Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc.

China 33(2023) 777−788

Mechanism of continuous dynamic recrystallization of Ti−6Al−4V alloy

during superplastic forming with sub-grain rotation

Jun-zhou YANG, Jian-jun WU, Hai-nan XIE, Zhi-guo LI, Kai-wei WANG

School of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China

Received 6 November 2021; accepted 31 March 2022

Abstract: The continuous dynamic recrystallization (CDRX) mechanism of Ti−6Al−4V alloys during the superplastic
forming (SPF) was investigated, aiming to clarify the dominant mechanism for various misorientation evolution
processes. The tensile tests were designed at 890, 920, and 950 °C with 10−4−10−2 s−1, the electron back-scattered
diffraction (EBSD) observations and constitutive model were applied to describing the microstructure evolution. The
geometrically necessary dislocations (GNDs) are responsible for the low angle grain boundaries (LAGBs) evolution.
Furthermore, the mechanism of the transformation from LAGBs to high angle grain boundaries (HAGBs) includes:
(1) the migration from HAGBs to LAGBs; (2) the remaining dislocations after dynamic recovery will move to the
LAGBs; (3) the sub-grain rotation also promotes the grain nucleation. Based on the physical constitutive model, the
sub-grain rotation is verified just before the transformation from LAGBs to HAGBs. Particularly, the dislocation motion
is dominant before the misorientation reaches the saturated value during the grain boundary misorientation evolution,
otherwise, the sub-grain rotation will be activated.
Key words: continuous dynamic recrystallization; sub-grain rotation; grain boundary misorientation; superplastic
deformation

