American Academy of Religion

Augustine as Narcissist: Comments on Paul Rigby's "Paul Ricoeur, Freudianism, and

Augustine's Confessions"
Author(s): Donald Capps
Source: Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 53, No. 1 (Mar., 1985), pp. 115-127
Published by: Oxford University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1464287 .
Accessed: 16/09/2013 16:17

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Oxford University Press and American Academy of Religion are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve
and extend access to Journal of the American Academy of Religion.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 193.137.92.24 on Mon, 16 Sep 2013 16:17:24 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Journalof the AmericanAcademyof Religion,LIII/1

AUGUSTINE AS NARCISSIST: COMMENTS

ON PAUL RIGBY'S "PAUL RICOEUR,
FREUDIANISM, AND AUGUSTINE'S CONFESSIONS"
DONALD CAPPS

Paul Rigby claims that a Freudian reading of religion is "the neces-

sary deconstructivemoment in the modern appropriationof such classi-
cal religious texts as the Confessions." In my judgment, he takes the
deconstructiveeffects of a Freudian reading of the Confessions more
seriously than does David Burrell, the first theologian to give careful
considerationto the Freudian studies of Augustinethat appeared in the
Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion in 1965-66.1 Burrell says
that these Freudianstudies illuminate "the sourcesand shape of [Augus-
tine's]personalconflicts,"thereby allowing "a sensitive reader to remark
how Augustinemanagedto put these conflictsto use, as well as how they
continued to handicap him." Burrellalso observesthat such illumination
of Augustine'spersonalconflicts may have direct bearing on our assess-
ment of Augustine'stheology:"Asimilarlysensitivereaderwith theologi-
cal training will be able to recognize in many cases how these conflicts
may have introducedspecific distortionsinto the manner of formulating
and illustratingmajor themes in Christiantheology."What Burrell will
not accept, however, is the claim that Freudian analysisof the Confes-
sions could challenge "the main intent of [Augustine's]majortheological
breakthroughs,"especially "his staunch anti-Pelagian position and its
crucial role in the historyor doctrine. For one can grasp the heart of this
series of affirmationsannouncing the primacy and sufficiencyof God's
grace in a form which remainsquite neutralto the mannerin which we
conceive God ." The Freudian studies are, of course, concerned with
the manner in ...which Augustineconceives God, relating his conceptuali-
zation of God to his "personalconflicts."Moreover,Burrellbelieves that
the central methodological principle of Augustine's Confessions calls
into question any quest for understandingthe text by relying "on our
efforts to identify the conceptualframeworkshe is employing by tracing
Donald Capps is William Harte Felmeth Professorof PracticalTheology at Princeton
TheologicalSeminary.
1 David Burrell, "ReadingThe Confessions of Augustine:An Exercise in Theological
Understanding,"The Journalof Religion 50 (1970):327-51.

This content downloaded from 193.137.92.24 on Mon, 16 Sep 2013 16:17:24 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
116 Journalof the AmericanAcademy of Religion

down the major influences upon his thought." This, of course, would
include not only intellectual influences but also the personalinfluences
which are the focus of the Freudianstudies.Thus, for Burrell,Augustine's
majortheologicalbreakthroughsare immuneto the Freudianchallenge.
For Rigby, the Freudiandeconstructivemoment has a more decisive
effect on the outcome of the theological interpretation.For him, this
encounterwith Freud revealsthat the text is at odds with itself and that
this division is never really overcome: "This encounter will reveal two
Augustinesand two theologies in the Confessions: one neurotic with a
theology satisfying wish fulfillment; the other transformedbeyond the
reach of Freudianism by the figures of the Spirit as mapped out by
Hegel." Moreover,the deconstructivemoment is more than an episode
in the interpretiveprocesssince it proveshighly resistantto the proposed
Hegelian transformation.As Rigby himself points out, "Freudianpessi-
mism with respect to Augustine'ssublimation of his Oedipal conflict
cannot be finally rejected."Traces of Augustine'sOedipal problemssur-
vive in his theology, including those features of his theology central to
his majortheologicalbreakthroughs,"suchas his understandingof grace,
original sin, creation, church, sacraments and the image of God as
father."
A second indicationthat the Freudiandeconstructivemoment counts
much more for Rigby than for Burrellis the simple but importantfact
that Rigby himself offers a Freudian analysis of the text. Burrell
responds to Freudian interpretationsof the Confessions while Rigby
develops his own Freudian reading of the text. In this reading, the
encounter with Freud brings the very integrity of the Confessions into
question-two Augustines,two theologies.
I agree with Rigby that a modern reading of the Confessions must
include a Freudian deconstructionthat cannot finally be set aside once
introduced.Augustine'saccount of his interpersonalrelationships,espe-
cially involving his mother, evokes the suspicionof the modern reader,
and such suspicioncannot be expungedfrom any "higher"readingof the
text. Also, this deconstructivemove requires a cautious assessmentof
claims for Augustine'spersonaltransformationand correspondingtheo-
logical breakthroughs.At the outset, Rigby says that his study will reveal
two Augustines, one neurotic and the other transformedbeyond the
reach of Freudianism.By the end of the paper, he has made a solid case
for the "nonneurotic"side of Augustine'sresolutionof the Oedipal con-
flict throughhis depersonalizedsymbol of fatherhood,but this resolution
does not appear to be "beyondthe reach of Freudianism"because Rigby
himself accepts the view that this resolutionis a "sublimationof [Augus-
tine's] Oedipal conflict,"and not an unambiguouslysuccessful sublima-
tion at that.
Moreover, the specific evidence that Rigby cites for Augustine's

