CHAPTER-2:

METHODS OF ENQUIRY IN PSYCHOLOGY

CLASS 11 PSYCHOLOGY
GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ENQUIRY
 Description: In a psychological study, we attempt to describe a behaviour or a phenomenon as
accurately as possible. The description requires recording of a particular behaviour which helps in its
proper understanding.
 Prediction : The second goal of scientific enquiry is prediction of behaviour. It helps to forecast that
under certain conditions this particular behaviour may occur within a certain margin of error. For
example, on the basis of study, a researcher is able to establish a positive relationship between the
amount of study time and achievement in different subjects.
 Explanation : The third goal of psychological enquiry is to know the causal factors or determinants
of behavior.
 Control : Control refers to three things: making a particular behaviour happen, reducing it, or
enhancing it.
 Application : The final goal of the scientific enquiry is to bring out positive changes in the lives of
people.
STEPS IN CONDUCTING SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

 The scientific method attempts to study a particular event or phenomenon in an objective, systematic, and
testable manner.
 The objectivity refers to the fact that if two or more persons independently study a particular event, both of
them, to a great extent, should arrive at the same conclusion. For instance, if you and your friend measure the
length of a table using the same measuring device, it is likely that both of you would arrive at the same conclusion
about its length.
 It follows systematic procedure or steps of investigation. It includes the following steps: conceptualisation of a
problem, collection of data, drawing conclusions, and revising research conclusions and theory.
 (1) Conceptualising a Problem : Starts with the selection of a theme or topic for study. In psychology we
study a diverse range of problems related to behaviour and experiences. These problems may be related to
 (a) understanding our own behaviour (for example, how do I feel and behave when I am in a state of joy or grief?
 (b) understanding other individual’s behaviour (for example, Is Abhinav more intelligent than Ankur?
 (c) group influences on individual behaviour (for example, Why does a cyclist perform better when cycling before a group of
persons than when cycling alone?);
 (d) group behaviour (for example, why does risk-taking behaviour increase when people are in a group?), and
 (e) organisational level (for example, why are some organisations more successful than others? How can an employer
increase the motivation of employees?).
After identification of the problem, the researcher proceeds by developing a tentative answer of the problem, which is called
hypothesis. s. For example, a hypothesis ‘greater is the amount of time spent by children in viewing violence on television,
higher is the degree of aggression displayed by them’. In your research, you shall now try to prove whether the statement is
true or false.
 (2) Collecting Data : The second step in scientific research is to collect data. Data collection requires
developing a research design or a blueprint of the entire study. It requires taking decisions about the following
four aspects:
 (a) participants in the study,
 (b) methods of data collection,
 (c) tools to be used in research, and
 (d) procedure for data collection.
 (3) Drawing Conclusions : The next step is to analyse data so collected through the use of statistical
procedures to understand what the data mean. The purpose of analysis is to verify a hypothesis and draw
conclusions accordingly.
 (4) Revising Research Conclusions : The researcher may have begun the study with a hypothesis that there
exists a relationship between viewing violence on television and aggression among children. S/he has to see
whether the conclusions support this hypothesis. If they do, the existing hypothesis/ theory is confirmed. If not,
s/he will revise or state an alternative hypothesis/theory and again test it based on new data and draw conclusions
which may be verified by future researchers. Thus, research is a continuous process.
ALTERNATIVE PARADIGMS OF RESEARCH

 Interpretive: emphasises understanding over explanation and prediction.

 It takes the stand that, in view of complex and variable nature of human behaviour and experience, its method of
investigation should be different from the method of investigation of the physical world.
 This viewpoint emphasises the importance of how human beings give meaning to events and actions and interpret
them as they occur in a particular context.
 The goal here is to explore the different aspects of human experiences and behaviour without attempting to
disturb its natural flow.
 For example, an explorer does not know what s/ he is looking for, how to look for it, and what to expect. Rather,
s/he tries to map an uncharted wilderness, with little or no prior knowledge of the area, and her/his main task is
to record detailed descriptions of what is found in a particular context.
 Both scientific and interpretive traditions are concerned with studying behaviour and experiences of others.
 The psychological enquiry does aim at understanding the self by reflecting on one’s own experiences and insights.
NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DATA

