INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

(Autonomous)
Dundigal, Hyderabad - 500 043
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
In electrical equipment , materials are used
as dielectrics , insulators
and coolants. In this unit we shall discuss
about the breakdown phenomena in
different kinds of dielectric materials. Before
taking up the breakdown phenomena, let us
see the major difference between a
dielectric material

3
and an insulating material.
Difference between dielectrics and insulators:
Dielectric materials can store electrostatic
energy by means of polarization taking place in
them and also offer better insulation.
Almost all dielectrics are good insulators
but all insulators are not good dielectrics.
Insulating materials offer good insulation
but cannot store electrical energy.
 Ionization mechanism:
Depending upon the nature of the dielectric
materials (whether polar or non-polar ) the
polarization mechanisms are classified as : i)
Electronic polarization ii) Ionic polarization and
iii) Orientational polarization.

Higher the quantum of polarization, the

capacitance and hence the dielectric
constant of the dielectric material increase
enabling more electrostatic energy storing
capacity ( ½ CV2 ).
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Dielectric parameters : Dielectric materials
are characterized by the following parameters:
(i)Relative permittivity ( Dielectric constant )
(ii)Dielectric strength ( Breakdownstrength )
(iii)Dielectric loss ( Loss factor / Dissipation
factor )
A good dielectric material should have higher
dielectric strength , higher dielectric constant
and lower dielectric loss.
 BREAKDOWN IN GASES

Air is used mostly as insulating medium and gases

such as Nitrogen ( N2) , Carbon dioxide (CO2) ,
Freon ( CCl2 F2) and Sulferhexafluoride ( SF6 )
are used to a lesser extent in electrical apparatus.

Collision mechanism: Gaseous dielectrics

follow Newton's laws of motion.When they are
subjected to electric stress , the collision
processes between the atoms and the
molecules start.
The collisions may be elastic or inelastic .
During elastic collision the colliding particle
returns with same energy after collision .
Whereas in the inelastic collision the colliding
particle returns with lesser energy after collision
giving part of its energy to the collided particle.
Inelastic collision results in excitation and
ionization of the molecules as shown in the
figure next slide.
MEAN FREE PATH OF GAS MOLICULES :
Mean free of gas molecules is defined as the
average distance traveled between each
collision. 8
 COLLISION

COLLISION PROCESS
COLLISION OF GAS MOLICULES
Assuming “ N “ as the number of molecules
per unit volume , “ D “ as the diameter of
each molecule and “ v “as the velocity of the
particle ,
The volume of collision per sec, = π D2 v
he total number of molecules in the volume
= πD2vN
The distance traveled per sec = v
Hence, the mean free path of gas molecules =
v/ πD2vN = 1/πD2N The mean free path is
inversely proportional to the no. molecules.
Ionization of molecules :

During ionization process , a free

electron collides with a neutral gas
molecule and gives rise to new
electrons and positive ions. These
new electrons further collide with
molecules leading to ionization.
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP CURRENT GROWTH CURVE
 Townsend’s primary
ionization:

ELECTRODES CONFIGURATION
Let ‘α’ be the Townsend’s first ionization
coefficient and is equal to the number of
electrons created per electron per unit distance
and n0 the initial number of electrons near the
cathode.
Assuming ‘n ‘ as the number of electrons at
distance ‘x’ from the cathode ,
the number of new electrons created ‘dn’ in a
slab of thickness ‘dx’ , dn = n dx
α : i.e., dn/n = α dx
Integrating the above , we get log N/n0 = α d
N = n0 exp αd As‘I’is
proportional to the no. of electrons , ’N’, we
can write , I = I0exp αd: i.e., logI =
logI0+ αd
which is the equation of a straight line with
slope ‘ά’.
The growth of current is shown
in the curve below:

LOG ‘I’ (VS) ‘d’ PLOT

Alpha‘α’ is a function of ‘ E/p’ and
the dependence of (α/p) on ‘E/p’ is
given by, α/p = A exp (-Bp/E)
The table below shows the values
of constants A&B , the ionization
potential Vi and E/p for gases:
Secondary ionization processes:
Once Townsend’s primary ionization is initiated
secondary ionization processes follow resulting
in the final breakdown of gases. These processes
are :
i)IONIZATION DUE TO POSITIVE IONS
ii)PHOTO IONIZATION
iii)LIBERATION OF ELECTRONS FROM CATHODE DUE
TO POSITIVE IONS BOMBARDMENT
iv)PHOTONS HITTING THE CATHODE SURFACE
v)ATTACHMENT PROCESS IN ELECTRO-NEGATIVE
GASES
EFFECT OF POSITIVE IONS HITTING THE
CATHODE
Of all the processes the liberation of electrons
due to positive ions bombardment is very high
and the breakdown ultimately takes place due
to avalanche of electrons due to this process.
Let ۷i be the number of electrons released
from the cathode per positive ion impinging on
it,
and ‘no’ be the initial number of electrons at
the cathode surface ,
‘no’ be the number of electrons at the cathode
surface just before the breakdown and
‘n ‘ be the total number of electrons at
breakdown. The number of electrons created in
the gas just before the instant of breakdown =
n-no’ and no’ = n0 + ( n- no’) ۷i
i.e., no’ = no + ۷i n / ( 1 + ۷i )
The avalanche of electrons due to no’ is given by
n = no’exp ‘αd’
Substituting for n0’ and solving the above
equation we get,
n= no exp αd / 1- ۷i (exp αd-1)
= no exp αd / ( 1- ۷i exp αd )
ie., I = Io exp αd / ( 1- ۷i exp αd ) The
above expression shows that both n0 (initial
electrons) and ά (Townsend’s ionization
coefficient) should exist to initiate the
ionization process.

ATTACHMENT PROCESS
In Attachment Process free electrons get attached to
neutral atoms or molecules to form negative ions. This
results in removal of electrons which otherwise would
have led to 23
led to current growth resulting in breakdown
at a lower voltage.
There are three types of attachment
processes namely :
Direct attachment --- ( AB + e→
AB- )
Dissociation attachment --- ( AB + e → A +
B- )
Dissociation into ions --- (AB + e → A+ +
B- + e )
The growth of current due to various ionization
processes ( either alone or in
combination ) are shown in the next slide. 24
LOG ‘I’ (VS) ‘d’ PLOT
TOWNSEND’S DISCHARGE AND CRITERION
FOR BREAKDOWN
Referring to the growth of current due to
positive ion bombardment on cathode , we can
see that the current growth is beyond control and
breakdown occurs when ( 1 – ۷ exp αd ) = 0
ie., the criteria for sparking potential is ۷ exp αd
=1

When ۷ exp αd < 1 , the discharge is non-self

sustained (i.e., when the voltage is reduced the
current starts decreasing ).
When ۷ exp αd > 1 , the discharge is a self
sustained one ( i.e., even if the votage is reduced
the current does not decrease and maintains
itself).
The non-self sustained discharge is known as
Townsend’s Discharge and is shown in the next
slide.
CURRENT GROWTH DUE TO TOWNSEND’S
DISCHARGE
Streamer theory or Meek theory of breakdown :
In uniform fields under very low pressures the
discharge takes place based on to series of
avalanches due to Townsend’s mechanism.
Hence, the time taken for ultimate breakdown is
more than 10-8 sec.