This content downloaded from 193.137.92.24 on Mon, 16 Sep 2013 16:17:24 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Capps:Augustineas Narcissist 117

"nonneurotic" resolutionof his Oedipalconflictsis the claim that Augustine

overcame "hisinitial spiritualnarcissismin compassionateand self-aban-
doningservice."And yet this claim is directlyand vigorouslychallengedby
the Freudianstudies.Dittes wondershow compassionateAugustinecan be
when he quite ruthlesslyattacks Pelagius, who appears "to have been
initiallyan obscureperson,a layman,who statedhis views mildly."Pruyser
contendsthat "afterhis conversionto Christianity[Augustine]has obtained
new opportunities for directing his aggression outward toward the
Manicheansand other non-Christians."Thus the Freudian studies agree
that, even at the time of his writing the Confessions, Augustine's
personalitywas stronglyorientedtowardthe narcissismhe claimed to have
overcome at the time of his conversion.As Dittes puts it, "thereis some
degree of continuingnarcissismimplied in the Confessions. In a number
of ways, Augustineseems preoccupiedwith himself, and relativelyuncon-
cerned with the welfare of circumstancesand persons beyond himself,
except as they affect him."Pruysersays that "considerablenarcissismruns
through[Augustine's]self-assessment" and Bakanrefersto the "narcissistic
in
component Augustine" that is especially revealedin his immatureatti-
tudes toward sexuality. These claims regarding Augustine's narcissism
might conceivablybe disputed. But the mere fact that they are advanced
indicatesthat even the "positivenote"on which Rigby concludeshis study
is subjectto what Rigbyearliercalls "Freudianpessimism."
This raisesmy central question regardingRigby'sdeconstructiveuse
of Freud in his interpretationof the Confessions. My question is this:
Should the primaryfocus of such deconstructiveanalysisbe the Oedipal
conflict (Rigby's focus), or the broader issue of Augustine'snarcissism,
both in its personaland theological implications?The earlier Freudian
studies, especially those of Bakan and Dittes, make reference to both
Freudian themes, but tend to subordinatethe narcissismtheme to the
Oedipal theme. In their view, Augustine'snarcissism,centered in his
intense involvementwith his mother, sets him up for a potentiallyexplo-
sive Oedipal contest with his father. Once they make this connection
between Augustine'snarcissismand his Oedipal conflictswith his father,
these studies focus on the Oedipal complex theme. Yet Dittes's own
analysis of Augustine'sOedipal conflicts suggests that there is not the
typical resolutionof the Oedipal conflict because Augustine "wins"the
contest with his father for his mother's affections, and therefore is not
really confronted with the central demand of the Oedipus complex,
namely, to relinquishhis desiresand submit to his father'sauthority.On
the other hand, winning the Oedipal conflict means he must now con-
front his mother as he would otherwisehave had to deal with his father.
He tries rebellionand escape first and then, discerningthat she could be
relentless,submitsto her and her Catholicfaith. Indeed, one could argue
that, for all intents and purposes,the father-son conflict was never really

This content downloaded from 193.137.92.24 on Mon, 16 Sep 2013 16:17:24 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
118 Journalof the AmericanAcademy of Religion

