PHYSICAL ERGONOMICS

Anthropometry & Workspace Design

C h r i s t o p h e r Ta n
PSY 340 c h r i s t o p h e r. t a n @ h e l p . e d u . m y
OVERVIEW

• Anthropometry
o Human variability
o Anthropometric data in design
o Workspace design

• Biomechanics
o Musculoskeletal disorders
o Hand tool design
PHYSICAL ERGONOMICS

Ergonomics is an applied field that strives to reduce fatigue and discomfort by the effective
design of the workplace environment and equipment
– Stone et al. (2017)

• Ergonomics – historically focused on aspects of the workplace

o E.g. Lifting, reaching, stress, fatigue

• Closely related to human physiology & anatomy – physical ergonomics

o Understanding & designing for the human body
ANTHROPOMETRY

• The study and measurement of human body dimensions

o Anthropos (“man”) + metron (“measure”)

• Match workplace & product physical dimensions with intended users’ body dimensions

• Anthropometric data – data on body dimensions of various target groups/populations

o Used to develop guidelines for workplace & equipment design
o Aisles, corridors, doors, workspace dimensions, workstations, etc.
o Public facilities – toilets, sinks, parking ticket kiosks, special needs applications, etc.
o Applied in design of consumer products – clothes, vehicles, furniture, hand tools, etc.
o To accommodate body dimensions of potential workforce/users
• E.g. Male vs. female; child vs. adult vs. elderly; racial anthropometric data
ANTHROPOMETRY

• Anthropometric data can be classified as:

• Structural
o Dimensions when body is static
o E.g. stature (height), shoulder breadth, waist circumference, limb length, etc.
• Functional/dynamic
o Dimensions when body adopts various working positions
o E.g. Flexion-extension ranges (wrists, elbows, knees, hips), reach envelope, etc.
• Most data static; but work activities more accurately represented by dynamic data
• Some anthropometric dimensions are highly correlated (e.g. height, limb length, weight)
o But not all (e.g. height, head breadth)
o The “average person” – not so average
HUMAN VARIABILITY

• Natural variations of human physical characteristics affect design practices

• Body dimension vary across multiple aspects:

o Age
o Sex
o Race
o Occupation
o …
HUMAN VARIABILITY
Age variability
• Stature changes quickly from childhood → adolescence
o Increase until ages 20-25
o Decrease after 35-40
o Women shrink more than men

• Weight & chest circumference

o Increase through age; decline at 60
HUMAN VARIABILITY
Sex variability
• Adult men on average taller and larger than women
o Adult female dimensions approx. 92% of male values

• Young girls on average taller and heavier than boys

o Girls → max growth rate from 10-12; growth until 17
o Boys → max growth rate from 13-15 growth until 20

• Some dimensions show no major differences

o Hip & thigh measurements
HUMAN VARIABILITY
Racial & ethnic group variability
• Body size & proportions vary across ethnic groups, populations, nationalities, etc.
o Dutch, Sudanese (> 6 ft.) vs. Pygmy (approx. 4.5 ft.)
o Black vs. white males in U.S. Air Force – same height; blacks have longer arms & legs, shorter torsos
o U.S. vs. Japan Air Force – Japanese are shorter but average sitting height not much different

• Anthropometric data as an important consideration

o If equipment designed to fit 90% of male U.S. population, it would also fit:
• 90% Germans
• 80% French
• 65% Italians
• 45% Japanese
• 25% Thai
• 10% Vietnamese
HUMAN VARIABILITY
Occupational variability
• Observable differences in body measurements of people in different occupations
o Basketball players (average NBA height: 6 ft. 7 in.)
o Ballet dancers (thinner than average)
o Truck drivers (taller and built heavier)

• Variability arises from several factors:

o Physical activity involved
o Physical job requirements
o Career choices influenced by self-evaluation
HUMAN VARIABILITY
Generational variability
• Anthropometric variability over time (generational)

• Since 1920s → stature increase of approx. 1cm per decade (American population)
o Improved nutrition, living conditions, etc.
HUMAN VARIABILITY
Transient diurnal variability
• Physical dimensions/values fluctuate during the day