But in non uniform fields under high pressures

the discharge takes place quickly (in less than
10-8 second )and is explained by Streamer
theory of breakdown.
 ANODE

CATHODE
STREAMER BREAKDOWN
Townsend’s discharge generally occurs for ‘
pd ‘ values lesser than 1000 mm Hg –cm in
uniform fields.
Streamer breakdown generally takes place for ‘
pd ‘ values more than 1000 mm Hg-cm in non-
uniform fields.
Paschen’s Law :
The fact that the sparking potential is a function
of the product of both pressure and distance
(pd) and is neither dependant on pressure alone
nor distance alone is known as Paschen’s Law.
The critical condition for breakdown,
۷ exp αd = 1 : i.e.,log 1/۷ = αd Since α =
Ap exp (- Bp/E)
log 1/۷ = Apd exp (-Bpd/Vs )
( 1/ Apd ) log 1/۷ = exp (-Bpd/Vs )
Vs = (- Bpd ) / log ( log 1/۷ / Apd )
= Bpd / log ( Apd / log 1/۷ )
i.e., Vs = f(pd)
The above equation shows that the sparking
potential (Vs) is a function of (pd). The variation
of Sparking Potential with pd values is shown in
the next slide.
32
SPARKING POTENTIAL (VS ) ‘ pd ‘ VALUES
(PACHEN’S LAW )
Time lag in breakdown :

The time lag in breakdown is defined as the time

taken from the instant of application of the
voltage sufficient to cause breakdown and the
occurrence of breakdown. This time lag ‘t’
consists of statistical time lag ‘ts’ and formative
time lag ‘ tf’ : The statistical time lag is the time
taken to find electrons near the cathode surface
to start the ionization process. The formative time
lag is the time taken to complete the ionization
process
and produce avalanche causing final
breakdown .
VOLTAGE - TIME ( V-T) CHARACTERISTICS
Voltage–Time characteristics relates the
breakdown voltage ( kV ) and time to
breakdown ( µs ) as shown in the next slide.
VOLTAGE-TIME (V-T) CHARACTERISTICS
PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTNING BASED
ON VOLTAGE - TIME CHARACTERISTICS

V-T CURVES OF PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND

TRANSFORMER
 BREAKDOWN IN SOLID DIELECTRICS
Introduction :
The factors influencing the breakdown
strength of solid dielectrics arThickness and
homogeneity
Frequency and waveform of the voltage
applied
Presence of cavities and moisture
Ambient medium
e:
 Mechanical forces
 Nature of field
A good dielectric should have
the following properties:
i)Low dielectric loss
ii)High mechanical strength
iii)Free from gaseous inclusions
and moisture
iv)Resistant to thermal and chemical
deterioration
Solid dielectrics have higher dielectric strength
and dielectric constant compared to liquids and
gases.
Breakdown mechanisms in The various
breakdown mechanisms in solids can be
classified as :
i)Intrinsic breakdown / electronic breakdown

ii)Electromechanical breakdown
solid dielectrics :
iii)Streamer breakdown
iv)Thermal breakdown
v)Electrochemical breakdown
vi) Breakdown due to voids / partial discharges
BREAKDOWN STRENGTH ( VS ) LOG TIME
 i)INTRINSIC BREAKDOWN
In a pure and homogeneous dielectric
under controlled temperature and
environmental conditions we get a very high
dielectric (breakdown) strength. This is known
as the intrinsic dielectric strength which
depends mainly on the characteristics and
structure of the material. The dielectric
strength obtained under such conditions is
around MV/cm which is generally not obtained
in practical conditions.
ii)ELECTROMECHANICAL BREAKDOWN
When a dielectric material is subjected to
an electric field charges of opposite nature
are induced on two opposite surfaces of the
material and Hence a force of attraction is
developed and the material is compressed.
When these electrostatic compressive
forces exceed the mechanical withstand
strength of the material the material collapse.
Normally these kinds of breakdown take place in
soft materials where ionic polarization is
predominant.

Let the initial thickness of the material = d0 , and

thickness after compression = d
Then the compressive stress ‘F’ , developed due
to an applied voltage ‘V’ , F= ½ ε0 εr V2 / d2
For an Young’s modulus ‘ Y’ the mechanical
compressive strength is = Y log d0 / d
Equating the above two equations and assuming
d = 0.6 d0 , we get
the highest breakdown strength as, E = V / d0 =
0.6 ( V / ε0 εr ) ½
iii) BREAKDOWN DUE TO TREEING AND
RACKING
We know that the strength of a chain is given by
the weakest link in the chain. Similarly ,
whenever he solid material has some impurities
like gas pockets in it , the dielectric strength of
the solid is reduced to that of the weakest
impurity.
The charge concentration in such voids is
produce a field of 10 MV / cm which is higher
than even the intrinsic breakdown.
The breakdown is not caused by a single
discharge channel and assumes a tree like
structure. Referring to the figure 1, the stress in
the dielectric=V / d,which is very less than the
breakdown strength .
In figure 2 , the stress in the air gap is given by,
( V/d ) ( εr / ε0 ) , which is much higher than the
stress in the solid dielectric . Hence the

Dr M A Panneerselvam, Professor,
Anna University 47
 (A) (B)
ARRANGEMENT FOR TREEING PHENOMENA
breakdown is initiated in the air gap and slowly
leads to breakdown in the entire dielectric. The
discharge assumes a tree like structure as
shown in the next figure.
iv) THERMAL BREAKDOWN
When electric field is applied to a solid specimen
heat is produced due to dielectric losses in the
specimen.
The losses are due to :
Ohmic losses
Dipole oscillations
Partial discharges due to voids
Due to losses, heat is generated
BREAKDOWN DUE TO TRACKING
in the specimen and the same is dissipated
due to conduction and radiation.
In practice the solid dielectric is
heterogeneous and different domains attain
different temperatures due to remaining
(A) (B)
THERMAL BREAKDOWN
heat. The temperature in a given
domain reaches a very high
value and burns the material
resulting in carbonization and
increase of conductivity. This
increases the losses and
hence the heat developed
resulting in further burning and increase
of conductivity. This process
continues leading to thermal
breakdown as shown in the previous
figure.
v ) ELECTROCHEMICAL BREAKDOWN
In the presence of air and other gases
some dielectric materials undergo chemical
changes when subjected to continuous
electric stresses. Some of the important
chemical reactions are :
Dr M A Panneerselvam, Professor,
Anna University 54
Oxidation, hydrolysis and chemical
actions.The above chemical actions result in
surface cracks, reduction of electrical and
mechanical strength and
reduction of electrical and mechanical
properties. The life of the specimen
considerably reduces.

vi) DISCHARGE / VOID BREAKDOWN:

Due to presence of void /gas in
the solid dielectric , the discharge in the void
is initiated at much lower stress in the solid
dielectric
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as the dielectric constant of void is very less.
The following figure shows the equivalent circuit
of dielectric with void.
C1 - Capacitance of void in column ‘A’
C2--- Capacitance of dielectric but for the void
in column ‘A’
C3--- Capacitance of the dielectric

