METEOROLOGY

What is the ICAO standard atmosphere?

+15ºc
1013.2 Hpa
2ºc /1000’ lapse rate until 36 000’ [tropopause] Isothermic at -57ºc
1 Hpa = 30’

What is Coriolis parameter?

The Coriolis force is a deflecting force, which is maximum at the poles and reduces to
zero at the equator. The Coriolis force always acts at right angles to the direction of
the air motion to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern
hemisphere. The formula for ƒ [Coriolis parameter] is

-2ωV sin Φ

ω = angular velocity [earths rotational velocity 15º/hr]

V = velocity of the mass
Φ = latitude [sin 0º = 0,sin 90º = 1]

What is the value of the Coriolis parameter, at the equator?

Zero

What do you know about tropical cyclones/hurricanes (typhoons)?

Most typhoon activity occurs during late summer and autumn [both hemispheres],
during times of maximum northward and southward displacement of the equatorial
trough. Begins life as a tropical depression and develops with favourable conditions
into a tropical storm. Main energy source is latent heat from condensed water vapour.
A cold-cored tropical storm is transformed into a warm-cored hurricane in association
with the release of latent heat in CB towers [approximately 100-200 CB towers]. The
warm core is vital to hurricane growth as it intensifies the upper anticyclone, leading
to a feedback effect by stimulating the low level influx of heat and moisture, which
further intensifies convective activity, latent heat release and therefore upper level
high pressure. Formation of an eye is an essential part of the life cycle of a hurricane.
The diameter of the eye is around 30-50km and within it, the wind is virtually calm
and the cloud cover may be broken. Once developed a hurricane will usually move at
16-24km/hr in a north to north-westerly direction and a cyclone will move in a south
to south-westerly direction.

Conditions for formation:

 Ocean surface temperature of 26.5˚c or greater (enhances

evaporation)
 Ocean depth of 50m or more [unknown why]
 A Low-pressure system [initial disturbance]
 Sufficient Coriolis force [between 5˚ and 15˚ n/s]
 Low values [less than about 20 kts] of vertical wind shear,
between the surface and the upper troposphere.
A supply of heat and moisture combined with low frictional drag at the sea surface,
the release of latent heat through condensation and removal of air aloft are essential
conditions for the maintenance of a typhoon

Tropical Classification

Tropical Disturbance: [weak area of low pressure]

Tropical Depression: [20-34 kts and a "closed" Circulation]
[Storm number]
Tropical Storm [35-64 kts] [storm name]
Hurricane [65+ kts or 74+ mph]

Saffir-Simpson Scale

Maximum Winds Central Pressure

Category 1 65- 82 kts; > 979 Hpa
Category 2 83- 95 kts; 965-979 Hpa
Category 3 96-113 kts; 945-964 Hpa
Category 4 114-135 kts; 920-944 Hpa
Category 5 > 135 kts; < 920 Hpa

Tropical Disturbance
A discrete tropical weather system of apparently organized convection - generally 200
to 600 km [100 to 300 nm] in diameter - originating in the tropics or subtropics,
having a no-frontal migratory character, and maintaining its identity for 24 hours or
more. It may or may not be associated with a detectable perturbation of the wind field.
Disturbances associated with perturbations in the wind field and progressing through
the tropics from east to west are also known as easterly waves.

Tropical Depression
A tropical cyclone in which the maximum sustained wind speed [using the U.S. 1
minute average standard] is 33 kts or less. Depressions have a closed circulation.

Tropical Storm
A tropical cyclone in which the maximum sustained surface wind speed [using the
U.S. 1 minute average standard] ranges from 34 kts to 63 kts. The convection in
tropical storms is usually more concentrated near the centre with outer rainfall
organizing into distinct bands.

Typhoon
When winds in a tropical storm, equal or exceed 64 kts it is called a Typhoon.
Typhoons designated categories 3, 4 or 5 on the Saffir-Simpson scale are known as
major or intense.

Where do Typhoons form?

Formation usually occurs between 5˚ and 15˚ north/south latitude, over a warm ocean.

Which way do they turn?

Depends on the hemisphere
Which direction do they travel?
Northern hemisphere: North/northwest
Southern hemisphere: South/southwest

Can a typhoon/cyclone cross the equator?

Yes. Once established, it can cross about 5˚ latitude into the opposite hemisphere. In
so doing it will encounter opposing Coriolis force and rapidly decrease in strength.

Tell me about a warm front.

The warm front represents the leading edge of a warm air mass. The frontal zone has
a very gentle slope [0.5-1˚], so cloud systems associated with a warm front [cirrus,
cirrostratus and altostratus] indicate its approach 12 hours or more before it’s arrival.
At the passage of a warm front, the wind veers, temperature rises and the fall of
pressure is checked. The rain then becomes intermittent or ceases in the warm air and
the thin stratocumulus cloud sheet may break up

Tell me about a cold front.

The cold front represents the leading edge of a cold air mass. The frontal zone has a
steeper slope [2˚] and means the poor weather associated with a cold front is of
shorter duration than a warm front. There may be frontal thunderstorm activity and
associated precipitation. At the passage of a cold front the wind veers sharply,
pressure begins to rise and temperature falls

Tell me about the Monsoon.

Monsoons are cyclical wave-like air masses that occur in the sub-tropics, moving onto
land from the sea during the summer and returning over water in winter. The word
monsoon comes from the Arabic mausim, meaning, 'season,' because these storms
return year after year. The term monsoon refers to large-scale seasonal reversals of the
wind regime. Such seasonal wind shifts at the surface are quite widespread and occur
in many regions. The Asiatic seasonal wind reversal is notable for it’s immense extent
and the penetration of its influence beyond tropical latitudes. Monsoons develop as a
result of changing patterns of atmospheric pressure caused by the varied heating and
cooling rates of continental landmasses and oceans. The strongest and most well
known monsoons are those, which affect India and Southeast Asia. The summer
monsoon, which blows south-westerly across the Indian Ocean, is extremely wet. The
winter monsoon, in contrast, blows northeasterly and is generally dry.