joined. Why, then, such heavy emphasis in these studies on Augustine's

Oedipal conflicts? Why not more explorationof the narcissismtheme
apartfrom its Oedipal implications(i.e., father-son contest)?
However, Rigby too focuses on the Oedipal conflict, searchingfor a
nonneuroticelement in Augustine'sresolutionof it. He quite rightly con-
cludes that, for Dittes as well as for Kligerman,the resolutionof Augus-
tine's Oedipal conflicts was neurotic. But Rigby does not focus on the
submission to mother theme which is so central to Dittes's view that the
Oedipal conflict was resolvedin a "neurotic"fashion. Rather,he takes up
the rejected father theme which is more central to Kligerman'sargu-
ment for a neuroticresolutionof the Oedipal conflict.Thus his argument
for a nonneuroticresolutionof the Oedipal conflict differs from that of
Burrell,who argues that Dittes portraysAugustine'sdependency on his
mother and the church as antitheticalto genuine autonomy whereas,for
Burrell, acceptance of one's dependency is the beginning of true
autonomy. Rather, Rigby argues that Augustine was able eventually to
accept his father's mortality, and thereby move to resolution of the
Oedipus complex by identifying not with his father as progenitorbut
with fatherhoodas a symbol of creation. This, in turn, made possiblea
new acceptance of his father as he came to recognize "the rejected
father of capriciousbodily desire as member of the ethical life of the
concrete[catholic]community."Thus Rigby arguesthat Augustine'sreso-
lution of the Oedipus complex liberated him from a biological view of
fatherhood and enabled him to espouse a symbolic and ethical view.
When Augustine refers to God as Father in the Confessions, God's
fatherhoodis similarlymodelled on liberation,not begetting.
While I am struckby the fact that Burrelland Rigby find evidence
of autonomyand liberationin Augustine'sresolutionof his parentalrela-
tionships,I believe that Rigby'sstudy as a whole gives undue primacy to
the father-son relationship.This obscuresthe fact that the mother-son
relationship is central to the Confessions in both its interpersonal
dynamic and theological orientation. Such undue emphasis on Augus-
tine's relations with his father, reflected also in the Freudian studies
which Rigby critiques, is reminiscentof the controversythat has ensued
over Erik Erikson'semphasis in Young Man Luther on the conflicts
between Martin and his father, Hans. Historians'objectionsthat, given
the paucity of reliable historicaldata, Erikson makes too much of this
conflict promptedRoger Johnsonto addressErikson'sown need to make
so much of Hans Luther. Johnsonconcluded that Erikson,as a moralist,
created an image of Hans as an example of the brutalitythat moralistic
parents inflict on their children.2I believe that the Freudian studies of
2 Johnson,Roger A.,
"Psychohistoryas ReligiousNarrative:The Demonic Role of Hans
Luther in Erikson'sSaga of Human Evolution,"in Roger A. Johnson,ed., Psychohistory

This content downloaded from 193.137.92.24 on Mon, 16 Sep 2013 16:17:24 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Capps:Augustineas Narcissist 119

Augustineare similarlypromptedby the moral concernsof their authors

to make more of Patricius than the evidence warrants. The earlier
Freudian studies view him as a "weak"father who failed to serve as a
buffer between Augustineand his controllingmother, and they view this
as a moral failing. (We should rememberthat these studieswere written
in the mid-1960s when social critiques of the absent and ineffectual
father were commonplace.)The very fact that Patriciusis not mentioned
very much in the Confessions is itself viewed as evidence of his
weakness as a father, and thus of his moral culpability. In contrast,
Rigby seeks to make a case for Patricius'spositive moral influenceas the
adult Augustine no longer views his father as the parent who took
delight in his son's sexual development, but as "a member of the ethical
life of the concrete[catholic]community."
While we can certainly understandthe moral concerns that have
promptedthe Freudianstudiesto focuson Augustine'sfather,I nonetheless
recommenda Freudiandeconstructioncenteredon Augustine'snarcissism,
especiallythose featuresof his narcissismthat have relativelylittle bearing
on the struggleto come to termswith his father.This approachto the Con-
fessions was first proposed by Paula Fredriksen.3Dissatisfiedwith the
Freudianstudies,but convincedthat Augustine'sattitudestowardsexuality
have a "psychologicalroot,"she advancesthe hypothesis"thatAugustine
manifeststhe conflictsof the narcissisticpersonality"and offersthis "inter-
pretationof Augustinepartly as an alternativeto the Oedipal interpreta-
tions reviewed above."Focusing on Monica'srelentlesspursuitof her son
(which she accepts as historicallytrue), Fredriksenarguesthat Augustine
experienced a "troubledseparation/individuationprocess"characteristic
of the narcissist,which was reflectedin an "inabilityto achieve true object-
love and a crushing need for the approval of others."Fredriksenalso
argues, however, that in the matter of sexuality,Augustinecame to cri-
tique his own narcissism,assertingthat sex is pure narcissisticgratification.
As Fredriksenputs it: "Hecannottruly love;his assessmentof the natureof
sexuallove is shapedby his experienceof only enjoyinga narcissisticgrati-
ficationfrom the personlovinghim."
I would like to expand on Fredriksen'simportant insight here and
suggest that a far more decisive issue than the Oedipal conflict, both for
Augustine'spersonalformationand his theology, is his experienceof nar-
cissistic injury (involving rejection,humiliationand shame). A narcissis-
tic reading of the Confessions prompts us to view Augustine'sstruggles
as more shame than guilt oriented. Episodes recounted in his Confes-
sions that are commonly viewed as admissionsof guilt are, more deeply,
and Religion: The Case of the Young Man Luther (Philadelphia:FortressPress, 1977),
pp. 127-61.
3 Paul Fredriksen,"Augustineand His Analysts:The Possibilityof a Psychohistory,"
Soundings 61 (1978):206-27.