56
REPRESENTATION OF VOID IN A SOLID DIELECTRIC
in column ‘B’
The voltage across the void , V1 , for an applied
voltage ‘V’ is , V1 = V ( C2 / C1 + C2 )
i.e., V = V1 ( C1 + C2 ) / C2
= Eg d1 ( 1 + C1/C2)
Substituting for C1= Aε0 / d1 and
C2 = Aε0 εr / (d – d1) ,we get , V = Eg d1 ((1 - (d –
d1) / d1εr)) Since d1 << d,
V = Eg d1(1/εr) d/d1 = V1 ( d / εr d1 )
The input voltage applied just sufficient to
cause discharge in the void is known as
Discharge Inception voltage.
CAVITY BREAKDOWN UNDER ALTERNATING VOLTAGES
 BREAKDOWN IN LIQUID DIELECTRICS
Introduction:
Liquid dielectrics are used both as dielectrics
and coolants to dissipate heat. They can easily
fill up the gaps in the volume of insulation and
are also used for impregnation of solid
dielectrics.
Liquid dielectrics are classified as:
Transformer oil (Mineral oil )
Synthetic hydrocarbons Chlorinated
hydrocarbons
Silicone oil
Esters
 Breakdown mechanisms in liquids:
i) Electronic breakdown in pure liquids
ii) Suspended particle mechanism
iii)Bubble mechanism
Of the three above,the (ii) and (iii) mechanisms
take place in commercial liquid insulants.
i) ELECTRONIC BREAKDOWN
In pure liquids breakdown takes place due to
electron avalanche and is considered to be
electronic in nature.The breakdown strength
is very high of the order of 100 kV/ cm.
ii) SUSPENDED PARTICLE MECHANISM
Due to conducting particles between
electrodes there is a rise in the field
enhancement. When the field exceeds
thebreakdown strength of the liquid local
breakdown will occur leading to formation of
gas bubbles resulting in breakdown.
iii) BUBBLE THEORY
The bubbles formed in the liquid dielectrics
due to various reasons will elongate in the
Dr M A Panneerselvam, Professor,
Anna University 62
direction of the electric field under the
influence of the electrostatic forces.The
volume of the bubble remains constant during
elongation.
Breakdown occurs when the voltage drop
along the length of the bubble becomes equal
to the minimum value on the Pachen’s curve.
The breakdown process is shown in the figure
next page.
BREAKDOWN IN VACUUM
The breakdown in vacuum mainly takes place due to :
i) Field emission and ii) Clump
mechanism
BUBBLE BREAKDOWN IN LIQUID
i) FIELD EMISSION:
This theory postulates that electrons
produced at small micro projections on the
cathode due to field emission bombard the anode
causing a local rise in temperature and release
gases and vapors into the vacuum. These
electrons ionize the gas and produce positive
ions.These positive ions produce secondary
electrons and also bombard the cathode surface
producing more electrons causing breakdown.
ANODE HEATING MECHANISM OF VACUUM BREAKDOWN
ii) CLUMP MECHANISM
A loosely bound particle known as ‘clump’
exists on one of the electrode surfaces. When
a high voltage is applied between the two
electrodes , this clump gets charged and gets
detached from the mother electrode and is
attracted by other electrode. The breakdown
occurs due to a discharge in the vapor
or gas released by the impact to the
particle at the opposite electrode.
BREAKDOWN DUE TO CLUMP MECHANISM
NOMENCLATURES USED WITH REGARD TO
NATURE OF FIELD AND TYPES OF
DISRUPTIVE DISCHARGES
NATURE OF FIELD:
Depending upon the type of electrodes used
we have i) uniform and ii) non-uniform field.
Uniform field:
When the field lines and equipotential lines
cut each other they make curvilinear squares.
When these squares approach exact squares
we get
uniform field.
Non-uniform field :
When the curvilinear squares seize to be exact
squares it becomes a non-uniform field.
Depending upon the usage and location of
insulation and ability to recover back its
insulating
UNIFORM FIELD
NON UNIFORM FIELD
property , insulation can be classified as
follows:
(I)External and internal insulation.
(II) Self-restoring and non-self restoring
insulation.
When the insulation is externally provided it
is called external insulation and when it is
internal inside the equipment it is
called internal insulation.
As examples, in a transformer the winding
insulation and the oil medium inside are
the internal insulations,where as,the bushings
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outside on the top of the transformer are the
external insulations.
Self restoring insulation can recover back its
insulating property after a disruptive
discharge occurs.Ex., breakdown in air or oil
medium.
Non-self restoring insulation cannot recover
back its insulating property after a disruptive
discharge occurs and causes a permanent
damage.Ex. Breakdown through a solid
dielectric.
Disruptive discharges occurring in dielectrics
can be classified as :
(i) Flashover ii) Sparkover
and iii)Punture.
Disruptive discharge taking place across a solid
dielectric in air medium is called flashover.
Disruptive discharge taking place through air or
liquid medium between electrodes is called
sparkover.
Disruptive discharge taking place through a solid
dielectric causing a permanent damage is called
puncture.
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 UNIT-II
GENERATION OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND HIGH
CURRENTS
DIFFERENT METHODS TO GENERATE HIGH D,C VOLTAGE:
1. Half and full wave rectifier circuits
2. Voltage doubler circuits
3. Voltage multiplier circuits
4. Van de Graaff generator
HALF AND FULL WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
 This method can be used to produce DC voltage up to 20 kV
 For high voltages several units can be connected in series
 For the first half cycle of the given AC input voltage, capacitor is
charged to Vmax and for the next half cycle the capacitor is
dischar5ged to the load
 The capacitor C is chosen such that the time constant CRl is 10 times
that of AC supply

77
 In this method, during –ve half cycle, the Capacitor C1is charged through
rectifier R to a voltage +Vmax. During next cycle. C1rises to +2Vmax .
 C2.is charged to 2Vmax.
 Cascaded voltage doublers can be used for producing larger output voltage

78
 Cascaded voltage doublers can be used for producing larger
output voltage

79
 Here n no. of capacitors
and diodes are used.
 Voltage is cascaded to
produce output of 2nVmax .
 Voltage multiplier circuit
using Cockcroft-Walton
principle can be used.

80
 In electrostatic machines charged bodies are
moved in an electrostatic field
 If an insulated belt with a charge density δ moves
in an electric field between two electrodes with
separation ‘s’
 If the belt moves with a velocity v then
mechanical power require to move the belt is
P=F.v=V.I

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 It consists of a stator with interleaved rotor vanes forming a
variable capacitor and operates in vacuum
 The power input into the circuit P=VI=CVdV/dt+V2dC/dt
 The rotor is insulated from the ground,maintained at a
potential of +V.
 The rotor to stator capacitance varies from C0 to Cm
 Stator is connected to a common point between two rectifiers
across –E volts.
 As the rotor rotates, the capacitance decreases and the
voltage across C increases.
 Output voltage of 1MV can be generated.

82
 When test voltage requirements are less than about 300 kV,a
single transformer can be used.
 Each transformer unit consists of low,high and meter winding.
 Series connection of the several units of transformers used to
produce very high voltage.

83
 First transformer is at ground potential along with its tank.The 2nd
transformer is kept on insulators and maintained at a potential of V2.
 The high voltage winding of the 1st unit is connected to the tank of the 2nd
unit,the low voltage winging of this unit is supplied from the excitation
winding of the 1st transformer,which is in series with the high voltage
winding of the 1st transformer at its high voltage end.
 The rating of the excitation winding is same as that of low voltage
winding.3rd transformer is kept on insulator above the ground at a potential
of 2V2.output of 3 stage is 3V2.
 The rating of the low voltage winding of 230 or 400 Vcan be used to
produce 3.3 kV,6.6 kV or 11 kV.\

84
CASCADE TRANSFORMER

85
Cascade transformer with isolating
transformer for excitation

86
 High frequency high voltage damped oscillations are needed
which need high voltage high frequency transformer which is
a Tesla coil.
 Tesla coil is a doubly tuned resonant circuit,primary voltage
rating is 10 kV and secondary voltage rated from 500 to 1000
kV.
 The primary is fed from DC or AC supply through C1.A spark
gap G connected across the primary is triggered at V1 which
induces a high self excitation in the secondary.The windings
are tuned to a frequency of 10 to 100 kHz.

87
STANDARD IMPULSE WAVESHAPE
 It is specified by rise or front time,fall or tail time to 50% peak
value and peak value.
 1.2/50 μ s,1000 kV.

88
 Charging resistance Rs is liming the charging current from 50 to
100 mA. CRs is about 10s to 1 min.
 The gap spacing G is grater than the charging voltage V.All the
capacitance s are charged to the voltage V in 1 min.
 The spark gap G is made spark over, then all the capacitor C get
connected in series and discharge into the load load
 In modified Marx circuit,R1is divided into n parts equal to R1/n and
put in series with the gap G, R2is divided into n parts equal to R2/n
and connected across each capacitor unit after the gap G.
 The nominal output is the number of stages multiplied by the
charging voltage.