deformation mechanisms are the basis for the study

1 Introduction of flow behavior and forming process optimization.
There are two compulsory requirements in the
For fighter and civil aircraft, nearly 10%−34% SPF process: high temperature and low strain
of the body structural materials are titanium rate [21], and both would accompany by high cost.
alloys [1−3]. The Ti−6Al−4V alloy is extensively Controlling chemical compositions of the alloy has
applied, due to its low density, high specific successfully optimized the superplasticity [22], but
strength, excellent corrosion resistance, etc [4−6]. similar research is rare, and this method is difficult
Superplastic forming (SPF) has always been to categorize and analyze systematically. The more
employed in the manufacturing of parts with mainstream method is still to reduce the deformation
complex shapes and geometries [7−10]. For temperature by refining the grains [23,24]; however,
Ti−6Al−4V alloy, the forming temperatures are some reasons would limit the development of this
about 900 ℃, the strain rates need to be controlled application: (1) additional expenses for the complex
in the range of 10−4−10−2 s−1 [11]. Recently, the process of refining grains cannot be ignored; (2) the
interest of superplasticity has focused on the barriers of grain size lower than limits are hard to
accommodated mechanisms of grain boundary overcome; (3) static and dynamic grain growth
sliding (GBS): dislocation mechanism [12−15], mechanisms make it complex to design the
diffusional mechanism [16−18], etc [19,20]. The grain sizes [25,26]. Therefore, a feasible path is to
Corresponding author: Jian-jun WU, Tel: +86-29-88493101, E-mail: [email protected]
DOI: 10.1016/S1003-6326(23)66145-X
1003-6326/© 2023 The Nonferrous Metals Society of China. Published by Elsevier Ltd & Science Press
778 Jun-zhou YANG, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 33(2023) 777−788
explore a balance between grain refinement and misorientation are discussed; (3) a recrystallization
optimization of superplasticity, which requires more mechanism is given based on the calculated results
attention to grain growth mechanisms. This work of constitutive model.
focused on the dynamic recrystallization behaviors
during superplastic deformation. 2 Experimental
ALABORT et al [27] gave a deformation
map of Ti−6Al−4V alloy based on the strain rate The 1 mm thick Ti−6Al−4V alloy sheet in this
sensitivity factors. For the specimens tested in work was investigated. Based on the results of
the DRV region at 900 ℃ with a strain rate of energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS), the chemical
1×10−4 s−1, the grain size still decreases and the compositions are listed in Table 1. As shown in
DRV process can still occur simultaneously. So, the Fig. 1 by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), the
continuous dynamic recrystallization (CDRX) as-received alloys consist of abundant equiaxed
should be responsible [28,29]. However, the α-phase grains, and the β-phase grains are
dominant mechanism at other deformation interspersed among the equiaxed grains. This is a
temperatures and strain rates is discontinuous typical microstructure for superplastic deformation,
dynamic recrystallization (DDRX). Overall, where equiaxed grains are beneficial to the GBS.
whether the DRX process is CDRX or DDRX is
still controversial. In addition, the initial grain sizes Table 1 Chemical compositions of as-received material
during the superplastic deformation can affect both (wt.%)
processes. MATSUMOTO et al [30−32] proposed a
Ti Al V C
mechanism that the DRV of titanium alloys should
be influenced by grain sizes [30], phase 88.31 5.59 4.85 1.25
compositions [31], and grain growth process [32].
Therefore, the mechanism of grain refinement may
be tangled for various grain sizes. One of the
objectives of this study is to clarify the DRX
mechanisms during superplastic deformation. The
other issue is the constitutive model of the DRX
process, and a brief review will be given in this
section. The DDRX model is very mature, can
describe the grain size evolution [27,33], and the
deformation mechanism deduced from the model
calculation results is also relatively reliable [21,34].
However, the CDRX models are much more
complex, and several typical models have been
established [35−37]. The consensus is that the Fig. 1 Initial microstructure of as-received material
increment of the grain boundary angle mis-
orientation is accompanied by sub-grain rotation; The high-temperature tensile test specimens
however, the dominant misorientation evolution were cut by the wire cut electrical discharge
mechanism is not clear. Another aim of this work is machining (WEDM), and the dimensions are given
to explore the explicit mechanism of sub-grain in Fig. 2. The constant strain rate tensile tests were
rotation misorientation. performed on the Shimazu electronic universal
Based on the gaps in the DRX process, the testing machine according to the GB/T 4338—2006.
objective of this study is to investigate the grain This tensile machine with three controlled heating
refinement mechanism of Ti−6Al−4V alloy. It is zones in the heating furnace ensured that the
mainly divided into three parts: (1) a series of temperatures of the specimens were maintained
tensile tests and microstructure observations are uniformly during the deformation process. The
performed to explore the evolutions of grain selected temperatures during the experiments were
boundary misorientation distribution; (2) the effects 890−950 ℃ with 30 ℃ intervals, and strain rates
of sub-grains rotation on grain boundary were ensured at 1×10−2, 1×10−3, and 1×10−4 s−1. The
 Jun-zhou YANG, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 33(2023) 777−788 779
samples were heated to the set temperatures with a initial material should have a preferred orientation.
heating rate of 5 ℃/s. Five min delay was set from This can be more intuitively observed in Fig. 3(b).
reaching the set temperature to the test beginning, In the pole figures (PF), the maximum multiple of
which was designed to obtain the uniform the uniform density (MUD) of received material is
temperatures and textures. To ensure good contact 6.60, and the characteristics of the basal texture
between the specimens and the thermocouples, each can be observed. Besides, Fig. 3(c) shows the
specimen must be manually ground with 1000# distributions of the HAGBs in black lines and
sandpaper before the tensile tests. Besides, the LAGBs in red lines, and the relative frequency
experiments for the strains of 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8 at and cumulative frequency of the grain boundary
each temperature were also implemented to observe misorientation angle are given in Fig. 3(d). There
the evolution on the intermediate states. are 26% LAGBs due to the insufficient annealing
of the material during the sheet manufacturing
process. In Fig. 3(e), the compositions of the initial
grains are divided into three categories: deformed
grains in red color, substructures in yellow color,
and recrystallized grains in blue color. The
recrystallized grains are in majority, so the dynamic
recrystallization (DRX) will occur during the
rolling deformation, and substructures are
Fig. 2 Dimensions of tensile test specimens (S0 is the
connected in pieces. Besides, the kernel average
cross-section) (unit: mm)
misorientation (KAM) map demonstrates that
misorientations exist in the substructures [38], and
The microstructure evolutions were studied by
a series of electron back-scattered diffraction these misorientations can be observed both within
the grains and near the grain boundaries. Larger
(EBSD) observations. Measurements were carried
KAM values represent higher geometrically
out on an SU3500 scanning electron microscope
equipped with an Oxford energy spectrum and necessary dislocations (GNDs) densities [38,39]. As
indicated by the yellow arrow in Fig. 3(f), the
EBSD camera. The EBSD results were analyzed by
large KAM values are more concentrated at the
the Channel 5 software, and the differentiated
orientation difference between HAGBs and LAGBs HAGBs except the deformed grains, indicating that
dislocations densities near these areas are higher
was 15°. All metallographic samples were cut from
than those in inner grains.
tensile specimens before and after testing. EBSD
observations were used to identify the grain sizes
and the evolution of grain boundary misorientations. 3.2 Evolution of grain boundary misorientation
The samples were prepared by electrolytic distribution
polishing, and the electrolyte composition was The microstructure constitutions for Ti−6Al−
V(HClO4):V(CH3OH):V(CH3(CH2)3O)=3:32:15. The 4V alloy after tensile testing at 920 ℃ and
polished voltage was 22 V on the Struers Lectropol- 1×10−3 s−1 are shown in Fig. 4. The dislocation
5 for 40 s. annihilation is effective when the DRV mechanism
is dominant, and DDRX may be difficult to occur
3 Results and discussion due to the unattainable critical dislocation density.
Grain nucleation can nearly be observed, so the
3.1 Initial microstructure CDRX needs to be noticed undoubtedly [40,41].
Figure 3 shows the initial microstructures by CDRX usually occurs when the material has high
EBSD Z-axis micrograph. In Fig. 3(a), the initial stacking faculty energy or the deformation with
mean grain size of equiaxed grains is 3.77 μm. The large strain. For the strain of 0.5, it can be observed
red, green, and blue colors represent the 〈0001〉, that the substructures are relatively dispersed. As is
〈 12 10〉 , and 〈10 10〉 crystallographic directions, shown in Fig. 5, the area fraction of the LAGBs
respectively. There are more red grains for the accounts for 49%, which is larger than that
initial inverse pole figure (IPF), indicating that most of the initial material. In addition, substructures
grains are in the 〈0001〉 direction. Therefore, the distribution becomes fragmented from each other.
780 Jun-zhou YANG, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 33(2023) 777−788

