UNIT – III

STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY

PART - A

1) What is meant by control of an airplane, how longitudinal, roll and directional

controls are provided in airplane?
When an airplane is stable, it is necessary for the pilot to be able to control it,
so that he can maneuver it into any desired position.
Longitudinal control is provided by the elevator, ie; flaps hinged behind the tail
plane. Roll control is provided by the ailerons, ie; flaps hinged at the rear of the aero
foils near each wing tip. Directional control is provided by the rudder, ie; a vertical tail
hinged to the stern post.

2) What is meant by stability of an airplane and what way it is different from

Balance?
The stability of an airplane means its ability to return to some particular
condition of flight, after having disturbed from that condition, without any effort
by the pilot. The stability is often confused with the balance or equilibrium of an
aircraft. For eg: when an airplane flies with one wing lower than the other may
often, when disturbed from that attitude, return to it. Such an airplane is out of
its balance or trim, but it is stable. Stability is sometimes called inherent
stability.

3) Define the three conditions of stability.

There is a half-way condition between stability and instability. If the airplane
on disturbance tends to move father away from its original position, it is
unstable. If it comes back to its original position, then it is in stable condition. But
 sometimes the airplane may tend to do neither of the two and prefer to remain in its
new position. This condition of airplane is called neutral stability.

4) With the help of Cm vs CL curve of an airplane, state the stable, neutral and
unstable conditions of it.
Draw a graph with Cm on Y axis and CL on X axis. In Y axis, represent
Cm =0 above origin to indicate both positive and negative Cm values. Line (1)
&(2) in which dCm/dCL ≥ 0 shows unstability or neutral stability Line (3) in
which dCm/dCL ≤ 0 stability .
When Cm = 0, the airplane is in equilibrium.

5) What are the two methods for predicting fuselage c o n t r i b u t i o n to longitudinal

stability of airplane? Write down the formulae for simpler method and
explain the terms in it.
Methods for predicting fuselage contribution to longitudinal stability are
(a) Computational method by dividing the fuselage ito many sections (b) A
Shorter method for which the following formulae is used. (
dCm/d CL ) fus = (Kf Wf**2 Lf)/Sw c aw
(where Lf is the over all fuselage length ,Wf is its maximum width and Kf is an
empirical factor developed from experimental evidence . It depends entirely on
the wing root chord’s position on the fuselage.

6) Define neutral point.

It is the limit of the centre of gravity of the airplane at which the static
longitudinal stability becomes neutral (dCm/dCL) =0. This stability criterion of the
airplane (ie; neutral point) will be different at different operating conditions like,
stick-fixed with and without power, stick free with power. Also there is aft c.g limit
as well as forward c.g limit. Between these limits of neutral points only the airplane
c.g can be allowed to shift during all maneuvering conditions of airplane in order to
maintain longitudinal stability.
7) What is the criterion for static longitudinal stability?
For static longitudinal stability of the airplane (AP) the over all value of
(dCm/dCL)AP ≤ 0 . This rate of change of coefficient of moment about Y axis
(dCm) with respect to the change in lift coefficient (dCL) is the summation of
similar values contributed by different parts of airplane, like wing, fuselage, engine
power, tail/elevator etc. Some of them are positive and others are negative. The
cumulative effect should be such that over all value should be negative (ie;
(dCm/dCL) total ≤ 0).

8) State two contributions for static longitudinal stability and indicate them with a plot.
In Cm versus CL plot indicate the longitudinal stability contributions of wing
And fuselage, tail alone and the total for airplane. If the total longitudinal stability
which is the sum of individual contributions is negative (dCm/dCL )≤ 0 then the
airplane will be stable .

9) Briefly define wing`s vortex system with figure.

Wing`s vortex system can be represented as shown in figure, consisting of
`bound vortex ` located at the wing quarter chord (0.25 c) and a vortex sheet
streaming from the wing trailing edge, which will roll up to form the familiar
two trailing vortices . The wing wake center line which is in the vortex sheet
is displaced downward and deformed by the influence of the bound vortex and the
powerful trailing vortices . The strength of the vortex system is prop- ortional to
the CL therefore the downwash (€) at any particular point will be proportional to
CL . ie; € = f( CL) .

10) What is Neutral point (N0) of an airplane at stick fixed and power-off condition.
Show the new position of ‘N0’ at power-on condition relative to the earlier N0.
The aft position of c.g of the airplane obtained by equating the static
longitudinal stability equation (dCm/dCL) total to zero, with the contribution for stability
at stick-fixed and power –off condition added to it. This c.g limit at aft end with stick-
fixed and power-off gives the limit for the stability. The new position of the airplane
neutral point No` at power-on condition will be towards the forward side of the No,
since the contribution to stability by the power effect is slightly destabilizing.

11) What are the two major effects of the running propeller that contribute to the
Longitudinal stability and define them.
Two major effects are (1) Direct propeller contribution arising as a result of the
forces created by the propeller itself . (2) Indirect effects which arises as the result
of the slip stream from the propeller and its interaction with the wing and tail
surfaces .Propeller forces ,both thrust (T) and normal force(Np)
create moments about c.g of the airplane and hence they have stability contri-
bution (dCmp/dCL) which influence the over all static longitudinal stability.

12) What are the major contributions of the indirect effects of the running propellers on
the static longitudinal stability?
There are 4 major contributions making up the indirect effects of the running
propellers on static longitudinal stability. They are the effects of slip stream created
by propeller on the following:
a. Effect of slipstream on wing-fuselage moments b.
Effect of slipstream on wing lift coefficient (CL)
c. Effect of slipstream downwash at the horizontal tail
d. Ef f e c t of increased slipstream dynamic pressure (q) on the tail.

13) Define elevator power and write down the elevator power criterion equation
The magnitude of pitching moment coefficient, Cm, obtained per degree
deflection of the elevator is termed as the elevator power .It is the derivative of
Cm w.r.t elevator deflection (dCm/dδe =Cmδ)
The elevator power criterion is mentioned below dCm/dδe =Cmδ

14) What are the direct propeller contributions to S.L.S arising due to the forces
created by propeller and write their simple forms in terms of (h/c) and (lp/c).
Direct propeller contribution to S.L.S arising due to forces (T and Np)
created by propeller are thrust (T) contribution (dCmp/dCL)T and the normal
 Force (Np) contribution (dCmp/dCL)NP .
(dCmp/dCL)T = 0.25 h/c
if c.g of airplane is above thrust line (h/c is +ve ), (dCmp/dCL) is positive and
hence destabilizing . If thrust line is above c.g (h/c is –ve),(dCmp/dCL) is
negative and hence stabilizing .Similarly (dCmp/dCL)NP = 0.02lp/c .

