ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY

ISLAMABAD

Course: Educational Statistics

Course Code: 8614
Assignment: 01
Autumn 2022

Name Amna Tahira

User idy 0000078570

Corse Code 8614
Program B. ED (1.5 Years)
Semester Autumn, 2022
1
 Question # 01
Why is Statistics important for a teacher or researcher?
Definitions of Statistics:
“Statistics comprises the collection, tabulation, presentation and analysis
of an aggregate of the facts, collected in methodical manner, without bias
and related to predetermined purpose.” – Sutcliffe
word “statistics” is derived from the Latin word “status”, which means
political condition or status. Hence, it follows that the method of
enumeration by which a state,’ condition is known called statistics. And is
reality it is through statistics that we find out a state, population and its
various sources of income and expenditure.

According to Prof. A.L. Bowley:

“Statistics may be called the science of counting.”

According to Boddington:
“Statistics is the science of estimates and probabilities.”

According to Lovitt:
“Statistics is the science which deals with the collection, classification
and tabulation of numerical facts as the basis for explanation, description
and comparison of phenomena.”
Tate, M.N. is statistics in Education (1953) has very beautifully summed up
the concept of statistics as It’s all perfectly clear; you complete statistics
(means, medians, modes etc.) from statistics (numerical facts) by
statistics (statistics as a science or methodology).

2
Characteristics of Statistics

Following are the characteristics of statistics

 Statistics consists of aggregate facts

The facts which can be studied in relation to time, place or

frequency can be called statistics. A single isolated and
unconnected fact or figure is not statistics because we cannot
study it in relation to other facts and figures. Only aggregate of
facts e.g. academic achievement of the students, I.Q. of a
group of students, weight of students in a class, profit of a firm
etc. are called statistics.

 Multiple causes affect Statistics

A phenomena may be affected by so many factors. We cannot

study the effects of one factor on the phenomena only by
ignoring others. To have a true picture we will have to study the
effects of all factors on the phenomena separately as well as
collectively, because effects of the factors can change with
change of place, time or situation. For example, we can say that
result of class X in board examination does not depend on any
single factor but collectively on standard of teachers, teaching
methods, teaching aids, practical’s performance of students,
standard of question papers, environment of the examination
hall, exam supervisory staff and standard of evaluation of
answers after the examination.

3
  Data should be numerically expressed, enumerated of
estimated

Data to be called statistics should be numerically expressed so

that counting or measurement of data can be made possible. It
means that the data or the fact must be in quantitative form as
achievement scores 60, 50, 85, 78, and 91 out of 100. If it is not
in quantitative form, it should be quantified.

 Statistics are enumerated or estimated according to

reasonable standard of accuracy

For a clear picture of the phenomena under investigation, it

should be researched using reasonable standard of accuracy
depending upon the nature and purpose of collection of data.
Data collection should be free from personal prejudices and
biases. Biased and personally prejudiced data leads to
inaccurate conclusion

Importance and Uses of Statistics for Teachers and Researches:

1. Group Comparison:
The achievements of a class are not uniform in every subject. It is found
that one class is progressing faster is one subject, while another is
progressing is a different one. Even the various sections of a particular
class do not progress uniformly.

2. Individual Comparison:
Statistics helps in the individual comparison of students differing in respect
of their ages, abilities and intelligence levels. It is statistics which tells us
why thus students who are similar in every other respect yet do not show
similar achievement is one particular subject.

3. Educational and Vocational Guidance:

Every individual student differs from others in his intellectual ability,
interests, attitude and mental abilities students are given educational and

4
vocational guidance so that they make the best use of these abilities and
the process of guidance is based upon statistics only.

4. Educational Experiments and Research:

With a change in place, line and circumstances, the aims, curricula and
methods of education keep on changing. The work of research and
experimentation cannot become reliable and valid without the use of
statistics.

5. Essential for Professional Efficiency:

The teacher’s responsibility does not end when he teaches a particular
subject in the classroom. His responsibility includes teaching the students,
obtaining the desired level of knowledge for himself and assessing the
achievement of modification in behaviour also.

6. Basis of Scientific Approach to Problems:

Statistics forms the basis of scientific approach to problems of
Educational Psychology.