India and Southeast Asia lie in between the centres of the tropical and subtropical
climate zones. For much of the year, and particularly during winter, northeast trade
winds blow across the region, from subtropical high pressure to equatorial low
pressure. These winds originate from the continental interiors and are generally dry.
During the summer months however, the large landmasses of Asia and the Indian
subcontinent heat up, generating a seasonal continental region of low pressure.
Airflow reverses and wind blows southwesterly across the Indian Ocean,
accumulating considerable moisture, which is deposited as heavy rainfall during the
wet season from May to September. Scientists have linked the development of the
monsoonal wind phenomenon over India during Earth History to the uplift of the
Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau, which occurred about 20 million years ago, when
India collided into the Asian continent. The cycle continues as the cooling air creates
precipitation and releases more energy. This energy then heats the air, which rises and
flows back to the sea, cools, descends, and rushes back to land to replace more warm,
rising air. This monsoon is centred over continental Asia.

What is the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone?

On or near the equator, where average solar radiation is greatest, air is warmed at the
surface and rises. This creates a band of low air pressure, centred on the equator. This
rising air comprises one segment of a circulation pattern called the Hadley Cell. The
rising air is replaced by the Trade winds approaching the equator from north and
south. As the trade winds meet near the equator, surface convergence and uplift take
place. For this reason the equatorial band of low pressure is called the Equatorial
Trough, Intertropical Convergence Zone, or the ITCZ. The ITCZ is a region of light
winds, which lends it the name the doldrums. The convergence of the Southeast and
Northeast Trade Winds, within the doldrums, creates a zone of Cumulus clouds and
attendant shower activity. Cumulus clouds often build up to great heights. Aircraft
reports have estimated tops of Cumulonimbus to be as high as 12,000m. The ITCZ
varies from 20 miles to as much as 300 miles in width, and typically has an
undulating conformation.

We are interested in the ITCZ because, under certain circumstances, tropical

depressions on the ITCZ intensify to hurricanes. It may seem puzzling that the ITCZ
can produce cyclones, when the Coriolis force is at its weakest near the equator. The
answer to this puzzle lies in the fact that the ITCZ is not stationary on the equator, but
migrates north and south with the seasons. The ITCZ moves north during the high-sun
season of the Northern Hemisphere, and south during the high-sun season in the
Southern Hemisphere. These movements are not perfectly symmetrical above and
below the equator, because of the influence of landmasses, among other factors.
When the ITCZ is near the equator, the convergence of surface winds along the ITCZ
is likely to take the form of parallel flow, with easterly wind approaching the
doldrums from both north and south. When the Trade Winds converging at the ITCZ
are weak and nearly parallel to it, the ITCZ tends to narrow in width, and show little
shower activity. When the ITCZ lies south of the Geographic Equator, as it does in
the Western Pacific and Indian Oceans, the Northeast Trade Winds acquire a
northwesterly direction after crossing the equator (because the Coriolis force changes
direction below the equator!) In this situation the convergence is strong and favours
the formation of a Tropical Depression When the ITCZ lies north of the Geographic
Equator, the Southeast Trade Winds acquire a southwesterly direction after crossing
the equator and again the convergence pattern favours the formation of a Tropical
Depression. Tropical depressions tend to move from east to west at a rate of about 10
to12 knots. In most cases these disturbances are short-lived. Surface winds attending a
tropical depression usually do not exceed 25 knots. The enclosing isobar has an
elongated oval shape, the width of the ITCZ is greater in the region enclosed by the
isobar[s], and the ITCZ exhibits a deflection away from the Geographic Equator.

There is a definite connection between the seasonal position of the Equatorial Trough
and zones of hurricane formation, which is borne out by the fact that no hurricanes
occur in the South Atlantic [where the trough never lies south of 5 deg S [or in the
southeast Pacific [where the trough remains north of the equator]. On the other hand,
satellite photographs over the northeast Pacific show an unexpected number of
cyclonic vortices in summer, many of which move westwards near the trough line
about 10 deg -1 deg N.
What are the standard, the dry and the saturated adiabatic lapse rates?
Environmental Lapse Rate [ELR]: 1.98º C / 1000’
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate [DALR]: 3.0º C / 1000’
Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate [SALR]: 1.7º C / 1000’

SALR varies depending on the original temperature of the rising air, and averages
about 1.7º C / 1000’.

Unstable air occurs when the actual lapse rate is greater than the DALR, conditionally
unstable air, when the actual lapse rate is between the DALR and the SALR, and
stable air, when the actual lapse rate is less than the SALR.

Saturation: The state where the air reaches 100% humidity.

There is a thunderstorm on final, what do you think about?

Possible windshear and turbulence
Possible reduction in visibility
Possibility of lightning strike
Consider holding until the storm passes

What does windshear do, what is your procedure if you

encounter it?

Draw a picture of the earth on a white board.

Which way does the earth turn about its axis? [Draw on whiteboard]

What do you know about Jet streams?

Jet streams are narrow bands of exceedingly high-speed winds are known to exist in
the higher levels of the atmosphere at altitudes ranging from 20,000 to 40,000 feet or
more. The jet stream appears to be closely associated with the tropopause and with the
polar front.  It typically forms in the break between the polar and the tropical
tropopause where the temperature gradients are intensified.  The mean position of the
jet stream, shears south in winter and north in summer, with the seasonal migration of
the polar front. Because the troposphere is deeper in summer than in winter, the
tropopause and the jets will nominally be at higher altitudes in the summer. Long,
strong jet streams are usually also associated with well-developed surface lows
beneath deep upper troughs and lows. A low developing in the wave along the frontal
surface lies south of the jet. As it deepens, the low moves near the jet. As it occludes,
the low moves north of the jet, which crosses the frontal system, near the point of
occlusion. The jet flows roughly parallel to the front. The subtropical jet stream is not
associated with fronts but forms because of strong solar heating in the equatorial
regions. The ascending air turns pole ward at very high levels but is deflected by the
Coriolis force into a strong westerly jet. The subtropical jet predominates in winter.

The jet streams flow from west to east and may encircle the entire hemisphere. More
often, because they are stronger in some places than in others, they break up into
segments some 1000 to 3000 nautical miles long. They are usually about 300 nautical
miles wide and may be 3000 to 7000 feet thick. These jet stream segments move in an
easterly direction following the movement of pressure ridges and troughs in the upper
atmosphere.

Winds in the central core of the jet stream are the strongest and may reach speeds as
great as 250 knots, although they are generally between 100 and 150 knots. Wind
speeds decrease toward the outer edges of the jet stream and may be blowing at only
25 knots there. The rate of decrease of wind speed is considerably greater on the
northern edge than on the southern edge. Wind speeds in the jet stream are, on
average, considerably stronger in winter than in summer.

