Cell cycle and Division

Cell Cycle and Division

 Basis of cell division –
1. To restore ratio of volume of nucleus and 1. I - Interphase
volume of cytoplasm i.e Vn / Vc 2. Pray - Prophase
2. Surface area-Volume ratio 3. More - Metaphase
Small cell- high (more efficient exchange of 4. At - Anaphase
materials) 5. Temple - Telophase

As Cell size ↑– Ratio ↓-efficiency ↓  Interphase / Preparatory / Resting / Growth

/Non-dividing /Energy phase is divided into
 Types of cell division- 3 further phases:
1. Amitosis / Direct division  G1 phase (Gap 1) / Post-mitotic- During G1
2. Mitosis phase the cell is metabolically active (energy
3. Meiosis phase) & continuously grows but does not
 Amitosis / Direct division – replicate its DNA.
 Discovered by Fleming  S phase (Synthesis)
 No chromosome formation S or synthesis phase marks the
 No spindle formation period during which DNA
 No dissolution of nuclear synthesis or replication takes place.
membrane (intact) During this time the amount of
 Nuclear constriction followed by DNA per cell doubles. In animal
cytoplasmic constriction cells, during the S phase, DNA
 Quick , less energy consuming – replication begins in the nucleus,
Advantage and the centriole duplicates in the
 Disadvantage – cytoplasm.
Daughter cells may be unequal in size  During S-phase : DNA content
doubles but chromosome number
Unequal distribution of chromatin remains same

Eg-  G2 phase (Gap 2)

During the G2 phase, proteins are
1. Prokaryotes(some bacteria , BGA) synthesized in preparation for mitosis while
2. Ciliated protozoa (Paramoecium) cell growth continues.
3. Old plant cells
4. Chondrocytes ( cartilage forming cells) Quiescent stage (G0) of the cell cycle
5. Extra-embryonic membrane cells  Quiescent stage (G0) of the cell cycle
 Some cells in the adult animals do not
appear to exhibit division (e.g., heart ,
CELL CYCLE
muscle cells & neurons) and many other
The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its cells divide only occasionally, as
genome, synthesizes the other constituents of the cell needed to replace cells that have been
and eventually lost because of injury or cell death.
 Temporary or permanent
divides into two daughter cells is termed cell cycle.  These cells that do not divide further
Yeast can progress through the cell cycle in only exit G1 phase to enter an inactive stage
called quiescent stage (G0) of the cell
about 90 minutes. (Human cell-24 hours)
cycle.
The interphase lasts more than 95% of the duration of  Cells in this stage remain metabolically
cell cycle. active but no longer proliferate unless
called on to do so depending on the
 Trick for cell cycle stages – requirement of the organism.
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 Cell cycle and Division
* M-cyclin – CDK →MPF (Maturation Promoting
Factor)

M-PHASE
This is the most dramatic period of the cell
cycle, involving a major reorganisation of
virtually all components of the cell.

Mitosis -
 Since the number of chromosomes in
the parent and progeny cells is the
same, it is also called as Equational /
Duplication / Somatic cell division.

 Mitosis discovery-
Plant cells – Strasburger
Animal cells – Boveri & Flemming
Best material to study Mitosis – Onion root
tip