 Psychologists collect a variety of information from different sources employing diverse methods. The information,
also called data (singular = datum), relate to the individuals’ covert or overt behaviour, their subjective
experiences, and mental processes.
 Data are not independent of the physical or social context, the persons involved, and the time when the
behaviour occurs. We behave differently when alone than in a group, or at home and in office.
 The method of data collection (survey, interview, experiment, etc.) used and the characteristics of respondents
(such as, individual or group, young or old, male or female, rural or urban, etc.) also influence the nature and
quality of data.
 It is possible that when you interview a student, s/he may report behaving in a particular manner in a given
situation. But when you go for actual observation you may find just the opposite of what s/he had reported.
 Another important feature of data is that it does not in itself speak about reality. Inferences have to be made from
data. A researcher attaches meaning to the data by placing it in its proper context.
 Different types of data or information are collected. Some of these types are :
 Demographic Information : This information generally includes personal information like name, age, gender, birth order,
number of siblings, education, occupation, marital status, number of children, locality of residence, caste, religion, parental
education, occupation, and family income, etc
 Physical Information : This category includes information about ecological conditions (hilly/desert/forest), mode of
economy, housing conditions, size of rooms, facilities available at home, in the neighbourhood, in the school, mode of
transportation, etc.
 Physiological Data: In some studies physical, physiological and psychological data are collected about height, weight, heart
rate, level of fatigue, Galvanic Skin Resistance (GSR), electrical activity of the brain measured by Electro-encephalograph
(EEG), blood oxygen levels, reaction time, duration of sleep, blood pressure, pattern of dream, amount of salivation, running
and jumping rates (in case of animal studies), etc., are collected.
 Psychological Information : Psychological information collected, may relate to such areas as intelligence, personality,
interest, values, creativity, emotions, motivation, psychological disorders, illusions, delusions, hallucinations, perceptual
judgment, thought processes, consciousness, subjective experiences, etc.
SOME IMPORTANT METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY
OBSERVATIONAL METHOD

 Observation is a very powerful tool of psychological enquiry. It is an effective method of describing behavior.
 A scientific observation differs from day-to-day observation in many respects. These are :
 (a) Selection : Psychologists do not observe all the behaviour that they encounter. Rather, they select a particular
behaviour for observation.
 (b) Recording : While observing, a researcher records the selected behaviour using different means, such as marking tallies
for the already identified behaviour whenever they occur, taking notes describing each activity in greater detail using short
hand or symbols, photographs, video recording, etc.
 (c) Analysis of Data : After the observations have been made, psychologists analyse whatever they have recorded with a
view to derive some meaning out of it.
TYPES OF OBSERVATION
 (a) Naturalistic vs Controlled Observation :
When observations are done in a natural or real-life settings (in the above example, it was a school in which
observation was made), it is called naturalistic observation. In this case the observer makes no effort to control or
manipulate the situation for making an observation. This type of observation is conducted in hospitals, homes, schools,
day care centers, etc.
However, many a times you might need to control certain factors that determine behaviour as they are not the focus of
your study. For this reason, many of the studies in psychology are conducted in the laboratory.
 (b) Non-Participant vs Participant Observation :
Observation can be done in two ways. One, you may decide to observe the person or event from a distance.
The person being observed may not be aware that s/he is being observed.
For example, you want to observe the pattern of interaction between teachers and students in a particular class. There
are many ways of achieving this goal.You can install a video camera to record the classroom activities, which you can see
later and analyse. Alternatively, you may decide to sit in a corner of the class without interfering or participating in their
everyday activities. This type of observation is called non-participant observation. The danger in this type of setup is that
the very fact that someone (an outsider) is sitting and observing may bring a change in the behaviour of students and the
teacher.
In participant observation, the observer becomes a part of the school or the group of people being observed. In
participant observation, the observer takes some time to establish a rapport with the group so that they start accepting
her/him as one of the group members. However, the degree of involvement of the observer with the group being
observed would vary depending upon the focus of the study.
 The advantage of the observation method is that it enables the researcher to study people and their behaviour in
a naturalistic situation, as it occurs.
 The disadvantage of the observation method is labour intensive, time consuming, and is susceptible to the
observer’s bias. Our observation is influenced by our values and beliefs about the person or the event.
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