Fig. 3 Initial microstructures of material before tensile tests: (a) IPF map; (b) PF map; (c) Grain boundaries map;
(d) Relative frequency and cumulative frequency of misorientation angles; (e) Microstructure constitution map;
(f) KAM map

Ignoring the uneven distribution of grain substructures occur. Correspondingly, the area
boundaries, the LAGBs within the grains are fraction of LAGBs accounts for 76% in Fig. 5(b),
rearranged during the initial stage. When ε=0.8, reaching a very high level. Subsequently, with the
some recrystallized grains have transformed into continued deformation, the substructure grains
substructures in Fig. 4(b). Besides, deformed grains transform into recrystallized grains again. The
can always be found around the substructures, recrystallized grains are formed when LAGBs
indicating that the LAGBs are also related to plastic translate to be larger than 15°, which is the
deformation. A similar conclusion has been interfaces with local misorientation angles (θ) of
obtained by PATNAMSETTY et al [42] that DRX HAGBs (exceeding 15°) and LAGBs (2°−15°) [43].
grains undergo simultaneous deformation, and then This process is because the misorientations of the
 Jun-zhou YANG, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 33(2023) 777−788 781

Fig. 5 Grain boundary misorientation angle distributions

after tensile testing at 920 ℃ and 1×10−3 s−1: (a) ε=0.5;
Fig. 4 Microstructure constitutions after tensile testing at (b) ε=0.8; (c) ε=2.71
920 ℃ and 1×10−3 s−1: (a) ε=0.5; (b) ε=0.8; (c) ε=2.71
result shows discontinuous grain boundary angles
sub-grain boundaries gradually increase, and the in different regions, which may be caused by
proportion of LAGBs is reduced to 35%. To sum insufficient resolution in the EBSD tests. The gray
up, grain refinement is a process of grain boundary area is the α-phase, and the yellow area is the
redistribution. β-phase, which distributes at the junctions among
the HAGBs, or the sub-grains are surrounded by
3.3 Geometrically necessary dislocations and LAGBs and HAGBs. The GNDs density was also
LAGBs calculated with the technology of the MTEX
In Fig. 6(a), different grain boundary angles toolbox. MTEX is a free Matlab toolbox for
have been distinguished with several colors. This analyzing the EBSD results or pole figure data, and
782 Jun-zhou YANG, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 33(2023) 777−788
where the black lines are HAGBs, and the red lines
are LAGBs. After deformation, the dislocations in
the grains are mainly concentrated near the LAGBs,
which are inconsistent with initial dislocations near
the HAGBs. That is to say, the dislocations that lead
to the increase in the misorientation of the LAGBs
are partly from the migration of the HAGBs.

Fig. 7 KAM figure of Ti−6Al−4V alloy after tensile test

Fig. 6 Distribution of microstructures in Ti−6Al−4V at 920 ℃ and 1×10−2 s−1
alloy after tensile test at 920 ℃ and 1×10−2 s−1: (a) Grain
boundary misorientation; (b) GNDs distribution 4 Sub-grain rotation during CDRX
the method to estimate the dislocation densities via 4.1 Grain orientation and misorientation of
dislocation density tensors is referred to in the grain boundary
discussion by PANTLEON [44]. The details of the To further discuss the CDRX process, two
GNDs map for Ti−6Al−4V alloy at 920 ℃ and crystal grains (Grains A and B) are extracted
1×10−2 s−1 are given in Fig. 6(b). The evolutions of separately, as shown in Fig. 8. The CDRX process
the local misorientation are transformed by of Grain A is about to be completed, and three new
absorbing the nearby dislocations [45]. This shows recrystallized grains have been formed: A1, A2, and
that the distributions of LAGBs and the high GNDs A6, with three sub-grains A3, A4, and A5,
area overlap very well, so it can be inferred respectively. Grain B is still in the LAGBs
that the evolution of dislocation density during evolution process, and there are five sub-grains:
recrystallization is consistent with the evolution B1−B5. The orientation diagrams of Grains A and B
trend of GNDs. In other words, the LAGBs may be are obtained by MTEX tool, the hexagonal prisms
formed by GNDs. The LAGBs can prevent the are used to indicate the hexagonal close-packed
dislocation motions and accumulate the dislocation (HCP) crystal system, the yellow indicates the
densities, and the misorientation of the LAGBs (0001) crystal plane and the blue indicates the
increases and then converts into HAGBs. In (10 10) plane. For Grain B, there is no obvious
summary, the GNDs during the deformation are the change in the orientation between sub-grains, which
sources of LAGBs. Then, with the accumulation of are expressed by the same hexagonal prism. In the
dislocations at sub-grain boundaries, the LAGBs PF of Grain B, the orientation projections of
transfer into HAGBs, thus fine grains occur. Sub-grains B1−B4 are coincident. Therefore, the
LAGBs in grains do not have significant effects on
3.4 Evolution of KAM map the orientation of the crystal grains. On the contrary,
Figure 7 shows the KAM figure of Ti−6Al−4V there is a little difference in orientation between the
alloy after tensile tests at 920 ℃ and 1×10−2 s−1, recrystallized crystal grains from Grain A, and they
 Jun-zhou YANG, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 33(2023) 777−788 783

