PROJECT

PROJECT

Name: Rahul
Rudhiran
Subject: physics M
Topic: research
Topic:To Research and
AC discover novelhelp
To DC with electricity
of
methods
half-wave and full- wave resistor
Name: Harish Balaji.B
Class:XII
Class: XII

Guided by Prepared by
Jagadesh.N Rudhiran
Jagadesh N HRahul VM.B
arish Balaji
 VIDHYALAKSHMI SCHOOL

Department of Physics

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr.Rahul V, a student of class XII-B has

successfully completed the research on the below mentioned project
under the guidance of Mr.JAGADESH (Subject Teacher) during the
year 2023-24 in partial fulfillment of chemistry practical examination
conducted by CBSE, New Delhi.

Signature of external examiner Signature of physics teacher

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank my Principal Mrs. UMA A E and school

management for providing me with the facilities required to do my
project.
I am highly indebted to my chemistry teacher Mr.JAGADESH
their able guidance which has sustained my efforts in all the stages
of this project work.
I would also like to thank my parents for their continuous support
and encouragement. My thanks and appreciation also go to my
fellow classmates and the librarian in developing the project and to
the others who have willingly helped me out with their abilities.

Date: Name of the student:

Contents

• Introduction on half wave and full wave rectifier

• Advantages
• Types
• Abstract
• Background study
• Idea and methodology
• Basic principles
• Rectification
• Creating PCB layout
• Total cost
 Study of AC to DC Converter

In a half-wave rectifier, one half of each a.c input cycle is rectified.

When the p-n junction diode is forward biased, it gives little resistance
and when it is reversed biased it provides high resistance. During one-
half cycles, the diode is forward biased when the input voltage is
applied and in the opposite half cycle, it is reverse biased. During
alternate half-cycles, the optimum result can be obtained.

Working of Half Wave Rectifier

The half-wave rectifier has both positive and negative cycles. During
the positive half of the input, the current will flow from positive to
negative which will generate only a positive half cycle of the a.c
supply. When a.c supply is applied to the transformer, the voltage will
be decreasing at the secondary winding of the diode. All the variations
in the a.c supply will reduce, and we will get the pulsating d.c voltage
to the load resistor.

Half Wave Rectifier

In the second half cycle, the current will flow from negative to positive
and the diode will be reverse biased. Thus, at the output side, there
will be no current generated, and we cannot get power at the load
resistance. A small amount of reverse current will flow during reverse
bias due to minority carriers.

Read More: Half-wave Rectifier

Characteristics of Half Wave Rectifier

Following are the characteristics of half-wave rectifier:

Ripple Factor

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 Ripples are the oscillations that are obtained in DC which are
corrected by using filters such as inductors and capacitors. These
ripples are measured with the help of the ripple factor and are denoted
by γ. Ripple factor tells us the number of ripples presents in the output
DC. Higher the ripple factor, more is the oscillation at the output DC
and lower is the ripple factor, less is the oscillation at the output DC.

Ripple factor is the ratio of RMS value of the AC component of the

output voltage to the DC component of the output voltage.

DC Current
DC current is given as:

Where,

Imax is the maximum DC load current

DC Output Voltage
The output DC voltage appears at the load resistor RL which is
obtained by multiplying output DC voltage with the load resistor RL.
The output DC voltage is given as:

Where,

VSmax is the maximum secondary voltage

Form Factor
The form factor is the ratio of RMS value to the DC value. For a half-
wave rectifier, the form factor is 1.57.

Rectifier Efficiency

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 Rectifier efficiency is the ratio of output DC power to the input AC
power. For a half-wave rectifier, rectifier efficiency is 40.6%.

Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier

Affordable
Simple connections
Easy to use as the connections are simple
Number of components used are less
Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier
Ripple production is more
Harmonics are generated
Utilization of the transformer is very low
The efficiency of rectification is low
Applications of Half Wave Rectifier
Following are the uses of half-wave rectification:

Power rectification: Half wave rectifier is used along with a

transformer for power rectification as powering equipment.
Signal demodulation: Half wave rectifiers are used for demodulating
the AM signals.
Signal peak detector: Half wave rectifier is used for detecting the peak
of the incoming waveform.
What Is Full Wave Rectifier?
Full-wave rectifier circuits are used for producing an output voltage or
output current which is purely DC. The main advantage of a full- wave
rectifier over half-wave rectifier is that such as the average output
voltage is higher in full-wave rectifier, there is less ripple produced in
full-wave rectifier when compared to the half-waverectifier.

Read More: Full-wave Rectifier

Working of Full Wave Rectifier

The full-wave rectifier utilizes both halves of each a.c input. When the
p-n junction is forward biased, the diode offers low resistance and
when it is reverse biased it gives high resistance. The circuit is

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 designed in such a manner that in the first half cycle if the diode is
forward biased then in the second half cycle it is reverse biased and so
on.

Full Wave Rectifier

Characteristics of Full Wave Rectifier

Following are the characteristics of full-wave rectifier:

Ripple Factor
Ripple factor for a full-wave rectifier is given as:

DC Current
Currents from both the diodes D1 and D2 are in the same direction
when they flow towards load resistor RL. The current produced by
both the diodes is the ratio of Imax to π, therefore the DC current is
given as:

Where,

Imax is the maximum DC load current

DC Output Voltage
DC output voltage is obtained at the load resistor RL and is given as:

Where,

Vmax is the maximum secondary voltage

Form Factor
The form factor is the ratio of RMS value of current to the output DC
voltage. The form factor of a full-wave rectifier is given as 1.11

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 Rectifier Efficiency
Rectifier efficiency is used as a parameter to determine the efficiency
of the rectifier to convert AC into DC. It is the ratio of DC output
power to the AC input power. The rectifier efficiency of a full-wave
rectifier is 81.2%.

Types of Full Wave Rectifier

There are two main types of full-wave rectifiers, and they are:

Two diodes full-wave rectifier circuit (requires a center-tapped

transformer and is used in vacuum tubes)
Bridge rectifier circuit (doesn’t require a centre-tapped transformer
and is used along with transformers for efficient usage)
Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier
The rectifier efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is high
The power loss is very low
Number of ripples generated are less
Disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier
Very expensive
Applications of Full Wave Rectifier
Following are the uses of full-wave rectifier:

Full-wave rectifiers are used for supplying polarized voltage in

welding and for this bridge rectifiers are used.
Full-wave rectifiers are used for detecting the amplitude of modulated
radio signals.
Difference between Half Wave Rectifier and Full Wave Rectifier
Parameter Half Wave Rectifier Full Wave Rectifier
Definition The half-wave rectifier is a rectifier which is used for
converting the one-half cycle of AC input to DC output A full-wave
rectifier is a rectifier which is used for converting both the half cycles
of AC input into DC output
No. of diodes used 1 2 or 4 depending on the type of circuitForm
factor 1.57 1.11
Rectifier efficiency 40.6% 81.2%

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 Ripple factor Ripple factor of a half-wave rectifier
is more Ripplefactor of a full-wave rectifier is less

Abstract:

Modern electrical equipment has a low DC output voltage. The alternating

currentutility supply must be converted and stepped down to a sufficient DC
voltage. Previously, converters were enormous in size and cost a lotof money.
The discovery of the switch mode power supply enabled a significant decrease
insize and cost. This aim is achieved via increasing power density, which is
accomplished by reducing the size of passive/energy storage components such
as inductors, capacitors, and transformers. For better usage of existing electric
energy, thecomplete power system should be run at high efficiency, which is
why numerous types of converters are currently used. The research of AC-DC
converters is carried out in this thesis, together with necessary simulations, to
achievea greater grasp of the issue. As a result, the primary goal of this research
is to thoroughly investigate the working principles and applications of linear
power supply in ac to dc converters.

