy in a hot body is
proportional to the difference in temperature between that body and its
surroundings. This law is only valid for the moderate temperature difference(up to
100°C ) and for the bodies dissipating heat by radiation and natural convection.

Note:
The amount of heat dissipated per 1°C rise of the surface of a machine depends
on the surface area of cooling.

The size of the motor for any service is governed by the maximum temperature rise
when operating under the given load conditions and the maximum torque
required. Electrical machines are designed for a limited temperature rise.
[Continuous rating of the machine is that rating for which the final temperature
rise is equal to or just below the permissible value of temperature rise for the
insulating material used in the protection of motor windings]
When the machine is overloaded for a long time that its final temperature rise
exceeds the permissible limit, it is likely to be damaged. In worst cases, it will result
in the thermal breakdown of the insulating material which will cause a short circuit
in the motor. The short circuit may lead to a fire. But in less severe cases, the
quality of the insulation will deteriorate such that thermal breakdown with future
overloads occurs, shortening the useful life of the machine.

Temperature rise is limited by the insulation and is an important factor for the
calculation of the size of the motor. The maximum temperature rises which should
not be exceeded by different types of motor are fully set out in the relevant ISS.
Heating-Time curve
For determination of an expression for the temperature rise of an electrical
machine after time t seconds from the instant of switching it on,
Power converted into heat = P joules/s or Watts
Mass of active parts of machine = m Kg
Specific heat of material = 𝐶𝑝 joules/kg/°C
S = Surface area of cooling= and is α in watts/metre² of surface per °C of difference
between surface and ambient cooling temperatures.

Assumptions made
Losses or heat produces remain constant during the temperature rise.
Heat dissipated is directly proportional to the difference in temperature of the
motor and the cooling medium.
Suppose a machine attains a temperature rise of θ °C above ambient temperature
after t seconds of switching on the machine and further rise of temperature by dθ
in a very small time dt.
Energy converted into heat = 𝑃𝑑𝑡 joules
Heat absorbed = 𝑚 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝜃 joules
Heat dissipated = S𝜃𝛼𝑑𝑡 joules
since energy converted into heat = Heat absorbed + heat dissipated
𝑝𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝜃 + 𝑆𝜃𝛼𝑑𝑡
𝑝 − 𝑆𝛼𝜃 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝜃

When the final temperature is reached, there is no absorption of heat. The heat
generated is dissipated.
 𝑝𝑑𝑡 = 𝑆𝜃𝐹 𝛼𝑑𝑡
Or Final temperature rise,
𝜃𝐹 = 𝑝/𝑆𝛼
Substituting vale of in eqn. (i), we get,

Integrating both sides, we get

Where K₁ is a constant of integration,

Substituting t = 0, 𝜃 = 𝜃₁, initial temperature from initial conditions, we have
 0 = − log𝑒 𝜃𝐹 − 𝜃1 + 𝐾1
𝑜𝑟 𝐾1 = log𝑒 (𝜃𝐹 − 𝜃1 )
Substituting 𝐾1 = log𝑒 𝜃𝐹 − 𝜃1 in equation (ii) we get,
 Where, τ = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 /𝑆α and is known as heating constant.

If motor is started form ambient temperature θ₁ = 0, we have

[Heating time constant is defined as the time taken by the motor in attaining the
final steady value if the initial rate of rising of temperature were maintained
throughout the operation]
Substituting t=τ in equation iii we get,
𝜃 = 𝜃𝐹 1 − 𝑒 −1 = 0.632𝜃𝐹
[Heating time constant is also defined as the time duration which the machine will
attain 63.2% of its final temperature rise above ambient temperature]
𝜃𝐹 is directly proportional to the power losses and inversely proportional to the
surface area S and specific heat dissipation α.

Cooling-Time curve
Let the machine be switched off after reaching the final steady-temperature rise of
𝜃𝐹 . when the machine is switched off, no heat is produced,
0 = Heat absorbed + heat dissipated
0 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝜃 + 𝑆𝜃𝛼 ′ 𝑑𝑡
where α’=rate of heat dissipation during cooling
Integrating both sides, we have

Where K₂ is a constant of integration.