Fig. 8 Microstructure of Grains A and B after tensile test at 920 ℃ and 1×10−2 s−1: (a) Distributions of LAGBs and
HAGBs; (b) Orientation diagrams in MTEX

are described by three prisms. In the PF map of

Grain B, different sub-grain orientation projections
are more clearly described. Since A3−A5 are
divided by LAGBs, there is no obvious difference
in orientation between these three small grains.
Therefore, the following conclusions can be drawn:
during the evolution from LAGBs to HAGBs, the
rotation between recrystallized grains will occur.
Then, the misorientation angles of LAGBs and
HAGBs are also given in Fig. 9. In Grain A, the
dotted arrow L1 is A6 pointing to A1. The passing
grain boundaries are: 19.64°/ 〈 2 1 11〉 , 54.80°/
〈 514 3〉 , and 30.15° / 〈0221〉. The misorientation
angle of the first HAGB at 2.23 μm is 19.64°, Fig. 9 Misorientation angles along L1 in Grain A (a) and
which is very close to the critical angle of 15°. It L2 in Grain B (b) in Fig. 8(a)
can be considered that this grain has just been
formed, but its orientation is already different from the static grain growth, dynamic grain growth, and
the parent grain. To some extent, it shows that there CDRX. As is listed in Eq. (1), a constitutive model
are sub-grain rotations during the CDRX. Since the is employed to describe the evolution of grain size
grain refinement within Grain B is not completed, and grain boundary misorientations, which is based
only LAGBs are observed to pass through the on the literature [36,46−48].
L2 (B5 to B2) path: 9.01°/ 〈 1 12 1 〉 , 3.13°/ 〈 1 129〉 ,
d = β1d − γ1 + β2εp d − γ2 − β3 ρ γ4 d − γ3
and 3.38°/ 〈 4 150〉. Besides, the misorientation 
angles of the LAGBs are larger than those of the=  ρ β4 ( S H 0 / S H ) γ5 (1 − ρ )εp − α1 ρ γ6 − α2 S ρ γ7
nearby areas, showing local peaks. This indicates 
 SL =α4 ρ γ8 εp − β5 S Lθsub −
that nearby dislocations, residual dislocations of 
insufficient DRV will move to the positions of 
γθ
α3 S L 2θsub (1 − ln θsub ) ρ γ9 − α5 S L ρ γ10 S H (1)
LAGBs during the formation.   2 γθ γ9
 S H =β5 S Lθsub + α3 S L θsub (1 − ln θsub ) ρ −

4.2 Constitutive model for CDRX  α2 SH 2 ρ γ10
During the superplastic deformation of Ti−  γ11 2
6Al−4V alloy, the grain growth will be affected by θsub = α6εp ρ S L θsub (θ rθsub − 1)ln(nθsub )
 784 Jun-zhou YANG, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 33(2023) 777−788
where d is the grain size, SH and SL represent the reported: Kg=5.4×10−4 K−1, θc=15° [46,49]. The
areas of HAGBs and LAGBs, respectively. γi and γθ other material parameters are needed to be
are the material constants. SH0 is the initial SH for determined by the multi-objective genetic algorithm
annealed material. ρ is normalized dislocation (GA) [50], and the results are listed in Table 2.
density, and defined by ρ =(ρ−ρi)/ρs, ρi is the initial
dislocation density, and ρs is the saturated 4.3 Calculation by constitutive model
dislocation. θsub is the normalized misorientation The comparison between the experimental data
angle, θsub =θsub/θc, and θc is the critical mis- and predicted results of grain sizes is presented in
orientation angle. θr=θc/θsat, θsat is the steady value Fig. 10. Dots represent the experimental grain sizes,
of the average misorientation angle for sub-grains, and the solid line represents the prediction results.
and θsat=4°−8°; n=θc/θm, θm is the misorientation Besides, the grain size−strain curves obtained by
angle for grain boundaries with maximum energy, the tensile tests at 890 ℃ and 1×10−3 s−1 also
and θm=20°−25°. The temperature-dependent validate the effectiveness of the constitutive model,
parameters are denoted as follows: as shown in Fig. 10(a) in the dotted line. It shows
  Q  that a good agreement for experimental data and
α1
= Cα1 exp  − a  calculated results has been obtained. Thus, the
  RT 
 Cα2 constitutive model established in this work can
 Q 
=α2 exp  − K gT − b  describe the microstructure evolution for Ti−
 T  RT 
6Al−4V alloy during the superplastic forming.
 Cα3 Q 
=  Figure 11 describes the ratio of HAGBs area to
α3 exp  − K gT − b 
 T  RT  GBs area for the deformation of Ti−6Al−4V alloy
 (2)
α  Q  at 920 ℃. For ε =1×10−2 s−1, the ratio of HAGBs
=
 4 Cα4 exp  − a 
 RT  area to the GBs area increases with the deformation