Keywords: Ac to Dc converter, Full wave rectifier, transformer, PCB layout

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 I. Introduction

At present time there is an increasing demand for efficient systems every

time we communicate approximatelyelectricity consumptions and so as to
keep up with those needs engineers were coming forward growing
efficient conversion strategies and additionally been capable of design
circuits with excessive performance. Nevertheless, technology on this
discipline remains improving with facing new demanding situations.
Converter in power electronicsconverts power from one type to another
by means of various the voltage or frequency. Power conversion is based
on kind of the input and output power. Converter driven programs are
broadly used. The electrical power conversion is an exceptional field of
electricalengineering. The Power electronics isthe utilization of solid-state
gadgets to control of electric power and transformation of electric power.
It isalso restrictive as it excludes rotatingmachines (electrical motor and
generator) [1]. Converter may do oneor more functions and give an output
that varies from the input. Theconverters are used to increase or decrease
the magnitude of the input voltage, invert polarity or produce several
output voltages of either the same polarity with the input, differentpolarity,
or mixed polarities. The converters are used in nonlinearcomponents. For
example, the semiconductor switches, and linear reactive components.
There are different types of linear components such as the inductors,
transformers and capacitors for intermediate energy storage as well as
current andvoltage filtering. The size, weight and cost of the converter are
mainly determined by these components. However, power conversion
systemscan be classified according to whether the input and output are
alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) [2,3]. Alternative current
(AC) to Direct current (DC) is one of those heavily usedconversion in
power electronics system. For instance, a laptop battery adapter is the
example of the AC to DC conversion. Here, adapter ‘s input current is AC
and output current is DC. The reason behind forusing the constant DC
voltage is thatit is free of ripples or unwanted frequencies. The DC circuit
is formed in such a way that therectification and filtering process willbe
carried out properly. If the supplyof DC voltage is not constant, a laptop
cannot be charged properly. The main feature of the rectifier is it must
handle the output current (load). After that, we connect the output of
rectifier to the filter. As we know, filter is nothing but a device, which
filters out the ripples in the unidirectional ac voltage and converts it back
to pure dc voltage. There are two kinds of filter used in the circuit, inductor
and capacitor.Capacitors are the widely used filters.But instead of giving
less value if weincrease the value of capacitor some circuit, we can get

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 voltage greaterthan or equal to the dc output voltage(that must be same of
transformeroutput voltage) so that you'll get a pure dc output without any
ripples. Theoretically, it is recommended to use a high voltage capacitor
(like 150% of output voltage) to get less ripple and a smooth graph. We
try toadd a couple of capacitors to get our desired output dc voltage lesser
than the transformer output voltage, that iswhy we will connect a voltage
regulator next to the capacitor [3]. We are using 230V/50Hz AC supply
which connect to step-down transformer which will step down and give a
DC voltage depending ontransformer rating that connectrectifier circuit,
which converts from AC to pulsating DC after that connect Capacitor
(filter). Afterwards it converts pulsating AC to pure DC. Inorder to get
constant DC, we need toconnect regulator IC - LM7812 that maintains
the output voltage at a constant value. We are using LM7812 IC, which
provides +12 volts regulated power supply. In addition, we try to collect
the different changing value for changing the AC voltage and will tryto
simulate the output waveform. Forthis purpose, we will use PROTEUS
software to get our desired result andwaveform.

