Rain gauges

A rain gauge is simply an instrument that is designed to measure the amount

of rain that reaches the ground surface during a storm. Rain gauges are considered
the most traditional method for measuring rainfall. They have been used historically
to provide rainfall quantities and rates at a single point in space. The basic idea of
most rain gauges is to collect rainwater into a cylindrical vessel of a fixed diameter.
Rainfall measurements are usually provided in units of water depth (inches or
millimeters).

I. Different Types of Raingauges

There are different types of rain gauges that can be classified into two main
categories: non-recording gauges, and recording gauges.

1. Non-recording gauges

A simple rain gauge that measures the cumulative amount of rain. It

consists of a large cylinder with a funnel and a plastic measuring tube inside the
cylinder. The 8-inch SRG has been used by the NWS for over 100 years.

Figure 1.1: Non-Recording Rain Gauge – Model 2601-00

2. Recording gauges
Unlike non-recording gauges, a recording gauge is designed to
automatically record the amount of rainfall reaching the surface as a function of
time during the lifespan of a storm. The most common types of recording gauges
are:

 Tipping-bucket rain gauge

A rain gauge that uses a pair of buckets to measure rainfall. When one
bucket fills with 0.01 inches of rain, it tips, and the other bucket takes its
place. The time of each tip is recorded, which allows the amount of rain to be
calculated over variable or fixed intervals of time.

Figure 1.2. Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge

 Weighing rain gauge

A weighing gauge collects the amount of falling rain into a vessel that
sits on a scale and measures the weight of accumulated water. The
measurements are traced out on a chart which can be used to determine
rainfall depth and intensity.

 Optical rain gauge

This is a relatively new technology (Nystuen et al., 1996) that is based
on measuring rain rate as proportional to the disturbance by raindrops to an
 optical beam between a light source and an optical receiver. This type of rain
gauges is relatively expensive and has been mainly used for research
purposes.

Figure 1.3. Optical rain gauge

 Disdrometer
This is another research-oriented instrument that is used to measure the
drop size distribution and falling velocity of rain drops and other types of
hydrometeors. Drop size distribution measurements can be then used to
calculate rain rates and other relevant information.
II. Sources of errors in rain gauge measurements
Wind-induced errors
Rain gauges that are elevated above the ground can be affected by wind
eddies, which can cause the gauge to under-catch small raindrops. This is a
common and serious source of rainfall measurement errors. Windshields can
be used to minimize this effect.

Figure 1.4. Ex. wind-shield installed to reduce wind effect on rain gauge measurements
 Evaporation and Wetting Losses
Rain gauges with small orifices, non-recording gauges, and gauges that
record at long intervals can lose water due to evaporation. The amount of
evaporation depends on temperature, humidity, and time between rain and
collection. These errors are usually small and can be neglected except for low-
intensity rainfall events.

Calibration Errors
Tipping bucket rain gauges can underestimate rainfall at high rain rates
because the buckets cannot keep up with the rain. This can be corrected with rain
rate-dependent calibration, but this is time-consuming and not always done. Users
of tipping bucket rain gauges should be aware of this potential underestimation at
high rainfall intensities (>50 mm/h).

Other sources of errors in gauge measurements

Rainfall splashing, electronic and mechanical breakdowns, clogged orifices and
funnels, observer mistakes, and improper siting configuration can all cause errors in
rainfall measurements. For example, trees and buildings can block rainfall from
reaching the gauge, so they should be kept at least twice the height of the gauge
away.
Estimation of Missing rainfall data

There are two main methods for estimating missing rainfall data:

 Simple arithmetic average method: This method involves selecting 3 nearby

stations that are evenly spaced around the station with the missing record. The
average of the rainfall at these 3 stations is then used as the estimate of the
missing value. This method can only be used if the normal annual precipitation at
each of the selected stations is within 10% of that station for which records are
missing.

 Method of weightage or normal ratio method: This method is more complex than
the simple arithmetic average method, but it is also more accurate. In this
method, the normal annual precipitation at each of the selected stations is used
to calculate a weight for that station. The weights are then used to calculate a
weighted average of the rainfall at the 3 stations, which is then used as the
estimate of the missing value.

In addition to these two methods, there are a number of other methods that can be
used to estimate missing rainfall data. These methods include:

 Regression analysis: This method uses a mathematical model to relate the

missing rainfall data to other known variables, such as the rainfall at nearby
stations or the elevation of the station.