Question # 02
Discuss different types of data. Also elaborate
differences between primary and secondary data.
Primary Data Definition
Primary data is the data that is collected for the first time through personal
experiences or evidence, particularly for research. It is also described as
raw data or first-hand information. The mode of assembling the
information is costly, as the analysis is done by an agency or an external
organization, and needs human resources and investment. The investigator
supervises and controls the data collection process directly.
The data is mostly collected through observations, physical testing, mailed
questionnaires, surveys, personal interviews, telephonic interviews, case
5
studies, and focus groups, etc.
Pros

 Primary data is specific to the needs of the researcher at the moment

of data collection. The researcher is able to control the kind of data
that is being collected.
 It is accurate compared to secondary data. The data is not subjected
to personal bias and as such the authenticity can be trusted.
 The researcher exhibits ownership of the data collected
through primary research. He or she may choose to make it available
publicly, patent it, or even sell it.
 Primary data is usually up to date because it collects data in real-time
and does not collect data from old sources. 
 The researcher has full control over the data collected
through primary research. He can decide which design, method, and
data analysis techniques to be used.

Cons

 Primary data is very expensive compared to secondary data.

Therefore, it might be difficult to collect primary data.
 It is time-consuming.
 It may not be feasible to collect primary data in some cases due to its
complexity and required commitment.

Secondary Data Definition

Secondary data is a second-hand data that is already collected and
recorded by some researchers for their purpose, and not for the current
research problem. It is accessible in the form of data collected from
different sources such as government publications, censuses, internal
records of the organization, books, journal articles, websites and reports,
etc.
This method of gathering data is affordable, readily available, and saves
cost and time. However, the one disadvantage is that the information

6
assembled is for some other purpose and may not meet the present
research purpose or may not be accurate.
Pros

 Secondary data is easily accessible compared to primary data.

Secondary data is available on different platforms that can be
accessed by the researcher.
 Secondary data is very affordable. It requires little to no cost to
acquire them because they are sometimes given out for free.
 The time spent on collecting secondary data is usually very little
compared to that of primary data. 
 Secondary data makes it possible to carry out longitudinal studies
without having to wait for a long time to draw conclusions. 
 It helps to generate new insights into existing primary data.

Cons 

 Secondary data may not be authentic and reliable. A researcher may

need to further verify the data collected from the available sources.
 Researchers may have to deal with irrelevant data before finally
finding the required data.
 Some of the data is exaggerated due to the personal bias of the data
source.
 Secondary data sources are sometimes outdated with no new data to
replace the old ones. 

7
The differences between the primary and secondary data are represented
in a comparison format as follows:
Primary Data Secondary Data
 Definition Primary data are those Secondary data refer
that are collected for to those data that have
the first time. already been collected
by some other person.
 Originality These are original These are not original
because these are because someone else
collected by the has collected these for
investigator for the his own purpose.
first time.
 Nature of Data These are in the form These are in the
of raw materials finished form.
 Reliability and These are more These are less reliable
Suitability reliable and suitable and less suitable as
for the enquiry someone else has
because these are collected the data
collected for a which may not
particular purpose. perfectly match our
purpose.
 Time and Money Collecting primary data Secondary data

8
 is quite expensive both requires less time and
in the terms of time money; hence it is
and money. economical.
 Precaution and No particular Both precaution and
Editing precaution or editing is editing are essential as
required while using secondary data were
the primary data as collected by someone
these were collected else for his own
with a definite purpose.
purpose.

Question # 03
Explain ‘pictogram’ as a technique to explore/explain data.
What is a pictogram?
Pictograms are types of charts and graphs that use icons and images to
represent data. Also known as “pictographs”, “icon charts”, “picture charts”,
and “pictorial unit charts”, pictograms use a series of repeated icons to
visualize simple data. The icons are arranged in a single line or a grid, with
each icon representing a certain number of units (usually 1, 10, or 100). A
pictogram is one of the simplest and most popular forms of data
visualization out there. Besides making your data look nice, pictograms
can make your data more memorable.

Visually stacking icons to represent simple data can improve a reader’s

recall of that data and even their level of engagement with that data.
Pictograms can also be a fun addition to any infographic.
When to use a pictogram
Pictograms can come in handy quite often when visualizing data
in infographics, reports, presentations, and even resumes!
You can use a pictogram whenever you want to make simple data more
visually interesting, more memorable, or more engaging. Whether you want
to show the magnitude of an important stat or visualize a fraction or

9
percentage, you can use pictograms to add visual impact to simple data.
How To Make a Pictogram?

Below are some important points in creating a pictogram:

 Collect the data

The first step in creating a pictograph is to gather the relevant data that we
want to show. Once the data has been collected, arrange it in a table or list.
The data categories must also be correctly specified. 

 Selecting the appropriate symbols

Select visual representations for the data, such as symbols or images. The
most relevant symbols or visual representations of the provided data must
be used. Fractions can be drawn for the symbols if the frequency is not
a whole number.

 Assign a key 

Use a key to indicate the value of each image when displaying the data
using images because one image cannot adequately depict the data if the
frequency of the data is too high. As a result, the “key” numerical value,
which must also be written with the pictograph, is used.