15) Briefly explain the c.g limits with the help of a figure and what decides the
anticipated c.g travel of the airplane.
Between stick-fixed power-on condition neutral point (No) and forward c.g
limit at CLmax landing condition ,the c.g of airplane can travel. More c.g range
required , the more powerful will be the elevator. It can be seen that anticipated
c.g travel of the airplane is decided by the elevator and the horizontal tail .

16) How the most forward c.g limit of the airplane is fixed?
An indication of the most forward c.g permissible comes from the elevator
theory. That is from the requirement that the elevator must always be capable of
bringing the airplane into equilibrium at CLmax attainable by it. As the c.g moves
forward ,the airplane becomes more stable and more up-elevator is required to
trimout CLmax . Obviously some forward c.g , the elevator will be just powerful
enough to attain equilibrium at CLmax .

17) Write down the expression for the maximum stability attainable by the elevator
using its maximum up-elevation.
The expression for the limiting stability can be obtained by substituting
δemax and CLmax in the eqation given below
Elevator up- deflection δe = δeo – (dCm/dCL) CL/Cmδ and solving for
(dCm/dCL)max = (δeo- δemax ) Cmδ / CLmax .
(where δeo is the elevator angle at zero lift and Cmδ is the elevator power)

18) How the forward c.g limit is restricted by the ground effect or for landing
maneuvers .
The forward c.g location is limited by the influence of the ground on the
 downwash during landing. The variables that will be altered by the ground effect
are wing`s angle of attack (αw) ,elevator power (Cmδ) due to increase in at = dCLt
/dαt and dЄ/ dαt = τ , the elevator effectiveness .

19) Write the total elevator hinge moment coefficient equation and define the
components in it .
Elevator total hinge moment coefficient (Ch) equation can be written
as: Ch = +Chα α + Chδ δ
Cho –is the hinge moment coefficient term at zero angle of attack.
Chα – the partial derivative of hinge moment coefficient w.r.t angle of attack of
the tail = ∂ Ch/∂α
Chδ - the partial derivative of hinge moment coefficient w.r.t control surface
(elevator ) deflection = ∂ Ch δ/∂δ
Since most control surfaces (elevator) are symmetric airfoil sections the
Term Cho will not be included unless specifically asked for.

20) What is meant by aerodynamic balancing control surface and how it is most
frequently done?
Methods for controlling the parameters Chα and Chδ (partial derivatives of
hinge moment coefficients with respect to α and δ) are called aerodynamic
balancing control surfaces . One of the most frequently used methods is the set-
back hinge. In this ,by suitable mechanism the hinge line is moved aft such that
the sum of moments about the hinge line will become smaller .

21) What is a tab and how it is effective?

Tab is a control surface and is an auxillary flap usually built into the trailing
edge of the main control surface. Because of its location, it can create very
powerful moments about the control surface hinge line. It is used as a trimming
device, a balancing device and in some cases as a primary control surface.

22) Get a relation for the control surface floating angle of an elevator fitted with tab
 also.
Assuming linearity for the hinge moment coefficients, the total control
surface hinge moment coefficient (Ch) can be written :
Ch = Chα α +Chδe δe +Chδt δt
At the floating balanced condition, Ch = 0, and δe = δfloat
ie; δfloat =- (Chα / Chδe ) α- (Chδt / Chδe ) δt
which indicates that deflecting the tab can change the control surface floating angle
.

23) How the effect of freeing the elevator changes the tail contribution to the
longitudinal stability?
The effect of freeing the elevator enters the tail term of the longitudinal
stability as a multiplying factor ( 1- τ (Chα/ Chδe)). If an elevator has a large
floating angle, (Chα/ Chδe) will be large and positive .Then the stability
contribution of the horizontal tail can be reduced sufficiently. For eg: if
(Chα/ Chδe) = 2 and τ = 0.5, the floating of the elevator can make the whole tail
contribution of stability zero. This shows the importance of careful elevator
balance design to ensure proper hinge moment characteristics and thereby good
stick-free stability can be readily appreciated.

24) What is the effect of gradient of stick-force with velocity on the stability of the
airplane?
The gradient of stick-force (Fs) with velocity is extremely important, as it plays
a major role in determining the pilot`s feel of airplane stability . A large gradient
(dFs/dV) will tend to keep the airplane flying at constant V and will resist the
influence of disturbance towards changing V. It also enable the
pilot to bring the airplane to trim easily and will not require a lot of pilot
attention to hold the given Vtrim .

25) What are the two methods in determining the stick-free neutral point (No`) and
define them.
 st
Both methods are through flight test data evaluation .In 1 method , the non-
dimensional stick force equation (Fs/q) is differentiated w.r.t to CL and
equate to zero. The c.g position for d(Fs/q)/dCL = 0 will give the neutral point.
It can be seen that (No`) will decrease with increase of CL .In the second for getting
neutral point (No`) is to obtain flight curves of tab angle (δe) to trim (Fs=0) versus
speed for different c.g positions. The slope of αt vs CL is a function of stick-free
longitudinal stability criterion and the neutral point (No`) is the c.g position when
dδt /dCL =0 .

26) What are the commonly used gadgetries for improving stick force gradient?
There are a few new devices now available for giving constant pull force
on the stick . The most common of them are the down spring and bob weight, vee
tab or spring tab. The down spring and bob weight are not very effective in ground
operation where as the spring tabs are more efficient in giving a constant torque
about the hinge line of the elevator.

27) What is the restriction on the aft c.g imposed by the stick-free neutral point

The concept of stick-free neutral point (No`) is that c.g location where
(dCm/dCL)free = 0 or where dFs/dV = 0 through trim speed where Fs=0. This
brings a new restriction on the aft limit of the allowable c.g range. At present
the Army and Navy call only for the most aft c.g to be ahead Of the stick-free
neutral point (No`).
(Show the new aft limit of c.g (No`) and usable c.g range in a figure usually
used).