• Body water content

o Body weight variation up to 1 kg per day
o Lightest in the morning

• Stature/height
o 1-2 cm shorter at night
o Gravitational effects on posture, spinal discs

• Chest circumference
o Not fixed; fluctuates within a range
o Breathing cycles
ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA IN DESIGN
Considerations
• When using anthropometric data to guide design, must consider several factors

1. Determine user population

• Who are your intended users?
• Recall: human variability → body dimensions will vary accordingly

2. Determine relevant body dimensions

• Which body dimensions are most important for the design problem?
• E.g. Doorways → height, shoulder width
• E.g. Chairs → ???
ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA IN DESIGN
Considerations
3. Determine percentage of population accommodated
• How much of the population will your design cater to?
• Ideally: 100%; but practically speaking?
o Economic & design constraints – e.g. designing an adjustable vehicle seat for the smallest and largest
drivers
ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA IN DESIGN
Considerations
3. Determine percentage of population accommodated
• Usually, try to accommodate as large a proportion of intended user population as possible within
given constraints via 3 approaches:
o Design for adjustable range – certain aspects of equipment/facilities should be adjustable to
suit a range of individuals
o E.g. Car seats, steering wheels, car mirrors

o Design for extremes – utilize data from either ends of the anthropometric spectrum
o E.g. Strength of supporting devices; height of doorways; height adjustable seats

o Design for the average – using average anthropometric values

o May be impractical to design for extremes or adjustability is not feasible
o Last resort; least favourable
o E.g. Checkout counters
ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA IN DESIGN
Considerations
4. Make necessary adjustments to anthropometric data
• Anthropometric data often standardized → not reflective of real life applications
o Clothing, shoes, gloves (affected by context, weather, etc.)
o Natural postures (i.e. slump-posture) vs. erect postures

• E.g. Natural standing eye height 2cm lower than erect standing; Natural sitting eye
height 4.5cm lower than erect sitting
WORKSPACE DESIGN PRINCIPLES

• Recall: goal of HF → design systems to increase safety, performance, and satisfaction

• Workspace design helps achieve these goals via improving fit between humans and
machines/environments

• Guidelines of workspace design include:

o Clearance requirements of the largest users
o Reach requirements of the smallest users
o Adjustability requirements
o Visibility and normal line of sight
o Component arrangement
WORKSPACE DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Clearance requirements of the largest users
• Clearance:
o Clear space/area for things to move past, under, through, etc.

• Clearance design problems:

o Space between/around equipment
o Height/width of passageways
o Room for knees, legs, elbows, feet
o Space for movement when operating controls – e.g. steering wheel, door knobs

• Inadequate clearance leads to…

o Difficult access to certain areas
o Limits effective/comfortable movement (e.g. cockpits)
o Forces awkward postures/positions → reduces productivity, injury
WORKSPACE DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Clearance requirements of the largest users
• Should be designed for largest users (recall: design for extremes)
o Larger clearances also accommodate smaller users

• Also consider gender differences in anthropometric data

o Design for larger users → always males?
o E.g. Pregnant users
WORKSPACE DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Reach requirements of the smallest users
• Ability to reach important system components
o Tools, controls, pedals, stored items, etc.

• Inadequate reach dimensions lead to…

o Reduced comfort, productivity
o Inability to access system functions/utilise controls

• Design determined by smallest users

o Smaller reach distances also accommodate larger users
WORKSPACE DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Reach requirements of the smallest users
• Reach envelopes
o Users’ reach capability
o 3D space in front of user
o Reachable without leaning/stretching

• Consider the following (placement design):

o Frequency of object/control usage
• Higher frequency; closer reach
• Occasional leaning/stretching is okay

o Strength & effort required

• More effort required; closer reach
• Control manipulation – e.g. buttons, switches,
levers, turning knobs
WORKSPACE DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Adjustability requirements
• “One size fits all” → impossibility
• Make system components adjustable for varying anthropometric dimensions
o Also ensure adjustment mechanisms are simple to use
o E.g. Car seat adjustment controls

• Generally, can approach adjustments via:

o Adjusting the workplace
• Shape, location, orientation of workplace/components
• E.g. adjustable workstations, desks, etc.

