ENG 301T

Engineering Geology III This lecture will cover the following topics: ANNOUNCEMENTS
1.Geological Environment and surface processes
1. Assignment hand over on August 26, 2011 @
Lecture #3 2.Igneous Rocks 14:00
Rock Types, Stratigraphy and 3.Sedimentary Rocks 2. Test # 1 scheduled on September 2, 2011
Surface Processes (Part 2) 4.Metamorphic rocks 3. Test # 2 scheduled on October 7, 2011
5.Geological Structures
Dr. S. Diop (Ph.D., Pr. Nat. Sc., MSAIEG) 4. Predicate day on November 2, 2011
6.Engineering Characteristics of a Range of
Different Geomaterials 5. Main Exam on November 7, 2011
Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria
August 19, 2011

MAIN CONCEPT COMPOSITION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

Approximately 99% of the total bulk of most igneous rocks is made up
Igneous rocks can be classified on the basis of of only eight elements: oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium,
composition and texture. The composition of a rock potassium, and magnesium. Most of these elements occur in the crystal
provides information about the magma from which it structures of the rock-forming silicate minerals feldspars, olivines,
formed, and about the tectonic setting in which it pyroxenes, amphiboles, quartz, and mica. These six minerals constitute
originated. The texture of a rock gives important insight over 95% of the volume of all common igneous rocks and are therefore
into the cooling history of the magma. of paramount importance in studying their classification and origin.
1. Igneous rocks are composed of silicate minerals, the
2. IGNEOUS ROCKS most important of which are (a) plagioclase, (b) K- Magmas
feldspar, (c) quartz, (d) mica, (e) amphibole, (f) pyroxene, Magmas rich in silica and aluminum are referred to as silicic; they tend
and (g) olivine. to produce more quartz, potassium feldspar, and sodium plagioclase
and generally form light-colored rocks. Magmas rich in iron,
2. Silicic magmas originate at subduction zones by magnesium, and calcium are referred to as mafic; they produce
greater quantities of olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and calcium
partial melting of the oceanic crust. plagioclase. The resulting rocks are dark colored because of an
abundance of the dark ferromagnesian minerals. (There are, however,
3. Mafic magmas originate by partial melting of the many exceptions to such generalizations, and the mineral composition
upper mantle at divergent plate margins. of igneous rocks can only be roughly approximated by an observation
of color.)
 Magma vs. Lava
Magma: molten rock beneath the surface
Generation of Basaltic Magma
Basaltic magma is believed to he
MAGMA Lava: molten rock that has reached the surface
generated at divergent plate
margins by partial melting of the [Greek=“
[Greek=“paste”
paste”] i.e., molten rock Magma: form intrusive igneous rocks
asthenosphere. Lava: form extrusive igneous rocks
Generation of Granitic Magma
In a subduction zone, the basaltic
oceanic crust and water-saturated
oceanic sediments descend into
the mantle. Partial melting of the It consists of;
basaltic crust thus produces a
magma richer in silica than the
Liquid (melt, ions in solution)
magma produced at divergent plate Solid (crystals, silicate minerals)
boundaries.
Gas (volatiles, CO2, H2O, etc.)
Generation of Magma in Mantle
Plumes
They are generated by partial It forms by partial melting in the crust
melting of rising plumes of solid and uppermost mantle to a depth of ~250
mantle. Presumably, they rise
because they are more buoyant
km at high temperature and low pressure
and warmer than the rest of the
mantle. As the material in the
plume nears the surface, the plume
partially melts to produce basalt
that rises to the surface.

TEXTURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

TEXTURE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS (Cont) IGNEOUS TEXTURES (Cont.)
1. PHANERITIC 2. APHANITIC
Texture refers to the size, shape, and boundary relationships of • (evenly coarse-grained) • (evenly fine-grained)
3. VESICULAR
preserved gas
adjacent minerals in a rock mass. In igneous rocks, texture develops • Slow cooling • Fast cooling
bubbles
• Large visible crystals • Microscopic crystals
primarily in response to the magma’s composition and rate of cooling. Pumice

