An ecosystem is made up of a community of living organisms interacting with each other and their

environment, also known as the abiotic environment or environmental factors. Determining the effects of
various components on an ecosystem, including both biotic and abiotic factors, is highly relevant to
understanding how an ecosystem works as a whole. Indeed, studies on multi-trophic interactions and multi-
communities have shown that the biota of the surface of the soil can affect the biota beneath soil
(Alexandre, 2013). The part of the soil that is influenced by the roots of plants is known as the
rhizosphere .This micro-ecosystem is composed of a biota (mainly microorganisms) that inhabits the soil
and can form complex communities that interact in beneficial, harmful, or neutral way with plants.
Therefore, this academic essay is aimed at discussing the effects of anthropogenic activities such as land
utility and abiotic factors on the environment, micro – ecosystem and plants and companion plants with
reference to horticultural production.

Beneficial plant–microbe interactions are of particular interest, since we can take advantage of these
functions in order to improve and promote the growth, development, and health of plants for several
applications, including agricultural purposes (Bachar, 2010). Therefore, the microbial communities
inhabiting the rhizosphere, also known as the rhizosphere microbiome, have been studied for decades and
recognized as an important factor influencing the physiology and development of plants; some have even
gone so far to define the rhizosphere biome as a second plant genome. Similarly, these microorganisms
receive benefits from plants that select them and promote their development in several ways, either by
increasing their survival under stress conditions, or by producing hormones that stimulate microbial growth
and/or eliminate pathogens in the soil.

ABIOTIC FACTORS AFFECTING THE SOIL AND RHIZOSPHERE MICROBIOME

The soil and rhizosphere ecosystems are affected and modulated by several environmental factors such ;
Structure and soil type, Soil Ph, Soil nutrients, Global climate change and Geographical factors such as
Altitude, latitude, and longitude

Structure and soil type

The soil is considered to be a complex environment, whose origin is derived from the mixture of minerals,
gases, liquids, organic matter, and living organisms that sustain plant growth (Cutchis, 1974). The main
mineral constituents of the soil are sand, silt, and clay. The specific mineral composition defines the soil
type, because the mineral content will influence the porosity and soil moisture; for example, fertile soil
1
requires a porosity of 50%, in which half the soil is occupied by gas and the other half by liquids. These
interfaces open up the possibility of forming gradients of nutrients, pH, and gases, leading to innumerable
microenvironments that offer distinct ecological niches. The organisms living in the soil, including bacteria,
fungi, and viruses may have important ecological roles because of their participation in the cycle of
nutrients through the degradation of organic matter and minerals, which in turn provides essential nutrients
for plant growth

It has been argued that the physiological effects of plants should be considered to have equal importance
to any other abiotic factor for the soil microbiome, because of the consequent effects on the functions of the
organisms living in the soil ecosystem .The presence of a plant not only promotes the growth of soil
microbial communities directly but also influences the abiotic properties that influence their growth indirectly
(Cutchis, 1974). Other studies have suggested that soil characteristics and the geographic factors are the
most important factors in shaping the structure of the soil microbial communities; however, soil
microorganisms can also have a significant effect on the formation of soil aggregates.

In particular, soil moisture content shows the strongest impact on the microbial community structure among
other factors, even greater than the effect of nutrients in the soil. This has been documented in research
conducted on soils under extreme environmental conditions such as in the tundra of the Canadian Arctic ,
Antarctic soils (Caldwell,1982) and the Tibetan permafrost soil. In an analysis of soil bacteria diversity,
found that Proteobacteria was the dominant group and was significantly associated with the amount of soil
moisture. (Caldwell, 1982) investigated the association between the type of soil and bacterial diversity in
Polar desert soils, and also found that moisture content was closely related to the abundance of several
bacterial genera.

Soil aggregates have also been shown to be an important element allowing for the selection or survival of
certain microbial groups; for example, the division Acidobacteria is often found in soil macroaggregates but
not soil microaggregates. Moreover, communities can also vary according to the size of the pore dwellings,
which influences carbon mineralization (Bachar, 2010).

Soil pH

The pH indicates the concentration of hydronium ions [H3 O]+ present in the soil (or another system), and
therefore determines the acidity or alkalinity of the soil; thus, pH is a key factor in many soil science studies.
Soil pH is also regarded as one of the main elements defining the structure of microbiome communities

2
(Caldwell, 1982). Soil pH varies substantially from the regional to the global scale, and therefore can affect
microbial communities, as soil microbes show a wide range of optimal pH tolerance.