 Experiments are generally conducted to establish cause-effect relationship between two sets of events or
variables in a controlled setting.
 It is a carefully regulated procedure in which changes are made in one factor and its effect is studied on another
factor, while keeping other related factors constant.
 In the experiment, cause is the event being changed or manipulated. Effect is the behaviour that changes because
of the manipulation.
THE CONCEPT OF VARIABLE

 Any stimulus or event which varies, that is, it takes on different values (or changes) and can be measured is a
variable.
 An object by itself is not a variable. But its attributes are. For example, the pen that you use for writing is NOT a
variable. But there are varieties of pens available in different shapes, sizes, and colour. All of these are variables.
 Independent variable is that variable which is manipulated or altered or its strength varied by the researcher in
the experiment. It is the effect of this change in the variable which the researcher wants to observe or note in
the study.
 The variables on which the effect of independent variable is observed is called dependent variable. Dependent
variable represents the phenomenon the researcher desires to explain. It is expected that change in the
dependent variable will ensue from changes in the independent variable.
 Thus, the independent variable is the cause, and dependent variable the effect in any experimental situation.
EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS

 An experimental group is a group in which members of the group are exposed to independent variable
manipulation.
 The control group is a comparison group that is treated in every way like the experimental group except that the
manipulated variable is absent in it.
 It should be noted that in an experiment, except for the experimental manipulation, other conditions are kept
constant for both experimental and control groups.
 The distribution of participants to experimental and control groups is done randomly, a method that ensures that
each person has an equal chance of being included in any of the groups.
 All relevant variables in experimental studies that might influence the dependent variable need to be controlled.
These are of three major types: organismic variables (such as anxiety, intelligence, personality, etc.), situational or
environmental variables operating at the time of conducting the experiment (such as noise, temperature,
humidity), and sequential variables.
 In order to control relevant variables, experimenters use several control techniques.
 Since the goal of an experiment is to minimise extraneous variables, the best way to handle this problem is to eliminate
them from the experimental setting. For example, the experiment may be conducted in a sound-proof and airconditioned
room to eliminate the effect of noise and temperature.
 Elimination is not always possible. In such cases, effort should be made to hold them constant so that their effect remains
the same throughout the experiment.
 For controlling organismic (e.g., fear, motivation) and background variables (such as rural/urban, caste, socioeconomic
status) matching is also used. In this procedure the relevant variables in the two groups are equated or are held constant by
taking matched pairs across conditions of the experiment.
 Counter-balancing technique is used to minimise the sequence effect. Suppose there are two tasks to be given in an
experiment. Rather than giving the two tasks in the same sequence the experimenter may interchange the order of the
tasks. Thus, half of the group may receive the tasks in the order of A and B while the other half in order of B and A or the
same individual may be given the task in A, B, B, A order.
 Random assignment of participants to different groups eliminates any potential systematic differences between groups.
 The strength of a well-designed experiment is that it can provide, relatively speaking, a convincing evidence of a
cause-effect relationship between two or more variables.
 However, experiments are often conducted in a highly controlled laboratory situation. In this sense, they only
simulate situations that exist in the outside world. They are frequently criticised for this reason.
 The experiments may produce results that do not generalise well, or apply to real situations. In other words, they
have low external validity.
 Another limitation of the laboratory experiment is that it is not always feasible to study a particular problem
experimentally. For example, an experiment to study the effect of nutritional deficiency on intelligence level of
children cannot be conducted as it would be ethically wrong to starve anyone.
 The third problem is that it is difficult to know and control all the relevant variables.
FIELD EXPERIMENTS AND QUASI EXPERIMENTS