This content downloaded from 193.137.92.24 on Mon, 16 Sep 2013 16:17:24 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
120 Journalof the AmericanAcademy of Religion

experiences involving profound shame owing to narcissisticinjury. As

Paul Pruyser astutely observes, "Very little guilt feeling is expressed
directly"in the Confessions. This opens the way for the claim that the
basic dynamic in the text is not guilt over wrongdoing but shame in
response to narcissisticinjury. This claim squares with Erikson'sview
that the third stage of the life cycle-initiative vs. guilt-corresponds to
the Oedipal conflict, while the second stage-autonomy vs. shame and
doubt-is the preoedipalstage that is most closely associatedwith narcis-
sism. Dittes hints at the theological implicationsof Augustine'sexperi-
ence of narcissisticinjury when he says, in a passage quoted by Rigby,
that "evenas Augustinepresumablyfelt despairand emptinesswhen Mon-
ica turnedher approvalfrom him, so is evil characterizedas the absenceof
postiveemanationsfrom the Godhead."Significantly,Fredriksenproposes
a narcissisticreading of the Confessions in order to concentrateon one
majortheme in Augustine'stheology:the problemof evil.
Accordingto the traditionalFreudiantheory of narcissism,there are
two basic stages in its formation,both of which precede the Oedipal con-
flict. Prior to birth and perhaps in the very earliest phase of infancy,
there is no differentiationof self and world; the infant's experience is
that of a blissful unity. But subsequently,differentiationoccurs and the
self emerges as separatefrom other selves. The period of blissful unity is
lost, but the infant compensates for this loss by forming a grandiose
image of the self (as center of the universe)and a powerfully idealized
parent image (normally the mother), thus insuring that the external
world is not indifferent, but powerfully and benevolently disposed to
meet one's needs. This solution,however, creates new problems.On one
hand, too much is expected of the parentalfigure;she cannot live up to
her idealized image. On the other hand, the child is subjectto narcissistic
injury,or experiencesthat threaten the grandiosityof the self. The most
painful such injuries are those inflicted by the idealized parent. Such
injuriesare humiliating because they involve disapprovalfrom the one
personwhom the child is able to love and admire. Such injuriesmay also
evoke rage againstthe offending parent. This rage is generally repressed
because the child wants to avoid further alienation, and such repressed
rage is manifest in depression.The longterm effects of narcissisticinjury
are the withdrawalof feeling, especially empathy previouslyfelt for the
idealized parent, and redoubled efforts to please the idealized parent,
thus replacing the spontaneousexpressionof feeling with a deliberately
constructed self-image. Alexander Lowen, a psychoanalyst,tells of a
narcissisticpatient who learned from an early age to "put on a happy
face" and thereby mask her true feelings of unhappinessand rage.4

4 AlexanderLowen, Narcissism:Denial of the True Self (New York:Macmillan,1983),

35-36.

This content downloaded from 193.137.92.24 on Mon, 16 Sep 2013 16:17:24 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Capps:Augustineas Narcissist 121