Background Study

The transmission of electric power isin an alternating current (AC) system,

with a few exceptions. With theadvancement of alternating to direct
current converters, they are becominga recognized and
widely usedapplication. As a result, ac dcconverter has
recently framed a functional research domain. The needfor DC power might
be supplemental,such as in electronic controls,
orcritical, such as the DC connection ofa motor.
Meanwhile, governingauthorities, such as IEC 1000, Std 500,and
others, maintain rigorous harmonics guidelines. This is due tothe
requirement for a strong factor andminimal line
current harmonicsdistortion. To change line frequencyfrom
ac to dc, a line frequency diodebridge rectifier is utilized. A large filter
capacitor is utilized at the rectifier Background Study

The transmission of electric power isin an alternating current (AC) system,

with a few exceptions. With the
advancement of alternating to directcurrent converters, they are becominga
recognized and widely usedapplication.
As a result, ac dcconverter has
recently framed a functional research domain. The needfor DC power might be
supplemental,such as in electronic controls,

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 orcritical, such as the DC connection ofa motor.
Meanwhile, governingauthorities, such as IEC 1000, Std 500,
and others, maintain rigorous
harmonics guidelines. This is due tothe requirement for a strong factor and
minimal line current harmonics
distortion. To change line frequencyfrom ac to dc, a line frequency diode
bridge rectifier is utilized. A large filtercapacitor is utilized at the rectifier output
to diminish the ripple in theoutput voltage. In any case, currentdrawn by this
converter is peaky by characteristics for the larger capacitor.This input current
is high in low orderharmonics and because of the existence of these harmonics,
theaggregate harmonic distortion is high and the input control factor is denied.
Issues related with these low power factors also, harmonics, utilities will
authorize harmonic standards and rules which will constrain the measure of
current distortion permitted into the utility. It is greatly required to
accomplishing rectification at near utility power factor and low input current
distortion [4].

II.Theory & Methodology

AC-DC converters are electrical circuits that transform alternatingcurrent
(AC) input into direct current(DC) output. They are used in power electronic
applications where the power input a 50Hz or 60Hz sine- wave AC voltage
that requires powerconversion for a DC output. We utilize control electronic
converters in our day-byday life at home, business work places or in a
mechanicalsituation. Converters have become anintegrated part of industrial
electric drives, power supplies and otherautomobile equipment’s due to high
power handling capability with higher efficiency. Power electronic
components such as, Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs) [or Thyristor],
Triode for Alternating Current (TRIACs), Insulated Gate Bi-polar Transistor
(IGBT) are used for power electronic converters to controland change over
electric power. The principle point of the converter is to deliver moulding
power regarding a specific application
[5].

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 Fig.1: Block diagram of a powerelectronic converter.

The block diagram of a power electronic converter shows that it contains an

electrical energy source, power electronic circuit, a control circuit and a load
circuit.
This converter changes one form of electrical energy to another. Commercially
available voltages are time varying voltages used in large quantities.
Alternating current (AC) is the electric current which periodically reverses the
flow of direction. Commercially a variableAC wave forms are Sinusoidal,
Square wave, Complex wave form and Triangular wave [6].

Fig.2: Alternating waveforms.

We are interested in Sinusoidal ac voltage since it is encountered and

utilized all over the world. The process of converting AC current to DC
current is also known as rectification. We utilize alternatingcurrent in our
house, but we cannot always use alternating current everywhere. Sometimes
we need to convert this to a direct current source.That is why correction is
required. The term "rectifier" refers to an AC to DC converter. The circuit
convertsan alternating current signal to a direct current signal by allowing
the signal to flow in just one direction [7]. Filters are used to smooth
downthe output even further.
Some examples of AC-DCconverters are:

1) AC/DC converters (off-line) 3ph- Input/3KW

2) AC/DC converter (off-line) as insertunit 3) AC/DC converters (off-line)
with 3 outputs, pen frame

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 4) AC/DC converters (off-line) asBuild-In- Unit 6HE
5) AC/DC converters (rectifier) forTelecom
Application

Basic Principles
The block diagram of a basic AC-DC converter is given below.

Fig.3: Block diagram of an AC-to-DC converter.