Magmas located deep in Earth’s crust cool slowly. Individual crystals

grow to a and may be more than an inch in more or less uniform size 4. PORPHYRITIC
•Large crystals (phenocrysts) are embedded in a
diameter. In contrast, a lava extruded at Earth’s surface cools rapidly, matrix of smaller crystals (groundmass).
•Indicates two-stage cooling process
so the mineral crystals have only a short time in which to grow. The
crystals from such a magma are typically so small that they cannot be
seen without the aid of a microscope; the resultant rock appears 5. GLASSY
•Very rapid cooling
massive and structureless. Regardless of crystal size, the texture of of lava
most igneous rocks is distinguished by a network of interlocking •Resulting rock is
called obsidian
crystals.
 CRYSTALLIZATION of MAGMA Composition of Igneous Rocks Crystallization
Magmas, and the resulting igneous rocks, show a Crystallization of minerals from a magma occurs between 600 and
Cooling of magma results in the systematic arrangement of ions into
into orderly 1200 °C. Those minerals with the highest freezing point crystallize
patterns (mineral crystals) wide range of compositions
The silicate minerals resulting from crystallization form in a predictable
predictable order over first and thus develop well-formed crystal faces. Minerals that
a wide temperature range (Bowen’
(Bowen’s Reaction Series) Norman Bowen [1887-1956] Experimental Petrologist developed crystallize at lower temperatures are forced to grow in the spaces
Bowen’s Reaction Series
between the earlier-formed crystals and are commonly irregular in
shape with few well-developed crystal faces. From laboratory studies
Basic of artificially produced magmas, and from petrographic studies of
Lava
igneous rocks, a general order of crystallization has been established.
In a mafic magma, olivine and Ca-plagioclase are the first minerals to
form, followed by pyroxenes, amphiboles, and Na-plagioclase. Such a
Acid magma crystallizes between 900 and 1200 °C and produces rocks of
Lava
the gabbro-basalt family. In magmas rich in silica and aluminum, biotite
and quartz form first, followed by K-feldspar and muscovite. Rocks of
the granite-rhyolite family develop from such a magma at
temperatures below 900 °C.

Classification of Igneous Rocks

Order of Crystallization of Common Rock-
Rock- Classification of Igneous Rocks The most useful and significant classification system for igneous rocks
Forming Minerals is based on two criteria: composition and texture. These criteria are
important, not only in describing the rock so that it can be distinguished
from other rock types, but also in drawing important implications about
the rock’s origin. A chart in which variations in composition are shown
Composition horizontally and variations in texture are shown vertically provides an
Texture 1. Silicic effective framework for classifying and naming igneous rocks.
1. Aphanitic 2. Intermediate
2. Phanaritic 3. Mafic
4. Ultramafic

Combination of Texture and Composition

produces rock name
 Three major mineralogical criteria are used to classify igneous rocks:
1. Presence or absence of quartz. Quartz is an essential mineral in
MAIN CONCEPT
silicic rocks (rocks high in silica [Si]) and an accessory mineral in Sedimentary rocks are classified on the basis of texture
intermediate or mafic rocks (rocks high in magnesium [Mg]) and iron
and composition. Two main groups are recognized: (1)
[Fe]) ). (In the classification of igneous rocks, an “essential clastic (formed from fragments of other rocks), and (2)
mineral” is a mineral on which the rock classification is based. An nonclastic (formed by chemical or organic processes).
accessory mineral occurs in minor amounts and is not a factor in
classification.) 1. Sedimentary rocks are composed of material that has
3. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS been weathered, transported, and deposited by various
2. Composition of the feldspars. Potassium feldspars and sodium
plagioclase are essential minerals in silicic rocks but are rare or processes operating at Earth’s surface (running water,
absent in intermediate and mafic rocks. Calcium plagioclase is wind, and glaciation, for example).
characteristic of mafic rocks. 2. Most minerals that form sedimentary rocks are
3. Proportion and kinds of ferromagnesian minerals. As a general relatively stable at surface temperatures and pressures.
rule, mafic rocks are rich in ferromagnesian minerals, whereas 3. The most important constituents in sedimentary rocks
silicic rocks are rich in quartz. Olivine is generally restricted to are (a) quartz, (b) calcite, (c) clay minerals, and (d) rock
mafic rocks. Pyroxenes and amphiboles are present in mafic to
intermediate rocks. Biotite is common in intermediate and silicic
fragments.
rocks.