28) What are the two important maneuvering flights and their essential
requirements?
Flight in curved paths are called maneuvering flight. Two important
maneuvering flights (a) that taking place in vertical plane passing through the
plane symmetry of air plane called pull-up maneuvering (b) that taking place in
 horizontal plane called normal turn. In (a) , the net upward force
(L-W ) act as the pull-up force perpendicular to the curved path .In (b) the
resultant of lift vector in the horizontal plane perpendicular to the flight path act as
the centripetal force .

29) Define stick-fixed maneuvering point (Nm) and stick- free maneuvering point
(Nm`) .
If the c.g is moved aft behind (No) and (No`), the stability in accelerated flight
will be reduced until at some c.g position the change in elevator angle (dδe ) and the
stick force (Fs) required to accelerate flight will be zero. These c.g`s are termed as
the maneuvering points .The c.g where the elevator angle (δe) required to accelerate
the airplane vanishes is the stick-fixed maneuvering point (Nm) and the c.g where
Fs required to accelerate the airplane vanishes is the stick- free maneuvering point
(Nm`) .

30) What is the criterion for longitudinal stability and control in maneuvering
flight?
The increment of elevator angle (∆δe) and stick force (∆Fs) to produce an
increment in normal acceleration equal to 1g at constant speed ,both in pull- ups
and in steady turn is the criterion for longitudinal stability and control in
maneuvering flight . That is (dδe /dn ) and (dFs/dn) are criterion .

31) Define stick- fixed maneuvering point (Nm) and where it is located with
reference to neutral point at stick-fixed (No) .
As the airplane c.g is moved aft of (No) , the gradient (dδe /dn ) continues to
reduce until at some c.g position it vanishes. This c.g position at which dδe/dn
=0 is termed as the stick- fixed maneuver point (Nm). Since Nm – No= (dCm/dCL)fix
, the Nm is aft of No . The difference between Nm and No is the greatest at sea level
and for light wing loads (W/S)min .

32) Define stick- free maneuver point (Nm`) and where it is located with reference to
 neutral point at stick –free (No`) .
The gradient of the stick force (dFs /dn) do not vanish at stick –free neutral
point (at (dCm/dCL)free =0 ) but shows that , if c.g is moved sufficiently aft of No` ,
a position will reach where dFs/dn =0 . This c.g position is termed as stick-free
maneuver point (Nm`).

33) What are the restrictions on the c.g travel imposed by the gradient of stick force
per g in modern airplane ?
The upper limit or lower limit of stick-force per g (dFs/dn) required for
modern airplanes imposed further restriction on the c.g travel of the airplane for
maintaining S,L,S .The forward c.g is limited to max: gradient dFs/dn
and the aft c.g is limited by the min: gradient of the same. However it is found that
the stick-free neutral point (No`) comes between these two.

34) What is the final c.g travel limit of the airplane for S.L.S considering the flight upto
stick-free conditions ?
The critical limits on airplane`s c.g are :
1) On the forward c.g,
(a) Maximum gradient ,stick force per g (dFs/dn) max
(b) Elevator required to land at CLmax
2)On the aft c,g :
(a) Power –on stick-free neutral point (No`)
(b) Minimum gradient, stick force per g (dFs/dn) min
The usable c.g range is between (dFs/dn)max point and power-on stick-free
Neutral point (No`)

PART – B

1. (i) Derive an expression for the tail contribution to the pitching moment of an aircraft if
iW is the wing setting angle and it is the tail setting angle. (8)
(ii) An airplane has the following characteristics: Lift is found to be zero at a geometric angle of
attack α = -1.50. At α = 50 , CL is 0.52. Also at α = 10 and 7.880 moment coefficient about the c.g.
are measured as – 0.01 and 0.05 respectively. The c.g. location is 0.35c, i W = 0, V1 = 0.34, it =
2.70 , tail lift curve slope is 0.1 per degree, 0 = 0, /α = 0.35. At α = 7.880 calculate CMcg
for the aircraft.
2. (i) List out the basic requirement of aircraft control surface. (5)
(ii) Wing contribution to stability is a function of the C.I. position with respect to aerodynamic
centre. Discuss. (5)
(iii) The following data are related to a certain airplane:
Xcg = 0.3c Xac = 0.26c
aw = 0.09/degree at = 0.085/degree
t = 0.9 d/dα = 0.4
V1 = 0.50
Calculate neutral point and level of stability. (6)
3. A wing body model is tested in a subsonic wind tunnel. At the geometric angle of
attack α = -1.50, lift is found to be zero. At α = 5 0 , CL is 0.52. Also at α = 10 and 7.880
moment coefficient about the c.g. are measured as – 0.01 and 0.05 respectively. The c.g.
location is 0.35c.The area and chord of the wing are 0.1m 2 and 0.1m respectively. The
horizontal tail is located such that its aerodynamic center is at 0.17m from centre of gravity
of model. The tail area is 0.02m2, tail setting angle is 2.70.The tail lift curve slope is 0.1 per
degree,
0 = 0, /α = 0.35. At α = 7.880 calculate CMcg for the airplane model. Also find out
whether the model is longitudinally stable.
4. An airplane has the following characteristics:
W = 2.25 x 104 N at = 0.08
Sw = 19m2 t = 0.9
 = 0.3 V1 = 0.50
For a 40 downward deflection of elevator
When CL = 0, CMcg = 0.0 and
When CL = 0.5, CMcg = -0.05
The airplane is flying at an altitude where the ambient density is 0.42 Kg/m3.
 (i) Calculate the elevator power
(ii) Estimate the angle required for trim at a velocity of 60 m/s.

5. (i) Derive an expression for the free elevation factor and explain its significance in
longitudinal static stability. (6)
(ii) An airplane has the following design and aerodynamic characteristics:
The lift is zero at a geometric angle of attack α = -1.50. At α = 50,
CL = 0.52 and at α = -1.50 , CMcg = 0.06. Slope of longitudinal stability curve is – 0.0133. The
aircraft has a wing area of 19m2. Weight of the aircraft is 2.27 x 104 N. Elevator control
effectiveness is 0.04. The tail volume ratio is 0.5. Calculate the elevator deflection angle
necessary to trim the airplane at a velocity of 61 m/s at sea level.
6. An airplane has the following characteristics:
Gross weight (W) = 2.25 x 104 N
Wing planform area (Sw) = 19 m2
Mean aerodynamic chord (C) = 2.3m
Horizontal tail planform area (St) = 3.7m2
Tail arm (lt) = 6m
Tail efficiency factor (t) = 0.9
Lift curve slope of horizontal tail (at) = 0.08
Elevator effectiveness () = 0.3
For a 40 downward deflection of elevator
When CL = 0, CMcg = 0.0 and
When CL = 0.5, CMcg = -0.05
The airplane is flying at an altitude where the ambient density is 0.375 Kg/m3.
(i) Calculate the elevator control power
(ii) Evaluate the stability curve slope Cm/CL
(ii) Estimate the elevator angle required for trim at a velocity of 60 m/s.