89
 A single capacitor C1 is to be charged first
and then discharged into wave shaping
circuits and it is limited to 200 kV
 For producing very high voltages a bank of
capacitors are charged in parallel and then
discharged in series.

90
Modified Marx Circuit

91
 DC Charging set
 Charging resistors
 Generator capacitors and spark gaps
 Wave shaping resistors and capacitors
 Triggering system
 Voltage dividers

92
 A switching surge is a short duration transient voltage produced in the
system due to a sudden opening or closing of a switch or c.b or due to
an arcing at a fault in the system.
 Impulse generator circuit is modified to give longer duration wave
shape,100/1000 μs,R1 is increased to very high value and it is parallel
to R2 in the discharge circuit.
 Power transformer excited by DC voltages giving oscillatory waves
which produces unidirectional damped oscillations.Frequency of 1to
10 kHz
 Switching surges of very high peaks and long duration can be
obtained by one circuit,In this circuit C1 charged to a low voltage
d.c(20 to 25 kV) is discharged into the low voltage winding of a
power transformer.The high voltage winding is connected inparallel to
a load capacitance C2,potential divider R2,gap S and test object.

93
 For producing impulse currents of large value,a bank of
capacitors connected in parallel are charged to a specified
value and are discharged through a series R-Lcircuit.
 Im=V(exp(-αt))sin(ωt)/ωL

94
 For producing large values of impulse,a no.of capacitors
are charged in parallel and discharged in parallel into the
circuit.
 The essential parts of an impulse current generator are:
 (i) a.d.c. charging unit
 (ii) capacitors of high value (0.5 to 5 μF)
 (iii) an additional air cored inductor
 (iv) proper shunts and oscillograph for measurement
purposes, and
 (v) a triggering unit and spark gap for the initiation of the
current generator.

95
 In large impulse generators, the spark gaps are
generally sphere gaps or gaps formed by
hemispherical electrodes.
 The gaps are arranged such that sparking of one
gap results in automatic sparking of other gaps as
overvoltage is impressed on the other.
 A simple method of controlled tripping consists of
making the first gap a three electrode gap and
firing it from a controlled source.

96
 The first stage of the impulse generator is fitted with a three
electrode gap, and the central electrode is maintained at a
potential in between that of the top and the bottom
electrodes with the resistors R1 and RL.
 The tripping is initiated by applying a pulse to the thyration
G by closing the switch S.
 C produces an exponentially decaying pulse of positive
polarity.
 The Thyraton conducts on receiving the pulse from the
switch S and produces a negative pulse through the
capacitance C1 at central electrode.
 Voltage between central electrode and the top electrode
those above sparking potential and gap contacts.

97
 This requires much smaller voltage for operation
compared to the three electrode gap.
 A trigatron gap consists of a high voltage spherical
electrode, an earthed main electrode of spherical
shape, and a trigger electrode through the main
electrode.
 Tripping of the impulse generator is effected by a trip
pulse which produces a spark between the trigger
electrode and the earthed sphere.
 Due to space charge effects and distortion of the field
in the main gap, spark over of the main gap occurs
and it is polarity sensitive.

98
 UNIT-III
INSULATION COORDINATION COURSE
 Specifying Insulation Strength
 Insulation Strength Characteristics
 Ph.-Ground Sw. OVs, Transmission Lines
 Ph.-Ph. Sw. OVs, Transmission Lines
 Sw. OVs, Substation
 Lightning Flash
 Shielding of Transmission Lines
 Shielding of Substations
 Incoming Surge & Open Breaker Protection
 Metal Oxide Surge Arresters
 Station Lightning Insulation Coordination
 Line Arresters
 Induced Over voltages
 Contamination
 National Electrical Safety Code
 Line Insulation Design
 INTRODUCTION to Definitions,
Goals & Processes

 Specifying Insulation Strength

 Definition of Insulation Coordination:
“Selection of Insulation Strength consistent
with expected Risk of Failure”
engineers prefer following Definition:
“Process of Bringing Insulation Strengths of
Elec. Equip. into proper relationship with
expected OVs and characteristics of Surge
Protective Devices so as to reduce to an
economically & operationally acceptable
level the risk of failure”
 Select minimum insulation strength, or minimum clearance
 Process:
1- selection of reliability criteria
2- determine stress placed on equipment or air
clearance
3- Stress then compared to Ins. Strength Characteristic
4- from above a strength selected
 Feedback Process
1- then if considered to be excessive,
2- stress can be reduced by use of ameliorating measures
such as surge arresters, protective gaps, shield wires, closing
resistors in CCT. B.
 Line Insulation Coordination which can be
further separated into Trans. & Dis. Lines
 Station Ins. Coord. Which includes generation,
transmission and Dist. Substations

 To These may be added other areas:

-Ins. Coord. of :
1- rotating mach.s 2- shunt & series cap.
 Subjects of Interest : Two Major Top
Categories
 Goal: to specify all dimensions or characteristics of
trans. or dist. line tower which affect reliability of
Line
 1- clearances between ph. Cond. & Grounded tower
sides & upper truss
 2- Insulator string length
 3- No. & type of insulators
 4- Need & type of supplement Grounding
 5- Location and No. O.H. shield wires
 6- Ph. To G. mid-span clearance
 7- Ph-ph clearance
 8- Need for, rating & location of surge arresters
 To specify:
 equipment insulation strength; BIL,BSL of all
equip.s
 Ph-G & ph-ph clearances (Figure next)
 Need for , location, rating & No. of Surge Arresters
 Need for, location, configuration & spacing of prot.
Gaps
 Need for, location, & type of substation shielding
 Need for, amount, & method of achieving an
improvement in lightning performance of line
adjacent to station
 Engineer must consider all sources of stress:
 1- Lightning OVs
 2- Switching OVs by sw. B. or Dis. Sw. s
 3- TOV, by : Faults, Gen. over-speed, Ferro-
resonance
 4- P.F. voltage in presence of contamination
 in some of the specifications, only one of these
stresses important
- for transmission line, lightning dictates location
& No. of shield wires needed & specification of
supplemental tower grounding
 However subjective judgment required, to
determine if shield wires should be used
 Arresters rating dictated by TOV
 No. & location of surge Arresters dictated by
lightning
 For line & station, No. & type of insulators dictated
by contamination
 However, in many specifications, 2 or more OVs
must be considered: for Transmission lines, Sw.
OVs, Lightning, or contamination may dictate:
strike distances & insulator string
length
 In Substation; Lightning, Sw. surges, or
contamination dictate: BIL, BSL, & clearances
 Primary objective: to specify Min. Ins. Strength
 So: No one of OVs should dominate the design
 That means: if considering Sw. OVs results in a
specification of tower strike distances, methods
should be sought to decrease Sw. OVs.
 And the objective is: not to permit one source of
OV stress, dictate the design
 Carrying this philosophy to the ultimate; results
in objective that Ins. Strength be dictated only
by P.F. voltage
 Although the last may not seem reasonable,
it is achieved with regards to transformers;
for which 1 hr p.f. test considered by many
to be most severe test on insulation
 In addition, in most cases, Sw. surges
important only for above 345 kV
 It means: for the lower voltages lightning
dictates larger clearances & insulator
lengths
 This may be untrue for “Compact” designs
 If Ins. Strength specifications results in
“higher –than-desired” clearances or Ins.
Strength;
stresses by lightning & Sw. may be
decreased 
 Through application of:
surge arresters; pre-insertion resistors in
C.B.s; use of additional shield wires;
additional tower grounding & additional
shielding in station
 1- Conventional or Deterministic Method
 2- Probabilistic Method
 Conventional: specifying min. strength by
setting it equal to max. stress
 rule is: minimum strength=maximum stress
 Probabilistic: selecting Ins. Strength or
clearances based on specific reliabilities
criterion
 An engineer may select Ins. Strength
 for a line: based on Lightning Flashover Rate of:
One flashover/100 km-years
 for a station: based on mean time between failure
(MTBF) of 100 or 500 yrs
 Choice of method not only on engineer’s desire but
also on characteristic of the insulation
 i.e. Ins. Strength of air described statistically by GCD
(Gaussian Cumulative Distribution)
 Therefore, this strength Dis. May be convolved with
stress Dis. to determine Prob. of Flashover
 While, Ins. Strength of a transformer internal
Ins. Specified by a single value for lightning
& a single value for Sw. called BIL & BSL
 This BIL or BSL proved only by one
application of test voltage & no statistical
Dis. of strength is available & conv. method
must be used
 However, even when conv. method is used a
prob. of Failure or F.O. exists (although is
not evaluated)
 Selected reliability criterion is primarily a function
of consequence of failure & life of equipment
 Ex1: reliability criterion for a station may be more
stringent than that for a line because a F.O. in
station is of greater consequence
 Even with a station, reliability criterion may change
according to type of apparatus (consequences of
failure of a transformer required a higher order of
protection)
 Ex2: design Flashover Rate for EHV lines lower than
lower voltage lines
 Job: selection of strength of insulation
 First : usual, normal and standard
conditions
used should be known
 Several methods of describing strength: BIL,
BSL, CFO
 Goal: to define alternate methods of
describing strength & related test methods
 STANDARD ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS
1- Ambient temperature 20◦ C
2- Air pressure: 101.3 kPa ~ 760 mm Hg
3- Absolute humidity: 11 grams of water/m3 of air
4- for wet tests: 1 to 1.5 mm of water/minute
---------------------------------------------
-----------------
If actual Atm. Cond.s Differ from these values,
Strength in terms of voltage is corrected to
these standard values
 TYPES of INSULATION
according to ANSI C92.1 (IEEE 1313.1)
1- classified as :
INTERNAL or EXTERNAL
2- classified as:
SELF-RESTORING &
NON-SELF-RESTORING
 EXTERNAL INSULATION:
- Distances in open air or Across surfaces of
solid insulation in contact with open air
subjected to effects of Atm.,
- examples:
- porcelain shell bushing
- bus support insulators
- disconnecting switches
INTERNAL INSULATION
- internal solid, liquid, or gaseous parts of
equipment insulation, protected by equipment
enclosures
- Exs : transformer insulation
- :internal insulation of bushings
Note: equipment may be a combination of
internal & external insulation, such as a
bushing and a C.B.
 SELFRESTORING (SR)INSULATION
 Insulation completely recovers insulating properties
after a disruptive discharge
 generally is external insulation
 NON-SELF-RESTORING (NSR) INSULATION
 Opposite of (SR) insulators
 Insulation loses insulating properties or doesn’t
recover after a disruptive discharge
 generally external insulation
 BIL – Basic Lightning Impulse Insulation
Level
 Is the electrical strength of insulation
expressed in crest of “standard lightning
impulse”
 BIL is tied to a specific wave shape &
standard Atm. Condition
 BIL may be either; a statistical BIL or a
conventional BIL
 Statistical BIL only for SR insulations
 Conventional BIL only for NSR insulations
 BIL universally for dry conditions
 Statistical BIL is crest of standard lightning imp. for
which insulation exhibits %90 prob. of withstand,
and a %10 failure
 Conventional BIL is crest of standard lightning imp.
for which insulation does not exhibit disrup.
discharge subjected to a specific No. of impulse
 IEC publication 71, BIL is known as lightning Imp.
Withstand Voltage
 However in IEC it is not divided into two different
names as above
 BSL : basic switching impulse insulation level
 BSL is electrical strength of Ins. expressed in crest
value of standard sw. imp.
 BSL may be either: conventional or statistical
 Statistical BSL applicable only to SR insulations
 Conventional BSL applicable to NSR insulations
 Insulation BSLs are universally for wet condition
 Definitions similar to BILs of conv. & statistic
 IEC publication 71, BSL called “switching imp.
Withstand voltage” and not divided to two
definitions
 Standard Wave Shapes
 General lightning & switching imp. wave
shapes shown below
 Important Parameters (for both waves):
-Time to crest (called simply “front”)
-Time to half value (called simply “tail”)
 However :
-Time to crest for Lightning starts from a
virtual zero (intersection of line passing
30% & 90% with time axis)
- t f =1.67 (t 90 – t 30)
  Standard Lightning wave shape is 1.2/50 µs
 This reflects the short front and relative short tails
observed in the records
 All laboratories can produce it easily the
 The standard switching wave is 250/2500 µs
Standard Impulse Wave Shapes and Tolerances
Imp. Type lightning Switching
Nominal Wave shape 1.2 / 50 µs 250 /2500 µs
Tolerances ± 30 % ± 20%
front
Tail ± 20% ± 60%
 A 1000 kV, 200/3000 µs sw. imp. has a crest
voltage of 1000 kV, a front of 200 µs, a tail of
3000 µs
 The standard lightning & switching imp. wave
shapes and their tolerances listed in last table
 Statistical vs. Conventional BIL/BSL
 The statistical BIL or BSL is defined statistically
or probabilistically
 probability of F.O. (failure) for application of
an standard imp.( with crest of BIL or BSL) is
10%
 Insulation strength characteristic may be
represented by a cumulative Gaussian Dis.
 Ins. Strength Characteristic for self-restoring
Insulation
 Mean of Dis. Is defined as critical F.O.
voltage or CFO
 Applying CFO to insulation results in a 50 %
prob. of F.O.
 Locating BIL or BSL at the 10% point results
in definition that : BIL or BSL is 1.28
standard deviation, σf, below CFO:
 BIL = CFO (1- 1.28 x σf / CFO)
 BSL = CFO (1- 1.28 x σf / CFO)
 σf is in P.U. of CFO & a sigma of 5% interpreted as a standard
deviation of 5% of CFO
 Standard Deviations for lightning & switching imp. Differ
 For lightning, sigma is 2 to 3%
 For switching ranges from 5% for tower insulation, to about 7%
for station type insulations
 Conventional BIL or BSL more simply defined in 3 steps:
 One or more standard imp.s with crest of BIL or BSL applied to
insulations
 If no F.O. s occur, insulation posses a BIL or BSL applied to it
 Thus insulation strength rise from zero prob. of F.O. at BIL or
BSL voltage to 100% prob. of F.O. at the same BIL or BSL
(shown in next fig.)
 Ins. Strength Charac. for non-self-restoring
Ins.
 Tests to “Prove” BIL and BSL
 tests may be divided between conventional & the
statistical
 Conv. BIL or BSL tied to non-self-restoring
insulation it is more desirable that tests be
nondestructive
 Test is simply to apply one or more imp.s with
standard wave shape & crest equals BIL or BSL
 If no failure occurs the test is passed, while it is
true that some failures on test floor occur, the
failure rate is extremely low
 That is, a manufacturer can’t afford having failure
rates on power transformers exceeding 1% -& if
occur production stopped & all designs are
reviewed
 Considering establishment of statistical BIL
or BSL
 Theoretically no test can conclusively prove
that insulation has a 10% prob. of failure
 However there are several types of tests
possible, from which (as shown in fig.3) BIL
or BSL can be obtained
 These tests are not made except in the
equipment design stage
 For standardization two types of tests exist:

 n/m test :
- m imp. Applied, is passed if no more than n F.O.
- preferred test in IEC is 2/15; if 2 or fewer F.O.
 n+m test :
- n imp. Applied if none F.O. test is passed
- if there are 2 or more F.O. test failed
- if only 1 F.O., m addition imp. Applied & test is
passed if none F.O.
- present test on C.B.s is 3+3; in IEC an alternate but
less preferred test to 2/15 test is 3+9 test
 INTRODUCTION, Goals & Process of Insulation
coordination
 First step in Insulation Coordination:
 Specifying the Insulation Strength
 Different Classifications of Insulation presented
 statistical & Conventional BIL & BSL defined
 Their Relations with CFO presented
 IEC definition for :
 1- Lightning Impulse Withstand Voltage &
 2- Switching Impulse Withstand Voltage
 UNIT-IV
TESTING OF INSULATION
 Type Test To Check The Design Features
 Routine Test To Check The Quality Of The
Individual Test Piece.
 High Voltage Tests Include
(i) Power frequency tests
(ii) Impulse tests

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2
POWER FREQUENCY TESTS
(a) Dry and wet flashover tests:
 a.c voltage of power frequency is applied across the insulator and
increased at a uniform rate of 2% per second of 75%of ther
estimated test voltage.
 If the test is conducted under normal conditions without any rain –
dry flashover test.
 If the test is conducted under normal conditions of rain –wet
flashover test
(b) Dry and wet withstand tests(one minute)
The test piece should withstand the specified voltage which is
applied under dry or wet conditions.