Sediments are pieces of loose debris that have not been lithified. Conglomerate is a clastic sedimentary rock that forms from the
Sediments are soil, with the engineering definition. cementing of rounded cobble and pebble sized rock fragments. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Sediments are the combination of gravels, sands, silts, and clays; Conglomerate is formed by river movement or ocean wave
action. The cementing agents that fill the spaces to form the solid Conglomerate
rock conglomerate are silica, calcite, or iron oxides. Sandstone
Sedimentary rocks are lithified sediments that are held together by
Chert is a very hard sedimentary rock that is usually found in
Mudrock / Shale:
various types of cementing agents, such as calcite, quartz, and iron Siltstone
nodules in limestone. Chert is light gray to dark gray in color. It
oxide; or by compaction of the mineral grains into an indurate probably formed from the remains of ancient sea sponges or other Claystone
mass. ocean animals that have been fossilized. Silica has replaced the
There are three ways in lithification: tissue forming the sedimentary rock.
a) compaction - reduction of pore size; Limestone is the most abundant of the non-clastic sedimentary
Micritic limestone
b) cementation - pores filling by binding agents; rocks. Limestone is produced from the mineral calcite (calcium
c) Crystallization - new minerals crystallized in pores. carbonate) and sediment. The main source of limestone is the
Sedimentary rocks are composed of mineral grains or crystals that limy ooze formed in the ocean.

have been deposited in a fluid medium, and subsequently lithified Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock that forms from the
cementing together of sand sized grains forming a solid rock.
to form rocks. Quartz is the most abundant mineral that forms sandstone.
Of the sedimentary rocks on the earth’s surface, 46% are shale, Calcium carbonate, silica, or iron has been added to the water Sandstone Siltstone Claystone
Grain size 1/16 to 2 mm Grain size 4 micron to 2 mm Grain size less 4 micron
32% are sandstone and 22% are limestone. that is in contact with the sand grains.
 Chemical/Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks
Chemical Sediments: Precipitates from water by an inorganic process
Biochemical Sediments: Formed during the growth of some organism SEDIMENTARY
STRUCTURES
Fossileferous limestone Cross-bedding
Oolitic limestone
Micritic limestone Mud cracks

Chert

Coquina
Fossil ripple marks Ripple marks
Graded bedding Idealized diagram of major sedimentary systems

MAIN CONCEPT Characteristics: Produced when sedimentary, metamorphic or igneous rocks are
transformed by heat, pressure or chemically active fluids inside the crust or upper
mantle
Metamorphic rocks are classified on the basis of texture Forms: Regional Metamorphism - without melting
and composition. Two main groups are recognized: (1) Contact Metamorphism - local
foliated and (2) nonfoliated. Regional metamorphism Examples: Schist (foliated), Gneiss (from granite, diorite, gabbro)
Quartzite (from sandstones)
occurs in the roots of mountain belts formed at Marble (from limestones and dolomites)
convergent plate margins and along the rift zone at Slate, Chlorites (Argilites) & Phyllites (from shales, mudstones)
4. METAMORPHIC ROCKS divergent plate margins. Contact metamorphism develops
Sources of heat are radioactive decay and
at the margins of igneous intrusions. Magma bodies
Geothermal gradient = ~25°C/km
1. Foliation results from recrystallization and the growth (average for upper crust)
of new minerals. 100 km: 1200°C to 1400°C
2. The three main types of foliation are (a) slaty cleavage, (~lithosphere/asthenosphere boundary)
(b) schistosity, and (c) gneissic layering.
3. Nonfoliated texture develops by the recrystallization The original rock (PARENT
ROCK) changes until a state of
of rocks composed predominantly of one mineral, such equilibrium is reached with the new
as sandstone (quartz) or limestone (calcite). environment.
 EFFECT OF PRESSURE: FOLIATED Metamorphic Rocks
1. Breaks bonds causing recrystallization of minerals With increasing grain size and grade of metamorphism, common foliated T & P DETERMINE DEGREE OF METAMORPHISM
2. Reduces volume causing increase in density metamorphic rocks include:

3. Aligns minerals causing foliation

Slate – Phyllite – Schist – Gneiss - (Migmatite)
Migmatite)
Low-grade metamorphism: 200 to 350°C
Intermediate-grade metamorphism: 350 to 550°C
High-grade metamorphism: above 550°C

Gneiss Schist Slate

Slate is a fine-grained,
homogenous, metamorphic
rock derived from a shale.
It is composed of quartz
and muscovite, often along
with chlorite and hematite.