  Q  process. It is indicated that there is larger a HAGBs
α5
= Cα5 exp  − a  area, which is due to lots of sub-grain boundaries
  RT 

evolving into grain boundaries caused by CDRX.
 Q 
α6
= Cα6 exp  − a  After recrystallization, the number of fine grains
  RT 
increases, and the area of HAGBs increases.
where Qa is the thermal activation energy, The evolution of the normalized misorientation
and Qb is the activation energy of grain boundary angle θ  sub is given in Fig. 12. The normalized
self-diffusion. Some material constants have been misorientation increases with the increase of strain

Table 2 Parameters optimized for grain size constitutive model

β1 β2 β3 β4 β5 Cα1 Cα2 Cα3 Cα4
27.57 24.42 5.31 1.59 0.072 0.11 2530793 293994.5 2.24
Cα5 Cα6 θr γ1 γ2 γ3 γ4 γ5 γ6
40535.45 4154124 0.95 1.27 0.38 1.46 0.46 0.02 0.51
γ7 γ8 γ9 γ10 γ11 n γθ Qa/(J·mol−1) Qb/(J·mol−1)
3.28 0.04 0.40 3.51 0.25 1.05 1.48 46980.8 21737.98

Fig. 10 Comparison between experimental data and predicted results: (a) 890 ℃; (b) 920 ℃; (c) 950 ℃
 Jun-zhou YANG, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 33(2023) 777−788 785
LAGBs increases to a saturated value, the
dislocation motion is not capable of driving the
evolution of LAGBs, so the gap between the
saturated misorientation and critical value (15°)
must rely on the sub-grain rotation. Therefore, in
the process of grain refinement, the misorientation
of LAGBs increases to a saturated value, which
is numerically less than 15°. The evolution of
misorientation during the CDRX process can be
divided into two stages: (1) evolution by dislocation
movement before the saturated misorientation;
(2) evolution by sub-grain rotation between the
saturated and critical misorientations.
Fig. 11 Ratio of HAGBs area to GBs area for Ti−6Al−4V
alloy at 920 ℃ 4.4 Evolution mechanism of grain boundary
misorientation during CDRX
The evolution mechanism of CDRX is
illustrated in Fig. 13. During the superplastic
deformation of Ti−6Al−4V alloy, the CDRX
process is essentially the conversion of the area
between HAGBs and LAGBs. The evolution of the
grain boundary misorientation is caused by the
redistribution of GNDs density, which is affected by
the dislocation movement. Firstly, there is a
phenomenon of mutual migration between the
LAGBs and the HAGBs, and the HAGBs will also
sweep the LAGBs of the path during the migration
process. Secondly, dislocations near LAGBs tend
Fig. 12 Evolution of normalized misorientation angle to accumulate towards LAGSs and increase the
θ  sub by constitutive model at 920 ℃ misorientation. Thirdly, the rotation will occur
between sub-grains, which will also promote the
rate. For the CDRX at the strain rate of 1×10−2 s−1, evolution from LAGBs to HAGBs. Besides, the
the misorientation of LAGBs gradually increases, sub-grain rotation will be observed before the
and the reason for this is that this process requires completion of the CDRX process. Particularly, the
deformation accumulation. The grain rotation has first two mechanisms are dominant until the grain
been discussed in other papers, but the sub-grain boundary misorientation reaches a saturated value;
rotation is always ignored, which is well verified by otherwise, the sub-grain rotation will be activated.
the calculation results of normalized misorientation
angle. The normalized misorientation angle will
reach a stable value after increasing to 0.78, in other
words, the maximum LAGBs misorientation angle
is about 11.7°. This phenomenon can be explained
as follows: In the CDRX process, the sub-grain will
rotate when the misorientation angle of LAGBs
increases to a value less than 15°. The θsub of
Sub-grain B5 is 9.01° in Fig. 9, which does not
reach the θsub=15° for the critical value of new
recrystallized grains. However, Sub-grain B5 has
been verified in a different orientation from the Fig. 13 Mechanism of evolution for LAGBs and HAGBs
parent grain in Fig. 8. When the misorientation of during CDRX
786 Jun-zhou YANG, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 33(2023) 777−788
Superplastic deformation behavior of Ti−4Al−2V alloy
5 Conclusions governed by its structure and precipitation phase evolution
[J]. Materials Science and Engineering A, 2018, 731:
577−582.