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 Impulse withstand voltage test:
If the test object has withstood the subsequent applications
of standard impulse voltage then it is passed the test
 Impulse flashover test:
The average value between 40% and 60% failure is taken,
then the insulator surface should not be damaged.
 Pollution Testing:
Pollution causes corrosion ,deterioration of the material,
partial discharges and radio interference. Salt fog test is done.

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Power frequency tests
(a ) Power Factor-Voltage Test:
 Set up as in service or immersed in oil.
 Conductor to HV and tank to earth.
 Voltage is applied up to the line value in increasing steps and
then reduced.
 The capacitance and power factor are recorded in each step.
(b) Internal or Partial discharge Test:
 To find the deterioration or failure due to internal discharges
 Conducted using partial discharge arrangements
 Performance is observed from voltage Vs discharge
magnitude.
 It is a routine test.
(c ) Momentary Withstand Test at Power frequency
 Based on IS:2009
 The bushing has to withstand the applied test voltage without
flashover or puncture for 30 sec.

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(d) One Minute withstand Test at Power Frequency
 Most common & routine test
 Test is carried in dry &wet for one minute.
 In wet test, rain arrangement is mounted as in service.
 Properly designed bushing should withstand without flashover for one
minute.
(e) Visible Discharge Test at Power Frequency
 Conducted based on IS:2009
 Conducted to determine radio interference during service
 Conducted in dark room
 Should not be any visible discharges other than arcing horns/ guard
rings.

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Impulse voltage tests:
 Full wave Withstand Test
 The bushing is tested for either polarity voltages
 Five consecutive full wave is applied
 If two of them flashed over, then 10 additional applications are
done.
 If the test object has withstood the subsequent applications of
standard impulse voltage then it is passed the test.
Chopper Wave withstand Test
 Sometimes done on HV bushings (220kV, 400kV and above)
 Switching surge flashover test is included for HV bushings.
 This is also carried out same as above full wave test.

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Temperature Rise and Thermal Stability Tests
 To observe the temperature rise and to ensure that it
doesn’t go into ‘thermal runaway’ condition.
 Temperature rise test is done at ambient temperature
(below 400C) at a rated power frequency.
 The steady temperature rise should not exceed 450C.
 Test is carried out for long time & increase in
temperature is less than 10C/hr.
 This test is enough to produce large dielectric loss and
thermal in stability.
 Thermal stability test is done for bushing rated for 132
kV above.
 Carried out on the bushing immersed in oil at max.
service temperature with 86% of normal system voltage.
 This is a type test for low rating and routine test for high
ratings.

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Isolator:
 Off-load or minimum current breaking mechanical switch.
 Explained according to “IS:9921 Part-1, 1981”.
 Interrupting small currents(0.5A): Capacitive currents of
bushings, busbars etc.,
Circuit Breaker:
 Onload or high current breaking switch
Testing of Circuit Breaker:
 To evalute,
Constructional & operating characteristics
Electrical characteristics

14
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Electrical Characteristics:
 Arcing voltage
 Current chopping characteristics
 Residual currents
 Rate of decrease of conductance of the arc space and the plasma
 Shunting effects in interruption
Physical Characteristics:
 Arc extinguishing medium
 Pressure developed at the point of interruption
 Speed of contact travelling
 Number of breaks
 Size of the arcing chamber
 Material and configuration of the circuit interruption

15
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Circuit Characteristics:
 Degree of electrical loading

 Applied voltage
 Type of fault

 Time of interruption

 Frequency

 Power factor

 Rate of rise of recovery voltage

 Re-stricking voltage

 Decrease in AC component of the short circuit current

 DC component of the short circuit current

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 Dielectric tests:
Consists of over voltage withstand tests of power
frequency, lightning and switching impulse voltages
Tested for internal & external insulation with CB in both
the open & closed position.
Voltage in Open position >15% of that of closed position.
During test, CB is mounted on insulators above ground
to avoid ground flash over.
 Impulse tests:
Impulse test and switching surge tests with switching
over voltage are done.

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 Thermal tests:
To check the thermal behaviour of the breakers
Rated current through all three phases of the switchgear
is passed continuously for a period long enough to
achieve steady state conditions
Temperature rise must not exceed 40°C when the rated
normal current is less than 800 amps and 50°C if it is 800
amps and above
Contact resistances between the isolating contacts and
between the moving and fixed contacts is important.
These points are generally the main sources of excessive
heat generation.

15
3
 Mechanical Test:
To ensure the open and closing with out mechanical failure
It requires 500(some times 20,000) operations without
failure and with no adjustment of the mechanism.
A resulting change in the material or dimensions of a
particular component may considerably improve the life
and efficiency of the mechanism.

15
4
Short circuit tests:
 To check the ability to safely interrupt the fault currents.

 To determine the making and breaking capacities at

different load currents
 Methods of conducting short circuit tests,
i. Direct tests
i. Using the power utility system as the source.
ii. Using a short circuit generator as the source
ii. Synthetic Tests

15
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Direct tests -Using the power utility system as the source:
 To check the ability to make or break in normal load
conditions or short circuit conditions in the network itself
 Done during limited energy consumption
 Advantages:
1. Tested under actual conditions in a network
2. Special cases (like breaking of charging current of long lines,
very short line faults etc.,) can be tested
3. Thermal & dynamic effects of short circuit currents and
applications of safety devices can be studied
 Disadvantages:
1. Can be tested only in rated voltage and capacity of the
network
2. Test is only at light load conditions
3. Inconvenience and expensive installation of control and
measuring equipment is required in the field.

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Direct Testing-Short circuit test in laboratories:
 To test the CBs at different voltages & different SC currents
 The setup consists of,
Back up
A SC generator breaker Making
Reactor Switch
Master CB
Resistors Test device
Reactors and G

Measuring devices CT

 The make switch initiates the circuit short Capacitance

Short Circuit circuit
Circuit & master
Testing Gen
switch isolates the test device from the source at the end of
predetermined time.
 If the test device failed to operate, master CB can be
tripped.