 Use columns

When making a pictogram, use columns to indicate the category and data.
Create a pictogram that represents the frequency of data using symbols
and/or images. 

 Examine the data 

Once the pictograph has been created, check that the categories or
labelling and the images must accurately reflect the data.

Consider the avocado, coconut, lemon, mango, orange, and pear trees
found on a farm. Let us create a pictogram that displays how many trees

10
 are on a farm.

 Collect the data

The data gathered are shown in the table below. The count and tree types
are presented.

Avocado Coconut Lemon Mango Orange Pear

20 35 15 25 10 30

 Selecting the appropriate symbols

We will use the symbol   as a visual representation of trees. Selecting

an image for the symbol is important and should be relevant to the data
collected.

 Assign a key 

Since the given data is a multiple of 5, we will represent each symbol equal

to 5 trees. So, we have,    = 5 trees. You might want to use a different

symbol’s numerical equivalent. Just be sure that your images’ final count
corresponds to the number of trees.

 Use columns

In constructing the pictograph for the data collected, we will use two
columns. The labels in the first column are the types of trees. The second
column indicates the number of trees.

Types of Trees Number of Trees

11
Avocado

Coconut

Lemon

Mango

Orange

 = 5 trees

 Examine the data 

Regarding the data gathered, each row must accurately reflect the total
number of trees in each category. There should be four trees as there are a
total of 20 avocado trees. Seven trees will be used to represent the coconut,
three for the lemons, five for the mango, two for the orange, and six for the
pear. 

Types of Trees Number of Trees

Avocado

Coconut

12
Lemon

Mango

Orange

Pear

 = 5 trees

We have now successfully made the pictograph of the number of trees on

the farm.

Using addition, let us show the accuracy of the numbers:

Avocado 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 = 20

Coconut 5 + 5 +5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 = 35

Lemon 5 + 5 + 5 =15

Mango 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 = 25

Orange 5 + 5 = 10

13
 Pear 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 =30 

Why Do People Use Pictograms?

Pictograms are used for a variety of reasons, some of which are described
below. 

( 1 ) Pictograms can be used to add visual significance to simple data,

whether you wish to represent a fraction or % or indicate the size of an
important statistic.
( 2 ) When visualizing data in infographics, reports, presentations, and even
resumes, pictograms can be quite useful. Pictograms can also be eye-
catching and exceptionally clean, making them more pleasing to the eye.
( 3 ) Pictogram is useful when you want to make straightforward
information more aesthetically appealing, memorable, or engaging.
Readers can quickly determine what a chart is attempting to convey since
they can read charts more easily than any other type of data display.
( 4 ) Since pictograms are very visual and typically simple to comprehend
and interpret, pictograms are an excellent approach to educating kids
about data processing. Children can simply count the items to determine
the quantity of each item.
( 5 ) With the proper use of a key in the pictograph, children and adults can
easily deduce important information from the data presented.
( 6 ) Pictograms are also useful when you need an eye-catching visual but
don’t have access to a graphic designer because they are created from a
collection of icons.
( 7 ) Pictograms are used in much the same way outside of the classroom,
14
assisting viewers in connecting a bar chart to the concept it depicts. 
(8) People can better understand the meaning of numbers in situations like
when a huge number is involved. 
(9) Pictograms are used to summarize survey data, rate participants, and
show progress toward a goal.
(10) Pictograms may be used in advertisements to manage data and
display the general consensus on a given subject. Pictograms may be used
in ads to demonstrate a product’s level of appeal or a problem that it may
solve for consumers.

Question # 04
Pie Chart is a common way to depict data. Discuss its
usage and drawbacks
What is a Pie Chart?
The “pie chart” is also known as a “circle chart”, dividing the circular
statistical graphic into sectors or sections to illustrate the numerical
problems. Each sector denotes a proportionate part of the whole. To find
out the composition of something, Pie-chart works the best at that time. In
most cases, pie charts replace other graphs like the bar graph, line plots,
histograms, etc.

Formula
The pie chart is an important type of data representation. It contains
different segments and sectors in which each segment and sector of a pie
chart forms a specific portion of the total(percentage). The sum of all the
data is equal to 360°.
The total value of the pie is always 100%.

15
To work out with the percentage for a pie chart, follow the steps given
below:

 Categorize the data

 Calculate the total

 Divide the categories

 Convert into percentages

 Finally, calculate the degrees

Therefore, the pie chart formula is given as
(Given Data/Total value of Data) × 360°
 It is not mandatory to convert the given data into percentages until it is
specified. We can directly calculate the degrees for given data values and
draw the pie chart accordingly.
Uses of a pie charts
At its most basic, a pie chart is a two-dimensional circle divided into a few
slices. The chart as a whole represents the sum of all its data; individual
slices show each piece of data as a percentage of the whole.