What is Clear Air Turbulence [CAT]?

Turbulence not associated with visible moisture. It is most commonly associated with
jet streams [tropopause] or with mountain wave activity. It is more often encountered
over land than over water

Where are you most likely to encounter Clear Air Turbulence [CAT]?
The most likely place to expect Clear Air Turbulence [CAT] is just above the central
core of the jet stream near the polar tropopause and just below the core. Clear air
turbulence does not occur in the core. CAT is encountered more frequently in winter
when the jet stream winds are strongest. Nevertheless, CAT is not always present in
the jet stream and, because it is random and transient in nature, it is almost impossible
to forecast.

Clear air turbulence may be associated with other weather patterns, especially in wind
shear associated with the sharply curved contours of strong lows, troughs and ridges
aloft, at or below the tropopause, and in areas of strong cold or warm air advection.
Mountain waves create severe CAT that may extend from the mountain crests to as
high as 5000 feet above the tropopause. Curving jet streams are likely to have
turbulent edges, especially those that curve around a deep pressure trough.

What action would you take if you encountered CAT?

Adjust speed to turbulence penetration speed encountering the first moderate bumps
or before if CAT has been forecast or known to exist on track. Doing so will avoid
structural damage to the airplane through overstressing the airframe.

What do you know about Microbursts?

A microburst is a strong downdraft of air, up to 6,000 ft/min [60kts], which seldom
lasts more than 15-20 minutes and is typically less than one mile wide. To put it into
perspective, lift at 1,000 FPM is actually 10 kts of wind in the vertical axis. As the
parcel nears the ground at around 1,000 to 3,000 ft, it begins to change to a horizontal
flow, creating a wind near the surface as high as 45 kts.

Microbursts occur near developing thunderstorms, or CB clouds. Some visual cues to

watch for include - abnormally strong lift, unusual rain patterns, virga, blowing dust
on the surface, a localized heavy rain shaft, with light winds reported on the surface,
high temperature and low dew point.

What causes a microburst?

A microburst will usually be associated with strong updrafts. If there is virga
associated with a CB, it occurs due to the preceding convective action raising the air
to the saturation level, that is, the parcel of air cooled as it ascended, could no longer
hold the moisture in it, it then condensed to form cloud, then coalesced to form
precipitation, and started to descend in the from of rain. If there is a wind aloft, the
descending air will be adjacent to the rising air. When the air below the rain is dry, the
water evaporates, and forms virga. When evaporation takes place, cooling takes place
through the release of latent heat. Resulting in a parcel of cool air, which already
descending, begins to descend even faster.

A microburst may be dry - or wet. Those below virga are considered dry, and those in
a rain shaft are considered wet microbursts. Depending on the winds aloft, a dry
microburst could be in the clouds just above you and to the side of your flight path,
especially if you are flying adjacent to a thunderstorm, and you will never even see it
develop. 

Observations suggest that approximately five percent of all thunderstorms produce a

microburst.

What do you know about windshear?

Windshear may be caused by a number of meteorological phenomenon including
temperature inversions, sea breezes, frontal systems, strong surface winds and
thunderstorms. Windshear is any rapid change in wind direction or velocity. Severe
windshear is a rapid change in wind direction or velocity causing airspeed changes
greater than 15 knots or vertical speed changes greater than 500 feet per.

Light: Minor excursions from flight path or speed

Moderate: Significant effect on control of the aircraft
Strong: Difficulty in keeping aircraft on desired flight
path and or speed
Severe: Hazardous effects to aircraft controllability

Explain windshear in a microburst.

↑ Airspeed
↓ Airspeed [rapid]
↑ Rate of descent

If encountering windshear, what is the recovery technique?

Disconnect the autopilot
Aggressively apply max power/thrust
Roll wings level, unless terrain is a factor, to maximize aircraft performance
Pitch up, rotating at a normal takeoff rotation rate [2-3°/sec] to max body angle [15-
17º] or until stick-shaker
Verify speed brakes are retracted
Do not alter gear/flap configuration until terrain clearance is assured [adverse effects
to stall]
Issue Pilot report [PIREP]

Windshear and Turbulence Warning System [WTWS]

Hong Kong’s Chek Lap Kok Airport [VHHH] is located on partly reclaimed land
adjacent to Lantau Island, whose rugged terrain has a maximum elevation of nearly
3,280’. Consequently, aircraft operating at the new airport may be affected by
significant terrain-induced windshear and turbulence under certain meteorological
conditions

In order to enhance safety and operational efficiency at the airport, an operational

Windshear and Turbulence Warning System [WTWS] developed by a company called
Weather Information Technologies Inc. [WITI] was introduced. This system provides
alerts for terrain- and convective-induced windshear and turbulence and has been
utilized by air traffic controllers and pilots since the airport’s opening day, 6 July
1998.

In addition to providing real-time windshear and turbulence alerts to controllers and

pilots, the system provides up to 12-hour forecasts of terminal area turbulence to
aviation meteorologists. The WTWS was previously known as the OWWS -
the Operational Windshear Warning System. To utilize this system efficiently, it is
important that pilots understand how this system was developed, what it can do and
what its limitations are.

Prior to the development of the windshear warning system, several studies were
conducted in Hong Kong to gain an insight into the meteorological conditions near
the location of the new airport. These studies included analysis of routine weather
observations, special observing programs and meteorological modelling of the
differences between the old Kai Tak Airport and at Chek Lap Kok. Variables analysed
included wind direction and speed, temperature, clouds, visibility, rainfall,
thunderstorms and fog. Methods used to conduct these studies included investigative
flights by light aircraft and water tank and wind tunnel experiments. The 44-month
project was under the sponsorship of the Hong Kong Observatory.  The WTWS
development team included WITI, the National Centre for Atmospheric Research
(NCAR), Hong Kong University of Science and Technology [HKUST], and the
University of Wyoming.

Components include basic and applied research on wind flow over Hong Kong’s
terrain; a scientific field study, warning system concept and feasibility studies, system
design, development, testing, implementation and training. The WTWS provides real-
time hazardous weather information to air traffic controllers and pilots to enhance
safety in the terminal area and improve predictions of hazardous weather to support
strategic decision making by air traffic managers. The WTWS is the first system
worldwide to provide real-time alerts of terrain-induced turbulence and alerts for both
convective and terrain-induced windshear, The WTWS also provides predictions of
turbulence caused by terrain and airport surface wind as well as numerical weather
prediction guidance. For detection of convective windshear, the WTWS relies partly
on the output from a Raytheon developed Terminal Doppler Weather Radar [TDWR]
at Tai Lam Chung, about 12 kilometres from Chek Lap Kok. The windshear warning
system analyses TDWR signatures including gust front, precipitation intensity, and
storm motion, providing an integrated alert system. It generates graphics and text
designed for easy interpretation by pilots, controllers, traffic managers and aviation
forecasters. 