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Synthetic Testing of CBs:
 Heavy current at low voltage is applied
 Recovery voltage is simulated by high voltage, small current
source
 Procedure:
Auxiliary breaker 3 and test circuit breaker T closed, making switch 1 is
closed.  Current flows through test CB.
At time t0, the test CB begins to open and the master breaker 1 becomes
to clear the gen circuit.
1 3 4 5 6
2

Ic Iv

Vc Cc C0 Cv
T

15
8
At time t1, just before zero of the gen current, the trigger gap 6
closes and high frequency current from capacitance Cv flows
through the arc of the gap
At time t2, gen current is zero. Master CB 1 is opened
The current from Cv will flow through test CB and full voltage will
be available
At the instant of breaking, the source is disconnected and high
voltage is supplied by auxiliary CB 4
1 3 4 5 6
2

Ic Iv

Vc Cc C0 Cv
T

15
9
Different tests on cables are
i. Mechanical tests like bending test,dripping and drainage
test, and fire resistance and corrosion tests
ii. Thermal duty tests
iii. Dielectric power factor tests
iv. Power frequency withstand voltage tests
v. Impulse withstand voltage tests
vi. Partial discharge test
vii. Life expectancy tests

16
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Dielectric power factor tests:
 Done using HV Schering Bridge

 The p.f or dissipation factor ‘tan’ is measured at 0.5, 1.0, 1.66 and 2.0
times the rated phase-to-ground voltage of the cable
 Max. value of p.f and difference in p.f b/w rated voltage and 1.66 times
of rated voltage is specified.
 The difference between the rated voltage and 2.0 times of rated voltage
is also specified
 A choke is used in series with the cable to form a resonant circuit.

 This improves the power factor and rises the test voltage b/w the cable
core and the sheath to the required value when a HV and high capacity
source is used.

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High voltage testing on Cables:
 Power frequency HV A.C, DC and impulse voltages are applied to test
the withstanding capability
 Continuity is checked with high voltage at the time of manufacturing

 Routine test:
Cable should withstand 2.5 times of the rated voltage for 10 mins
without damage in insulation
 Type test:
Done on samples with HVDC & impulses
DC Test:1.8 times of the rated voltage (-ve) applied for 30 mins.
Impulse Test: 1.2/50µS wave applied. Cable should withstand 5
consecutive impulses without any damage
After impulse test, power frequency & power factor test is
conducted to ensure that no failure occurred during impulse test.

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Partial Discharge test:
i. Discharge measurement:
 Life time of insulation depends on the internal discharges. So, PD
measurement is important.
 In this test, weakness of insulation or faults can be detected
 Fig(i) and (ii) shows the connection to discharge detector through
coupling capacitor. F
C HV
(i)
D.D

F
F
C HV
Equivalent Circuit of Cable for
discharges

(ii)

D.D
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3
 If the coupling capacitor connected, transient wave will be
received directly from the discharge cavity and second wave from
the wave end i.e., two transient pulses is detected
 In circuit shown in fig (ii), no severe reflection is occurred except a
second order effect of negligible magnitude.
 Two transients arrive at both ends of the cable-super imposition of
the two pulses detected-give serious error in measurement of
discharge
ii.Location of discharges
 Voltage dip caused by discharge or fault is travelled along
the length & determined at the ends
 Time duration b/w the consecutive pulses can be
determined
 The shape of the voltage gives information on the nature of
discharges
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iii. Scanning Method:
 Cable is passed through high electric field and discharge location is
identified.
 Cable core is passed through a tube of insulating material filled with
distilled water
 Four ring electrodes (two @ ends+two @ middle) mounted in contact
with water.
 Middle electrode given to HV. If a discharge occurs in the portion b/w the
middle electrodes, as the cable is passed b/w the middle electrode’s
portion, the discharge is detected and located at the length of cable.
iv. Life Test
 For reliability studies in service.
 Accelerated life tests conducted with increased voltages to determine the
expected life time.
K-Constant depends on Field condition and material
n- Life index depends on material
 1 
- 
 n 
E m  Kt
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5
 Transformer is one of the most expensive and important
equipment in power system.
 If it is not suitably designed its failure may cause a lengthy and
costly outage.
 Therefore, it is very important to be cautious while designing its
insulation, so that it can withstand transient over voltage both
due to switching and lightning.
 The high voltage testing of transformers is, therefore, very
important and would be discussed here. Other tests like
temperature rise, short circuit, open circuit etc. are not
considered here.
 However,these can be found in the relevant standard
specification.

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 Induced over voltage test:
 Transformer secondary is excited by HFAC(100 to 400Hz) to about twice the
rated voltage
 This reduces the core saturation and also limits the charging current
necessary in large X-mer
 The insulation withstand strength can also be checked
 Partial Discharge test:
 To assess the magnitude of discharges
 Transformer is connected as a test specimen and the discharge
measurements are made
 Location and severity of fault is ascertained using the travelling wave theory
technique
 Measurements are to be made at all the terminals of the transformer
 Insulation should be so designed that the discharge measurement should be
much below the value of 104 pC.

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Impulse Testing of Transformer:
To determine the ability of the insulation to withstand transient
voltages
In short rise time of impulses, the voltage distribution along the
winding will not be uniform
The equivalent circuit of the transformer winding for impulses is
shown in Fig.1.

Fig.1: Equivalent circuit of a transformer for impulse voltage

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Impulse voltage applied to the equivalent sets up uneven voltage
distribution and oscillatory voltage higher than the applied
voltage
Impulse tests:
 Full wave standard impulse
 Chopped wave standard impulse (Chopping time: 3 to 6S)
The winding which is not subjected to test are short circuited
and connected to ground
Short circuiting reduces the impedance of transformer and hence
create problems in adjusting the standard waveshape of impulse
generators

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Procedure for Impulse Test:
The schematic diagram of the transformer connection for impulse
test is shown in Fig.2

Fig.2: Arrangement for Impulse test of transformer

The voltage and current waveforms are recorded during test.
Sometimes, the transferred voltage in secondary and neutral current
are also recorded.

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0
Impulse testing consists of the following steps:
i. Application of impulse of magnitude 75% of the Basic
Impulse Level (BIL) of the transformer under test.
ii. One full wave of 100% of BIL.
iii. Two chopped wave of 115% of BIL.
iv. One full wave of 100% BIL and
v. One full wave of 75% of BIL.
 During impulse testing the fault can be located by general
observation like noise in the tank or smoke or bubble in the
breather.
 If there is a fault, it appears on the Oscilloscope as a partial or
complete collapse of the applied voltage.
 Study of the wave form of the neutral current also indicated the
type of fault.

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If an arc occurs between the turns or from turn to the ground, a
train of high frequency pulses are seen on the oscilloscope and
wave shape of impulse changes.
If it is only a partial discharge, high frequency oscillations are
observed but no change in wave shape occurs.
Impulse strength of the transformer winding is same for either
polarity of wave whereas the flash over voltage for bushing is
different for different polarity.

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(i ) Power frequency spark over test
It is a routine test.
The test is conducted using a series resistance to limit the
current in case a spark over occurs.
It has to withstand 1.5 times the rated value of the voltage for 5
successive applications.
Test is done under both dry and wet conditions.
(ii ) 100% standard impulse spark over test
This test is conducted to ensure that the diverter operates
positively when over voltage of impulse nature occur.
The test is done with both positive and negative polarity
waveforms.
The magnitude of the voltage at which 100% flashover occurs is
the required spark over voltage.

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(iii) Residual voltage test:
 This test is conducted on pro-rated diverters of ratings in the range 3 to 12
kV only.
 Standard impulse wave of 1/50µS is applied, voltage across it is recorded.
 Magnitude of the current 2 X Rated current
 A graph is drawn b/w current magnitude and voltage across pro-rated unit
and residual voltage is calculated
 V1=rating of the complete unit
 V2=rating of the prorated unit tested
 VR1=residual voltage of the complete unit
 VR2=residual voltage of the prorated unit
 V1/V2= VR1/ VR2
 V1/= V2 .(VR1/ VR2)
 Let, VRM – Max. permissible residual voltage of the unit
Multiplying factor, r = (VRM /V1)
Diverter is said to be passed when VR2<rV2

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HIGH CURRENT IMPULSE TEST ON SURGE DIVERTERS
 Impulse current wave of 4/10µS is applied to pro-
rated arrester in the range of 3 to 12kV.
 Test is repeated for 2 times
 Arrester is allowed to cool to room temperature
The unit is said to pass the test if
i. The power frequency sparkover voltage before and
after the test does not differ by more than 10%
ii. The voltage and current waveforms of the diverter do
not differ in the 2 applications
iii. The non linear resistance elements do not show any
puncture or flashover

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Other tests are
i. Mechanical tests like porosity test, temperature cycle tests
ii. Pressure relief test
iii. voltage withstand test on the insulator housing
iv. the switching surge flashover test
v. the pollution test

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 Unit-V
Insulation Co-ordination
 Insulation Coordination:
“The process of bringing the insulation strengths of electrical
equipment and buses into the proper relationship with expected
overvoltages and with the characteristics of the insulating media
and surge protective devices to obtain an acceptable risk of failure.”
Basic lightning impulse insulation level (BIL):
“The electrical strength of insulation expressed in terms of the
crest value of a standard lightning impulse under standard
atmospheric conditions.”
Basic switching impulse insulation level (BSL)
“The electrical strength of insulation expressed in terms of the
crest value of a standard switching impulse.”