16
If you create a pie chart showing product line performance, for example,
and you have two lines that each account for 50 percent of turnover, your
pie chart will simply have two halves. If there were a 75/25 split, the bigger
line would take up three quarters of the chart, leaving one quarter for the
other. Effects such as three-dimensional charting, slice pivoting and
dragging slices out of the circle adds emphasis to individual data sets and
makes charts more visually appealing.

Advantages

 The picture is simple and easy-to-understand

 Data can be represented visually as a fractional part of a whole

 It helps in providing an effective communication tool for the even

uninformed audience

17
  Provides a data comparison for the audience at a glance to give an
immediate analysis or to quickly understand information

 No need for readers to examine or measure underlying numbers

themselves, which can be removed by using this chart

 To emphasize a few points you want to make, you can manipulate

pieces of data in the pie chart

Disadvantages

 It becomes less effective if there are too many pieces of data to use

 If there are too many pieces of data. Even if you add data labels and
numbers may not help here, they themselves may become crowded
and hard to read

 As this chart only represents one data set, you need a series to
compare multiple sets

 This may make it more difficult for readers when it comes to analyze
and assimilate information quickly

Question # 05
What do you understand by ‘measure of dispersion’? Also
briefly discuss some common measures of dispersion.
What is Dispersion in Statistics?
Dispersion is the state of getting dispersed or spread. Statistical dispersion
means the extent to which numerical data is likely to vary about an average
value. In other words, dispersion helps to understand the distribution of the
data.

18
Measures of Dispersion
A measure of dispersion indicates the scattering of data. It explains the
disparity of data from one another, delivering a precise view of their
distribution. The measure of dispersion displays and gives us an idea about
the variation and the central value of an individual item.

In other words, dispersion is the extent to which values in a distribution

differ from the average of the distribution. It gives us an idea about the
extent to which individual items vary from one another, and from the
central value.

Types of Measures of Dispersion

There are two main types of dispersion methods in statistics which are:

 Absolute Measure of Dispersion

 Relative Measure of Dispersion

Absolute Measure of Dispersion

19
An absolute measure of dispersion contains the same unit as the original
data set. The absolute dispersion method expresses the variations in terms
of the average of deviations of observations like standard or means
deviations. It includes range, standard deviation, quartile deviation, etc.
The types of absolute measures of dispersion are:

1. Range: It is simply the difference between the maximum value and

the minimum value given in a data set. Example: 1, 3,5, 6, 7 => Range
= 7 -1= 6
2. Variance: Deduct the mean from each data in the set, square each of
them and add each square and finally divide them by the total no of
values in the data set to get the variance. Variance (σ2) = ∑(X−μ)2/N
3. Standard Deviation: The square root of the variance is known as the
standard deviation i.e., S.D. = √σ.
4. Quartiles and Quartile Deviation: The quartiles are values that divide
a list of numbers into quarters. The quartile deviation is half of the
distance between the third and the first quartile.
5. Mean and Mean Deviation: The average of numbers is known as the
mean and the arithmetic mean of the absolute deviations of the
observations from a measure of central tendency is known as the
mean deviation (also called mean absolute deviation).

Relative Measure of Dispersion

The relative measures of dispersion are used to compare the distribution of
two or more data sets. This measure compares values without units.
Common relative dispersion methods include:

1. Co-efficient of Range
2. Co-efficient of Variation
3. Co-efficient of Standard Deviation
4. Co-efficient of Quartile Deviation
5. Co-efficient of Mean Deviation

20
Co-efficient of Dispersion
The coefficients of dispersion are calculated (along with the measure of
dispersion) when two series are compared, that differ widely in their
averages. The dispersion coefficient is also used when two series with
different measurement units are compared. It is denoted as C.D.
The common coefficients of dispersion are:

C.D. in terms of Coefficient of dispersion

Range C.D. = (Xmax – Xmin) ⁄ (Xmax + Xmin)

Quartile Deviation C.D. = (Q3 – Q1) ⁄ (Q3 + Q1)

Standard Deviation (S.D.) C.D. = S.D. ⁄ Mean

Mean Deviation C.D. = Mean deviation/Average

Characteristics of a Good Measure of Dispersion

 It should be easy to calculate and simple to understand.

 It should be based on all the observations of the series.

 It should be rigidly defined.

 It should not be affected by extreme values.

 It should not be unduly affected by sampling fluctuations.

 It should be capable of further mathematical treatment and statistical

analysis.

21