Gneiss is a high grade metamorphic rock. This means that gneiss has A Schist is a metamorphic rock that comes in almost infinite
Phyllite
been subjected to more heat and pressure than a schist. Gneiss is
varieties, but its main characteristic is hinted at in its name: Phyllite is a foliated
coarser than schist and has distinct banding. This banding has
alternating layers that are composed of different minerals. The
schist which comes from the ancient Greek for "split," through metamorphic rock composed
minerals that compose gneiss are the same as granite. Feldspar is Latin and French. Schist is a rock formed by dynamic high- of quartz, sericite mica, and
the most important mineral that makes up gneiss along with mica and temperature, high-pressure metamorphism that involves a lot chlorite.
quartz. Gneiss can be formed from a sedimentary rock such as of strain. The high strain aligns the flat or elongated grains of
sandstone or shale, or it can be formed from the metamorphism of mica, hornblende, and other minerals into thin layers, or
the igneous rock granite. Gneiss are used for paving stones. foliation.
 Marble Quartzite

Marble is a metamorphic rock resulting from regional or contact Quartzite is a tough stone composed almost entirely of quartz
metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks, either limestone or
5. GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
grains, derived from sandstone or from chert. Sandstones turn into
dolomite, or older marble. The temperatures and pressures quartzite in two different ways: (1) under the high pressures and
necessary to form marble usually destroy any fossils and temperatures of deep burial, the mineral grains recrystallize and all
sedimentary textures present in the original rock. Pure white traces of the original sediments are erased. The result is called
marble is the result of metamorphism of very pure limestones. The metaquartzite; and (2) low pressure and temperature, where
characteristic swirls and veins of many colored marble varieties are circulating fluids fill the spaces between sand grains with silica
usually due to various mineral impurities such as clay, silt, sand, iron cement. This kind of quartzite, orthoquartzite, is not strictly
oxides, or chert which were originally present as grains or layers in speaking a metamorphic rock because the original mineral grains are
the limestone. Green coloration is often due to serpentine resulting still there, and bedding planes and other sedimentary structures are
from originally high magnesium limestone with silica impurities. still evident.

FOLDS Three simple fold forms exist:

Synclines warp downward
* Fold is warps in rock strata due to ductile deformation.
* Generally indicate horizontal compression Anticlines warp upward
Monoclines dip in one direction
 Anticline in its natural environment Syncline: youngest
Recall this? It’
It’ll help! Oldest rocks in the core of fold rocks in core of fold

Sequence of ages of strata indicate the geologic

structure in folds:
Anticlines: oldest layers exposed at the center of the
fold
Synclines: youngest strata exposed along the center of
the fold

FAULTS
ANTICLINE SYNCLINE
Folds occur as sets: “Fold Belts”
Belts”

Three types of differential stress

Tensional: pulling apart
Compressional: squeezing together
Shear: slipping, twisting, or wrenching
 FAULTS are fractures that have been displaced
Most faults are inclined at an angle measured from horizontal
Fault Types:
Normal faults: Hanging wall moves down relative to foot wall.
Dip angle of the fault
Two blocks defined: Hanging wall and Foot wall Block slides down the dip angle
Reverse faults: Hanging wall moves up relative to foot wall
Strike slip faults: Displacement to sideways in a horizontal
direction

Compressional force, Slip-strike Fault of San

Reverse fault Andreas CA

•
•
Are fractures created by tension in brittle rocks
No shear or displacement has occurred
JOINTS Geometry of Rock Structures
• Form as overburden is removed
• Form by cooling

Structures are defined by the

orientation of planes:
–Dip: The angle of inclination
downward from a horizontal plane
–Strike: The compass bearing of a
horizontal line where the inclined
plane intersects an imaginary
horizontal plane
Dip
(direction)
30°
Strike
Angle of
dip