In Freud'sown writings,narcissismwas closely linked to the Oedipus

complex because he believed that the Oedipal conflict addresses the
troublesengendered by the earlier narcissistictrend, especially problems
involvedin the male child'sexclusiveattachmentto the mother.But Heinz
Kohut has more recently argued that the Oedipal conflict and narcissism
are two dynamic processes that may be differentiated and separately
analyzed.5This Kohutianmove is preciselywhat Fredriksenhas proposed
for a Freudian interpretationof Augustine'sConfessions. The Freudian
studies,which now include Rigby, all take note of Augustine'snarcissism
(Rigby calls it his "omnipotenceof desire"),but all these studies link it to
Augustine'sOedipalconflicts,and do not explorehis narcissismadequately
in its own right. Also, Fredriksen'sdiscussionof Augustine'snarcissismis
relativebrief, and focusedrathernarrowlyon Augustine'sattitudestoward
sexuality.My concernsrelate more to his narcissisticinjuries,and thus to
the rolethat shameplaysin the narrativeas a whole.
That Augustinepresentshimself in the Confessions as a narcissistic
personalityis not too difficult to establish.The very idea that one's per-
sonal story is of interestto othersis inherentlynarcissistic,and Augustine
is generally credited with having originatedthe genre of autobiography.
More importantly,Augustine presents himself in the Confessions as a
self-acknowledgednarcissist.Pruyser says that he "knowshe is a pre-
ferred and pamperedson, glorying in the amount of praying his mother
did for him. Dependent on praise ... he delights in displaying his ora-
torical talents (both for praise and attack),uses his intellect proudly,and
attributesconsiderablestrengthto his own will, as able to defy the pow-
ers of others."But this is only the grandioseside of his narcissisticper-
sonality. There is also his susceptibilityto narcissisticinjury, which he
experiencesmost acutely in his professionallife as a professorof rhetoric
and religiousthinker. As Rigby points out, Augustine'sparentshad very
high expectations for him as a "user of words."Thus, Augustine was
humiliated when his students at Carthage failed to show him proper
respect (the ostensiblereason for his flight to Rome), and it is not with-
out significance that his conversion to the Catholic faith settled his
dilemma as to what to do about his professorshipafter contracting a
respiratoryillness that had seriously affected his speaking voice. His
conversionprovidedjustificationfor resigning his post. But more impor-
tant than any single such episode is the fact that the whole narrative
consistsof experiencesinvolving narcissisticinjury,or threatsto personal
self-esteem.6The pear-stealingepisode, his jocularbehavior prior to his

5 Heinz Kohut, The Analysis the

of Self (New York:InternationalUniversitiesPress,
1971).
6 See my "ParabolicEvents in Augustine's
Autobiography,"Theology Today 40 (1983):
260-72.

This content downloaded from 193.137.92.24 on Mon, 16 Sep 2013 16:17:24 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
122 Journalof the AmericanAcademy of Religion

unnamed friend's death, his mother'sdismissalof his common-law wife

and child, his abortiveaudience with Bishop Ambrose,the deep sense of
shame that immediately preceded his conversionexperience-common
to all these experienceswas threat to his self-esteemthroughhumiliation
or disapproval,and renewed efforts to gain the approvalof his mother,
church authorities,and God. Also, we do not have to look very far to dis-
cover that, beneath these effortsto regain approval,there is considerable
rage that for the most part he managesto repressor otherwisecontrol.
Since this is a comment on Rigby's article and not itself a study of
the Confessions,I can only sketch out what a Freudianreadingbased on
the narcissismtheory might look like.
First, evidence would need to be marshalledto supportthe view that
Augustinefitsthe narcissisticpersonalitytype. Accordingto recentpsycho-
analytic literature,narcissistsare characterizedby (1) their resistanceto
being subject to the claims of others, especially claims of fidelity and
enduringcommitment;(2) the manipulationof the impressionsthey make
on other persons;(3) a shallowemotionallife, or a protectiveincapacityto
feel deeply; and (4) a resistanceto acknowledgingtheir finitude.7It is not
very difficult to find evidence of these narcissisticcharacteristicsin the
Confessions.This is partlybecausehe recognizesthem in himself, though
he attributesthese traitsto the preconversionperiod.A full scale study of
Augustineas a narcissisticpersonalitywould need to marshallevidence of
each of these four characteristics,and take seriousaccountof challenging
evidence. For example, the Freudian studies contend that his seemingly
unperturbedacceptanceof his common-lawwife's dismissalis evidence of
narcissism,his inabilityto feel deeply. And yet, as Fredriksenpointsout, he
writesof this loss:"Myheart,which hasheld her very dear, was brokenand
woundedand bleeding. ...." How to interpretthese words?They seem to
reflect deep feeling, but are the words "my heart"a rhetoricaldevice to
distance himself from feelings? And is this true feeling for another, or
merely pity for himself?
We might also focus on other kinds of textual evidence, such as
Dittes's proposalthat "a word count of the Confessions would show an
abundance of expressionsrelated to status: humility, excel, praise, suc-
ceed, power, honor, raised up, cast down, shame, vanity, strength,etc."
These "status"words reflect narcissisticconcernsfor self-image and nar-
cissistic injury. Or we might attempt to identify what Norman Holland
calls a text's identity theme.8 He proposes, for example, that Robert

7 ChristopherLasch, The Culture of Narcissism (New York: W. W. Norton, 1979),

chap. 2.
8 Norman N. Holland, "Unity Identity Text Self," in
Jane P. Tompkins(ed.), Reader-
Response Criticism:From Formalism to Post-Structuralism(Baltimore:Johns Hopkins
UniversityPress,1980), pp. 118-33.