Substituting 𝑡 = 0, 𝜃 = 𝜃𝐹 from initial
conditions in the above equation(iv) we get,
Substituting the value of K₂ in equation (iv), we get,

−𝑆𝛼 ′/𝑚𝐶𝑝 −𝑡/𝜏 ′

𝜃 = 𝜃𝐹 𝑒 = 𝜃𝐹 𝑒 (v)
′ 𝑚𝐶𝑝
Where 𝜏 = ′ , called cooling time constant.
𝑆𝛼
Substituting 𝑡 = 𝜏 ′ , in equation (v), we get,
𝜃 = 𝜃𝐹 𝑒 −1 = 0.368 𝜃𝐹
[Cooling time constant may be also defined as the time required to cool the
machine down to 0.368 times the initial temperature rise above ambient
temperature]

Note:
The cooling time constant of a rotating machine is usually larger than its heating
time constant. In self-cooled rotating machines, the cooling time constant is
about 2-3 times greater than its heating time constant.
 Methods Used for Determination of Motor Rating for Variable Load Devices
1. Method of Average Losses
2. Equivalent Current Method
3. Equivalent Torque Method
4. Equivalent Power Method

1. This method consists of finding average losses 𝑄𝑎𝑣 in the motor when it
operates according to the given load diagram. These losses are then compared
with 𝑄𝑛𝑜𝑚 , (the losses corresponding to continuous duty of the machine when
operated at its nominal rating). The method of average losses presupposes that
when 𝑄𝑎𝑣 = 𝑄𝑛𝑜𝑚 , the motor will operate without temperature rise going
above the maximum permissible value for the particular class of insulation.
 Qav
And therefore θm = (2)
Sλ

The rating of the electric motor can be found from the method of successive
approximations. The losses of the motor can be calculated for each portion of the
load diagram by referring to the efficiency curve of the motor. The average losses
are given by
𝑄𝑎𝑣 = (𝑄1 𝑡1 + 𝑄2 𝑡2 + 𝑄3 𝑡3 + …. … + 𝑄𝑛 𝑡𝑛 )/(𝑡1 + 𝑡2 + 𝑡3 + …. … + 𝑡𝑛 ) (4)
The average losses as found from equation (4) are compared with losses of
selected motor at rated efficiency. In case the two losses are equal or differ by a
small amount, the motor is selected. However, in case the losses are differ
considerably, another motor is selected and the calculations repeated till the
motor having almost the same losses as the average losses is found. It should also
be checked that the motor selected has a sufficient overload capacity and starting
torque.
The method of average losses not take into account the maximum temperature
rise under variable load conditions. However this method is accurate and reliable
for determining the average temperature rise of the motor during one work cycle.

Equivalent Current Method

The equivalent current method is based upon the assumption that the actual
variable current may be replaced by an equivalent 𝐼𝑒𝑞 which produces the same
losses in the motor as the actual current. This method also assumes that the
constant losses are independent of the load.
(1)
The heating and cooling conditions in self ventilated machines depend upon its
speed . At low speeds, the cooling conditions are poorer than at normal speeds.
Therefore, if the work cycle involves slow speed operation, it must be taken into
consideration when using equation (1).
The equivalent current as found from equation (1) should be compared with the
rated current of the motor selected and the conditions 𝐼𝑒𝑞 ≤ 𝐼𝑛𝑜𝑚 should be met.
(𝐼𝑛𝑜𝑚 is the rated current of the machine).
The machine selected should also be checked for its overload capacity. For DC
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥
motors, ≤ 2 𝑡𝑜 2.5. In case of induction motors ≤ 1.65 to 2.75.
𝐼𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑛𝑜𝑚
The equivalent current may not be easy to calculate especially in cases where the
current load diagram is irregular. The equivalent current in such cases is calculated
from the following expression.

The value of the integral may be found with the help of an integrator . An easier
way is to break up the current load diagram into a series of straight line
geometrical figures,
For a triangular shaped diagram, 𝐼𝑒𝑞 = 𝐼1 / 3 (3)

For a trapezoidal diagram, (4)

3. Equivalent Torque and Equivalent Power Methods

It is often becomes necessary to use torque or power load diagrams for the
selection of suitable capacity of motor. The equivalent torque or power is found in
the same manner as the equivalent current method.
The torque is directly proportional to the current (assuming constant flux and
constant power factor) and therefore the equivalent torque is
𝑇𝑒𝑞
The above relationship also assumes that the electromagnetic torque and torque
available at the shaft are approximately equal.
The equation for equivalent power follows directly from equation (1) as power is
directly proportional to the torque. At constant speed or where the changes in
speed are small, the equivalent power is given by the following relationship:

(2)

The equivalent current method is the most accurate out of three methods
discussed above. This method may be used to determine the motor capacity for all
uses except where it is necessary to take into account the changes in so called
“constant losses” i.e. the iron and the mechanical losses.
Also this method should not be used for deep slot and double cage, squirrel cage
induction motor because the rotor impedance varies sharply under starting and
braking conditions. When dealing with such motors, use must be made of a
method based upon direct determination of losses.

The equivalent torque method cannot be used for cases where equivalent current
method cannot be applied. The equivalent torque method cannot be used for
selection of motor rating for cases in which the field flux doesn’t remain constant
like d. c. series motors and for squirrel cage induction motors under starting and
braking conditions.

The disadvantage of the equivalent power method is that it cannot be used for
motors whose speed varies considerably under load, especially when dealing with
starting and braking conditions.