1. PROPHASE – longest phase

Prophase is marked by the initiation of
condensation of chromosomal material.
The chromosomal material becomes
 Check points in cell cycle – 1.G1 / G1 – S untangled during the process of chromatin
check point – it checks for condensation. The centriole, which had
 Abnormal DNA
undergone duplication during S phase of
 Raw materials for S-phase
 ATP synthesis interphase, now begins to move towards
 Activates CDK (Cyclin Dependent opposite poles of the cell.
Kinases) & cyclins (proteins)
The completion of prophase can thus be
2. G2 / G2 – M check point – it checks for marked by the following characteristic
 DNA replication events:
 Histone synthesis  Chromosomal material condenses to
 Tubulin protein synthesis form compact mitotic
 Centriole & cell organelle chromosomes. Chromosomes are
duplication seen to be composed of two
chromatids attached together at the
3. M- check point (Metaphase-Anaphase) – it centromere.
checks for  Initiation of the assembly of mitotic
 Chromosome alignment on spindle, the microtubules, the
equatorial / metaphase plate proteinaceous components of the cell
 Spindle attachment on kinetochore cytoplasm help in the process.
/ centromere Cells at the end of prophase, when viewed under the
microscope, do not show golgi complexes,
 Regulation of cell cycle – endoplasmic reticulum, nucleolus and the nuclear
 Genetically controlled through- envelope.
1. Cyclins (Proteins& activates CDK)
2. CDK
a) G1 cyclin – formed in G1 & degradation in 2. METAPHASE
S-phase  Spindle fibres attach to kinetochores of
b) M cyclin – formed in G2 & degradation in chromosomes.
M- phase
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 Cell cycle and Division
 Chromosomes are moved to spindle equator CYTOKINESIS
and get aligned along metaphase plate  In an animal cell, this is achieved by the
through spindle fibres to both poles. appearance of a furrow in the plasma
membrane. (contractile ring formation by
Microfilaments)
 The furrow gradually deepens and
ultimately joins in the centre dividing the
cell cytoplasm into two. (Centripetal)
 Plant cells however, are enclosed by a
relatively inextensible cell wall, thererfore
they undergo cytokinesis by a different
mechanism.
 In plant cells, wall formation starts in the
centre of the cell and grows outward to meet
the existing lateral walls. (Centrifugal)
 The formation of the new cell wall begins
with the formation of a simple precursor,
called the cell-plate that represents the
middle lamella between the walls of two
adjacent cells.
At the time of cytoplasmic division, organelles like
mitochondria and plastids get distributed between the
two daughter cells. In some organisms karyokinesis
3. ANAPHASE is not followed by cytokinesis as a result of which
 Centromeres split and chromatids separate. multinucleate condition arises leading to the
 Chromatids move to opposite poles. formation of syncytium. e.g., liquid endosperm in
 Shortest phase coconut

SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS
4. TELOPHASE  Mitosis results in the production of diploid
 Chromosomes cluster at opposite spindle daughter cells with identical genetic
poles and their identity is lost as discrete complement usually.
elements.  The growth of multicellular organisms is
 Nuclear envelope assembles around the due to mitosis.
chromosome clusters.  Cell growth results in disturbing the ratio
 Nucleolus, golgi complex and ER reform. between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
 It therefore becomes essential for the cell to
divide to restore the nucleo-cytoplasmic
ratio.
 Healing of wounds
 A very significant contribution of mitosis is
cell repair. The cells of the upper layer of
the epidermis, cells of the lining of the gut,
and blood cells are being constantly
replaced.

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Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Cell cycle and Division
 Mitotic divisions in the meristematic tissues
– the apical and the lateral cambium, result MEIOSIS
in a continuous growth of plants throughout Meiosis ensures the production of haploid phase in
their life.
the life cycle of sexually reproducing organisms
whereas fertilisation restores the diploid phase.
 Mitogens – Induce mitosis
1. Auxin Meiosis involves two sequential cycles of nuclear and
2. Gibberellins cell division called meiosis I and meiosis II but only
3. Cytokinins a single cycle of DNA replication.
4. Insulin  Meiosis I is initiated after the parental
chromosomes have replicated to produce
identical sister chromatids at the S phase.
Cell cycle inhibitors ( Mitotic inhibitors)  Meiosis involves pairing of homologous
1. Actinomycin – D chromosomes and recombination between
2. Azide & Cyanid them.
3. Mustard gas  Four haploid cells are formed at the end of
4. Chalones – natural , tissue specific meiosis II.
mitotic suppresants (G1 / G2) eg-
Myostatins of muscle cells MEIOSIS
5. Colchicine – Prophase I:
 Alkaloid from seeds / corm(bulb-like It is typically longer and more complex when
underground stem) of Colchicum autumnale compared to prophase of mitosis. It has been further
(Liliaceae) subdivided into the following five phases based on
 It inhibits spindle fibre formation (disrupt / chromosomal behaviour.
inhibit microtubule polymerization) –
Metaphase
A. Leptotene-
 Induces polyploidy in plants
 The chromosomes become gradually visible
under the light microscope.
Mitotic inhibitors use -  The compaction of chromosomes continues
1. Used in cancer treatment throughout leptotene.
2. In Cytogenetics ( study of  This is followed by the second stage of
chromosomes) prophase