7. (i) Write a brief note on stick force per g. (6)

(ii) Find the maximum lift coefficient which can be trimmed by the aircraft with the following
characteristics, when the C.G. is at its forward limit of 0.13 of the mean aerodynamic chord:
 Wing area = 25m2 , Tail plane area = 3.7m2
AR = 6, Tail arm 6m
Wing lift curve slope = 0.1 per degree
Tail lift curve slope = 0.08 per degree
t = 0.9 /α = 0.4 CMac = -0.032
Aerodynamic centre at 0.25C, Tail plane setting angle = -1.80
Wing setting angle = 30, Wing incidence at zero lift = -2.20
Elevator effectiveness = 0.42, Maximum elevator deflection = +/- 300.

8. (i) Derive the conditions for longitudinal static stability for wing and horizontal tail
configuration
(ii) For a given wing body configuration the aerodynamic centre lies 0.05 chord length ahead
of centre of gravity. The moment coefficient about aerodynamic centre is 0.016.If the lift
coefficient is 0.45. Calculate the moment coefficient about C.G.
9. Given a rectangular wing of aspect ratio 6 and area 55.8m 2. The wing section employed
is an NACA 4412 airfoil with a.c at 0.24c and C Mac = - 0.088. If the wing is balanced so that
the C.G. lies on the wing chord but 15cm ahead of a.c. Calculate the lift coefficient for
which the wing would be in equilibrium (CMcg = 0). Is this lift coefficient useful? Is the
equilibrium statically stable? Calculate the position of c.g. for equilibrium at CL = 0.4.
10. Write short notes on:
(i) Elevator angle per g
(ii) Stick-free Neutral point
11. Derive expressions for the following:
(i) Elevator angle to trim
(ii)Elevator control power
(iii) Contribution of isolated wing to longitudinal static stability.
12. Write short notes on:
(i) stick force gradients and stick force per g
(ii) Power effects on longitudinal static stability of a propeller aircraft.
13. Write short notes on:
(i) Limits on location of airplane’s centre of gravity
 (ii) Power effects on longitudinal stability of a jet aircraft
14. Derive an expression for the gradient of elevator angle per g. Explain stick fixed
maneuver point can be estimated by flight test.
15. Write short notes on:
(i) Tail volume ratio
(ii) Static Margin
(iii) Most forward C.G. for free flight.
 UNIT – IV

LATERAL AND DIRECTIONAL STABILITY

PART - A

1) What is meant by dihedral effect?

The angle that the relative wind makes with longitudinal axis of airplane is
called sideslip. This sideslip (β) alters the wing’s span wise lift distribution to
create a net rolling moment. This rolling moment due to sideslip is termed as
dihedral effect. It is the measure of change in rolling moment coefficient (dCl)
per degree change in sideslip (β = -ψ for straight flight path).
ie; dihedral effect = dCl/dψ or Clψ ( +ve for stable )

2) Define power of lateral or aileron control.

The power of lateral or aileron control will be expressed as the change in
rolling moment coefficient per degree deflection of the ailerons. It is expressed
as dCl /dδa and it acts in such a way that to counter balance the

dihedral effect so that the wings can be held level from straight flight or
maintained at some equilibrium angle of bank (Ф) during turn .

3) What are the basic requirements that are to be fulfilled by the lateral control
system?
The basic requirements that determine the size of the control and amount of
aerodynamic balance are (a) it should be large enough to provide sufficient rolling
moment at low speeds to counteract the unbalance tending to roll the airplane ;(b) the
second requirement is that it roll the airplane at a sufficiently high rate at high-speed
for a given stick force.
4) What is meant by aileron reversal speed?
The deflection of the aileron will create a pitching moment tending to twist the
wing. When the wing twists it rotates in a direction tending to reduce the rolling
moment created by the aileron. When the speed is high enough, a point can be
reached where the wing twist will just counter the aileron rolling moment and
lateral control will be lost. This speed is known as the aileron reversal speed. Hence
designer should ensure that wings are sufficiently rigid in torsion so that the aileron
reversal speed is higher than the maximum speed
anticipated by the airplane.

5) What are the advantages of sideslip?

Sideslip can be used (a) to increase the airplane drag and thereby its flight path
angle during an approach for landing, (b) useful in getting smooth aerobatics such as
slow rolls and (c) finally it can help during flight with asymmetric power.

6) How the total directional stability contribution of parts of airplane is made more
stabilizing?
Sum of the directional stability contributions of wings, fuselage and propeller
and that of their interference effects will usually give an unstable effect. Hence an
additional stabilizing surface must be incorporated not only to overcome the instability
but also to give the desired level of directional stability. This stabilizing surface is the
normal vertical tail placed as far aft of the c.g of airplane as practicable.

7) What is the requirement of directional control – rudder?

Although the airplane will normally be in equilibrium at zero sideslip (β=0),
there are many maneuvers that introduce yawing moments which are to be opposed
by some yawing moment control (directional control) to achieve zero sideslip. This
yawing moment control is supplied by pilot by means of a rudder, normally a
plane flap attached to the aft portion of the vertical tail.

8) What are the flight conditions or maneuvers that produce unbalance yawing
 moments those are to be overcome by rudder?
One is (a) the adverse yaw moment, which happens due to turn during normal
flight (b) slipstream rotation ; the slip stream behind the propeller has rotational
components which changes the angle of attack on the vertical tail (αv ) and create
sideslip .This is critical at high power – low speed flight. © Cross wind during take-off
and landing. (d) Spinning recovery by rudder (e) antisymmetric power flight, when one
of the multi-engines of airplane fails.

9) Define rudder power and how it is related to directional stability of airplane.