Terminal Doppler Weather Radar [TDWR]

The Terminal Doppler Weather Radar [TDWR] is proven technology and uses
Doppler shift to detect convective windshear. It is already in operational use at
Denver, USA, and other airports, but this will be the first time it is being used in a
coastal environment with busy marine traffic.

The design criterion is for a probability of detection [POD] of 90% and a false alarm
rate [FAR] of 10%. [In the USA, PODs of 95% and FARs of 3% have been achieved].
The output products are shown on a geographical situation display [GSD] and on the
alphanumeric alert displays [AAD] at the air traffic controllers’ stations.

The primary WTWS product suite includes detection of terrain-induced turbulence,

terrain-induced windshear, convective microburst and windshear, gust fronts,
precipitation intensity and storm motion. It also predicts terrain-induced turbulence
and airport surface wind and numerical weather prediction guidance. Pilots,
controllers, air traffic managers and aviation forecasters easily interpret the graphical
and text formats. The alerts use commonly accepted aeronautical navigation
terminology. The WTWS graphic display delivers hazardous weather warning
information and other meteorological products. It shows the horizontal profile of
various hazardous weather areas, vertical wind profiles near the approach and
departure corridors, and textual warning messages. Video replay of the recent product
history is possible. The meteorological situation is displayed in several user-selectable
ranges and levels of detail. Critical products and important situation changes are
highlighted visually on the display and/or announced by audible signals.

User needs were established over a two-year period culminating in a prototype

demonstration in October 1995. As a result of comments by users, the system was
designed to provide high performance, distinguish between the phenomena of
windshear and turbulence, use existing aeronautical terminology and provide spatial
extent of the phenomena as well as up to 12-hour forecasts of surface wind and
turbulence at a 30-minute resolution.

Alerts had to be reserved for significant events and assigned a priority. They also had
to be concise but informative and provided within three nautical miles of runways.
Products had to support both tactical and strategic decision-making and be updated
fast enough to cover operations that occur every two minutes. The alphanumeric
alarm display is designed to alert controllers to time-critical weather hazards and to
provide textual warnings for communication to pilots. Alerts are given as microburst,
windshear or turbulence, with associated intensity and location. For windshear and
microburst alerts, intensity is given as headwind "loss" or "gain" in knots; for
turbulence, intensity is specified as "moderate" or "severe".  The intensity is the
maximum expected along the alert corridor and the alert location is where the event is
first expected to be encountered.

Event locations for windshear alerts are given as one, two or three nautical miles on
approach or departure - or on the runway. Event locations for turbulence alerts are
identified as departure or approach. It was originally planned that the easterly
runways [07R/L] would be the preferred runways, but it has now been suggested that
it may be better to use the westerly runways whenever possible. The main reason for
this change is to minimise traffic confliction with the Macau and Shenzhen airports
and to overcome the problems of vectoring aircraft within Hong Kong airspace. It is
too early to assess whether this may also alleviate the effects of the terrain-induced
turbulence, but this is being studied at this time. It should be noted that the prevailing
wind in Hong Kong is easterly.

In the summer, strong southerly winds, sometimes associated with typhoons, are
present on occasions, but otherwise light winds flow from that direction. In autumn
and winter, the north-easterly monsoon affects the area. It follows that during normal
conditions, when operating from runways 25L/R, there will be a slight tailwind and a
crosswind. The runways are approximately 3800m long and there are lesser obstacle
problems to the west, so the tailwind should not be a critical factor. [The rapid exits
have also been located to cater for the various different landing weights, including
those specifically for fully laden cargo aircraft.] 

Aircraft are positioned at approximately 15nm for 25R, which is the preferential
landing runway. Pilots are able to listen to alerts being given to proceeding aircraft,
which help to build up a picture of the conditions on short finals. The situation on
07R/L is not so straightforward because of the proximity of Macau and the airspace
boundary. This means that aircraft are not transferred to tower control until about 7nm
and so pilots will only normally hear their own specific warning.

Micro burst alerts and severe turbulence alerts

The definitions of the alerts and the order in which
they are prioritised is as follows:

TDWR Microburst Alert (MBA*) [Loss of 30 knots or greater]

Terrain-Induced (TIWT*) [Windshear-loss of 30 knots or greater]

Terrain-Induced (TIWT) [Windshear-gain of 30 knots or greater]

Terrain-Induced (TIWT) [Severe Turbulence]

TDWR Windshear Alert (WSA*) [loss or gain of 15 to 30 kts]

Terrain-Induced (TIWT) [Windshear-loss or gain of 15 to 30kts]

Terrain-Induced (TIWT)

Moderate Turbulence

No Alert

* MBA [Microburst Alert]

* TIWT [Terrain induced Windshear and turbulence]
* WSA [Windshear Alert]

What causes fog?

Fog forms when the relative humidity reaches 100%, and the air temperature tries to
drop below the dewpoint, causing the water vapour to condense. Fog is cloud in
contact with the ground. It can form in a number of ways, depending on how the
cooling that caused the condensation occurred:

Radiation fog is formed by the cooling of land after sunset by thermal [infrared]
radiation in calm conditions with clear sky. The cool ground then produces
condensation in the nearby air by conduction. In perfect calm the fog layer can be less
than a metre deep but turbulence can promote a thicker layer [wind of 2-8kts will
deepen the fog]. Radiation fog is generally associated with a high-pressure system and
will usually not persist long past sunrise.

Advection fog occurs when moist air passes over cool ground by advection [wind]
and is cooled. This form is most common at sea when tropical air encounters cooler
higher-latitude waters. It is also extremely common as a warm front passes over an
area with significant snow pack.

What happens to the atmosphere with altitude? Where does most of the weight
of the atmosphere reside?
The atmosphere becomes less dense with altitude, and roughly 50% of it, by weight,
lies below 18,000 ft, and 90 % within 53,000 feet. Within the troposphere, the
temperature normally decreases with increasing altitude.

What is the tropopause? Why is this “boundary” significant?