1. Chromatin
2. Chromosome B. Zygotene-
3. Chromatid  During this stage chromosomes start pairing
4. Kinetochore together and this process of association is
called synapsis. Such paired chromosomes
5. Bivalent
are called homologous chromosomes.
6. Tetrad  Electron micrographs of this stage indicate
that chromosome synapsis is accompanied
by the formation of complex structure called
synaptonemal complex.
 The complex formed by a pair of synapsed
homologous chromosomes is called a
bivalent or a tetrad.
 However, these are more clearly visible at
the next stage

C. Pachytene-
 During this stage bivalent chromosomes
now clearly appears as tetrads.
 This stage is characterised by the appearance
of recombination nodules, the sites at which
crossing over occurs between non-sister
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Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Cell cycle and Division
chromatids of the homologous Telophase I:
chromosomes.
 Crossing over is the exchange of genetic  The nuclear membrane and nucleolus
material between two homologous reappear, cytokinesis follows and this is
chromosomes. called as diad of cells.
 Crossing over is also an enzyme-mediated  Although in many cases the chromosomes
process and the enzyme involved is called do undergo some dispersion, they do not
recombinase. reach the extremely extended state of the
 Crossing over leads to recombination of interphase nucleus.
genetic material on the two chromosomes.

D. Diplotene-  The stage between the two meiotic divisions

 The beginning of diplotene is recognised by is called interkinesis and is generally short
the dissolution of the synaptonemal complex lived.
and the tendency of the recombined  Interkinesis is followed by prophase II, a
homologous chromosomes of the bivalents much simpler prophase than prophase I.
to separate from each other except at the
sites of crossovers.
 These X-shaped structures, are called MEIOSIS II
chiasmata.
 In oocytes of some vertebrates, diplotene Prophase II:
can last for months or years.
Meiosis II is initiated immediately after cytokinesis,
E. Diakinesis – usually before the chromosomes have fully
 This is marked by terminalisation of elongated. The nuclear membrane disappears by the
chiasmata. end of prophase II . The chromosomes again become
 During this phase the chromosomes are fully compact.
condensed and the meiotic spindle is
assembled to prepare the homologous Metaphase II:
chromosomes for separation.
 By the end of diakinesis, the nucleolus At this stage the chromosomes align at the equator
disappears and the nuclear envelope also and the microtubules from opposite poles of the
breaks down.
 Diakinesis represents transition to spindle get attached to the kinetochores of sister
metaphase. chromatids.

Anaphase II:

It begins with the simultaneous splitting of the

centromere of each chromosome allowing them to
move toward opposite poles of the cell.

Telophase II:

Meiosis ends with telophase II, in which the two

Metaphase I: groups of chromosomes once again get enclosed by a
 The bivalent chromosomes align on the nuclear envelope; cytokinesis follows resulting in the
equatorial plate. formation of tetrad of cells i.e., four haploid daughter
 The microtubules from the opposite poles of cells
the spindle attach to the pair of homologous
chromosomes.  Anaphase I & Anaphase-II
Anaphase I:  Disjunction of chromosomes and chromatids
 After meiosis – I chromosome number
 The homologous chromosomes separate, halves
while sister chromatids remain associated at  After meiosis – II DNA Content halves
their centromeres.

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Cell cycle and Division

SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS

 Meiosis is the mechanism by which

conservation of specific chromosome
number of each species is achieved across
generations in sexually reproducing
organisms.
 It results in reduction of chromosome
number by half.
 It also increases the genetic variability in the
population of organisms from one
generation to the next.
 Variations are very important for the process
of evolution.
 Important formulae to calculate No. of
meiosis required :
 Here n = no. of gametes / pollen
grains / zygote / seeds / fruit
1. For male gametes = n/4
2. For female gametes = n
3. For seeds = n + n/4 or n X 1.25

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005