The rate of change of yawing moment coefficient (dCn) per degree change in rudder
angle (dδr) is called the rudder power. That is equal to dCn/ dδr or Cnδr . The directional
stability of airplane is dCn/dψ = Cnψ . If Cnδr = -0.001 and Cnψ = - 0.001, it can be seen
0 0
that 1 of rudder will produce 1 of yaw.

10) What is adverse yaw effects and how it is controlled by rudder?

Rudder power required to overcome the adverse yaw during rolling maneuver is
usually not very high and not usually used for rudder design .Adverse yaw is created
by the normal action of the aileron together with the yawing moment created by the
twisting of wing itself. These adverse moments are always critical at low speeds and
rudder must be capable of overcoming them at speeds very close to stall.

11) How rudder power is estimated?

Rudder power to overcome the adverse yawing moment (Cn)tail is estimated
using wind-tunnel model test data .The adverse yawing moment coefficient due to
rolling of the wing (Cn)roll can be estimated theoretically . So the rudder power required
to overcome adverse yaw can be expressed as follows:
0
dCn/dδr =Cnδr = ((Cn)roll +(Cn)tail )/ rudder throw (=30 ) .

12) Why the rudder is designed to suit one-engine inoperative condition?

The yawing moment coefficient due to the asymmetric thrust (Cnth ) is
 3
proportional to 1/V . The rudder at full deflection gives a constant corrective yaw
moment co efficient (Cnr). The intersection of these two Cnth and Cnr gives the
critical speed of airplane below which Cnth is more than Cnr . Hence below the
critical speed (near stalling at full power) the full rudder will not balance out the
moment due to antisymmetric power. Since other types of yawing moments are
not critical, most rudders are designed only to fulfill the antisymmetric power
flight condition.

13) How the floating rudder (stick-free) affects the directional stability?
Ans: When rudder is left free to float in response to its hinge moment, it can have large
effects on the directional stability. It is in the similar way, the floating elevator
affects the longitudinal stability. When the airplane sideslips, the restoring moment
due to the tail will be decreased if the rudder floats with the wind and will be
increased if it floats against the wind . The floating rudder changes the effective
angle of attack of the total vertical tail .

14) What is the criterion to keep the directional stability with stick-free above
certain limit or not to lose much?
For high speed airplanes which require close aerodynamic balance of rudder and
hence the rudder pedal force to be applied by the pilot should be within practicable
limit. So it is essential that the ratio of derivative of H.M coefficient with tail angle of
attack (αv) and rudder power (Chδr) should be kept low so as not to lose too much
directional stability with stick-free.

15) What is the relation for the greatest of pedal force (PF) with respect to sideslip
(ψ) and give its accepted value .
The greatest of pedal force (PF) w.r.t to sideslip (ψ) can be derived as
dPF/dψ = (G q ηv Sr Cr Chδr /Cnδr ) *(Cnψ )free ,where (Cnψ )free = (Cnψ )fix – (
2
Chαv .Cnδr) / Chδr . It shows that dPF/dψ varies with V for normal aerodynamic
balance. A criterion of 2.25 kgf/deg of sideslip at 240 km/hr
speed has been taken as the minimum for this gradient .
 16) What is meant by rudder lock?
A typical curve of floating angle (δfloat) vs sideslip (ψ) can be made for a
closely balanced rudder. The rudder angle (δr) required to produce the sideslip varies
some what linearly upto high (ψ). The pedal force required is a function of the
difference between δrreqd and δfloat . At high ψ, the δfloat may catch up to δrreqd, at which
point the PF becomes zero .This point of intersection is called rudder lock.
Considerable force is required afterwards, to break the lock and restore the airplane to
zero sideslip.

17) How to avoid rudder lock?

Rudder lock can be avoided by two ways; 1) To cut down the rudder
effectiveness (dαv /dδr ) , thereby increasing the δrreqd at a given sideslip (ψ).
(2)Another way is to provide a dorsal fin which increases the fuselage stability at
high (ψ) as well as reduces the tendency of the vertical tail to stall.
18) What is the concern of the designer to keep the pedal force required within
suitable practicable values?
A fighter airplane climbing at full throttle (power) at 288 km/hr may push over
to a dive up to 720 km/hr speed . If the airplane is trimmed out directionally at climb, the
pilot may have to exert a PF as high as 92 kgf to maintain zero sideslip in the dive.
Hence it is essential for the designer to keep the pedal force changes with speed as low
as possible by suitable aerodynamic balance.

PART – B

1. (i) What is the importance of the non-dimensional parameter pb/2V

[ p – rolling rate, b – wing span , V – true air speed] in lateral control. (4)
(ii) Based on strip theory obtain an expression for the above parameter. (8)
(iii) Using the expression explain Aileron Reversal Speed. (4)
2. (i) Explain the phenomenon of Rudder Lock. (6)
 (ii) An airplane is ready for lift off from the runway. At that moment it is detected that a
crosswind of 8 m/s is blowing across the runway. The airplane has a strong weathercock
stability.
The airplane has the following geometric data:
Wing loading = 2500N/m2
Span = 25m
Wing area = 70m2
Vertical ail area = 11.5m2
The Aerodynamic centre of the vertical tail is at 38m from the centre of gravity of the airplane.
The maximum lift coefficient is 1.8
The lift curve slope of the vertical tail is 0.08/deg
The vertical tail efficiency is 0.9
The slope of static directional stability curve is given by
Cn/ (fixed) = 0.35
assume that 1 degree of rudder deflection changes the vertical tail incidence by 0.4 deg.
Assuming sea level conditions, determine the rudder deflection required for the
airplane to maintain a steady and straight heading (i.e. without any directional change) along the
runway.

3. A twin engined airplane with jet engines mounted in mid span of each wing has a wing
loading of 4000 N/m2. The directional control for this airplane has to be so designed that if one
of the engines fails during straight and level flight, the pilot should be able to continue to fly at
the same speed by increasing the thrust of the other engine and holding zero sideslip. Assuming
lift/drag ratio of 4 in both flight conditions and a maximum rudder deflection of 20 degrees,
determine the rudder power required for flight speeds above 250Kmph.