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Factor of Earthing:
This is the ratio of the highest r.m.s. phase-to-earth power
frequency voltage on a sound phase during an earth fault to the
r.m.s. phase-to-phase power frequency voltage which would be
obtained at the selected location without the fault.
This ratio characterizes, in general terms, the earthing
conditions of a system as viewed from the selected fault
location.
Effectively Earthed System :
A system is said to be effectively earthed if the factor of earthing
does not exceed 80%, and non-effectively earthed if it does.

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Statistical Impulse Withstand Voltage:
This is the peak value of a switching or lightning impulse test voltage at which
insulation exhibits, under the specified conditions, a 90% probability of
withstand.
In practice, there is no 100% probability of withstand voltage. Thus the value
chosen is that which has a 10% probability of breakdown.

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Statistical Impulse Voltage:
This is the switching or lightning overvoltage applied to equipment as
a result of an event of one specific type on the system (line energising,
reclosing, fault occurrence, lightning discharge, etc), the peak value of
which has a 2% probability of being exceeded.

Protective Level of Protective Device:

These are the highest peak voltage value which should not be exceeded
at the terminals of a protective device when switching impulses and
lightning impulses of standard shape and rate values are applied under
specific conditions.

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Necessity of Insulation Coordination:
i. To ensure the reliability & continuity of service
ii. To minimize the number of failures due to over voltages
iii. To minimize the cost of design, installation and
operation
Requirements of Protective Devices:
 Should not usually flash over for power frequency overvoltages
 Volt-time characteristics of the device must lie below the
withstand voltage of the protected apparatus
 Should be capable of discharging high energies in surges &
recover insulation strength quickly
 Should not allow power frequency follow-on current.

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Volt-Time Curve
 The breakdown voltage for a particular insulation of
flashover voltage for a gap is a function of both the
magnitude of voltage and the time of application of the
voltage.
 Volt-time curve is a graph showing the relation between
the crest flashover voltages and the time to flashover for
a series of impulse applications of a given wave shape.
 Construction of Volt-Time Curve:
 Waves of the same shape but of different peak values are applied to the insulation
whose volt-time curve is required.
 If flashover occurs on the front of the wave, the flashover point gives one point on the
volt-time curve.
The other possibility is that the flashover occurs just at the peak
value of the wave; this gives another point on the V-T curve.
The third possibility is that the flashover occurs on the tail side
of the wave.

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 To find the point on the V-T curve, draw a horizontal line from the peak value of
this wave and also draw a vertical line passing through the point where the
flashover takes place
 The intersection of the horizontal and vertical lines gives the point on the V-T
curve.

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Steps for Insulation Coordination:
1. Selection of a suitable insulation which is a function
of reference class voltage (i.e., 1.05 X Operating
voltage of the system)
2. The design of the various equipments such that the
breakdown or flashover strength of all insulation in
the station equals or exceeds the selected level as in
(1)
3. Selection of protective devices that will give the
apparatus as good protection as can be justified
economically

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Conventional method of insulation co-ordination:
 In order to avoid insulation failure, the insulation level of different types of
equipment connected to the system has to be higher than the magnitude of
transient overvoltages that appear on the system.
 The magnitude of transient over-voltages are usually limited to a protective
level by protective devices.
 Thus the insulation level has to be above the protective level by a safe margin.
Normally the impulse insulation level is established at a value 15-25% above
the protective level.

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 Consider the typical co-ordination of a 132 kV transmission line
between the transformer insulation, a line gap (across an insulator
string) and a co-ordinating gap (across the transformer bushing). [Note:
In a rural distribution transformer, a lightning arrester may not be used on account of the high cost
and a co-ordinating gap mounted on the transformer bushing may be the main surge limiting device]

In co-ordinating the system under consideration, we have to

ensure that the equipment used are protected, and that inadvertent
interruptions are kept to a minimum.
The co-ordinating gap must be chosen so as to provide protection
of the transformer under all conditions. However, the line gaps
protecting the line insulation can be set to a higher characteristic to
reduce unnecessary interruptions.

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 For the higher system voltages, the simple approach used above is
inadequate. Also, economic considerations dictate that insulation
coordination be placed on a more scientific basis.

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Statistical Method of Insulation Co-ordination
At the higher transmission voltages, the length of insulator strings
and the clearances in air do not increase linearly with voltage but
approximately to V1.6 The required number of suspension units for
different overvoltage factors is shown below.

It is seen that the increase in the number of disc units is only

slight for the 220 kV system, with the increase in the overvoltage factor
from 2.0 to 3.5 ,but that there is a rapid increase in the 750kV system.

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 Thus, while it may be economically feasible to protect the lower voltage
lines up to an overvoltage factor of 3.5 (say), it is definitely not
economically feasible to have an overvoltage factor of more than about 2.0
or 2.5 on the higher voltage lines.
Switching overvoltages is predominant in the higher voltage systems.
However, these may be controlled by proper design of switching devices.
In a statistical study, the statistical distribution of overvoltages has to
be known instead of the possible highest overvoltage.
In statistical method, experimentation and analysis carried to find
probability of occurrence of overvoltages and probability of failure of
insulation.

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 The aim of statistical methods is
to quantify the risk of failure of
insulation through numerical
analysis of the statistical nature of
the overvoltage magnitudes and of
electrical withstand strength of
insulation.
The risk of failure of the insulation is dependant on the integral of the
product of the overvoltage density function f0(V) and the probability of
insulation failure P(V).
Thus the risk of flashover per switching operation is equal to the area under
the curve  f (V)  P(V)  dV.
0

Since we cannot find suitable insulation such that the withstand

distribution does not overlap with the overvoltage distribution, in the
statistical method of analysis, the insulation is selected such that the 2%
overvoltage probability coincides with the 90% withstand probability as
shown.
19
K.Rajkumar 1
Surge Arresters :Modern Surge arresters are of the gapless Zinc Oxide type.
Previously, Silicon Carbide arresters were used, but their use has been
superceeded by the ZnO arresters, which have a non-linear resistance
characteristic. Thus, it is possible to eliminate the series gaps between the
individual ZnO block making up the arrester.
Selection Procedure for Surge arresters:
1. Determine the continuous arrester voltage. This is usually the system rated
voltage.
2. Select a rated voltage for the arrester.
3. Determine the normal lightning discharge current. Below 36kV, 5kA rated
arresters are chosen. Otherwise, a 10kA rated arrester is used.
4. Determine the required long duration discharge capability.
For rated voltage < 36kV, light duty surge arrester may be specified.
For rated voltage between 36kV and 245kV, heavy duty arresters may be
specified.
For rated voltage >245kV, long duration discharge capabilities may be
specified.

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5. Determine the maximum prospective fault current and protection tripping
times at the location of the surge arrester
and match with the surge arrester duty.
6. Select the surge arrester having porcelain creepage distance in accordance
with the environmental conditions.
7. Determine the surge arrester protection level and match with standard IEC 99
recommendations.

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