o Adjusting the worker position

• When adjustable workplace is not feasible - $$$, conflict with other system requirements
• Adjust working position relative to workplace
• E.g. Seat adjustments, platforms, step-up stools, etc.
WORKSPACE DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Visibility and normal line of sight
• Height of screen affects performance,
discomfort, & posture (Bhatnager et all., 1985)
o Best performance & physical comfort → screen
height closest to NLOS

• Normal line of sight

o Preferred direction of gaze; “resting condition”
o Approx. 10-15° below horizontal plane

• Cone of easy eye rotation

o Within +/- 15° in radius around NLOS
o When multiple visual displays used, prioritize for
space assignment → closer to NLOS
WORKSPACE DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Component arrangement
• Arrangement of displays, controls, equipment/tools, parts/supplies, devices, etc. within
physical space
o Depends on user & task characteristics

• Goal → Increase movement efficiency; reduce movement distance

• Recall: Display design layout → information access cost; principle can be extended to
component arrangement design issues
o Even more critical in component arrangement
o Hand & body movements require greater effort than visual attention
WORKSPACE DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Component arrangement
General principles of component arrangement
• Frequency of use principle
• Importance principle
• Sequence of use principle
• Consistency principle
• Control-display compatibility principle of co-location
• Clutter-avoidance principle
• Functional grouping principle
WORKSPACE DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Component arrangement
1. Frequency of use principle
• Components/displays most frequently used placed in convenient locations
• Frequently used tools/controls placed close to hands

2. Importance principle
• Components crucial to achieving system goals located in convenient areas
o Primary vs. secondary components
o Primary → close to primary viewing area – i.e. within 10-15°of NLOS
o Secondary → peripheral locations
WORKSPACE DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Component arrangement
3. Sequence of use principle
• Components used in sequence → located next to each other
o Layout should reflect sequence of operation

• Examples:
o Install electronic part onto device; bin of parts should be located next to device
o Control switches in operating room to be arranged in sequence of typical use
o Layout of tools – tools often used in particular sequence

• Goal:
o Reduce cognitive effort to recall sequence of actions & location of tools/components
o Reduce movement effort
WORKSPACE DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Component arrangement
4. Consistency principle
• Components should be laid out in similar spatial locations
o Minimize memory and search requirements
o E.g. Locations of printing machines in offices, stationery on desks, supplies storage, etc.

• Maintain consistency within and across workplaces designed for similar functions
o E.g. Standardization of automobile design → users able to switch cars without much difficulty
WORKSPACE DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Component arrangement
5. Control-display compatibility principle of co-location
• Controls should be close to associated displays
• If multiple controls → layout should reflect display layout
• Make control-display relationship visible

6. Clutter-avoidance principle
• Similar to principle of avoiding display clutter
• Must also avoid clutter when arranging control locations
o Adequate space between controls, buttons, knobs
o Minimize risk of accidental activation
WORKSPACE DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Component arrangement
7. Functional grouping principle
• Components with closely related functions → placed close together
• Examples:
o Components related to power supply, communications, temperature, system monitoring, etc. to be
grouped accordingly

• Use colours, shapes, sizes, separation borders, etc. to further differentiate/help distinguish
between functional categories
DESIGN FOR STANDING AND SEATED WORK

• Standing workplaces
o Frequent movements in large work areas
o Handling heavy objects
o Exerting large forces
o Service industry – e.g. airlines, bank tellers, waiters

• Prolonged standing → strained posture

o Excessive load
o Body fluid accumulation in legs

• Where possible…
o Frequent breaks
o Shoes with cushioned soles
DESIGN FOR STANDING AND SEATED WORK

• Seated workplace
o Should be used for long-term duration jobs
o Seated posture → easier to maintain; less body strain
• But sitting can harm lower back
o Allows for better controlled arm movements; balance

• Ideally, provide adjustable chairs & allow for frequent periods of standing and walking
around
DESIGN FOR STANDING AND SEATED WORK
Work Surface Height
• Work surface height for both standing/seated work → determined by nature of work
o Precise manipulation vs. great force application