(1) The mechanism of the CDRX has been [8] WANG Gang, ZHANG Wen-cong, ZHANG Gong-lei,
discussed, especially in the sub-grain rotation. XU Zhi-liang. Superplastic formability of Ti−6Al−4V
(2) During the superplastic deformation at butt-welded plate by laser beam welding [J]. Transactions of
890−950 ℃, the CDRX is the dominant mechanism Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 2009, 19(2): 429−433.
[9] WU Yong, WU Di-peng, MA Jia, XIAO Wen-chao, ZHENG
with the redistribution of GNDs densities.
Kai-lun, CHEN Min-he. A physically based constitutive
(3) The migrations of the LAGBs and HAGBs model of Ti−6Al−4 V and application in the SPF/DB process
occur simultaneously, meaning that the fine grains for a pyramid lattice sandwich panel [J]. Archives of Civil
are recrystallized when the LAGBs transform to the and Mechanical Engineering, 2021, 21: 1−17.
HAGBs. [10] ALABORT E, KONTIS P, BARBA D, DRAGNEVSKI K,
(4) The sub-grain rotation starts playing a REED R C. On the mechanisms of superplasticity in
Ti−6Al−4V [J]. Acta Materialia, 2016, 105: 449−463.
significant role after the LAGBs misorientation
[11] YAKOVTSEVA O A, MIKHAYLOVSKAYA A V, MOCHU-
reaches the saturated values, which has been GOVSKIY A G, CHEVERIKIN V V, PORTNOY V K.
verified by observed results before the critical Superplastic deformation mechanisms in high magnesium
misorientation. contenting aluminum alloy [J]. Materials Science Forum,
2016, 838/839: 66−71.
Acknowledgments [12] DUAN Yu-lu, XU Guo-fu, ZHOU Li-qi, XIAO Dan, DENG
Ying, YIN Zhi-min, PENG Bing, PAN Qing-lin, WANG
The authors are grateful for the financial
Ying-jun, LU Li-ying. Achieving high superplasticity of a
support from the Key Research and Development traditional thermal-mechanical processed non-superplastic
Program of Shaanxi Province, China (No. Al−Zn−Mg alloy sheet by low Sc additions [J]. Journal of
2020ZDLGY01-05). Alloys and Compounds, 2015, 638: 364−373.
[13] KOTOV A D, MIKHAYLOVSKAYA A V, KISHCHIK M
References S, TSARKOV A A, AKSENOV S A, PORTNOY V K.
Superplasticity of high-strength Al-based alloys produced
by thermomechanical treatment [J]. Journal of Alloys and
[1] YASMEEN T, ZHAO Bing, ZHENG Jing-hua, TIAN
Compounds, 2016, 688: 336−344.
Fa-min, LIN Jian-guo, JIANG Jun. The study of flow
[14] MIKHAYLOVSKAYA A V, YAKOVTSEVA O A,
behavior and governing mechanisms of a titanium alloy
GOLOVIN I S, POZDNIAKOV A V, PORTNOY V K.
during superplastic forming [J]. Materials Science and
Superplastic deformation mechanisms in fine-grained
Engineering A, 2020, 788: 139482.
Al−Mg based alloys [J]. Materials Science and Engineering
[2] ZHU Yun-long, ZHAO Qing-long, JIANG Qi-chuan, LIU
A, 2015, 627: 31−41.
Xiao, GENG Run, WANG Bao. Improved strength-ductility
[15] MIKHAYLOVSKAYA A V, YAKOVTSEVA O A,
of Ti−6Al−4V casting alloys with trace addition of TiC−TiB2
SITKINA M N, KOTOV A D, IRZHAK A V, KRYMSKIY
nanoparticles [J]. Nanomaterials, 2020, 10(12): 2330.
S V, PORTNOY V K. Comparison between superplastic
[3] BANERJEE D, WILLIAMS J C. Perspectives on titanium
deformation mechanisms at primary and steady stages of the
science and technology [J]. Acta Materialia, 2013, 61(3):
844−879. fine grain AA7475 aluminium alloy [J]. Materials Science
[4] KOPEC M, WANG Ke-huan, POLITIS D J, WANG Yao- and Engineering A, 2018, 718: 277−286.
qi, WANG Li-liang, LIN Jian-guo. Formability and [16] RUST M A, TODD R I. Surface studies of region II
microstructure evolution mechanisms of Ti6Al4V alloy superplasticity of AA5083 in shear: Confirmation of
during a novel hot stamping process [J]. Materials Science diffusion creep, grain neighbour switching and absence of
and Engineering A, 2018, 719: 72−81. dislocation activity [J]. Acta Materialia, 2011, 59:
[5] LIU Jian, KHAN A S, TAKACS L, MEREDITH C S. 5159−5170.
Mechanical behavior of ultrafine-grained/nanocrystalline [17] MASUDA H, SATO E. Diffusional and dislocation
titanium synthesized by mechanical milling plus accommodation mechanisms in superplastic materials [J].
consolidation: Experiments, modeling and simulation [J]. Acta Materialia, 2020, 197: 235−252.
International Journal of Plasticity, 2015, 64: 151−163. [18] YANG Jun-zhou, WU Jian-jun. Grain rotation accommodated
[6] LIN Peng, XI Xian-zheng, ZHAO Wen-kai, YANG Rui- GBS mechanism for the Ti−6Al−4V alloy during