4. An airplane has instability of 5% MAC. The pitching moment that needs to be balanced
is 0.03 at a lift coefficient of 0.475. Determine its pitching moment at zero lift.
5. A light airplane has the following characteristics
Component Weight c.g. locations in % MAC
Empty a/p 700 30
 Max. Fuel 140 100
2 Pilots 160 25
In the above configuration the airplane has a static stability margin of only 1% MAC. If this
margin has to be increased to 5% by just reducing fuel. What will be the max. fuel limit?
6. One of the design requirements according to FAR on the horizontal tail load is the load
arising from a sudden deflection of the elevator to its maximum position when flying at speed
VA.For an airplane having wing area 12m2 , MAC of 1.2m and tail length of 4m, what will be
this tail load at VA = 50m/sec, if the elevator power is 0.85 per radian and maximum elevator
deflection is 30 degrees?
7. An airplane having the following characteristics has a stick fixed static stability margin of
5% for a c.g. location of 40% MAC.
Aerodynamic enter = 26% MAC
(dCm/dCL)body = 0.06.
If the static stability margin is to be increased to 10% by increasing horizontal tail area alone
everything else remaining the same, determine the required percentage increase in horizontal tail
area.
8. In an airplane of 5m MAC, the distance between main wheel and nose wheel is 15m and
the neutral point is 1m from the main wheel in the direction of nose wheel. It is desired to have at
least 8% stability margin. If the permissible loads on nose wheel are between 8% to 15% of all
up weight, find the acceptable c-g limits.

9. (i)Based on strip theory derive an expression for the Aileron control power.(6)

(ii) Estimate the Aileron Control Power for the aircraft of following dimensions:
Half Span = 5.5m
Root Chord = 23m
Tip Chord = 1.2m
Wing Planform Area = 18.4 m2
Aileron effectiveness parameter = 0.36
The Aileron is located between 65% and 90% of half span
Slope of lift curve = 4.44 / radian. (10)
10. (i) Based on strip theory obtain an expression for the aileron control power. (6)
(ii) An airplane has the following dimensions:
b/2 = 5.3m Cr = 2.2m Ct = 1.3m
K1 = 0.7 K2 = 0.94 S = 20.5m2
a = 4.44 per radian  = 0.36
Assuming the wing to be straight tapered, estimate the Aileron control power. If the aircraft
is cruising at 400 Kmph, estimate the rolling velocity per degree of aileron deflection.
(10)
11. (i) An airplane has the following dimensions:
b/2 = 5.3m Cr = 2.2m Ct = 1.3m
K1 = 0.7 K2 = 0.94 S = 20.5m2
a = 4.44 per radian  = 0.36
Assuming the wing to be straight tapered, estimate the Aileron control power. If the aircraft is
cruising at 417 Kmph, estimate the rolling velocity per degree of aileron deflection. (10)
(ii) Discuss briefly the consequences of providing excessive dihedral to the aircraft. (6)
12. (i) Explain the Rudder lock and how is it prevented?
(ii) A twin jet engine has the following data:
Thrust per engine = 10,000N, span wise distance between engines = 10m, Wing area = 50
m2, wing span = 10m, Rudder effectiveness = - 0.001/deg. And maximum possible rudder
deflection = +/- 200. Determine the rudder deflection to maintain zero sideslip at 100 m/s in
level flight at sea level with one engine completely out.
13. Describe how equilibrium is achieved when one engine of a twin engined airplane fails.
Obtain the minimum speed and corresponding side slip at which flight with zero yawing moment
is possible in the event of engine failure for the following airplane:
S = 65m2, lV= 10.5m, BHP = 880 Kw (per engine),
Propeller efficiency = 75%,
lP = 4.2m, dCL/dα = 0.02 per degree, Cn = 0.0013/deg., Cr = -0.006/deg.,
(r)max = 250, b = 21m.
14. (i) What is the coupling between rolling and yawing moment. Discuss with
suitable examples.
(ii) Describe in detail the various types of aerodynamic balancing.
15. (i) What is the dihedral effect due to sweep back and power
(ii) What are the clause requirements of rudder?
16. (i) Obtain an expression for stick fixed maneuver point for pull-up in terms of stick
fixed neutral point.
(ii) Effect of running propeller on directional stability.

17. (i) Based on strip theory derive an expression for Aileron control power.
(ii) Discuss the phenomenon of Aileron Reversal and explain what is meant by Aileron
Reversal Speed.
18. Write short notes on:
(i) Frise Aileron
(ii) Contribution of vertical tail towards dihedral effect.
(iii) Requirements of lateral control.

19. Write short notes on:

(i) Aileron balancing
(ii) Rudder Lock and Dorsal fin
(iii) Rudder fixed directional static stability
20. Write short notes on:
(i)One engine inoperative condition
(ii) Adverse yaw
(iii)Spin and recovery from spin

21. (i) Differentiate between yaw and side slip angle.

(ii) Discuss briefly the requirements of rudder.
(iii) Plot the variation of yawing moment with side slip angle for a directionally stable aircraft.
22. Discuss in detail the contribution of various components of an aircraft towards directional
static stability.
23. Discuss following situations with reference to an aircraft
(i) The aircraft is directionally very stable but not very stable laterally.
 (ii) The aircraft is laterally very stable but not very stable directionally.
(iii) The wings placed in a high position and c.g. of the aircraft is correspondingly low.
24. (i) What is the effect of a running propeller on directional stability
(ii) Discuss the stability of an aircraft with one engine inoperative condition
(iii) Briefly describe stability contribution of vertical tail.

UNIT – V

DYNAMIC STABILITY
PART - A

1) Why the study on dynamic characteristics of the airplane is necessary?

In order to understand the requirements for static stability and control, it is
necessary t o study the dynamic characteristics of the airplane. It is done by
investigating the types of motions of the airplane in response to a disturbance from
some equilibrium flight condition and the nature of transient motions of the airplane in
response to the movement of its controls.

2) What way the dynamic stability analysis of the airplane helps the design of
control systems and the pilot who operates it?
If the motion of the airplane in response to some disturbance is very slow
divergence, the control requirements are different from those needed if the
divergence is extremely rapid. The ability of the pilot to react and apply the
controls is a factor which must be kept in mind for all studies of airplane
dynamics. The design of controls and the ability of the pilot to apply controls
in time require some knowledge of the transient response of the airplane to a
disturbance or to controls.
3) What are the 4- different modes of motion of a dynamic system when
responding to a disturbance from an equilibrium position?
Dynamic system in general has 4- different modes of motion when responding
to a disturbance from its equilibrium position. They are aperiodic and oscillatory modes
with and without damping. That is aperiodic can be pure convergence if the motion is
damped (stable) and divergence if undamped (unstable) .Similarly oscillatory motions
(periodic) can be damped oscillation (stable) or undamped oscillation (unstable).

4) What are the six degrees of motion of a dynamic system and how it is formed for
the airplane?
According to the Newtonian laws of motion which states that (a) the sum of all
external forces in any direction must be equal to the time rate of change of momentum,
and (b) the sum of all external moments of forces must be equal to the time rate of
change of moment of momentum, all measured w,r,t axes fixed in space . The six
equations of motion are: ∑ Fx = m ax , ∑ Fy = m ay , ∑ Fz = m az , ∑ L = dHx /dt , ∑ M
= dHy/dt , ∑ N = dHz /dt . (where `m` is the mass , ax ,ay ,az are linear accelerations
and Fx , Fy , Fz are external forces and L, M, N are external moments of forces and
Hx ,Hy , Hz are moments of momentum about X, Y, Z axes respectively ).

5) How the true acceleration and moment of momentum of airplane w. r. t fixed axes
in space are generated?
Accelerations w. r. t moving axes (X, Y, Z) as well as moments of momentum
are generated first w. r. t moving axes. But they will not be the true values because
as per Newtonian laws they are to be worked with reference to fixed axes in space.
To overcome this difficulty use is made of moving axes which coincide in some
particular manner from instant to instant with a definite set of axes fixed in the
airplane.

6) What are the different ways the moving airplane axis system can be fixed with
reference to the airplane?
The moving airplane axis system can be fixed with reference to the airplane in
 two different ways: (1) one is to consider the axes fixed to airplane under all
conditions, and are called body axes in which X -axis is along the thrust axis. (2)
Other possibility is to consider the X- axis always pointing to the direction of
motion or into the relative wind called wind axes .The wind axes are usually
convenient.

7) What are the equations of longitudinal motion with free control?

It involves 3 symmetric equations in the plane of symmetry of airplane (X-Z
plane) and equation of motion of the elevator control about its own hinge.
They are: ∑ Fx = m ύ , ∑ Fz = -mVѓ , ∑ M = IY q` and ∑HMe =Ie δe``.Major
variables to be considered for dynamic analysis are the change in forward speed ∆V, ∆α
,change in altitude(∆θ) and change in elevator angle ∆δe .

8) What are the different modes and stability criterion of dynamic longitudinal
th
motion whose governing equation is a 4 degree quartic ?
If all the 4 roots (λ`s) come out as real numbers , the dynamic motion is
aperiodic , damped or convergent if the real root is negative and undamped or
divergent if the real root is positive .
If any of the roots (λ`s) form a complex pair, the motion is oscillatory;
it will be damped oscillation if the real part of the complex root is negative and
undamped oscillation if the real part is positive .

9) How the stability of dynamic motion can be judged using the coefficients of the
th
4 order quartic which govern the motion ?
If all coefficients (A to E ) are positive , there can be no positive real root and
no possibility of pure divergence . If the Routh`s discriminant (RD) = (BCD-
2 2
AD –B E) is positive , then there is no possibility of complex root with positive
real part and hence no undamped oscillation. If RD is zero, there will be neutrally
damped oscillation and if RD is negative, one root will be complex pair with positive
real part, representing undamped oscillation etc.
10) Briefly explain the stability derivatives, Clp and Cnr .
The derivatives Clp and Cnr are the damping derivatives in roll and yaw
respectively; where as the derivatives Clr and Cnp are usually referred to as the
rotary or cross derivative . They are the rolling moment (Cl) due to yawing velocity
(r) and yawing moment (Cn) due to rolling velocity (p) .

11) What are the characteristic modes of stick-fixed longitudinal motion of

airplane?
Characteristic modes of stick-fixed longitudinal motion for nearly all airplanes
are two oscillations (1) Long period with poor damping called phugoid mode (2) Short
period with heavy damping is referred to as the short period mode or second mode
(Note: give figures also.) The damping of the phugoid motion is therefore a direct
function of CD . The cleaner the designer makes the airplane, the more difficult will be to
ensure damping of phugoid mode .

12) What is proposing mode of dynamic motion?

The damping of long period mode (phugoid mode) can become very weak
under certain design conditions and can become neutrally damped or even unstable.
This mode when neutrally damped is usually called proposing. Such modes have
occurred in high speed airplanes, in which the oscillations of normal acceleration
become so severe that the pilot was injured seriously and airplane damaged before
the pilot could stop the oscillation by slowing down.

13) How many degrees of freedom are there for lateral dynamic motion and what are
they?
There are 5- degrees of freedom for the lateral dynamic motion, because there
are two lateral controls; the rudder and aileron. The five degrees of freedom are: a)
Velocity along the Y –axis (b) rotation about X- axis (c) rotation about Z-axis (d)
rotation of rudder about its hinge (e) rotation of aileron about its hinge.

14) Define spiral divergence in dynamic stability?

 This is a characteristics associated with lateral dynamic stability of modern
airplane .The divergent mode (undamped) motion is known as spiral divergence .It
can be easily demonstrated in equilibrium flight by giving a kick to rudder or aileron
and watching the response . If it is uncontrolled, steep high- speed spiral divergence
develops. Inspection of lateral dynamic stability quartic equation gives an idea about
spiral divergence. If E in quartic is zero, it is spiral boundary and when E is negative it
is unstable and positive, stable. Usually with CL more than 0.213, the airplane will be
spirally unstable.

15) Define Dutch roll and its effects.

Lateral short period oscillation with weak damping are objectionable and
such oscillations are called Dutch roll .In most airplane designs the short period
oscillation with control locked is not objectionable as the damping is normally heavy
.But with control free the Dutch roll can have very weak damping which is quite
objectionable. Neutrally damped Dutch roll can be investigated by equating the
2 2
Routh`s discriminant to zero, ie;(BCD-AD -B E) = 0, which is oscillation boundary
between stable and unstable.

16) What is meant by snaking?

In most cases with inadequate damping of lateral oscillation, it is tied in with
the floating characteristic of the rudder (δrfloat ) . This characteristic under certain
conditions of aerodynamic balance can introduce a poorly damped lateral oscillation
known as snaking.