 Geostatistical methods: These methods use spatial statistics to estimate the

missing rainfall data.
The best method to use for estimating missing rainfall data will depend on the specific
circumstances. The type of data that is missing, the number of stations that are
available, and the accuracy requirements will all factor into the decision.
Here are some additional tips for estimating missing rainfall data:

 Use as many nearby stations as possible. The more stations that are available,
the more accurate the estimate will be.
 Select stations that are evenly spaced around the station with the missing
record. This will help to ensure that the estimate is not biased towards any one
station.
 Use stations that have similar climatic conditions. This will help to ensure that
the estimate is more accurate.
 Use a method that is appropriate for the type of data that is missing. For
example, if the missing data is monthly rainfall, then a method that is designed
for monthly data should be used.
 Estimating missing rainfall data can be a complex task, but it is an important
one. By using the right methods and techniques, you can get accurate estimates
that can be used for a variety of purposes.
Double-Mass Analysis
Changes in gage location, exposure, instrumentation, or observational procedure
may cause a relative change in the precipitation catch. Frequently these changes are
not disclosed in the published records. Current U.S. Environmental Data Service practice
calls for a new station identification whenever the gage location is changed by as much
as 5 mi (8 km) and/or 100 ft (30 m) in elevation. Double-mass analysis tests the
consistency of the record at a station by comparing its accumulated annual or seasonal
precipitation with the concurrent accumulated values of mean precipitation for a group
of surrounding stations. In Fig. 3-10, for example, a change in slope about 1961
indicates a change in the precipitation regime at Dillon, Colo. A change due to
meteorological causes would not cause a change in slope, as all base stations would be
similarly affected. The station history for Dillon discloses a change in gage location in
June 1961. To make the record prior to 1961 comparable with that for the more recent
location, it should be adjusted by the ratio of the slopes of the two segments of the
double-mass curve (0.74/1.19). The consistency of the record for each of the base
stations should be tested, and those showing inconsistent records should be dropped
before other stations are tested or adjusted. Considerable caution should be exercised
in applying the double-mass technique. The plotted points always deviate about a mean
line, and changes in slope should be accepted only when marked or substantiated by
other evi-dence. The double-mass analysis can be made on a computer.

Figure 3-10.
QUESTIONNAIRRES:

What are the different methods that can be used to estimate missing rainfall data?
What are the factors that affect the accuracy of missing rainfall data estimation?
What are the best practices for estimating missing rainfall data?
How can missing rainfall data be used to improve hydrological models?
What are the challenges of estimating missing rainfall data in remote areas?
Here are some specific questions that you could ask about each method:
What are the limitations of using the simple arithmetic average method?
When is the simple arithmetic average method most appropriate?
Method of weightage or normal ratio method:
How are the weights calculated in the method of weightage or normal ratio method?
What are the advantages of using the method of weightage or normal ratio method?
Regression analysis:
What type of mathematical model is typically used in regression analysis?
What are the challenges of using regression analysis to estimate missing rainfall data?
Geostatistical methods:
What are the different types of geostatistical methods that can be used to estimate
missing rainfall data?
What are the advantages of using geostatistical methods?

What is a rain gauge?

What are the different types of rain gauges?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of each type of rain gauge?
How are rain gauges calibrated?
What are the common sources of error in rain gauge measurements?
How are rain gauges used in hydrology?
Here are some specific questions that you could ask about each type of rain gauge:
 1. A simple rain gauge that measures the cumulative amount of rain. It consists of
a large cylinder with a funnel and a plastic measuring tube inside the cylinder.

Answer: Non-recording gauges

2. A _____________is designed to automatically record the amount of rainfall

reaching the surface as a function of time during the lifespan of a storm.
Answer: Recording gauges

3. A Tipping-bucket rain gauge uses a pair of buckets to measure rainfall. When

one bucket fills with ________ inches of rain, it tips, and the other bucket takes
its place.
Answer: 0.01

4. A __________ collects the amount of falling rain into a vessel that sits on a scale
and measures the weight of accumulated water. The measurements are traced
out on a chart which can be used to determine rainfall depth and intensity.
Answer: Weighing rain gauge

5. This is another research-oriented instrument that is used to measure the drop

size distribution and falling velocity of rain drops and other types of
hydrometeors.
Answer:  Disdrometer

6. Rain gauges that are elevated above the ground can be affected by wind eddies,
which can cause the gauge to under-catch small raindrops.
Answer: Wind-induced errors

7. It is an instrument that is designed to measure the amount of rain that reaches

the ground surface during a storm.
Answer: Rain gauges
8. Tipping bucket rain gauges can underestimate rainfall at high rain rates because
the buckets cannot keep up with the rain. This can be corrected with
__________, but this is time-consuming and not always done.
Answer: Rain rate-dependent calibration

9. This type of rain gauges is relatively expensive and has been mainly used for
research purposes.
Answer:  Optical rain gauge

10.The amount of evaporation depends on _________, _________, and _____

between rain and collection.
Answer: Temperature, humidity, time