hong, LIN Fei, CUI Xiao-lei, LIU Gang. Microstructure and superplastic deformation [J]. Crystals, 2021, 11(8): 991.
mechanical properties of Ti−6Al−4V/Ti−22Al−25Nb joint [19] TAYLOR S, WEST G D, MOGIRE E, TANG F, KOTADIA
formed by diffusion bonding [J]. Transactions of Nonferrous H R. Superplastic forming characteristics of AZ41
Metals Society of China, 2021, 31(5): 1339−1349. magnesium alloy [J]. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals
[7] RATOCHKA I, LYKOVA O, MISHIN I, NAYDENKIN E. Society of China, 2021, 31(3): 648−654.
 Jun-zhou YANG, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 33(2023) 777−788 787
[20] SITDIKOV O, AVTOKRATOVA E, LATYPOVA O, processing map, and mesoscale microstructural evolution
MARKUSHEV M. Structure, strength and superplasticity of modeling of a Ti-17 alloy with a lamellar (α+β) starting
ultrafine-grained 1570C aluminum alloy subjected to microstructure [J]. Science and Technology of Advanced
different thermomechanical processing routes based on Materials, 2017, 18(1): 893−904.
severe plastic deformation [J]. Transactions of Nonferrous [32] MATSUMOTO H, YAMANAKA K, CHIBA A, YAMABE-
Metals Society of China, 2021, 31(4): 887−900. MITARAI Y, ITSUMI Y. Macro-mesoscale microstructural
[21] YANG Jun-zhou, WU Jian-jun, ZHANG Qian-wen, HAN evolution modeling under hot forging of a Ti-17 alloy with a
Ruo-lan, WANG Kai-wei. Investigation of flow behavior lamellar (α+β) starting microstructure [C]//Proceedings of
and microstructure of Ti−6Al−4V with annealing treatment the 14th World Conference on Titanium. Nantes, France,
during superplastic forming [J]. Materials Science and 2020.
Engineering A, 2020, 797: 140046. [33] LUO Jiao, LI Miao-quan, LI Xiao-li, SHI Yan-pei.
[22] ALABORT E, BARBA D, SHAGIEV M R, MURZINOVA Constitutive model for high temperature deformation of
M A, GALEYEV R M, VALIAKHMETOV O R. Alloys- titanium alloys using internal state variables [J]. Mechanics
by-design: Application to titanium alloys for optimal of Materials, 2010, 42(2): 157−165.
superplasticity [J]. Acta Materialia, 2019, 178: 275−287. [34] YANG Jun-zhou, WU Jian-jun, YANG Dong-shen, WANG
[23] FAKHAR N, SABBAGHIAN M, NAGY P, FEKETE K, Qi-shuai, WANG Kai-wei, ZHANG Zeng-kun. A modified
GUBICZA J. Superior low-temperature superplasticity in constitutive model with grain rotation for superplastic
fine-grained ZK60 Mg alloy sheet produced by a forming of Ti−6Al−4V alloy [J]. Journal of Engineering
combination of repeated upsetting process and sheet Materials and Technology, 2020, 142: 1−13.
extrusion [J]. Materials Science and Engineering A, 2021, [35] GOURDET S, MONTHEILLET F. A model of continuous
819: 141444. dynamic recrystallization [J]. Acta Materialia, 2003, 51(9):
[24] YANG Wen-peng, GUO Xue-peng, YANG Kai-jun. Low 2685−2699.
temperature quasi-superplasticity of ZK60 alloy prepared by [36] SUN Z C, WU H L, CAO J, YIN Z K. Modeling of
reciprocating extrusion [J]. Transactions of Nonferrous continuous dynamic recrystallization of Al−Zn−Cu−Mg
Metals Society of China, 2012, 22(2): 255−261. alloy during hot deformation based on the internal-state-
[25] SHI Xiao-hui, CAO Zu-han, FAN Zhi-yuan, ECKERT J, variable (ISV) method [J]. International Journal of Plasticity,
QIAO Jun-wei. Static coarsening behavior of equiaxed α 2018, 106: 73−87.
phase in Ti−8Al−1Mo−1V alloy [J]. Transactions of [37] LI Yi-bo, GU Bin, JIANG Shuai, LIU Yao-qiong, SHI
Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 2021, 31(6): Zhu-sheng, LIN Jian-guo. A CDRX-based material model
1628−1640. for hot deformation of aluminium alloys [J]. International
[26] CHUVILʹDEEV V N, GRYAZNOV M Y, SHOTIN S V, Journal of Plasticity, 2020, 134: 102844.
KOPYLOV VI, NOKHRIN A V, LIKHNITSKII C V, [38] WU Yong, FAN Rong-lei, CHEN Ming-he, WANG Ke-huan,
MURASHOV A A , BOBROV A A, TABACHKOVA N Y, ZHAO Jie, XIAO Wen-chao. High-temperature anisotropic
PIROZHNIKOVA O E. Investigation of superplasticity and behaviors and microstructure evolution mechanisms of a
dynamic grain growth in ultrafine-grained Al−0.5%Mg−Sc near-α Ti-alloy sheet [J]. Materials Science and Engineering
alloys [J]. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2021, 877: A, 2021, 820: 141560.
160099. [39] BAO Jian-xing, LV Shou-dan, ZHANG Mei-wei, SHAN