Soil pH is directly related to the availability of nutrients for plants by controlling the chemical forms of the
soil compounds. This has also been suggested to be an indirect limiting factor for microbial soil
communities. Neutral soils generally harbour a greater microbial or bacterial diversity, while acidic soils
tend to show lower diversity indices (Caldwell, 1982).

Soil nutrients

The effect of nutrients in the soil and their impacts on plants, as well as agricultural production has been
extensively studied in various regions worldwide. In agricultural soils, one of the major constraints to
production is an infertile soil, determined by the three main nutrients: nitrogen (N), carbon (C), and
phosphorus (P) (Cutchis, 1974). Other nutritional factors such as iron can also affect the abundance of the
rhizosphere microbiome, particularly bacteria. Nutrient limitation problems are usually readily solved
immediately with the application of chemical fertilizers, which have negative effects for the environment and
for human and animal health.

Furthermore, an imbalance in the proportions of nutrients in the soil can impact biodiversity in many ways
through different processes that change the characteristics of terrestrial environments. Similarly, the
function and land use can be affected by cultural practices that in turn affect the soil microbial community
(Cutchis, 1974).

Nitrogen enrichment is a predominant factor in some soil types that can have substantial effects on both
plant productivity and the composition of bacterial communities (Caldwell,1982). In some cases,
experimental enrichment of nitrogen was found to result in an increase in plant productivity, but at the
expense of lower plant and bacterial community species richness and diversity. Levels of nitrogen
enrichment in these experimental studies often exceed the current rates of the atmospheric deposition of N;
however, even relatively low levels of chronic nitrogen enrichment are a threat to the conservation of
different environments such as grasslands.

Global climate change: effects of increased UV radiation, carbon dioxide and temperature

Climate change is defined as a dramatic and constant change in the global climate. This drastic and fast
change in climate could result in an increase in temperature, causing frequent droughts and atypical rains
in several regions of the planet. Although the causes may be different, there is clear evidence that climate

3
change affects life on earth and its biological processes. Heterotrophic microorganisms are not protected
from these consequences, since they are part of biogeochemical processes such as Carbon and Nitrogen
cycles.

Furthermore, climate change has great impacts on plant biology, which can lead to consequent changes in
the associated rhizosphere microbiome. The interaction between the root exudates and rhizosphere
microbiome is the result of a long co-evolutionary process (Bachar, 2010). Recently, different chemical
compositions of root exudates from Arabidopsis were found to be selected by various specific microbial
communities that respond to environmental changes. Therefore, temporal changes in root exudates appear
to show great potential to affect the microbial community in response to climate change.

Effects of land utility on environment and rhizosphere microbiome

Halogenated compounds, such as chlorophenols, represent important environmental pollutants.

Chlorophenols are released into the environment through anthropogenic activities, for instance by their use
in pesticides, herbicides, their presence in industrial wastes and also as a result of organic matter
combustion and biological chlorination . Chlorophenols can adhere onto particulate organic matter
persisting in the environments for extended periods of time and leading to accumulation in the organisms
through different trophic levels.

Among the most important groups of chemical contaminants found in the environment are halogenated
hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and metals. These contaminants are potentially
damaging to micro-organisms habitats and hazardous to soil organisms metabolism. Substances such as
aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons derived from oil spills and seepages, as well as volatile organic
compounds, can be acutely toxic to biotic communities and micro – ecosystems (Bronick, 2005).

In conclusion, as the human population continues to grow, so will the demand for food. Currently, there are
more than 7000 million people inhabiting our planet, and it is expected that the demand for food will double
by 2050. It is therefore essential to understand the abiotic and biotic interactions to best exploit the
rhizosphere microbiome to benefit agricultural production. Likewise, understanding of the continuous
environmental changes and impacts of anthropogenic effects on the environment and climate must be
taken into account for future agricultural practices.

REFERENCES
4
Alexandre, A.S. (2013). Response to temperature stress in rhizobia. Boca Raton,
FL: CRC Press.

Bachar, A.K.(2010). Soil microbial abundance and diversity along a low precipitation gradient. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

Bronick, C.J .(2005). Soil structure and management. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Caldwell, M.M.(1982) . Differencial photosynthetic inhibitory by ultraviolet B radiation in species from the
Arctic- alpine lifezone. New York: Academic Press.

Cutchis,L. P. (1974). Stratospheric ozono depletion and solar ultravioleta radiation on earth. Ohio: Prentice
Hall.