17) Briefly explain autorotation. (Note: give figure, α vs CL and show the cause of
autorotation).
When the wing’s are stalled; ie; beyond the critical angle of attack (α cr ) , the
rising wing will have higher CL than the falling wing .This creates an unbalanced
couple about X-axis to rotate (roll) further which is called autorotation. Rolling
occurring in the almost horizontal plane is also a form of autorotation.
 18) Briefly explain the spinning of an aircraft.
Spinning is caused by the autorotation developed by the unequal lift in the
wings .In a spin the airplane follows a steep spiral path which is composed of varying
degrees of yaw, pitch and roll. A flat spin is chiefly yaw and spinning nose-dive is
chiefly roll. The amount of pitch depends on how much the wings are banked from the
horizontal. Area and disposition of the fin, rudder and tail plane exert considerable
influence on the airplane to spinning.

19) How to get out of the spin smoothly?

In order to get out of a spin we must get out of the stalled (CLmax ) state by
putting the nose down (reduce α) and also we must stop rotation by applying `opposite
rudder `. In practice the roll is stopped first, because it is found the elevators are not
effective (to change α) until the rotation is stopped.

20) State two basic requirements of aircraft control surface.

AP control surfaces are mainly ailerons, canard(forward tail), elevator, rudder
and spoilers(special ailerons). Most of the control surfaces are used to produce
additional forces when it is required at different locations of AP. Also they produce
counter-balancing about three major axes of the AP to improve stability. It aids the pilot
to produce control forces to come out of maneuring flights.
21) Distinguish between stability and controllability.
Stability and control characteristics of an AP are called flying qualities. Stability
is the property of an equilibrium state and it is divided into static and dynamic stability.
Static stability is the tendency of the AP to return to its equilibrium after a disturbance.
In dynamic stability, the vehicle’s motion with the time after it is disturbed from its
equilibrium point is considered. Controllability of a system is related to its ability to
transfer control requirements. A system is controllable if it transfers any initial state
Xi(t) to any final state Xf(t) in finite time.

22) What is the need for aerodynamic balancing?

 Control surfaces like elevators, ailerons and rudders are used for generating
forces and moments in different directions for controlling the AP. When using, the
methods of controlling parameters (H.M coefficients) Chα and Chδ are of prime interest
and are referred to as methods of aerodynamic balancing. If these coefficients are not
suitably controlled, the stability and control will be in danger and it will do harm. (eg, In
(dCm / dCL)free eqn, the effect of elevator freeing comes as 1-τ Chα / Chδ and if τ Chα /
Chδ = 1, the whole tail contribution to S.L.S will become zero.

PART – B

1. i)Explain the significance of Routh’s discriminant in dynamic stability. (6)

(ii) For the following coefficient determinant obtain the period of oscillation in
seconds when the flight speed is 600 Kmph.

 CL/2
=0
CL -

2. (i) An aircraft model is tested in a wind tunnel. The details of the model are as follows:
Area of the wing = 0.1m2
Mean aerodynamic chord = 0.1m
Location of C.G. = 0.35c
Location of horizontal tail aerodynamic centre from C.G = 0.17m
Horizontal Tail Area = 0.02m2
Wing Setting Angle = 00
Tail Setting Angle = 2.70
Downwash effect is given by 0 = 0 and /α = 0.35
Wing lift slope = 0.08/degree
Tail lift slope = 0.1/degree
Zero lift angle α0 = -1.50
Location of aerodynamic centre of Wing-body combination = 0.24c
 For the wing-body combination the moment about C.G. is measured as
-0.01 and 0.05 for geometric angles of attack of 10 and 80,
respectively.
Calculate the coefficient of moment about C.G. for the model at a geometric angle of attack of
100. (10)
(ii) The characteristic equation for a particular oscillation of an airplane is given by

 CL/2
=0
CL -

Estimate the period of oscillation in seconds if the airplane flies at 400Kmph.

3. The Dutch Roll characteristic equation is given by

2 – { (Y + V Nr) / V } + { (Y Nr - N Yr + V N) / V } = 0

Given : Nr = -0.76/sec , Y = -14 m/sec2 , N = 4.49/sec2 ,Yr = 0 and

V = 54m/sec at sea level.
Find (i) Characteristic equation (ii) Frequency and (iii) Damping in Dutch roll motion.
4. (i) The characteristic equation of a system is given by ( + 0.5) ( - 1) + 10 = 0.
Find out whether the system is dynamically stable. Estimate (a) The time to halve
or double the amplitude. (b) The period of oscillation. (8)
(ii) Briefly explain the phenomena of Dutch Roll and Directional divergence. (8)
5. An airplane W/S = 3000N/m2, V = 450 Kmph flying at 6Km altitude has the characteristic
equation in longitudinal mode of the form
(2 +  +6) (32 +  +1) =0
Find the period an time to damp and comment whether oscillation can be ignored.
6. (i) Explain Routh’s stability criterion and in detail the procedure for a general nth order equation
(ii) For the stability quadratic
S4 + 2S2 + 5S + 2 = 0
 Examine the stability of the system.
7. An aircraft with a wing loading of 2000 N/m 2 is in a steady level flight with a velocity of 100
m/s. The drag polar of the aircraft is given by CD = 0.025 + 0.05 CL2. Assuming  = 1.25
Kg/m3, CL = 0.08 α , lt = 3c, St/S = 0.35, αt = 0.35 α deg., at = 0.06 αt , t = 0.9. Determine the
stability derivatives CDα , CLα , CMα.
8. Write short notes on:
(i) Aileron reversal (ii) Autorotation (iii) Spin
9. Explain the following phenomenon
(i) Spiral instability (ii) Phugoid motion (iii) Pseudo-stability.
10. (i) Discuss Rudder Lock
(ii) Explain briefly the ‘Snaking mode’
(iii)Explain tail volume ratio
11. Derive the rigid body equation of motion for an airplane.
12. Write short notes on:
(i) Stability derivatives in longitudinal dynamics
(ii) Phugoid motion
13. Discuss in detail the phenomena of autorotation and spin and explain how the pilot can recover
from that situation.
14. Write short notes on:
(i) Routh’s Discriminant
(ii) Dutch Roll.
15. Discuss in detail the stability derivatives for lateral dynamics
16. Write short notes on:
(i) stability derivatives in longitudinal dynamic stability
(ii) Stability quartic
(iii) Spoilers in lateral control
17. Write short notes on:
(i) Discuss stability derivative in lateral dynamics
(ii) Discuss stability boundaries in lateral dynamics