• Rules of thumb:
o Standing work → 5-10cm below elbow level
o Seated work → at elbow level
DESIGN FOR STANDING AND SEATED WORK
Work Surface Height
• Precise manipulation
o Working height above elbow
o Avoid bending back forward; straining neck
o E.g. Writing, electronic assembly, soldering, watch repair

• Great force application

o Coarse work; involves much movement
o High effort required
o Working height below elbow
o E.g. Hammering, twisting, kneading dough, cooking
DESIGN FOR STANDING AND SEATED WORK
Work Surface Height
DESIGN FOR STANDING AND SEATED WORK
Work Surface Depth
• Concerned with concept of normal and maximum work areas
o Horizontal planes covered by forearm sweep

• Normal work area → when upper arm is not extended

• Maximum work area → when upper arm is extended from shoulder

• Consider work areas to determine depths

• Placement of items, tools, components, etc.

o Items frequently reached located within normal work areas
DESIGN FOR STANDING AND SEATED WORK
Work Surface Depth
DESIGN FOR STANDING AND SEATED WORK
Work Surface Inclination
• Most work surfaces → horizontal

• But slightly slanted work surfaces (+/-15°) recommended for reading

o Slanted desks, book platforms, pulpits, etc.

• Slanted surfaces…
o Improve body posture; comfort
o Requires less bending of the neck
ANTHROPOMETRY VS. BIOMECHANICS

• Anthropometry issues
o Matching physical workspace layout to physical user dimensions
o But reach, clearance, line of sight, etc. does not consider manipulation
• E.g. Reaching vs. manipulating controls

• Along with anthropometry, also need to understand required body movements

o So that task does not place excessive strain on body

• Biomechanics
o Concerned with human body movements & limits
o Considers the dynamic aspects of workspace design
BIOMECHANICS

• Biomechanics – concerned with mechanical aspects of biological systems

• Explains movements of human body – directions and extent to which joints/back bends
o Musculoskeletal system: bones, muscles, connective tissues (i.e. ligaments, tendons,
cartilage)
o Purpose of MS → support body, maintain posture, produce movement

• Human body as machine

o Biomechanics describes appropriate uses/limits of machine and components
o Exceed limits → likely result in injury; damage

• Biomechanics + Anthropometry
o Helps prevent injury through proper design of environment
BIOMECHANICS
Occupational Biomechanics
• Occupational biomechanics:
o Concerned with the mechanical behavior of the musculoskeletal system and component
tissues when physical work is performed
o Concerned with the physics of manual activities in industry
o Integrates knowledge of musculoskeletal system & laws/concepts of physics

• Mechanical forces exerted during work tasks:

o Lifting loads
o Using/manipulating tools
o Repetitive manual work
o Prolonged sitting & typing
o …
BIOMECHANICS
Muscle exertions

• Little to no effort required (less blood flow needed)

Rest • Little blood flow provided (little needed)

• Motion; alternated contraction and relaxation of muscles

Muscular Dynamic
• High effort required (high blood flow needed)
Effort Effort • High blood flow provided (oxygen needs met)

• Posture; prolonged contraction of muscles

Static
• High effort required (high blood flow needed)
Effort • Low blood flow provided (oxygen needs not met)
BIOMECHANICS
Muscle exertions
• Static positions difficult to maintain for long periods
• Sitting at desk, standing still, etc.
• Maintaining proper position, posture, grip, etc. → fatigue

• E.g. Good vs. bad sitting posture

• Often blame the person for poor posture, slouching, etc.
• In reality, difficult to maintain upright posture
MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS
Low-back problems
• Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) → injuries of the musculoskeletal system
o Affects joints, bones, muscles, & spine
o E.g. Osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, sarcopenia, back & neck pain, etc.