To bias all electronic circuits, a DC power source is necessary. Dependingon

the electronic application, the DC output Vo will typically be in the 3- 24V
range. The diode is highly beneficial in this case since the properties of a silicon
diode are non- linear, which means that current occurs for one voltage polarity
but is zero forthe opposite polarity.
There are several methods for correction. We'll go through them all afterwards.
The simplest power electronics circuit used in radios for low-cost power supply
is the halfwave rectifier. However, for most power applications, half wave
rectification isinadequate. Because the waveform'sharmonic richness is so high,
filtering the output is extremely challenging.The essential ideas of this rectifier
arefairly simple to grasp. Let's look at thefundamentals of a half-wave rectifier.

Half Wave Rectifier

During each positive half cycle of the sine wave, the diode is forward biasedas
the anode is positive so the current flows through the diode. The diode is in
reverse biased during the negative half cycle which blocks the currentflow. This
way all positive half cycle waveforms are made unidirectional. Using a
capacitor parallel to the load the amount of ripple voltage can be reduced and a
steady current is produced.

Full Wave Rectification

The full wave rectification uses both positive and negative half cycles of the
sine wave. In case of full wave rectification, two diodes are used of which
one conducts during the positivehalf cycle and the other conducts during the
negative half cycle. Theimportant point is that the current through the load

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 flows in the samedirection thus the output is unidirectional. Turning on a
diode depends on the polarity of the cathodevoltage and turning it off depends
on the device current. Three terminal devices such as Thyristor, BJT and
MOSFET etc. can be used to control the output voltage. The conversion of
AC-DC will take place when input is an AC supply and the output is a DC
load for example battery charging, DCmotor, electrolysis, electromagnets etc.
In designing a rectifier, two important parameters must be specified: the
current handlingcapability and the Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) the diode must
withstand without breakdown. PIV is specified by the manufacturer [8].

I. Layout Design
Software: Proteus 8 Professional

There is various way of getting AC to DC voltage converter. We can use power

electronic converters such asstep-down converter, step-up converter, voltage
stabilizer, AC to DCconverter, DC to DC converter, DC toAC converter. Here,
we are doing analysis by using Single PhaseTransformer with Full Bridge
Rectifier.

Fig.4: Circuit Diagram of AC voltageas input with output of Full

Bridge rectifier.

Fig.5: PCB Layout of the circuit

I.CREATING THE PCBLAYOUT

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 Open your PCB Layout in the top iconsection, and click on the PCB Layout
button:

Fig.6: Creating PCB layoutinterface

The footprints associated with each schematic symbol will be automatically

transferred to the PCB editor using auto placer option:

Fig.7: PCB layout Manual Routing

Notice the thin blue lines connecting the components. These are called
ratsnest lines. Ratsnest lines are virtual wires that represent the connections
between components. They show you where you need to route the traces
according to the wiring connections you created in your schematic:

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 Fig.8: PCB layout Ratsnest Lines

Now we can start arranging the components, keeping in mind the design tips
mentioned above. We might want to do some research to find out if there are
any special design requirements for our circuit. Some circuits perform better
with certain components in specific locations. For example, in anLM7812
amplifier circuit the power supply decoupling capacitors need to be placed
close to the chip to reduce noise.
After we’ve arranged all of thecomponents, it’s time to start drawingthe traces.
Use the ratsnest wires as arough guide for routing each trace.
However, they won’t always showthe best way to route the traces, so it’sa good
idea to refer back to yourschematic to verify the correct connections. Traces
can also be routed automatically using the software’s auto-router. For
complicated circuits, it’s generally better to route traces manually, but try the
auto-router on simpler designsand see what it comes up with. We can always
adjust individual traces later.