This content downloaded from 193.137.92.24 on Mon, 16 Sep 2013 16:17:24 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Capps: Augustine as Narcissist 123

Frost's poetry reveals an identity theme as "to manage great, unman-

ageable unknowns by means of small knowns." I propose that Augus-
tine's identity theme in the Confessions is contained in the following
quotation which appears at the beginning of Book 10:
Lord, before whose eyes the abyssof man'sconsciencelies naked,
what thing within me could be hidden from you, even if I would
not confess it to you? I would be hiding you from myself, not
myself from you. But now, since my groans bear witness that I
am a thing displeasingto myself, you shine forth, and you are
pleasing to me, and you are loved and longed for, so that I may
feel shame for myself, and renouncemyself, and choose you.
This quotation, which provides the basic rationale for Augustine's auto-
biographical project, includes patent narcissistic themes, including the
powerfully idealized parental image (God as one who sees our innermost
thoughts and feelings but who is also loved and longed for); renunciation
of the grandiose self ("I am a thing displeasing to myself"); and narcissis-
tic injury in the form of shame ("the abyss of man's conscience lies
naked" and "I feel shame for myself"). A combination of interpretive
methods could thus be employed to explore the claim that Augustine is a
narcissistic personality.
Second, there would need to be the explanation of how the dynamics
of narcissism work themselves out in Augustine's relationship to his
mother. There is considerable evidence that the two crucial elements of
a narcissistic structure are operative here: a grandiose self image (which,
as Bakan notes, resisted any entailment) and a powerfully idealized par-
ent image (his mother). The sources of his grandiosity are undoubtedly
complex and may well be inaccessible to us. Dittes and Fredriksen can
only guess that Monica must have hovered over her son in the nursery.
But I think we should take seriously Alexander Lowen's view that per-
sons already disposed toward narcissism may be unusually narcissistic
because a parent communicated to them, through word and deed, the
conviction that they are very special. The Confessions provide consider-
able evidence that Monica believed her son was special (e.g., she pursued
him, prayed for him, consulted with advisors about him) and that he was
too good for the kinds of personal alliances he instinctively sought. I
agree with Pruyser that he was a "preferred" son, but question whether
he was also a "pampered" son. Impressive achievements were expected
of this favorite child of Monica and, as his own account shows, it mat-
tered a great deal to him that he would eventually gain her unmitigated
approval. There is also much evidence that Monica, unlike Patricius, is
strongly idealized in Augustine's account. He portrays her as a woman of
relentless will and uncommon piety. But this idealization of Monica is
accompanied by a repressed rage owing to the fact that she is also the
one who can most readily inflict narcissistic injury. As Dittes notes, he

This content downloaded from 193.137.92.24 on Mon, 16 Sep 2013 16:17:24 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
124 Journalof the AmericanAcademyof Religion

can permit himself to expresssome of this rage only after her death, and
only in the context of prayingfor God'sforgivenessof her sins.
Third, Freudian deconstructionwith Augustine'snarcissism as its
focus ought to take up Kohut'sproposalsconcerningthe transformation
of narcissism.9This would be the parallel issue in a narcissisticreading
of the Confessions to Rigby'sconcern for the non-neuroticresolutionof
the Oedipal conflict in his Oedipal reading of the text. In Kohut'sview,
the narcissistis manifestly unable to respond to demands for a change
from narcissismto object love. This view supports a "Freudian pessi-
mism"with respect to Rigby'sclaim that Augustineovercame his initial
spiritualnarcissismin compassionateand self-abandoningservice. On the
other hand, Kohutcontendsthat there can be transformationswithin the
narcissisticpersonality structure itself. These usually occur in middle
adulthood,or roughlyAugustine'sage when engaged in writing the Con-
fessions. For Kohut, the opportunity for this transformationtypically
arises when an adult has recently suffered a severe narcissisticinjury,
often requiringprofessionalattention. If such transformationoccurs, the
narcissist'sdesire to be admired is not relinquished,but the narcissismof
exhibitionismand grandiose fantasies is replaced with a more mature
narcissismcomprisingthese basic features:
(1) personal creativity. Previously,one sought personalacclaim and
admiration.Now, one seeks acclamationof the productsof one's creativ-
ity. Kohutcontendsthat this is not a shift from narcissismto object-love,
because narcissistsdo not relate to their creations as objects of love.
Rather,this is a transformationof narcissismwhere desire for the admi-
rationof one's work is substitutedfor desired admirationof one's person.
(2) empathy. The child originallyreached out in true empathy with
the mother,or idealized parentalfigure. But, owing to narcissisticinjury,
this empathy has been repressedand the narcissisthas been incapableof
any real feeling for another. The transformednarcissist recovers the
capacity for empathy, which is now emancipatedfrom the originalexpe-
rience of recognitionby the mother. This characteristicof narcissismis a
potentialbasis for future object-love.But, at this point, this is not love of
anotherfor the other'ssake, but ratherempathy owing to one's identifi-
cation of oneself in the other.
(3) acknowledgementof the finitude of the self. This involves emo-
tional acceptance that the self which is associatedwith the narcissistic
dimensionof the personality(the grandioseself) is finite in time. It does
not precludebelief that the "self"will surviveearthly extinction,but that
the grandioseself, with its illusionsof being at the center of the universe,