[27] ALABORT E, PUTMAN D, REED R C. Superplasticity in De-bin, GUO Bin, XU Jie. Multi-scale coupling effects on
Ti−6Al−4V: Characterisation, modelling and applications [J]. flow localization during micro-compression deformation of
Acta Materialia, 2015, 95: 428−442. Ti−6Al−4V alloy [J]. Materials Science and Engineering A,
[28] LIU Jin-xue, LIU Ke, DU Wen-bo, LI Shu-bo, WANG 2020, 793: 139888.
Zhao-hui, DU Xiao, SUN Cui-cui. Effect of temperature on [40] LI Dong-peng, ZHANG Duan-zheng, LIU Sheng-dan,
microstructure and texture evolution of Mg−Zn−Er alloy SHAN Zhao-jun, ZHANG Xin-ming, WANG Qin, WANG
during hot compression [J]. Transactions of Nonferrous Qin, HAN Su-qi. Dynamic recrystallization behavior of 7085
Metals Society of China, 2018, 28(11): 2214−2225. aluminum alloy during hot deformation [J]. Transactions of
[29] QIANG Feng-ming, BOUZY E, KOU Hong-chao, Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 2016, 26(6):
ZHANG Yu-dong, WANG Ling-ling, LI Jin-shan. 1491−1497.
Grain fragmentation associated continuous dynamic [41] DRIVER J. The limitations of continuous dynamic
recrystallization (CDRX) of hexagonal structure during recrystallization (CDRX) of aluminium alloys [J]. Materials
uniaxial isothermal compression: High-temperature α phase Letters, 2018, 222: 135−137.
in TiAl alloys [J]. Intermetallics, 2021, 129: 107028. [42] PATNAMSETTY M, SOMANI M C, GHOSH S, AHMED
[30] YAMANE G, AVOTRINIAINA F, IMAI H, SONG L, S, PEURA P. Processing map for controlling microstructure
VIDAL V, MATSUMOTO H, VELAY V. Experimental and unraveling various deformation mechanisms during hot
study of the superplastic and hot deformation mechanisms of working of CoCrFeMnNi high entropy alloy [J]. Materials
a Ti−6Al−2Sn−4Zr−2Mo titanium alloy [C]//Proceedings of Science and Engineering A, 2020, 793: 139840.
the 14th World Conference on Titanium. Nantes, France, [43] ZHAO Shi-lin, ZHANG Hai-ming, CUI Zhen-shan, CHEN
2020. Dong, CHEN Zhe. Superplastic behavior of an in-situ TiB2
[31] MATSUMOTO H, NAITO D, MIYOSHI K, YAMANAKA particle reinforced aluminum matrix composite processed
K, CHIBA A, YAMABE-MITARAI Y. Forging property, by elliptical cross-section torsion extrusion [J]. Materials
788 Jun-zhou YANG, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 33(2023) 777−788
Characterization, 2021, 178: 111243. of dislocation-based unified material model for simulating
[44] PANTLEON W. Resolving the geometrically necessary microstructure evolution in multipass hot rolling [J].
dislocation content by conventional electron backscattering Philosophical Magazine, 2005, 85: 1967−1987.
diffraction [J]. Scripta Materialia, 2008, 58(11): 994−997. [48] LU Y, ARISTIZABAL M, WANG X, PANG B, CHIU Y L,
[45] HUANG Lin-jie, QI Feng, YU Lian-xu, XIN Xin, LIU Fang, KLOENNE Z T, FRASER H L, LORETTO M H. The
SUN Wen-ru, HU Zhuang-qi. Necking behavior and influence of heat treatment on the microstructure and
microstructural evolution during high strain rate superplastic properties of HIPped Ti−6Al−4V [J]. Acta Materialia, 2019,
deformation of IN718 superalloy [J]. Materials Science and 165: 520−527.
Engineering A, 2015, 634: 71−76. [49] DUAN X, SHEPPARD T. Simulation of substructural
[46] BEUCIA B, QUEYREAU S, KAHLOUN C, CHAUBET D, strengthening in hot flat rolling [J]. Journal of Materials
FRANCIOSI P, BACROIX B. Plastic strain-induced grain Processing Technology, 2002, 125/126: 179−187.
boundary migration (SIBM) in pure aluminum: SEM in-situ [50] LIN Jian-guo, YANG Jian-bo. GA-based multiple objective
and AFM examinations [J]. International Journal of Plasticity, optimization for determining viscoplastic constitutive
2019, 115: 29−55. equations for superplastic alloys [J]. International Journal of
[47] LIN J, LIU Y, FARRUGIA D C J, ZHOU M. Development Plasticity, 1999, 15(11): 1181−1196.

Ti−6Al−4V 钛合金超塑成形
连续动态再结晶机理及亚晶粒转动
杨俊宙，吴建军，谢海南，李志国，王凯伟

西北工业大学 机电学院，西安 710072

摘 要：研究 Ti−6Al−4V 合金在超塑性成形过程中的连续动态再结晶机理，并重点研究取向差演变机制。在温度

为 890、920 和 950 ℃，应变速率为 10−4~10−2 s−1 的条件下进行拉伸试验，采用电子背散射衍射与本构模型相结合
的方法描述显微组织演变。几何必需位错在小角晶界处形成过程中起作用。此外，小角晶界转化为大角晶界的机
制包括：(1)大角晶界向小角晶界的迁移；(2)由动态回复不充分的残余位错在小角晶界处聚集；(3)亚晶粒的旋转
也会促进晶粒形核。基于物理本构模型的计算结果，验证在小角晶界转变为大角晶界前亚晶粒会发生旋转。特别
地，在晶界角取向差的演化过程中，位错运动在取向差达到饱和值前起主导作用，否则亚晶粒旋转将起主导作用。
关键词：连续动态再结晶；亚晶粒旋转；晶界角取向差；超塑变形
(Edited by Wei-ping CHEN)