Now we have to Click on Output To get the Top

Silk & Bottom Copper Layout print

Fig.9: PCB layout Printing options inProteus

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 Fig.10: PCB layout (Top Silk)

Fig.11: PCB layout (Bottom Copper)

I. Hardware Preparation

i. Component Selection
1. Transformer with 1A 12V Rating
2. 4 pcs 1N4007 Diodes
3. 470uF & 220uF Electrolytic capacitor.
4. LDO or a Linear Voltage Regulator as per specification (Here LM7812
used).
5. A multi meter to measure thevoltage.

ii. Complete Hardware

Fig.12: Complete Hardware Visuals(Ac to Dc Converter)

II. Results
From the circuit diagram shown in Fig4, we give an AC source where AC

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 voltage is given 220V and Frequency is 50Hz. Here, a transformer is attached
with AC source which will transform 220v and make it a low voltage AC
wave as AC voltage has positive (+Ve) and negative (-Ve) terminals. Here,
after step down to a smaller voltage we need to stop polarity changes. To
make electrons pass only in one direction we needdiodes. Here we are using
4 diodes as a bridge so that a positive and negativecycle will convert into a
positive cycle where lower waves are lifted and make the wave as one
directional. From Fig 14 we can see the output result of the sinusoidal wave
when attached with a Full Bridge Rectifier.

Fig.13: Simulation Graph of AC voltage as input with outputof

Full Bridge rectifier.

Fig.14: Circuit Diagram of AC

voltage as input withoutput of DC voltage

Now, adding capacitor of higher valueso that it can store charge. Here we are
using Capacitors C1=470 µF andC2=220 µF. We can see that AC voltage come
from the transformer as a sinusoidal wave, after that rectifier flips the negative
half cycle intopositive. Then with the help of capacitor the become smoother.
Adding more capacitor, we can getsmoother DC voltage. From Fig 15. We can
see the DC output which is almost straight with the help of capacitors.
From the circuit diagram, we can see the input from AC voltage comingfrom
transformer and the output isfrom DC voltage source. A capacitor C3= 470 µF
is attached to store charge. Here we use
oscilloscope for measuring the graph of AC input and DC output. We get
output of DC voltage= +12V.

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 Fig.15: Simulation Graph of AC
voltage as input with output of DC voltage.

Actually, line voltage is always presented. Filter capacitor fills those gaps as
they don't get discharge very fast. It’s smoothly generating DC. When the
first DC wave comes up capacitor get charged and wave comes to zero
instantly but capacitor discharge slowly, then output line voltage is seen. As
the capacitors don't get discharge very fast socapacitor fills those gaps which
smoothly generates DC. Now if we want to make it straighter then we have
to add more voltage regulator. This can be done by a zener diode also. Zener
diode act as same as diode but it has a condition, limitation at a specific
voltage. Here we are changing ac voltage to get our desiredoutput. We get our
dc voltage 11.95Vwhen ac voltage is 220V.

Table.1: Practical result

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 Fig.16: Hardware AC to DcConverter Output Voltage

Here, we can see that we get almostour desired 12V output voltage.
So, we can claim that our project isrunning properly.

Total Cost

[Estimated total cost associated withthis project is

around 600 Taka]

Timeline

I. Discussion and Conclusion

AC to DC convert by using full bridgerectifier with different combination of
load and observed the DC outcomes through simulations. We also studied
about different types and application of AC-DC converters, keeping our
main focus on single phase with full bridge rectifier converter circuits. We
gained vast knowledge about PROTEUS software during the project, where
we carried out all our circuit construction and simulation respectively. The
main function is to have a good conversion voltage from AC to DC, for that

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 reason where we are using full bridge

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rectifier instead of normal diodes attaching or Zener diode. As we know
Zener diode have limitation so when itreaches to that limitation it become bi-
directional although it doesn’t need voltage regulator but it will make bi-
directional wave up to a limit. That iswhy we used full bridge rectifier and
a voltage regulator to make a simple conversion. Besides, for better results
we can use a voltage regulator chip orU0001f3a9 like 7805, 7812, 7905,
7912 to obtain a constant voltage (both positive and negative are
possible). In Bangladesh the supply is 220Volts in 50Hz for households. We
get 11.94V as DC output when we apply 220V as AC input.

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