 If a researcher wants to have high generalisability or to conduct studies which are not possible in laboratory
settings, s/he may go to the field or the natural setting where the particular phenomenon actually exists. In other
words, s/he may conduct a field experiment.
 For example, a researcher may want to know which method would lead to better learning among students—
lecture or demonstration method.
 For this, a researcher may prefer to conduct an experiment in the school.
 The researcher may select two groups of participants; teach one group by demonstration method and another
group by the normal teaching method for sometime. S/ he may compare their performance at the end of the
learning session.
 In such types of experiments, the control over relevant variables is less than what we find in laboratory
experiments. Also, it is more time consuming and expensive.
 Many variables cannot be manipulated in the laboratory settings.
 For example, if you want to study the effect of an earthquake on children who lost their parents, you cannot
create this condition artificially in the laboratory.
 In such situations, the researcher adopts the method of quasi (the Latin word meaning “as if ”) experimentation.
In such types of experiments, the independent variable is selected rather than varied or manipulated by the
experimenter. For example, in the experimental group we can have children who lost their parents in the
earthquake and in the control group children who experienced the earthquake but did not lose their parents.
Thus, a quasi experiment attempts to:
 manipulate an independent variable in a natural setting using naturally occurring groups to form experimental and control
groups.
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
 To find out the relationship between the two variables to determine whether they are associated, or co-vary or
not.
 The strength and direction of the relationship between the two variables is represented by a number, known as
correlation coefficient.
 Its value can range from +1.0 through 0.0 to –1.0.
 The coefficient of correlation is of three types:
 positive, negative, and zero.
 A positive correlation indicates that as the value of one variable (X) increases, the value of the other variable (Y) will also
increase.. This type of association will be indicated by a positive number, and the stronger the association between studying
and achievement, the closer the number would be to +1.0.
 A negative correlation tells us that as the value of one variable (X) increases, the value of the other (Y) decreases. For
example, you may hypothesise that as the hours of study time increase, the number of hours spent in other activities will
decrease. range between 0 and –1.0.
 It is also possible that sometimes no correlation may exist between the two variables. This is called zero correlation.
Generally, it is difficult to find zero correlation but the correlations found may be close to zero, e.g., -.02 or +.03. This
indicates that no significant relationship exists between two variables or the two variables are unrelated.
SURVEY RESEARCH

 To study opinions, attitudes and social facts.

 A sophisticated technique which helps in inferring various kinds of causal relationships.
 The survey research uses different techniques for collecting information. Included among these techniques are:
 personal interviews,
 questionnaires,
 telephonic surveys, and
 controlled observations.
PERSONAL INTERVIEWS

 The interview method is one of the most frequently used methods for obtaining information from people. It is used in
diverse kinds of situations.
 One person (generally called interviewer) asks the questions and the other person (called interviewee or respondent)
answers the questions related to a problem.
 An interview is a purposeful activity conducted to derive factual information, opinions and attitudes, and reasons for
particular behaviour, etc. from the respondents.
 It is generally conducted face-to-face but sometimes it can also take place over the phone.
 There can be two broad types of interviews: structured or standardised, and unstructured or non-standardised. This
distinction is
 It is required that we prepare a list of questions before-hand. The list is called an interview schedule. A structured
interview is one where the questions in the schedule are written clearly in a particular sequence.
 The responses to these questions are also, in some cases, specified in advance. These are called close-ended questions.
 In contrast, in an unstructured interview the interviewer has the flexibility to take decisions about the questions to be
asked, the wording of the questions, and the sequence in which questions are to be asked.
 Since responses are not specified in such type of interviews, the respondent can answer the questions in the way s/he
chooses to. Such questions are called open-ended questions.
 An interview may have the following combinations of participants in an interview situation:
 (a) Individual to Individual : It is a situation where one interviewer interviews another person.
 (b) Individual to Group : In this situation, one interviewer interviews a group of persons. One variant of it is called a Focus Group
Discussion (FGD).
 (c) Group to Individuals : It is a situation where one group of interviewers interview one person.You may experience this type of
situation when you appear for a job interview.
 (d) Group to Group : It is a situation where one group of interviewers interview another group of interviewees.

Interviewing is a skill which requires proper training. A good interviewer knows how to make the respondent at ease and get the optimal
answer. S/he remains sensitive to the way a person responds and, if needed, probes for more information. If the respondent gives vague
answers, the interviewer may try to get specific and concrete answers.
The interview method helps in obtaining in-depth information.
It is flexible and adaptable to individual situations, and can often be used when no other method is possible or adequate.
It can be used even with children, and non-literate persons. An interviewer can know whether the respondent understands the questions, and
can repeat or paraphrase questions.
However, interviews require time.
Often getting information from one person may take an hour or more which may not be cost-effective.
QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY

 The questionnaire is the most common, simple, versatile, and low-cost self-report method of collecting information.
 It consists of a predetermined set of questions.
 The respondent has to read the questions and mark the answers on paper rather than respond verbally to the
interviewer.
 They are in some ways like highly structured interviews.
 Questionnaires can be distributed to a group of persons at a time who write down their answers to the questions and
return to the researcher or can be sent through mail.
 Generally, two types of questions are used in the questionnaire: open-ended and closed ended.
 The questionnaire is used for collecting background and demographic information, information about past behaviour,
attitudes and opinions, knowledge about a particular topic, and expectations and aspirations of the persons.
 Sometimes a survey is conducted by sending the questionnaire by mail. The main problem of a mailed questionnaire is
poor response from the respondents.
TELEPHONE SURVEY

 Surveys are also conducted through telephone, and now-a-days you must have seen programmes asking you to
send your views through mobile phones’ SMS.
 The telephone survey helps in reducing time.
 However, since the respondents do not know the interviewer, the technique is fraught with uncooperativeness,
reluctance, and superficial answers by the respondents.
 There is also a possibility that those responding may differ from those not responding, e.g., on age, gender, income
levels, education levels, etc., besides their psychological characteristics. This will lead to very biased kinds of
results.
 The survey method has several advantages.
 First, information can be gathered quickly and efficiently from thousands of persons.
 Second, since surveys can be conducted quickly, public opinions on new issues can be obtained almost as soon as the issues
arise.

• There are some limitations of a survey too.

• First, people may give inaccurate information because of memory lapses or they may not want to let the researcher
know what they really believe about a particular issue.
• Second, people sometimes offer responses they think the researcher wants to hear.
 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

 Psychologists have constructed different types of tests for assessment of various human characteristics, such as
intelligence, aptitude, personality, interest, attitudes, values, educational achievement, etc.
 These tests are used for various purposes, such as personnel selection, placement, training, guidance, diagnosis,
etc., in multiple contexts including educational institutions, guidance clinics, industries, defence establishments, and
so forth.
 test contains a number of questions, called items, with their probable responses, which are related to a particular
human characteristic or attribute.

 Technically speaking, a psychological test is a standardised and objective instrument

which is used to assess an individual’s standing in relation to others on some mental
or behavioural characteristics.
 Objectivity refers to the fact that if two or more researchers administer a psychological test on the same group
of people, both of them would come up with more or less the same values for each person in the group.
 The procedure of administering the test such as environmental conditions, time limit, mode of administration
(individual or group) should be spelt, and the procedure for scoring of the participants’ responses need to be
described.
 The construction of a test is a systematic process and involves certain steps. It involves detailed analysis of items,
and estimating reliability, validity, and norms of the whole test.
 Reliability of the test refers to the consistency of scores obtained by an individual on the same test on two
different occasions.

 Test-retest reliability, which indicates the temporal stability (or stability of the test scores over time).
 Split-half reliability, gives an indication about the degree of internal consistency of the test. This is based on
the assumption that items of a test if they are from the same domain should correlate with each other.
 Validity refers to the question : “Does the test measure what it claims to measure”?
 Norm is the normal or average performance of the group. Their average performance standards are set based on
their age, sex, place of residence, etc.
TYPES OF TESTS

 Psychological tests are classified on the basis of their language, mode of administration, and difficulty level.
 Depending upon the language,
 verbal,
 non-verbal,
 and performance tests.
 Depending upon the mode of administration, psychological tests are divided into
 individual or group tests.

 Psychological tests are also classified into speed and power tests.
CASE STUDY

 In-depth study of a particular case.

 A case study employs multiple methods for collecting information, such as interview, observation, and
psychological tests from a variety of respondents who in some way or the other might be associated with the
case and can provide useful information.
 Case studies provide a narrative or detailed descriptions of the events that take place in a person’s life.
 A case study is a valuable research tool in the field of clinical psychology and human development.
ANALYSIS OF DATA

 Quantitative Method:
 Qualitative Method:
LIMITATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ENQUIRY

 1. Lack of True Zero Point :

 2. Relative Nature of Psychological Tools :
 3. Subjective Interpretation of Qualitative Data :
ETHICAL ISSUES

 1. Voluntary Participation
 2. Informed Consent
 3. Debriefing
 4. Sharing the Results of the Study
 5. Confidentiality of Data Source