9 Heinz Kohut, "Forms and Transformations of Narcissism," in Paul H. Ornstein (ed.),

The Searchfor the Self: Selected Writings of Heinz Kohut 1950-1978, vol. 1 (New York:
International Universities Press, 1978), pp. 427-60.

This content downloaded from 193.137.92.24 on Mon, 16 Sep 2013 16:17:24 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Capps:Augustineas Narcissist 125

cannot survive the ravages of physical deteriorationand earthly death

itself. This acknowledgmentof finitude does not mean mere resignation
and hopelessness,but a quiet pride and assurance.Kohutcalls this a shift
to a more "cosmicnarcissism"in that it now transcendsthe limits of the
individual. In Erik Erikson'sview, such cosmic narcissismis sustained
throughthe belief that the deceased may be incorporatedinto the life of
God, who is the true and eternal center of the universe.
(4) capacity for humor. When personscan respond with humor to
the realizationthat their narcissisticambitionsare unattainable,a trans-
formationof narcissismhas occurred.Kohut views this capacity for self-
directed humoras the most reliablebehavorialindicationthat narcissistic
transformationis underway. The humor here reflects an acceptance of
the frustrationof one's self-interest,especially those self-interestsassoci-
ated with the grandioseself.
(5) wisdom. If humorconcernsthe limitationsimposedon the narcis-
sist by the real world, wisdom involves one's own limitations,including
physical,intellectual,and emotional. Kohut sees such wisdom as a stable
attitude of the personalitytowardlife and the world. It is not mere resig-
nation, but an appreciative wonder at the supreme powers of nature,
and awarenessthat human achievements pale in comparison.He sug-
gests that such wisdom is seldom attained before middle adulthood,
because it depends on prior acceptance of the inevitabilityof death and
attainmentof humor.
If identifying Augustine as a narcissisticpersonality is the decon-
structivemoment in this proposedreading of the Confessions,searching
for signs of transformednarcissismin the text may be considered the
reconstructivemoment. But, as with Rigby'ssuggestionthat the neurotic
resolutionof the Oedipal conflict cannot finally be laid to rest, I doubt
that Augustine,now as author of the Confessions, is an unambiguously
transformednarcissist.On the positive side, there is strong evidence in
the Confessions of personalcreativity, acceptance of the self's finitude,
and wisdom. Burrell makes much of Augustine's personal creativity
(includingthe creativity of the Confessions, which is, after all, the first
of its kind), citing this as evidence of his liberationnot from dependency
but from a fruitlessindependency. Rigby, in his emphasison the "mor-
tality of desire,"makes a strong case for Augustine'sacceptance of the
finitudeof the self. This is a note that Burrellalso strikeswhen he says in
reference to Augustine:"Canit not be argued that the genuinely autono-
mous personis precisely the one who has come to accept the basic para-
meters of his life?" There is also evidence of wisdom involving the
acceptance of his own limitations, especially in his reflections on the
experiencesin his life involving narcissisticinjury. We might, however,
question whether this reflects a stable attitude toward the world, since
his wisdomseems at times forced and exaggerated.

This content downloaded from 193.137.92.24 on Mon, 16 Sep 2013 16:17:24 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
126 Journalof the AmericanAcademy of Religion