• Low-back problems → most costly & prevalent MSD in industry

o Approx. 1/3 of compensation payments (National Council on Compensation Insurance)
o Manual material handling (MMH) – major cause of low-back problems
• I.e. Lifting, bending, twisting motions
• E.g. Construction, transport, warehouse, healthcare, etc.

o Also common in sedentary work environments

• I.e. Prolonged static sitting posture
MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS
Low-back problems (MMH)
• Low back – vulnerable to injury in MMH
o Most distant from carried load
o Both load and weight of upper torso on low back

• Factors influencing load stress on spine during lifting tasks

o Weight of load
o Position of load relative to spine & low back
o Other bending & twisting movements
MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS
Low-back problems (MMH) – examples
MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS
Low-back problems (MMH) – examples
MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS
Low-back problems (MMH) – examples
MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS
Low-back problems (MMH) – examples
MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS
Low-back problems (seated work & chair design)
• Sitting postures often adopted in workplaces → benefits include:
o Easier to maintain seated posture than standing
o Better controlled arm movements
o Better balance

• But vulnerable to low-back problems

o When seated, pelvis rotates backward
o Lordotic curvature loss → increased disc pressure
• Lumbar lordosis → kyphosis (when slumped forward)
o Leads to pressure on spinal tissues & nerve roots
o Upright positions → 35-40% lower disc pressures
MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS
Low-back problems (seated work & chair design) – examples
• Proper chair design → support user to adopt less straining posture
o Reduce loads placed on the spine

• Seat-design parameters include…

o Backrest inclination angle
• 90° angle is inappropriate; forces slumped position
• 110-120° is optimal; shifts body weight to backrest
o Lumbar support
• Helps maintain lordosis (ideally adjustable)
o Arm rests
• Supports part of body weight

• Frequent breaks to stand and walk still required

MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS
Cumulative Trauma Disorders
• Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTDs)
o Disorders of soft tissue in upper extremities – arms, shoulders, elbows, hands, wrists, fingers
o Excessive wear on tendons, muscles, & nerve tissues

• Common in industries involving repetitive hand/arm exertions

• Common forms of CTD:

o Neuritis
o Ischemia
o CTD of the fingers
o CTD of the hand & wrist
MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS
Common forms of CTDs
• Neuritis
o Nerve damage; tingling & numbness
o Repeated exertion in awkward postures – sensory/motor nerves stretch/rub against bones

• Ischemia
o Numbness caused by localized tissue anemia; obstruction of blood flow
o Caused by repeated exposures of palm to pressure forces (e.g., hand tools)
MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS
Common forms of CTDs
• CTD of the fingers
o Raynaud’s phenomenon – numbness, tingling, pain
• Repeated & prolonged use of vibrating hand tools
o Trigger finger – locked fingers; cannot straighten once flexed
• Excessive use of fingers against resistance/sharp edges

• CTD of the hand & wrist – Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS)

o Numb, tingling, painful in palm & fingers
o Soft tissues, tendons, major nerves – travel through carpal tunnel in wrist
o Repeated exertions with bent wrists; exposure to frequent hand vibrations
o Tendons & nerves compressed & rub against carpal tunnel structures
MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS
Prevention
• Administrative methods
• Education; training
• Appropriate work-rest schedules

• Task rotation – increase task variety; reduce repetitive task components

• Design workspace according to anthropometric characteristics of workers

• Adjustability; reduce awkward postures

• Use automated equipment for repetitive and high exertion tasks

MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS
Prevention – Hand tool design
Hand Tool Design Guidelines
• Straight-handled tools often require bent wrists
Do not bend the wrist • Bent handles can help maintain straight wrist
• E.g. Pliers, wire cutters, power tools

Shape handles to • Design handles to protect palm from pressure

assist grip • Padding, larger surface area, sufficient length, curvature, etc.

• Grip strength is influenced by grip span (refer to diagram in later slide)

Provide adequate grip
• Design for optimal grip span
span
• Also applies to round tool handles – i.e. diameter of handles

• Provide adequate clearance to ensure full grip

Provide finger & glove
• Minimize risk of squeezing/crushing fingers
clearances
• Consider context of usage – gloves?
HAND TOOL DESIGN
Do not bend the wrist
HAND TOOL DESIGN
Do not bend the wrist
HAND TOOL DESIGN
Shape handle to assist grip
HAND TOOL DESIGN
Provide adequate grip span
HAND TOOL DESIGN
Provide finger & glove clearances
RESOURCES

• Designing for People: An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering (Lee, Wickens, Liu,
& Boyle, 2017)