An abrupt change in the rate of temperature decrease with increasing altitude marks
the boundary, called the tropopause.

What Is the Stratosphere?

The stratosphere is characterized by increasing temperature with increasing altitude.

What is the percentage by volume of water vapour in the atmosphere? The

atmosphere also contains water vapour amounting to 0% to 5% by volume.

What are the six weather elements?

Weather, as a broad subject, is often classified as being composed of six weather
elements: Temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity, clouds, and
precipitation. The last three are all associated with moisture.

What are the six primary flight hazards?

The six primary flight hazards are turbulence, thunderstorms, wind shear, icing, low
ceilings, and low visibility.

Define insolation.
Insolation is the total radiation reaching the earth’s surface and it is the primary
source for all weather phenomena on the earth.

What is the process by which energy is transferred through space in the form of
electromagnetic waves?
Radiation is the process by which energy is transferred through space in the form of
electromagnetic waves.

What is Conduction?
Conduction is the transfer of heat from molecule to molecule by contact and it
accounts for the transfer of heat between the earth’s surface and the adjacent air.

What is Convection?
Convection is the vertical transfer of heat.

What is the horizontal transfer of heat? How is this normally accomplished?

Advection is the horizontal transfer of heat, normally by wind.

Define Lapse Rate. What is a steep, shallow, and isothermal lapse rate?
The change in atmospheric temperature with increasing altitude is called a lapse rate.
The average or standard lapse rate is 2ºC per 1000'. If the temperature decreases very
rapidly with altitude [greater than 3 Celsius], it is called a steep lapse rate. When the
temperature decreases very gradually [Between 1.5 and 3] it is called a shallow lapse
rate, while no change with altitude is called an isothermal lapse rate.

Define an inversion.
An Inversion [inverted lapse rate] occurs when the temperature increases with an
increase in altitude.

What does pressure do with an increase in altitude? Pressure, unlike temperature,

always decreases with altitude.

What is Sea Level Pressure?

Sea Level Pressure (SLP) is the pressure at mean sea level (MSL), measured directly
at sea level or calculated if the station is not at sea level. Station pressure is the
atmospheric pressure at an airfield or station.

What happens when in between isobars, especially when they are close together?
The rate of pressure change in a direction perpendicular to the isobars (horizontal
distance) is called the pressure gradient. The gradient is steep, or strong, when the
isobars are close together, and is shallow, or weak, when the isobars are far apart.
Pressure gradient is the initiating force for all winds.

What is pressure altitude?

Pressure altitude is the height above the standard datum plane of 1013Hpa when
above 10,000 ft in Australia

What is Density Altitude, and how is it found?

Density altitude is the altitude in the standard atmosphere what has the same density
as the local air. It is found by correcting the pressure altitude for non-standard
temperature deviations.

What are the pressure rules?

High to low, look out below
Low to high, plenty of sky

How does air temperature relate to indicated altimeter reading?

If the air is colder than the standard atmosphere, the aircraft will be lower than the
altimeter indicates. If the air is warmer than standard, the aircraft will be higher than
the altimeter indicates.

What is circulation, and how is it created?

Circulation is the recurring movement of air relative to the earth’s surface. It is
created primarily by the large temperature difference between the tropics and the
Polar Regions, and complicated by uneven heating of the land and water areas by the
sun.

What are the factors that influence actual circulation?

This circulation is modified considerably by:
 The irregular distribution of oceans and continents
 The relative effectiveness of differing surfaces in transferring heat to the
atmosphere
 Irregular terrain
 Daily variations in temperature
 The changes of seasons
 And many other factors

Define Pressure Gradient

The rate of change in pressure with horizontal distance between a high and low-
pressure area is called pressure gradient. Large differences in pressure between
horizontal points result in stronger pressure gradient forces. This Pressure gradient
force is the initiating force for all winds. Close spacing of isobars indicates greater
pressure gradients and higher wind speeds.

What direction and altitude do gradient winds flow?

Gradient winds flow parallel to the isobars and above 2000 AGL. Note: PGF and
Coriolis force cause gradient winds to travel parallel to the isobars.

What does surface friction do to the wind speed? How does this affect the
Coriolis force?
Surface friction reduces the speed of the wind. Since magnitude of Coriolis force
varies with the speed of wind, a reduction in the wind speed by friction causes a
reduction in the Coriolis force.

Given a gradient wind calculate a surface wind.

Subtract 45 degrees.

What is Buys Ballot’s Law?

This law states that if the wind is at your back, the area of lower pressure will be to
your left.

How does something get classified as a Jet Stream?

To be classified as a jet, it is generally accepted that the winds must be 50 knots or
greater and the core, area of maximum wind, must possess considerable length.

Explain Sea Breeze.

During the day, the pressure over the warm land becomes lower than that over the
colder water. The cool air over the water moves toward the lower pressure, forcing
the warm air over land upward. The resulting onshore wind is called a sea breeze.
Sea breezes of 15 to 20 knots are not uncommon.

Explain Land Breeze.

At night, the circulation is reversed so that the air movement is from land to sea,
producing an offshore wind called the land breeze.

What is Specific Humidity?

Specific humidity is the ratio of water vapour per unit mass of air, and is expressed as
grams of water per kilogram of air. For a particular temperature, there is a maximum
specific humidity, or maximum amount of water vapour that the air can hold. The
higher the temperature, the more water vapour the air can hold.

What is Dew Point Temperature?

The temperature at which saturation occurs. It is also the temperature where moisture
first starts to condense on exposed surfaces forming dew. Dew point is an indication
of, and is directly related to, specific humidity.

What is Dew Point Depression?

Dew Point depression is the difference, in degrees, between the air temperature and
the dew point temperature. [When air temp equals dew point temp, saturation occurs].

What are the types of precipitation?

Drizzle, freezing drizzle, rain, freezing rain, hail, ice pellets, snow grains, snow.

Cumulonimbus
Large, dense towering clouds with cauliflower-like tops. The top portion of the cloud
is often flattened into an anvil shape or consists of cirrus formation resulting from ice
crystals. Water droplets form the major portion of the cloud, but ice crystals appear in
the upper portions. Cumulonimbus and thunderstorm are synonymous terms; they
result in strong winds, lightning, and intermittent heavy showery precipitation. The
well-developed cumulonimbus may be the parent of the hailstorm.

Stratus
Form in layers with smooth bases and tops. They are grey in appearance when
viewed from the surface, and often cover the entire sky. The stable air that gives
stratus clouds their layered characteristics also inhibits the vertical spread of smoke,
dust and haze particles and thus tends to lower visibility. Precipitation, when
occurring, is generally light steady rain or drizzle. Stratus clouds are generally
associated with smooth flight conditions.

Nimbostratus: dark massive cloud layers having a wet appearance and accompanied
by heavy steady precipitation such as rain or snow. This cloud is classified as a
middle cloud.
Describe Lifted Air:
Lifted air that is colder than the surrounding air settles when the lifting action is
removed since it is denser. This indicates a stable condition. Lifted air that is warmer
than the surround air continues to rise when the lifting action is removed because it is
less dense indicates an unstable condition.

What is an adiabatic process?

An adiabatic process occurs when the temperature of a body of air changes without
heat being added or taken away. When a parcel of air is lifted in the atmosphere, it
expands due to decreasing pressure.

Describe Maritime and Continental fronts.

Maritime has high moisture content, Continental has Low.

Describe air masses flowing over ground, with heating and cooling. If the air
mass is warmer than the surface, it is cooled by contact with the cold ground,
becomes more stable, and is called a warm air mass. If the air mass is colder than the
surface over which it is moving, it is heated from below, resulting in convective
currents and instability, and is called a cold air mass.

What happens with air with high moisture content?

Due to the high moisture content of the air (Tropical Warm), condensation may result
in fog, low stratus, steady precipitation, or any combination of these.

Describe Maritime Tropical Cold Air as they move over the ground.
By the afternoon, these often build into towering cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds
resulting in scattered rain showers and thunderstorms.

How do you locate and classify fronts?

Differences in the various properties of adjacent air masses, such as temperature,
moisture, wind, and pressure are used to locate and classify fronts.

Discuss pressures with relation to fronts.

All fronts are located in troughs of low pressure and the lowest pressure will extend
from the low centre along this trough. Therefore, when a front approaches a station,
or a pilot flies toward a front, the pressure decreases. Pressure normally rises
immediately following frontal passage. Because of this pressure change, it is
extremely important to obtain a new altimeter setting the vicinity of a front.

What does the extent of cloudiness in cold air depend on?

The extent of the cloudiness in the cold air depends on the degree of stability and
moisture content of the cold air mass.

What is some extreme weather conditions associated with squall lines?

Squall lines contain severe weather conditions including the following: extreme
turbulence, heavy rain, lightning, icing, and frequently hail, and/or tornadoes.

What does the widespread precipitation area ahead of a warm front often result
in?
The widespread precipitation area ahead of a typical warm front often results in low
stratus and the formation of fog.
What sort of weather is associated with occluded fronts?
Since the occluded front is the result of meeting of a cold front and a warm front, the
weather associated with the occlusion will be a combination of both types of frontal
weather. If an occlusion is approaching from the east, you would first encounter
warm front type weather which may extend for several hundred miles to the east of
the surface front. On the other hand, if it were approached from the wet you would
first encounter cold front type weather.

What are the basic requirements for a formation of a thunderstorm? The basic
requirements for the formation of a thunderstorm [Cumulonimbus cloud] are as
follows: lifting action, unstable air, high moisture content, and a cloud building
through the freezing level.

What happens to pressure when a storm approaches?

Large pressure changes can accompany thunderstorm formation.

What are the hazards associated with Thunderstorms?

Thunderstorms are accompanies by some or all of the following hazards: extreme
turbulence, hail, microburst, icing, lighting, and tornadoes. Turbulence and hail are
the greatest hazards and are found in the upper 2/3rds of a mature stage cell.

How long does a microburst last?

A microburst normally lasts from five to ten minutes after its diverging wind flow
first hits the earth’s surface.

What are the visual cues for a microburst?

Visual clues include virga, localized blowing dust, rain shafts with rain diverging
away from the core of the cell, roll clouds, and of course and indication of vivid
lightning or tornado-like activity.

What are the four methods of detection, and the three wind shear alert systems
used?
4 methods of detection:
Visual
PIREPS, and weather reports
Wind shear alert systems
Doppler radar, and LLWAS

How does a LLWAS work?

For example, the Low Level Winds Shear Alert System [LLWAS] Measures the
winds speed and direction at several points on the ground and compares them with a
reference sensor located near the centre of the airfield.

What are the best sources of information?

PIREPS [Pilot Reports] and Weather Alerts are one of the best sources of information.

What are some good cues about microbursts coming from departure and arrival
reports?
Departure or arrival weather reports calling for gusty winds, heavy rain, or
thunderstorms should be a clue that a high potential for microburst activity exists.
How should Thunderstorms be avoided?
Fly around them
Fly over the top of the storm
Fly below the storm
If not possible to avoid the storm, fly through the lower 1/3 of the storm

Discuss actions within a storm

Once inside the storm, the pilot should let the plane ride out the updrafts and
downdrafts and concentrate on maintaining a level attitude. With power set to
maintain the proper airspeed, maintaining the same attitude will result in only minor
airspeed variations. However, the aircraft’s altitude may vary by thousands of feet.
The rapidly changing pressure conditions within the storm will result in unreliable
indications and erratic variations in altitude, airspeed, and rate of climb instruments.
Since the attitude gyro is independent of the Pitot-static system, its indications should
be considered reliable.

What are the four intensities of turbulence?

Light, Moderate, Severe, Extreme

What are the reporting term definitions?

Occasional: Less then 1/3 of the time.
Intermittent: 1/3 to 2/3rds of the time.
Continuous: More than 2/3rds of the time.

How can Turbulence be divided up?

Types of Turbulence can be divided according to causative factors: Thermal,
mechanical, frontal, large-scale wind shear.

How does Thermal Turbulence Work?

Vertical air movements resulting from convective currents develop in air, which is
heated by contact with a warm surface. This heating from below occurs when either
cold air is moved over a warmer surface, or the ground is strongly heated by solar
radiation.

What is the worst thermal?

A ploughed field

How does Mechanical turbulence Work?

When the air near the surface of the earth flows over obstructions, such as irregular
terrain, or buildings, the normal horizontal wind flow is disturbed and transformed
into a complicated pattern of eddies and other irregular air movements.

What does the strength and magnitude of Mechanical Turbulence Depend on?
The strength and magnitude of mechanical turbulence depends on the speed of the
wind, the roughness of the terrain, and the stability of the air.

What are rotor clouds, cap clods, and Lenticular Clouds?

The rotor clouds forms at a lower level and is generally found at about the same
height as the mountain ridge. The cap cloud usually obscures both sides of the
mountain peak. The lenticular clouds like the rotor and cap clouds are stationary in
position.

Where is the extreme turbulence found when near mountains?

Severe turbulence can be frequently found from the surface to the tropopause and 150
miles downwind when the winds are greater than 50 knots at the mountaintop.
Extreme turbulence is usually found at low levels on the leeward side of the mountain
in or near the rotor and cap clouds when the winds are 50 knots or greater at the
mountaintop. Moderate turbulence often can be experienced out to 300 miles under
the previously stated conditions.

What are the rules that should be applied when mountain wave turbulence has
been forecasted?
 Avoid the turbulence if possible by flying around the areas where wave conditions
exist. If this is not feasible, fly at a level that is at least 50% higher than the height
of the highest mountain range along your flight path. This procedure will now
keep the aircraft out of turbulence, but provides a margin of safety if a strong
downdraft is encountered.
 Avoid the rotor, lenticular, and cap clouds since they contain intense turbulence
and strong updrafts and down drafts.
 Approach the mountain range at a 45-degree angle, so that a quick turn can be
made away from the ridge if a severe downdraft is encountered.
 Do not place too much confidence in your pressure altimeter reading near
mountain peaks. They may indicate altitudes, which are more than 2500 feet
higher than your true altitude.
 Penetrate turbulent areas at air speeds recommended for your aircraft.

Discuss Wind Shear Turbulence.

Wind Shear Turbulence is defined as a sudden change in wind direction and or speed
over a short distance. The greater the change in wind speed and/or direction in a given
direction, the more severe the turbulence. These turbulent wind shear flight conditions
are frequently encountered in the vicinity of the jet stream where large shears in both
the horizontal and vertical planes are found as well as I association with land and sea
breezes, fronts, inversions, and thunderstorms.

One rule for Turbulent Flight: Trim the aircraft for level flight at the recommended
turbulent air penetration airspeed. Severe turbulence may cause large and rapid
variations in indicated airspeed. Don’t chase airspeed.

What are the cumulative effects of icing?

Lift decreases, weight increases, Drag increases, Thrust Decreases, Fuel consumption
increases, and stall speed increases.

What is super cooled water?

Super Cooled water is liquid water found at air temperatures below freezing. Super
cooled water droplets are numerous in clouds at temperatures between 0C and –15C
with decreasing amounts at colder temperatures.

How does Wet Snow Form?

Wet Snow occurs at temperatures just below freezing and can come about as the result
of turbulence in the air and the resulting mixture of super cooled moisture.

What are the three requirements for the formation of icing?

There three requirements for the formation of structural icing are as follows: Outside
air temperature below freezing, aircraft skin temperature below freezing, and visible
moisture.

When may structural ice form?

Structural Ice may form when the free-air temperature is 0C or colder.

When may freezing rain be encountered?

Freezing rain or drizzle may be encountered in the clear air below a cloud layer.

What factors affect the rate of ice accumulation on an aircraft?

The following items affect the rate of ice accumulation on an aircraft:

 The size and number of water drops in a given volume of air, airfoil thickness, and
airspeed.

Since thick airfoils have a larger deflective force they collect ice more slowly than
thin airfoils, which have a smaller deflective force. Droplet size also is a factor.
Smaller drops have a greater tendency to follow the air stream and larger
droplets resist this deflecting force.

What happens to ice formation with an increase in airspeed?

As airspeed is increased more water is encountered over a given period of time and
therefore the rate of deposit is increased.

When will clear ice normally occur at?

Clear ice normally occurs at temperatures between 0C and –10C in, but may occur
with temperatures as cold as –25. Clear icing is the most severe form of icing.

Where does clear ice occur?

Clear ice occurs in cumuliform clouds with appropriate temperatures where vertical
currents can support large drops.

What is Rime Ice?

Rime ice is a milky white, opaque, and granular deposit of ice formed through the
rapid freezing of small super-cooled water droplets. Rime ice is most likely to occur
at temperatures of –10 to –20.

Where can Rime Ice occur?

Rime ice can be expected in stratiform clouds since vertical currents are not strong
enough to support large droplets.

Define the tropopause

Transition zone between the troposphere and the stratosphere
Temperature is isothermal with altitude
An abrupt change in rate of temperature decrease with increasing altitude marks this
boundary
It’s a region not a layer
-
What 3 elements are associated with moisture?
Clouds
Humidity
Precipitation

What kinds of drifts are associated with a high-pressure area?

High-pressure area, winds flow clockwise.
Fly into a high, you get right cross wind and left drift

What two forces cause winds to travel parallel to isobars?

Coriolis Force: bends gradient winds to the right, do not affect surface wind because
of friction

Pressure Gradient Force: initiating force for all winds

Humidity definitions
Relative Humidity: percentage of saturated air

Specific Humidity: Ratio of water vapour per unit mass of air. The higher the dew
point the higher the specific humidity.

Difference between relative humidity and specific humidity

Relative Humidity measures the percent of saturated air or what percentage of the
bucket is filled with water

Specific humidity measures how much water vapour is contained per unit mass of air
or how much water is in the bucket.

Two types of weather conditions that cause icing

Supercooled water [freezing rain]
Wet snow

What are the 4 lifting actions and their differences?

Convergence: winds meet, cause air to move vertically

Orographic: wind runs into terrain, so it is lifted

Frontal: front moves in, air is pushed up

Thermal: sun heats land, land gives off heat, warm air rises

What are the three types of stability?

Stable: Air is pushed up until lifting action is removed, air is colder than the
surrounding air, so it falls to its original position
Unstable: Air is pushed up until lifting action is removed, air is warmer than the
surrounding air, so it is pushed up and continues to rise

Neutral: Air is pushed up until lifting action is removed, air is the same temp as the
surrounding air and therefore it remains in place

Flight Conditions Stable Atmosphere Unstable Atmosphere

Cloud type Stratus Cumulus
Turbulence Smooth Rough
Visibility Poor Good (outside cloud)
Winds Steady Gusty
Precipitation Steady Showery
Icing Rime Clear
Air Mass Warm Cold
Front Warm Cold

Define air mass

A large body of air that has essentially uniform temperature and moisture conditions,
in a horizontal plan.

Temp relationship with air and land

Air temp is relative to surface below it
Summer time, air masses are cold
Winter air masses are warm

Three parts of air mass classification

First is source region. [Arctic, Polar, Tropical, Equatorial]
Second is surface of their source region. [Maritime or Continental]
Third is temp [cold or warm]

Describe the two types of occlusions

Occlusions have three air masses and two fronts
Left side is behind, right side is ahead

What are the general conditions of occlusions?

Combination of warm and cold fronts

What are the worst hazards of squall lines or thunderstorms?

Primary: turbulence
Secondary: hail

26] Know requirements for thunderstorm development

Lifting [most likely convergence]
Unstable air
Moisture content in the air
Building clouds through the freezing level

Order of precedence when flying around thunderstorm

Go around
Fly over the top
Fly below
Fly through the lower 1/3

What weather conditions form tornadoes?

Marked convective instability
Pronounced horizontal wind shear
Rapid moving cold fronts or squall lines
Strong convergence

What is convective instability?

Dry air over Moist
Moist air over Dry

What is mechanical turbulence?

Any irregular terrain. Mountains, buildings, trees

Define wind shear

Sudden change in wind direction and or speed over a short distance

What weather conditions form frost?

Little or no wind
Lack of clouds
OAT below freezing
Dew point within 5ºC of air temp

At what temp does structural icing occur?

Below 0ºC

What kind of ice does freezing rain cause?

Clear ice

What causes greatest change in Altimeter, Air Speed, and Rate of Climb?
Icing is greater than pressure
Affects are due to Pitot-Static clogs

Visibility Definitions
Visibility: the ability to see prominent unlighted objects by day and prominent lighted
objects by night, expressed in nm.

Flight visibility: average forward horizontal distance measured in nm from the cockpit
in flight

Prevailing visibility: greatest forward horizontal visibility, SM, equal or exceeded

throughout at least half of the horizon circle, which need not be continuous

Runway Visual Range: horizontal distance a pilot will see by looking down the
runway from the approach end
Slant Range visibility: distance on final approach when you can see the runway

Obscuring Phenomena: any collection of particles, which will reduce horizontal

visibility

Ceiling: height AGL to the lowest broken or overcast layer, or the vertical visibility
into obscuring phenomena

Vertical visibility: distance seen directly upward from the ground level into obscuring
phenomena

What causes saturation?

Cooling temp to dew point
Evaporations brings dew point to temp [adds moisture to air]

What is the biggest hazard in heavy rain on final approach?

Reduced visibility
Possible windshear

Volcanic ash encounters

Despite ongoing avoidance efforts, operators can still experience volcanic ash
encounters. Guidance on the operational issues surrounding volcanic ash is divided
into three aspects: avoidance, recognition, and procedures. The following information
is general; flight crews should refer to their respective company's operating manuals
for details.

Avoidance
Preventing flight into potential ash environments requires planning in these areas:
Dispatch needs to provide flight crews with information about volcanic events, such
as potentially eruptive volcanoes and known ash sightings, that could affect a
particular route.

Dispatch also needs to identify alternate routes to help flight crews avoid airspace
containing volcanic ash.
Flight crews should stay upwind of volcanic ash and dust.
Flight crews should note that airborne weather radar is ineffective for distinguishing
ash and small dust particles.

Recognition
Indicators that an airplane is penetrating volcanic ash are related to odour, haze,
changing engine conditions, airspeed, pressurization, and static discharges.

Odour
When encountering a volcanic ash cloud, flight crews usually notice a smoky or acrid
odour that can smell like electrical smoke, burned dust, or sulphur.

Haze
Most flight crews, as well as cabin crew or passengers, see a haze develop within the
airplane. Dust can settle on surfaces.
Changing engine conditions
Surging, torching from the tailpipe, and flameouts can occur. Engine temperatures can
change unexpectedly, and a white glow can appear at the engine inlet.

Airspeed
If volcanic ash fouls the Pitot tube, the indicated airspeed can decrease or fluctuate
erratically.

Pressurization
Cabin pressure can change, including possible loss of cabin pressurization.

Static discharges
A phenomenon similar to St. Elmo's fire or glow can occur. In these instances, blue-
coloured sparks can appear to flow up the outside of the windshield or a white glow
can appear at the leading edges of the wings or at the front of the engine inlets.

Procedures
The following nine procedures are general recommendations. Each operator's flight
operations manuals will include more specific directions.

Reduce thrust to idle immediately

By reducing thrust, engines may suffer less build-up of molten debris on turbine
blades and hot-section components. Idle thrust allows engines to continue producing
electrical power, bleed air for pressurization, and hydraulic power for airplane control.

Turn the auto throttles off

This prevents the engines from increasing thrust above idle. Ash debris in the engine
can result in reduced surge margins, and limiting the number of thrust adjustments
improves the chances of engine recovery.

Exit the ash cloud as quickly as possible

A 180-deg turn out of the ash cloud using a descending turn is the quickest exit
strategy. Many ash clouds extend for hundreds of miles, so assuming that the
encounter will end shortly can be false. Climbing out of the ash could result in
increased engine debris build-up as the result of increased temperatures. The
increased engine build-up can cause total thrust loss.

Turn on engine and wing anti-ice devices and all air-conditioning packs
These actions improve the engine stall margins by increasing the flow of bleed air.

If possible, start the auxiliary power unit [APU]

The APU can power systems in the event of a multiple-engine power loss. It can also
be used to restart engines through the use of APU bleed air.

If volcanic dust fills the flight deck, the crew may need to use oxygen
Use flight deck oxygen at the 100 percent setting. Manual deployment of the
passenger oxygen system is not required because it will deploy automatically if the
cabin altitude exceeds 14,000 ft.
Turn on the continuous ignition
Confirm that auto start is on, if available. In the event that the engines flame out or
stall, use appropriate procedures to restart the engines. During restart, the engines may
take longer than normal to reach idle thrust due to the combined effects of high
altitude and volcanic ash ingestion. If an engine fails to start, try restarting it again
immediately. Flight crews should remember that the airplane may be out of the air
start envelope if the encounter occurs during cruise.

Monitor engine exhaust gas temperature (EGT)

Because of potential engine debris build-up, the EGT can climb excessively. The
flight crew should prevent EGT accedences. Shut down the engine and restart it if the
EGT is approaching limits similar to a hung start.

Fly the airplane by monitoring airspeed and pitch attitude

If necessary, follow the procedure for flight with unreliable airspeed.