On the more negative side, I question whether there is much evi-

dence in the Confessions of humor and empathy. Concerning humor,
modern readers sometimes find aspects of the Confessions humorous,
but preciselywhere Augustineappearsto take himself too seriously.That
there is minimal empathy expressed toward Monica is not in itself a
difficulty for, in transformed narcissism, such empathy is expressed
toward personsother then the idealized parentalfigure. However, while
there is some evidence of empathy in his response to the loss of his
common-law wife and for his friend Alypius, his involvement with his
mother dominatesthe narrativeand this necessarilyobscuresany signifi-
cant evidence of true empathy. A characteristicof untransformednarcis-
sism is an inability to relate to the external world, a tendency toward
emotionalisolationand a resistanceto the claims of others. Noteworthy,
then, is historianKarl Weintraub'sview that "forAugustine,becoming a
true self meant being able in many ways to shed the influence of 'exter-
nal accident or coincident.' Passage through time pales in significance
before the desire to be releasedfrom its bounds."10Similarly,this lack of
empathy is the negative side of Burrell'sobservationthat Augustine's
theological affirmationstranscend the conceptual frameworksin which
they are expressed,and are neutral to the manner in which we conceive
God. With relatively little empathy expressed in the Confessions,
Rigby's claim that Augustineovercame his spiritual narcissismin com-
passionateand self-abandoningservice rings a little hollow.11
This relative absence of empathy in the Confessions raises a fourth
issue for a narcissisticreading of the text. This concernsthe relevance of
Augustine'snarcissismto the theological orientationof the Confessions.
Dittes claims that Augustine'smajortheologicalemphasisin the Confes-
sions is the individual'sutter dependence, as an impotent and ineffective
creature,on God; and God's remoteness,unapproachabilityand imper-
sonality. This dual theme of human impotence and divine remoteness
may be understoodin narcissisticterms as (1) a firm rejection of the
grandioseself, and (2) a view of God as an idealized parentalimage with
little feeling or empathy involved. Fredriksen supports this view of
Augustine'sGod when she says that, for him, "Godseems likewise inca-
pable of achieving object-love."Quoting Augustine'sview that God loves
us either as an object of use or enjoyment,Fredriksenasserts:"Augustine
would seem to be attributingto God an attitude very much like Augus-
tine's own toward woman, who can only be used (for procreation)or
10 Karl Joachim Weintraub, The Value of the Individual: Self and Circumstancein
Autobiography(Chicago:The Universityof ChicagoPress,1978), p. 48.
11 In his Lincoln's Quest for Union: Public and Private Meanings (New York:Basic
Books,1982), CharlesB. Strozierclaims that AbrahamLincolnexemplifiedall the charac-
teristics of Kohut's transformed narcissist. He pays particular attention to Lincoln's
humor,empathy,and creativity(as a userof words).

This content downloaded from 193.137.92.24 on Mon, 16 Sep 2013 16:17:24 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Capps:Augustineas Narcissist 127

enjoyed (for sinful pleasure)."She also notes that, for Augustine, "God
functions as the ultimate approval mechanism; without his approval
(grace), man stands condemned."She concludes, "The task of an inter-
pretationof Augustine'stheology based on this narcissismtheory would
be to demonstratehow, for Augustine,amor dei never rises to the point
of love of God for his own sake, but finally remainslove of God for the
sake of the soul's beatification-the sign of God's approval."In short,
Augustine'stheology in the Confessions may be viewed as narcissistic
with respect to the God image and repressednarcissismwith regard to
the self-image. This repressednarcissismvirtually precludes a theology
rooted in the themes of transformed narcissism.Among these themes,
only acknowledgementof the finitude of the self plays a significantrole
in Augustine'stheology, for even the personal creativity and wisdom
reflected in the Confessions are not accorded positive theologicalsignifi-
cance. By itself, acknowledgementof the finitude of the self is virtually
indistinguishablefrom repressednarcissism.
But let me end on a "positivenote." It concerns Rigby's desire to
find support for a "nonneurotic"resolutionof Augustine'sOedipal con-
flicts. In this desire, Rigby may be rather close to the earlier Freudian
studiesin their tendency to condemn Augustinefor his psychopathology.
Why is it so importantthat we find Augustine to be a psychologically
healthy personality?After all, the Confessions is an extended prayer
throughwhich Augustinechoosesto disclosehis pathologicalside to God.
He entertainsthe idea that he might hide the self of which he is pro-
foundly ashamed from God but, were he to do so, he is convinced that
God would be hidden from him. God is revealed to him through the
disclosuresof his pathologies which are most painfully manifest in his
experiencesof narcissisticinjury.Here, Rigby'sobservationthat the Con-
fessions reveal two Augustines-in effect, two self-images-is precisely
right, though I would not conceive them as his neuroticand nonneurotic
selves. Rather,I would say that the Confessions reveal the grandioseself
that Augustinenow renounces,but they also make visible the shameful
self that he now deems worthy of disclosingto God. In effect, the exis-
tence of the grandioseself and the shameful self in a single personality,
and their emergence as two distinct self-images,is the resultof the inevi-
table and irredeemabledivision of the self that the loss of blissful unity
produces,and narcissisticinjury sustains.This, of course, means that the
Confessions never overcome "Freudianpessimism"concerningthe tran-
scendence of Augustine'sneurotic self. But, then, Freudian pessimism
concerning Augustine is grounds for Christianoptimism for those who
find their mirrorimage in the Confessions. For, through the method of
self-disclosure, Augustine shows them a way out of their isolation, owing
to denied and masked feelings-of burning desire, smouldering rage,
and hot shame.

This content downloaded from 193.137.92.24 on Mon, 16 Sep 2013 16:17:24 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions