Explosives and Blasting

MODULE 1: REACTION AND DEFINITION OF TERMS ............................................................................ 3

1.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS .................................................................................................................... 11
1.2 CHAIN REACTION SEQUENCE IN A BLAST ......................................................................................... 14
1.3 MISFIRES ...................................................................................................................................... 15
MODULE 2: EXPLOSIVES PROPERTIES, SELECTION CRITERIA AND TYPES OF EXPLOSIVES.... 16
2.1 EXPLOSIVES PROPERTIES AND SELECTION CRITERIA .............................................................................. 16
2.1.1 Velocity of Detonation: ............................................................................................................ 16
2.1.2 Strength: .................................................................................................................................. 16
2.1.3 Water Resistance: ................................................................................................................... 17
2.1.4 Sensitivity: ............................................................................................................................... 17
2.1.5 Fume Characteristics .............................................................................................................. 17
2.1.6 Density .................................................................................................................................... 17
2.1.7 Thermal Stability...................................................................................................................... 17
2.1.8 Flame properties ........................................................................................................................ 18
2.1.9 Critical diameter ......................................................................................................................... 18
2.2 TESTING FOR EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH ............................................................................................... 18
2.2.1 Pendulum test ............................................................................................................................ 18
2.3 TYPES OF EXPLOSIVES ......................................................................................................................... 19
2.3.1 Commercial Explosives ........................................................................................................... 19
2.3.2 Low Explosives........................................................................................................................ 20
2.3.3 High Explosives ....................................................................................................................... 20
2.4 CONSTITUENTS OF EXPLOSIVES ..................................................................................................... 21
2.5 CLASSES OF EXPLOSIVES ............................................................................................................... 22
2.6 INDUSTRIAL EXPLOSIVES ................................................................................................................ 23
2.7 EXPLOSIVES SELECTION IN COLLIERS AND FIERY MINES .................................................................. 25
2.7.1 Permitted explosives ............................................................................................................... 26
2.7.2 Explosives selection ................................................................................................................ 26
2.7.3 Types of explosives ................................................................................................................. 27
MODULE 3 BLASTING ACCESSORIES ................................................................................................... 41
3.0 EXPLOSIVES AND BLAST-INITIATION ACCESSORIES ........................................................................... 41
3.1 SAFETY FUSE ................................................................................................................................ 41
3.2 IGNITER CORD............................................................................................................................... 41
3.2.1 Igniter cord properties ............................................................................................................. 41
3.2.2 Sequential firing of shotholes .................................................................................................. 42
3.3 ELECTRIC STARTERS ..................................................................................................................... 42
3.3.1 Benefits and Features ............................................................................................................. 42
3.4 DETONATORS ................................................................................................................................ 43
3.4.1 PLAIN DETONATORS ............................................................................................................ 43
3.4.2 Capped fuse ............................................................................................................................ 43
3.4.3 ELECTRIC DETONATORS .................................................................................................... 44
3.5 DETONATING FUSE .................................................................................................................. 45
3.5.1 CORD RELAY ......................................................................................................................... 46
MODULE 4: HANDLING,USE, TRANSPORTATION AND STORAGE OF EXPLOSIVES ............... 63
4.1 TRANSPORTATION OF EXPLOSIVES ................................................................................................. 63

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4.2 CONSTRUCTION AND CONDITION OF VEHICLE................................................................................... 64

4.3 TRAVELING IN BUILT UP AREAS ....................................................................................................... 64
MODULE 5: EXPLOSIVES AND BLASTING MINING ....................................................................... 75
5.1 PURPOSE OF BLASTING THEORY OF BREAKAGE .............................................................................. 75
5.2 DEVELOPMENT ROUND DRILLING AND BLASTING PATTERN DESIGN PRINCIPLES .................................. 77
5.3 RING DRILLING PATTERN DESIGN PRINCIPLES .................................................................................. 82
5.5 CONTROLLED BLASTING................................................................................................................. 87

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MODULE 1: REACTION AND DEFINITION OF TERMS

History of Explosives and Blasting

The time line below presents the history of the explosives industry... a tradition of
excellence in mining, quarrying, construction, and many other pursuits involving the
peaceful use of explosives to break rock in service to mankind.

50 B.C.
Early form of seismoscope used by Chang Heng in China.

668 A.D.
"Greek-fire" used in battle.

1200 A.D.
Arabian author Abd Allah records use of saltpeter as main ingredient of black powder.

13th Century
Chinese use "Roman Candles" in seige of Kai-Feng Fu.

1242
English Friar Roger Bacon publishes gunpowder formula.

1380
German Franciscan Monk, Berthold Schwarts developed gunpowder and its use in
guns.

Berthold Schwarts
German Franciscan Monk

1627
First recorded use of black powder for rock blasting (Hungary).

1670
Black powder use spreads to tin mines of Cornwall England by German miners.

1675

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First powder mill in U.S. constructed in Milton, Mass.

1696
First recorded use of black powder for road construction in Switzerland.

1745
Doctor Watson of British Royal Society explodes black powder with an electric spark.

1749
Hungarian Miners introduce chisel bit.

1750
American inventor Benjamin Franklin encases and compresses powder in cartridges.

1773
Black powder first used in U.S. at Copper Mine in Connecticut.

1785
Machine to detect earthquake vibrations invented.

1818-1821
First use of black powder in construction of road tunnel in Pennsylvania.

1830
Moses Shaw of New York patents electric firing of black powder.

1831
William Bickford of Cornwall, England invents Safety Fuse.

1832
Dr. Robert Hare of University of Pennsylvania demonstrates bridge wire electric blasting
cap.

1841
Milne invents "Seismometer" to detect ground vibrations by earthquakes.

1846
Italian chemist Ascanio Sobrero discovers nitroglycerine.

1849
Jonathan Couch patents first practical American percussion-style steam powered rock
drill.

1861
First practical use of piston-type compressed air mechanical drill in 8-mile long Mount
Cenis Tunnel in the Alps.

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1863
Wilbrand invents Trinitrotoluene (TNT).

1864
Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel develops first detonating blasting cap.

Alfred Nobel
The Father of Explosives

1866
Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel invents dynamite by mixing kieselguhr with nitroglycerine.

1866
First U.S. plant to make nitroglycerine, Little Ferry, NJ.

1869
First use of diamond drills for prospecting and blasthole drilling.

1870
First U.S. dynamite plant, Giant Powder Co., San Francisco, California.

1871
Simon Ingersoll patents tripod mount for steam powered rock drill.

1872
Gunpowder Trade Association formed in U.S.

1875
Nobel patents blasting gelatine.

1878
Rack bar electric blasting machine developed by H. Julius Smith.

1884
Ammonium Nitrate (AN) becomes widely used in dynamite formulations.

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1885
Two component explosives used in New York Harbor.

1888
Nobel invents ballistite, a dense smokeless powder.

1885
Permitted explosives officially recognized in Europe.

1890
First stoper drill with hammering action and airleg feed introduced by C.H. Shaw.

1896
First successful hammer drill with hollow steel patented by J. George Leyner.

1902
Detonating cord introduced in Europe.

1907
Consumption of black powder in U.S. more than 287 million pounds.

1908
U.S. Geological Survey assigned task of testing explosives for use in underground coal
mines.

1910
Mine accident work transferred to U.S. Bureau of Mines.

1912
Government orders Breakup of duPont. Creation of Hercules and Atlas Powder.

1912
Lightweight hand-held (Jackhammer) sinker drill invented.

1913
Insitute of Makers of Explosives (IME) formed in Chicago.

Cordeau, a TNT filled, lead-sheathed detonating cord, introduced in U.S.

First wild oil well fire put out by M. Kinley with explosives in California.

1914
Fifty-one mile Panama Canal opens, largest engineering project to date, using more
than 67 million pounds of dynamite.

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1917
German scientist L. Mintrop invents first portable seismograph.

U.S. Explosives Act sets regulations for purchases.

1919
Three component vibration recorder used by General Crushed Stone Co.

1920’s
Cambridge Vibrograph developed to record vertical vibrations.

Falling Pin "Seismograph" used by General Crushed Stone.

1921

U.S. National Academy of Sciences studies Ammonium Nitrate (AN) after explosion in
Oppau, Germany.

1924
First use of seismograph for oil prospecting by Gulf Production.

Largest industrial blast to date in U.S. fired at California Blue Diamond quarry using
328,000 lbs. of dynamite 1924.

1926
Blasting cap safety education program launched by IME

Mid 1920’s
Liquid Oxygen based explosives commercialized in U.S.

1927
History of Explosives Industry in America published by IME.

1928
Detachable drill bits introduced at Anaconda Copper Mine, Butte, Montana.

1930
U.S. Bureau of Mines forms geophysical section headed by Dr. F. Lee.

Early 1930’s
Jackleg drill introduced.

1931
Fiberboard cases approved for dynamite shipping.

1933

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Roller cone bits introduced in oil fields.

1935
U.S. Geological Survey develops blast vibration machine — cost $25,000.

1935
duPont introduces first commercially successful non-nitroglycerin ammonium nitrate
(AN) blasting agent.

1936
IME establishes fume classes for explosives in underground mines.

1938
Modern PETN-filled fabric-covered detonating cord introduced in U.S.

1939
U.S. Bureau of Mines begins work on vibration standards.

Modern plastic explosives invented during WWII.

1940’s
Self propelled open pit rock drills introduced.

Use of tungsten carbide bits began in mining in Sweden.

1946
Short interval millisecond delay electric blasting caps introduced.

1947
Industry assists with federal investigation of Texas City, Texas — Ammonium Nitrate
explosion.

1948
Pennsylvania issues regulations limiting blast vibrations.

First shot on Crazy Horse monument South Dakota.

U.S. production of ammonium nitrate (AN) for fertilizer totally converted to prilling
method.

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Crazy Horse Memorial - 2003

1950
First portable 3 component monitor developed, the Leet Seismograph weighs 65 lbs.

Leet Seismograph

1952
New Jersey issues regulations on seismic effects and airblast.

1955
Maumee Collieriers Drilling & Blasting Superintendent Bob Akre introduces "Akremite"
at Coal Show in Cleveland, Ohio.

1955
Down hole drill introduced using high-pressure portable air compressors.

1956
First use of ANFO by U.S. Steel Corp.’s Oliver Mining Division.

Dr. Mel Cook introduces Slurry to mining.

1957
Underground explosives consumption reaches 100 million pounds in the United States.

First bulk vehicles blow mixed ANFO down-the-hole at Iron Ore Co. of Canada.

1959

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Roseberg, Oregon fire and explosives truck explosion (Download Full Story).

August 7, 1959
Roseburg, Oregon

Thirty-nine dynamite plants operating in the United States.

1950’s.
High-speed photography for blast analysis introduced.

Late 1950’s
Prilled AN fuel mixture begins to replace dynamite.

Bulk trucks and loaders developed.

1960’s
Tunnel boring machines begin to seriously impact the use of explosives in large tunnel
jobs.

1964
Dromedary trucks used to haul explosives approved by US ICC.

1967
Shock tube-type non-electric delay detonators introduced in Sweden.

1969
Emulsion explosives introduced.

1960’s & 70’s

Large rotary drills with drag bits and roller cone bits come into use.

1971
Emulsion ANFO blends introduced.

1972
Lang & Favreau introduce Computer Modeling of Blast Design.

1973
Electronic sequential blasting introduced at first Kentucky Blasters Conference.

Largest pre-production shot to date - 4 million pounds at Old Reliable Mine in Arizona.

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1970’s
Hydraulic powered drifter drills come into use.

Early 1970’s.
First electronic recording seismographs developed by Dallas Instruments.

1974
British Institute of Explosives Engineering established.

Shock tube-type non-electric delay detonators introduced in U.S.

The Society of Explosives Engineers officially formed to "advance the art and science of
explosives engineering" on August 20, 1974 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

1977
First commercial use of glass "bubbles."

1978
OSMR created under U.S. Dept of Interior. MSHA created under Dept of Labor.

J. Wiss & P. Lineham complete research on controlling vibrations through shot design
for USBM.

Twenty-six story hotel, tallest steel structure demolished to date using explosives,
Oklahoma City.

1979
IME member and S.E.E. Director Deane Boddorff demonstrate easy removal of
taggants from dynamite for U.S. Senate Committee.

1980
Bulk Blends introduced.

1.1 Definition of terms

An Explosive is a chemical compound or mixture which on application of a shock or

stimulus to a small part of the mass is very rapidly converted to products totally or largely

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gases with the production of, when exploded by action of heat, impact, gives large volume
of gases in a very short time at high temperature & pressure.

When the explosive is detonated,

• gas is released,
• temperature of the gas increases,
• pressure also increases.
• move and break the rock.

Reaction Terms
1. Combustion is a reaction in which matter burns to produce heat and carbon
dioxide i.e complete combustion or carbon monoxide for incomplete combustion.
2. Deflagration it is an instantaneous reaction that is similar to burning and its
velocity is below sonic velocity. The flow of products is opposite the direction of
decomposition propagation
3. Detonation is the process of propagation of a shock wave through an explosive,
which is accompanied by a chemical reaction that furnishes energy to maintain the
shock wave propagation in a stable manner.

Shock wave X Y

Shock front

Stable parts Industrial cartridge

Expanding gases CJ Plane (plane where actual physical changes

occurs, the plane moves at a speed called VOD)

Low energy released

Zone of reaction

When an explosive detonates fumes are released which are several times greater in
volume than the original explosives, very high temperatures and pressures are also
produced due to rapid chemical decomposition. Since, the volume available for the fumes
is too small, the fumes sets a shockwave onto the surrounding rock. The energy released
by the expanding gases is greater than the compressive strength of the rock hence the
rock breaks by fracturing and the rock fragments are displaced from their original position.

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An explosive performs the following functions:-

1. Vibration due to the shock wave.
2. Fragmentation- the energy released is greater than the compressive strength of
the rock thus resulting into the fracturing of the rock.
3. Displacement due to increase in volume which exerts pressure on the rock.
4. Airblast-due to rapid increase of the volume of gases

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1.2 Chain reaction Sequence in a blast

Igniter Cord Shot Exploder

Ignition

Safety Fuse Electric

Initiation
fusehead

Detonator
Detonation

Detonating Detonating
Cord Cord
Propagation

Booster Booster
Boosting (Pentolite) (Pentolite)

NG-Based ANBA NG-Based ANBA

Explosion or
Explosives Explosives
fracturing

Once a blasting technique has been decided on, the appropriate explosives and
accessories can be selected. Nitroglycerine-based high explosives require a detonator
to provide shock waves of sufficient intensity to initiate them. Detonators comprise
aluminum or copper tubes containing flame-sensitive powders which are fired by means
of a flame-producing initiator. Initiators may be either safety fuse or electric fusehead.
Safety fuse requires some flame-producing igniter to start it burning, whereas electric
fuseheads are fired by an electric current provided by a shot exploder or some other
source of electricity. Igniters for lighting safety fuse take the form of fuse igniters (tshisa
sticks) or igniter cord. Where it is necessary to ensure complete detonation throughout
a long column of explosive, or to interlink separate charges, a propagator, usually in the

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form of Cordtex detonating fuse, is required. Insensitive ammonium nitrate blasting

agents (ANBA) often require booster charges to enable them to detonate at a high
steady velocity. Such a booster can take the form of an Anstart attached to a detonator,
or of a Pentolite booster which is usually initiated by means of detonating fuse.

Low explosives such as blasting gunpowder are usually initiated directly from safety
fuse but an electric fusehead can be used. When it is necessary to ensure that shots
explode in a predetermined sequence, delay timing is used. The delay device can be
introduced in any one of the following stages in the blast chain reaction:
(i) Ignition delay - the use of igniter cord in conjunction with fuses.
(ii) Initiation delay – the use of capped fuses cut to different predetermined
length.
(iii) Propagation delay – the use of detonating relays in the line of detonating fuse.

1.3 Misfires
A misfire is a charge that has failed to explode either in whole or in part. A misfire happens
when one or more of the following steps do not occur i.e. ignition, initiation, detonation,
propagation, boosting and explosion or fracturing. In order to avoid misfires special care
needs to be taken when charging and timing the explosives charges.

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MODULE 2: EXPLOSIVES PROPERTIES, SELECTION CRITERIA AND TYPES OF

EXPLOSIVES

2.1 Explosives properties and selection criteria

Various important ExplosivesCharacteristics are

 Velocity of Detonation (VOD)
 Strength
 Fume Characteristics
 Thermal Stability
 Sensitivity
 Density
 Water Resistance
 Cost
 Storage
 Shelf life

2.1.1 Velocity of Detonation:

It is the speed at which detonation wave travels through the media in m/s, it depends
upon Explosive type. A high shockwave velocity results in a the higher the air blast and
the fracturing which may cause over break in some undesirable circumstances. A high
VOD is necessary in the boosting devices required to initiate ANBA effectively. A high
velocity explosive is desirable for use as a lay-on charge in secondary blasting of
boulders. VOD is measured by, some electronic means or by Dautriche test.

2.1.2 Strength: it is the energy of the explosive per unit mass. The various types of
strength are:
(i) Absolute Weight Strength (AWS)- this is the absolute energy in calories
available in unit mass of explosive
(ii) Absolute Bulk strength (ABS) – this is a measure of the absolute energy in
calories available in unit volume of explosive.
(iii) Relative Weight Strength (RWS) – it is a comparative energy generated by
an Explosive relative to that produced by an equal weight of ammonium nitrate
fuel oil (ANFO).
𝐴𝑊𝑆 𝑂𝐹 𝐸𝑋𝑃𝐿𝑂𝑆𝐼𝑉𝐸
𝑅𝑊𝑆 =
𝐴𝑊𝑆 𝑂𝐹 𝐴𝑁𝐹𝑂

(iv) Relative Bulk Strength (RBS) -It is the energy released per unit volume of
Explosive as compared to ANFO. Bulk strength can be calculated from weight
strength using the equation
𝐴𝐵𝑆 𝑂𝐹 𝐸𝑋𝑃𝐿𝑂𝑆𝐼𝑉𝐸
𝑅𝐵𝑆 =
𝐴𝐵𝑆 𝑂𝐹 𝐴𝑁𝐹𝑂

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2.1.3 Water Resistance:

Explosives differ widely in resistance to water and moisture penetration. Some Explosives
deteriorate rapidly under wet conditions, but others are designed to withstand water for
long periods. When blasting is to be done under wet conditions, a water resistant
Explosive is preferable. Slurries are better for water conditions. Emulsions are a variety
of slurries. ANFO dissolves in water and in principle cannot be used in water but if packed
in a plastic bag or cartridge it can be used in water. Dynamite dissolves in water and has
poor water resistance.
2.1.4 Sensitivity:
An Explosive is required to be insensitive to normal handling, shock and friction, but must
remain sufficiently sensitive to be satisfactorily detonated and capable of propagating
satisfactorily, cartridge to cartridge, even over gaps such as may occur in practice.
Sensitivity can be divided into cap sensitivity and gap sensitivity.
(a) Cap sensitivity – explosives that will reliably initiate with only the energy from a
blasting cap (detonator). Blasting agents and some slurries cannot reliably initiate with
the energy released from the cap
(b) Gap sensitivity–the comparative length of air gap or discontinuity between, two
charges in a single column, or charge across which detonation will continue to propagate.
The air gap for which sympathetic detonation will occur is 25mm.
25mm

Detonating cap Explosive cap

2.1.5 Fume Characteristics:

This is extremely important for underground applications. Toxic gases, such as carbon
monoxide and nitrous fumes are a product of detonation of all explosives. Harmful effects
to personnel can occur from exposure to these gases.

2.1.6 Density:
Is the mass per unit volume of the explosive in g/cm3. The density is important when
selecting an explosive for a particular use. High density enables a greater mass of
explosive per unit length of hole to be loaded thereby making more energy available a
desirable feature in tunneling and mining operations in hard ground. On the other hand
when the output of lump coal from a mine is important, it is advisable to use a low density
explosive which distributes the energy along the shot hole. When density of the explosive
is increased by packing, its sensitivity is decreased up to a point when it will not explode.
This density is called the critical density.

2.1.7 Thermal Stability:

Explosives compositions should be such as to be stable under all normal conditions of
usage. The DGMS stipulates that no blast hole shall be charges if the temperature in the
borehole exceeds 80°C when blasting in hot ground. Sometimes Explosives have to be
used in sub-zero conditions in which some explosives become insensitive. Explosives

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compositions of M/s. Solar Explosives Ltd. are designed to be stable and safe, under all
conditions of use. When blasting in hot ground, precautions as stipulated by the DGMS
should be adhered to.

2.1.8 Flame properties

It is the ease with which an explosive or blasting agent can be ignited by flame and heat.
These are very critical in mines such as most underground coal mines which have
methane in the air.

2.1.9 Critical diameter – the critical diameter of unconfined ANFO is around 100 mm.
When confined at a diameter below 35 mm it will not sustain detonation. This critical
diameter can be reduced by :-
(i) confinement
(ii) reducing the particle size (1-2mm)
(iii) adding micro-balloons.

2.2 Testing for explosive strength

The strength of explosives can be compared using the following methods
(a) Pendulum test
(b) Steel tube test
(c) Lead block test
(d) Kast test

2.2.1 Pendulum test

Procedure`
1. Drill a hole in a 300kg rock specimen.
2. Suspend the rock using strings with a scale along which it runs.
3. Place 10g of explosives in the hole and set off using detonator.

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2.3 Types of explosives

Classification of Explosives
There are two main classes which are military explosives and commercial explosives.

2.3.1 Commercial Explosives

These are used for mining, construction and demolition. All commercial Explosives are
broadly divided in two categories.
1) Low Explosives
2) High Explosives

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Chemical
Explosives

Low High
Explosives Explosives

Primary Secondary Tertiary

2.3.2 Low Explosives

Low explosives are mostly solid combustible materials that decompose rapidly but do not
normally detonate. This action is known as deflagration, which is a rapid process of
combustion without accompanying any shock wave but gives a heaving effect. Low
explosives have reaction velocities which are typically between 550-900m/s which leads
to low blasthole pressures. Example :Black powder for dimension stone.

2.3.3 High Explosives

High explosives are usually nitration products of organic substances, such as toluene,
phenol, pentaerythritol, amines, glycerin, and starch, and may be nitrogen-containing
inorganic substances or mixtures of both. TNT is an example of a high explosive. This
chemical mixturecan be detonated by a No. 8 strength detonator and liberates gaseous
and great pressure. High explosives have detonation velocities in the range 1500-7500
m/s. These are further classified into primary, secondary and tertiary explosives.

(a) Primary explosives

These are initiated by a spark, impact etc are extremely sensitive. They are actually
initiate the detonation, this usually involves setting off, via a fuse or direct electrical
command, a small amount of a sensitive primary explosive such as lead azide (most
common), PETN, or DDNP- Diazodinitrophenol (DDNP) is a primary explosive, less sensitive
but more powerful than lead azide. Black gunpowder is still used as an initiator for artillery
propellants. Mercury fulminate is no longer used commercially due to stability problems,
but may be found in improvised explosives since its preparation is simple if risky.

(b) Secondary explosives

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The primary explosive may have sufficient energy to start the detonation in the main
charge of tertiary explosive such as trinitrotoluene or dynamite, or, with some less
sensitive explosives such as ammonium nitrate-fuel oil, an intermediate booster charge
made of a selected explosive such as tetryl is set off by the detonator, and produces a
stronger detonation wave to trigger the main charge.

(c) Tertiary explosives

While primary and secondary explosives are part of the initiation system, tertiary
explosives carry out the main purpose of the explosive use. These are either cap sensitive
or require high strength caps for satisfactory initiation and are usually based on
ammonium nitrate. In commercial blasting, ammonium nitrate-fuel oil is most common for
most commercial applications when large quantities are needed. Various dynamites and
plastic explosives are used when smaller, more precisely placed charges are needed.

2.4 Constituents of Explosives

A commercial explosive may consist of a combination of some or all of the following:-
𝐵𝐴𝑆𝐸 + 𝐶𝑂𝑀𝐵𝑈𝑆𝑇𝐼𝐵𝐿𝐸 + 𝑂𝑋𝑌𝐺𝐸𝑁 𝐶𝐴𝑅𝑅𝐼𝐸𝑅𝑆 + 𝐴𝑁𝑇𝐴𝐶𝐼𝐷𝑆 + 𝐴𝐵𝑆𝑂𝑅𝐵𝐸𝑁𝑇𝑆
+ 𝐺𝐸𝐿𝐿𝐼𝑁𝐺 𝐴𝐺𝐸𝑁𝑇𝑆 + 𝐹𝐿𝐴𝑀𝐸 𝐷𝐸𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑆𝐴𝑁𝑇𝑆

Base
(e.g nitroglycerine, ammonium nitrate, TNT, PETN) which upon the application of
sufficient heat or shock breaks down into gaseous products it00h accompanying release
of energy.

Combustible
(Fuel e.g., carbon, sulphur, fuel oil) combines with excess oxygen to prevent the formation
of nitrogen oxides-oxygen balance.

Oxygen carrier
(Ammonium nitrate, sodium nitrate) assures complete oxidation of the carbon to prevent
the formation of carbon monoxide-oxygen balance
Antacid
(Chalk, zinc oxide) increases stability in storage.

Absorbent
Wood pulp absorbent is used for liquid bases. It absorbs 60% of nitroglycerine. Hence
this is the maximum strength of the old straight dynamite.

Gelling agents
Promote water resistance e.g. Nitrocellulose

Flame depressants
Reduce the size, temperature and duration of flames e.g Sodium Chloride

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Note: some explosive constituents fulfil more than one of the above requirements eg.,
Wood pulp is a fuel and an absorbent.

2.5 Classes of explosives

Class 1 – gunpowder
Class 2 – blasting agent
Class 3 – nitrocompound
Class 4 – chlorate mixture
Class 5 – fulmination
Class 6– detonators
Class 7 – blasting initiators

Class 1 Gunpowder
The term “Gunpowder” includes blasting powder and means exclusively gunpowder,
ordinarily consisting of an intimate mixture of potassium nitrate, sulphur and charcoal.
Such potassium nitrate not containing as an impurity in greater
quantities less than 1%.

Class 2 Blasting agent

Means any nitrate mixture and includes water gel, slurries, oils and water emulsions,
when used for blasting purposes cannot be normally detonated without the use of
Nitrocompound primer or booster.

Class 3 Nitrocompound
Means any chemical compound or mechanically mixed preparations that consists wholly
or partly or nitroglycerine or of some other liquids nitrocompounds which is used for
blasting purposes and shall include any other compound or mixture used for such
purposes being of a similar sensitivity.

Class 4 Chlorate mixture

Means any explosive containing chlorate.

Class 5 Fulmination
Means any chemical compound or mechanical mixture that by reason of its susceptibility
to detonation is suitable for employment in any appliance for initiation detonations.

Class 6 Detonators
Means a device enclosing a sensitive explosive and prepared so as to be used for
initiating the detonation and less sensitive explosives and shall include other explosives
devices of similar sensitivity to the standard plain detonator.

Class 7 Blasting initiators

Means any fuse or device used in the ignition of a plain detonator.

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2.6 Industrial explosives

Up to the 1950’s most high explosives were nitroglycerine or to a lesser extent TNT
based. The recent introduction of ammonium nitrate mixtures, slurries and emulsions
has led to a new generation of cheaper and safer explosives.

Properties of NG & AN :
Nitro Glycerine (NG) - it is a liquid, insoluble in water, highly sensitive to shock, friction
and heat. In all Explosives of N.G. based oniroglycol is mixed for lowering the freezing
point, used for hardest rocks and metals and for shooting oil wells. Nitro glycerine based
explosives are expensive, need to be stored carefully and they tend to be more sensitive
when they deteriorate
Ammonium Nitrate (AN) :
It is a weak Explosives base. Difficult to initiate, so a sensitizer like NG or TNT is used. It
is Oxygen positive, Hygroscopic, soluble in water. Tendency to form hard cakes.

Slurries
𝐴𝑀𝑀𝑂𝑁𝐼𝑈𝑀 𝑁𝐼𝑇𝑅𝐴𝑇𝐸 (𝑆𝑂𝐿𝑈𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁) + 𝐺𝐸𝐿𝐿𝐼𝑁𝐺 𝐴𝐺𝐸𝑁𝑇
+ 𝑆𝑂𝐿𝐼𝐷 𝐴𝑀𝑀𝑂𝑁𝐼𝑈𝑀 𝑁𝐼𝑇𝑅𝐴𝑇𝐸 + 𝐹𝑈𝐸𝐿 + 𝑆𝐸𝑁𝑆𝐼𝑇𝐼𝑆𝐸𝑅𝑆

Oxidiser - Ammonium Nitrate solid A.N. solution

Fuel - Aluminum/carbonaceous
Sensitiser - Fine aluminum/air bubbles/TNT
Cross linking gelling agent - e.g. Guar gum

Slurry explosives were the first to utilize nitrate salts in water solution form. B This
improves the accessibility of the oxidizer to fuel. The addition of water desensitizes the
explosive even further. To overcome this a sensitizer or a combination of sensitisers is
added e.g aluminum, T.N.T

They can be divided into Slurry blasting agents and Slurry explosives. This division is a
function of sensitivity. Slurry Blasting Agents are not detonator sensitive.

The basic TNT slurry has a density of approx. 1.45gn/cc.

For small diameter holes and underground work the slurries are packaged

Emulsions
The formulation of an emulsion is very similar to that of blasting slurries (water gels).
However, the cross-linking agent used to stiffen the slurry is replaced by an emulsifying
agent. This water-in-oil emulsifying agent suspends minute droplets of the ammonium
nitrate (or a combination of AN with either calcium nitrate or sodium nitrate) oxidizer within
the fuel. This yields a very intimate oxidizer and fuel mix that leads to high detonation
velocities. Emulsions may be bulk loaded, or used in packaged form. Packaged products
are usually employed in small hole diameters. They are mechanically sensitized using
microballoons to introduce sufficient air into the mix and control the density. Bulk
emulsions are used in larger diameters and may be mechanically or chemically

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sensitized, with chemical sensitization being less costly. Bulk-loaded product fully fills the
cross sectional area of the hole and delivers maximum energy to the surrounding rock.
This is a characteristic of all bulk-loaded products unless they are intentionally decoupled
as is often the case in presplitting. Packaged emulsion will usually result in some
decoupling with a reduction in borehole pressures. This generally is not a great problem
in small diameter blastholes.

BULK EMULSION :
Emulsion technology comes in the following categories :
• Repumpable Emulsion
• Site Mix Emulsion with support Plant
• Augered Heavy ANFO
• Pumped Doped Emulsion

To deliver the product down the borehole, company is offering initially repumpable type
and Pumped Doped Emulsion. For this company has designed special pump, truck
capable of pumping Bulk Emulsion after mixing with density control agent on site.

TECHNOLOGY DETAILS:
The system is Repumpable Bulk Doped Emulsion, Solar BE 101. In this system the
emulsion of oxidiser and fuels is prepared at location, where these facilities are available.
The emulsion can be stored in ambient conditions and is non-explosive. This non-
explosive emulsion matrix is doped with prilled Ammonium Nitrate and mixed with gassing
agents, and is charged into a bore hole by repumpable truck. The mixture becomes
sensitive only after the same is delivered in to the blast hole and the gassing reaction
completed in above 15 minutes.

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E.g. TITAN 7000 RU (Dyno Nobel) which is a Sensitized Bulk Emulsion is a booster
sensitive, high performance, repumpable bulk explosive designed specifically for use in
underground construction, quarry and mining operations. Applications include drift and
raise development, shaft sinking and tunnelling. In addition, other underground mining
methods in which TITAN 7000 RU has proven effective are room and pillar, mechanized
cut and fill, vertical crater retreat, uppers retreat, benching and block caving.
Application Recommendations
• The minimum cast booster weight recommended for use as a primer for TITAN
7000 RU is a 10 gram cast booster @ 5º C (40º F) and above; 90 gram cast booster down
to -20º C (-4º F).
• ALWAYS double prime when bulk explosive columns exceed 6 m. One primer should
be positioned near the bottom of the hole and the second near to the collar. (Apply for
exemption from the Inspector of Mines and Explosives).
• ALWAYS ensure primers are in the explosive column.
• Maximum hole depth is 30 m (100 ft) but special formulations are available for deeper
boreholes.
• Borehole sleep time is one (1) month NB.
• ALWAYS insert the loading hose to the back of the hole before pumping the emulsion
to optimize loading density.

2.7 Explosives selection in Colliers and Fiery mines

Underground coal and fiery mines are considered to contain methane gas. Methane gas
present in the originally formed coal seam or reef/orebody in a fiery mine gets released
in tothe mine atmosphere during excavation.. Methane when mixed with air in the
proportionsbetween 5-14 % forms an explosive mixture. Hence, there is possibility of a
Methane-air mixturebeing dangerously formed in the galleries and working areas. In
underground coal mines, there isalso an additional risk as coal dust, when mixed with air,
can undergo a dust explosion whensuitably ignited. Both methane-air and coal dust
explosions cause loss of life and extensive damageto the underground mines. Methane
ignition is known to take place due to the following reasonswhen explosive is in use:
a. Direct action of shock wave from the explosive.
b. Indirect action of the shock wave after it has been reflected from solid surfaces in
thevicinity of explosives.
c. Hot gaseous products of detonation mixing with the methane-air mixture.
d. Hot reacting solid particles of explosives getting ejected in to the methane-air mixture.

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Hence, specially designed explosives and detonators are required for use in underground
coal and fiery mines and are termed “Permitted explosive”.

2.7.1 Permitted explosives

In terms of the regulations only permitted explosives maybe used where there is risk of
initiating a methane or coal dust explosion. This is because explosives and detonators
scheduled as permitted explosives are so formulated as to minimise production and
incandescent particles and flame on detonation. In achieving this act aim the basic
strength of the explosive is reduced. Such products come under the ‘Permitted’ category
and have to pass critical tests in simulated conditions of field usage. Explosives and
detonators are tested in both methane-air and coal dust-air mixtures before being certified
fit for use in underground coal mines/seams of various degree of gassiness. Thus these
require special properties, mainly a high degree of safety against methane-air and coal
dust-air mixture ignition.
Hence, they should have reduced flame temperature and duration of flame, have good
continuity of detonation properties, maintain its sensitivity and ensure reliable propagation
even after being subjected to the compressive shock wave generated by the earlier fired
shot holes and be of nondeflagrating type. Explosives should also be water proof,
generate low level of toxic post – blast fumes and be relatively insensitive to impact and
friction. Risk of ignition of methane-air mixture due to blown out shots is inherent danger
during blasting in underground coal mines. Blown out shots occur due to inadequate and
proper stemming, excessive burden or spacing between shot holes, improper use of delay
detonators and incorrect sequence of firing of shot holes. Deflagrating of explosives is
more prone for risk in underground coal mines, since they burn for longer period
comparative to explosive which detonate. High strength explosive readily ignites
methane-air mixture in view of their high reaction temperatures. Weak explosives, inspite
of having higher velocity of detonation are found to be relatively safer (present day
Permitted explosives are relatively weaker), have low detonation temperature and do not
contain any ingredient which continues to burn after the detonation reaction is completed
salt is the component that lowers the explosion temperature and hence reduces the risk
of ignitions,

2.7.2 Explosives selection

Water resistance is the prime deciding factor, but composition softness is important for
ease of priming and density is significant in two areas: charge length and strength.

Charge length: because the trend in coal blasting is towards deeper cuts and longer
holes, greater charge lengths are called for. Exemption can sometimes be obtained from
the 800g legal limit per hole, but in addition, lower density provides for increased charge
length.
Strength: high density means more concentrated energy, which can be important in
tough breaking conditions.

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The following are the main applications of the available explosives.

2.7.3 Types of explosives

Ajax
This powerful, inherently water-resistant explosive is recommended for use under wet
conditions as well as in dykes and stone headings. The high power can also, under
certain conditions, be exploited to increase the burden and spacing and so reduce the
number of holes drilled.

The 22mm x 100g cartridges are mainly used as primers for MONOBEL and to charge
small diameter holes in stonework. Occasionally, under easy breaking conditions, they
are used in coal blasting to provide a low energy linear charge.

Coalex No. 1
This is a less water resistant, medium density, permitted explosive. The lower density
results in an increased charge length with good coupling. COALEX can be used in damp
conditions but loses power rapidly if subjected to a head of water exceeding 30 cm for
more than 20 minutes. AJAX primers are recommended.

Monobel
This explosive composition has no water-resistance and is not recommended under wet
conditions or where mechanised drilling, using water to flush the holes, is practised.
MONOBEL must be stored under dry, cool conditions and the underground storage period
kept to a minimum to prevent deterioration. As can be seen from Table 1 this explosive
is of low density and consequently long, well coupled charge lengths can be obtained. It
is recommended that a soft AJAX primer cartridge be used as it is much easier to pierce,
and is unaffected by nay moisture in the hole.

Permitted detonators
In terms of the regulations only instantaneous electric detonators with copper tubes may
be used for blasting in fiery coal mines. These should have a strength of not less than no.
6D also carrick short period delay detonators.

Copper instantaneous electric detonators

These are used to fire shots simultaneously or as a zero delay when connected in series
circuit with carrick delay. Owning to the wide seams normally encountered the use of
carrick delayus to provide progressive relief of burden is usually desirable.

Carrick short period delays

The range comprises a zero and five delays designed specifically for fiery coal mines.
The maximum allowable period is 150ms. These copper detonators are fitted with special
non-indecive delay elements.

Delay No. Nominal Delay Period (ms)

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0 0
1 30
2 55
3 80
4 110
5 150

(NOTE: The zero delay differs from instantenous detonators in having a wider tube and
greater protection against stray electricity).

Detonators for shaft sinking

The six delay detonators mentioned above are generally insufficient for the sinking of
large vertical or inclined shafts. Also instantenous electric detonators are not suitable
when parallel firing is practised so tis reduces the effective number of delays to five. If this
is wholly restrictive the mine manager may apply for exemptions to the inspector of mines
and explosive from the relevant regulations. Depending on circumstances, Copper Long
Period Delay detonators (LPD’s) are often used in shaft sinking.

BLASTING ACCESSORIES:
Various important blasting accessories are as under :
1. Safety Fuse
2. Plastic Ignitor Cord.
3. Detonators.
• Plain Detonators
• Electric Detonators
• Instantaneous Electric Detonators
• Long delay Detonators
• Short Delay Detonators
• Non Electric Detonators
4. Cord Relay
5. Detonating Cord
6. Magnadet
7. Anodet
8. Ohm Meter
9. Exploder

Safety Fuse :
This consists of a core of blasting gunpowder tightly wrapped with coverings of textile and
insulated with coverings of textile and insulated against moisture by waterproofing
materials like asphalt and plastics. The coverings act as protection for the black powder
core against water, oil and other materials which can change the burning speed or
desensitise the powder. The covering also prevents side-spit which can cause premature
detonation if it sets fire to the explosives charge. The burning rate between 98 – 120 s/m

IgniterCord:

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These are a thin, flexible, incendiary cord which burns with a vigorous
flame. They are used for igniting any number of connector capped fuses
and therefore eliminate the need to light fuses individually. They are
protected by a waterproof polyethylene sheath. The incendiary
composition of slow igniter cord will to support combustion even though
the outer sheath is punctuality in the presence of moisture. However, the
incendiary cores of fast, mediumdepends entirely on their waterproof
sheaths to resist the harmful effect of moisture.

|Igniter cord properties

Type Burning rate Colour Resistance to Principal

(s/m) moisture application
Slow 30-45 Cream Good, even Tunnelling
when protective
sheath is
damaged
IC 57 13-26 Green Good if sheath is Stoping when
intact. Fair if sequential firing
sheath is of shots is
damaged. necessary.
Normally used
with 1.2m fuses
Medium 8-16 8-16 Grey Good if sheath is Stoping when
intact. Nil if sequential firing
sheath is of shots is
damaged. necessary.
Normally used
with 0.9m fuses
Fast 1-6 Brown Good if sheath is Stoping when
intact. Fair if sequential firing
sheath is of shots is
damaged. necessary.
Normally used
with 0.9m fuses

Sequential firing of shotholes

The choice of igniter cord to fire fuses in sequence is influenced by two opposing factors:
 The time taken for the igniter cord to burn between successive connectors must
be longer than the variation in burning time between fuses.
 The igniter cord flame must be sufficiently far ahead of the exploding shots not to
be affected by them (i.e. < 5m in stoping).

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Electric starters
These are small electric circuits capable of producing heat. They are
used to electrically initiate igniter cord in development ends and
underground stoping. It can also initiate pyrotechnic charges in
fireworks, security and safety systems.
Benefits and Features

Benefits Features

• Easy and secure igniter cord • Wires are colour coded by month
connector for easy detection of ageing
• Remote ignition via blasting circuit products
• Reliable and instantaneous igniter • Wire lengths of 350mm, minimised
cord initiation, even underwater to be cost-effective
• Circuit can easily be tested • Plastic casing prevents water
ingress
• Standard type 0 fusehead
• The plastic casing has a clip
designed to retain an igniter cord
strand in close proximity to the
initiating pyrotechnic charge

Detonators
A detonator is a small cylindrical aluminium or copper tube into which a powerful explosive
e.g. PETN is placed as a base charge. To suit various purposes, manufactures make No.
6 strength detonator which has 0.35g PETN, and No. 8 strength detonator which has
0.78g PETN
No. 6 detonator are used top detonate NG-based explosives and detonating cord, and
No. * are recommended for use with ANFO in small diameter holes or when additional
initiating strength is required.

PLAIN DETONATORS:
The detonator consists of a small cylindrical aluminium or copper tube into which a
powerful explosive e.g. PETN is placed as a base charge and on top a primary charge is
placed normally lead azide. The primary charge is sensitive to initiation by the endspit of
the safety fuse and subsequently initiates the base charge.

Capped fuse
A capped consists of a safety fuse attached to a plain detonator.

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Assembly of a plain detonator to a safety fuse:

(a) Select a dry place with adequate ventilation.
(b) Cut the fuse using a non ferrous knife so that the black powder core is visible
(c) Cut the end of the fuse squarely and introduce it gently into the detonator against
the primary charge-leave no air gap.

(d) Crimp the detonator thoroughly to the fuse with an approved non ferrous crimper.
(e) Crimp the igniter cord connector at the other end.

ELECTRIC DETONATORS:
An electric detonator consists of a small cylindrical aluminium or copper tube into which
a powerful explosive e.g. PETN is placed as a base charge. This is topped by a primer
charge which is initiated by either an electric fuse head or bridge wire and an ignition
mixture and on top a primary charge is placed normally lead azide. In the match head or
fuse head type detonator, the two lead wires are connected within the device by a
platinum iridium wire of high resistance. The bridge wire is surrounded by a bead of
lighting composition which is readily ignited when sufficient current is passed. The
resulting flame initiates the primer charge used and ruptures the bridgewire. In contrast
to the fusehead or match head detonators, the bridgewire can fire the loose charge
without rupturing the bridgewire.

In an electric detonator containing a delay element, the delay powder is initiated and burns
at a predetermined time before igniting the caps primer charge. The burning rate of the
delay powder and the length of the column determine the time interval between
application of the adequate electrical energy and the detonation of the cap.
Detonators are supplied with tags or period of identification, each have a distinctive
numbered tag to facilitate easy identification of each delay period

Electric detonators can be divided into three different classes due to their inherent timing
properties:
 Instantaneous detonators
 Short period delay detonators
 Long period delay detonators
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INSTANTANEOUS ELECTRIC DETONATORS:

Comprises of Cu of Al. Tube of 7mm dia and a little longer than the plain detonator so as
to accommodate the fusehead and the neoprene plug. Copper Detonators are for gassy
coal mine where highly incendiary Al. is prohibited.Explosive charges are ignited by an
electric fuse head of Nickel-Chromium-Iron alloy bridge wire soldered to theends brass
foils separated by an insulating piece of card board.
Fuse Head Composition:Potassium Chlorate, Nitro Cellulose, Charcoal (See Sketch)

SHORT PERIOD DELAY DETONATORS:

These are used when shaft sinking,tunnelling or drifting where the dimensions of the
tunnel are such as to require more delays than available with 0-14 range of LPD’s. This
delay between consecutive LPDs increases from 0.5 second between the lower delays
numbers to just over 2seconds between the last or number. If flyrock is to be minimised,
the delay interval should not be less than 90 millisecond.

LONG DELAY DETONATORS :

These allow approximately ½ a second delay between consecutive groups and periods.
They are the normal choice in tunnelling rounds owing to their suitably under tight
breaking conditions.

Advantages
• Less vibration and noise.
• Improved fragmentation.
• No limit to the number of holes per blast.
• Electrical shot firing equipment not necessary.
• Easier to train operators

Disadvantages
• More chance of cutoffs although experience and judicious use of relays can
eliminate this problem.

CORD RELAY :
These devices permit short delay to be introduced into trunk lines of detonating cords. A
cord relay consists of twodelay detonators mounted inside a resilient plastic shell. They
are bi-directional in operation, Cord Relays areavailable in the 15 Ms, 17 Ms, 25 Ms, 50
Ms, 75 Ms, 100 Ms, delay time. The shorter delay intervals are generallyrequired for small
(65-90mm) dia blast holes drilled on close spacing whereas the longer intervals are suited
to largerblast holesdrilled on wider spacing.Cord Relays are designed for use with
detonating cords, which have core loads of 10 gm/M. No special connectingtool is
needed.

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DETONATING FUSE:
It is a cord containing of an inner core of explosive usually
PETN (Pentaerythrol Tetranitrate) enclosed in a plastic
encasement and wrapped in a braid of various textiles and
water proofed. It is a strong, flexible, continuous detonator.
It serves the same purpose as detonators and directly
initiates the high explosives but needs a detonator
forinitiation.It detonates at a speed in excess of 7000 m/s.
10g/m of detonating cord will initiate detonator sensitive
explosive but requires a primer to initiate blasting agents
such as ANFO.

It is safer to handle than a blasting cap.It is simple cheap but

difficult to obtain precise timing. It is not affected by stray
currents. It is suitable for secondary blasting and single shot
work. For delay blasting in quarries and open pits detonating
relays can be included in the trunklines. It has the advantage
that any
number of holes can befired on a
different delay.

The delay element is inserted as close

as possible to the hole firing next and
as faraway as possible from that firing
first.If the trunk liners should be
disturbed either prior or during
blasting the detonation will proceed
only as far as the break and then stop.
In large complicated designs the blast
is such that firing information has two
path by each to reach individual holes.

Advantages:
 Versatile, safe for use in extraneous electricity environments, simultaneously firing
without detonators, no hole limit, totally consumed, inexpensive.
 Incorporation of delay connector in 1950, allowed sequential blasting of larger
patterns than electric
Disadvantages
 It will dislodge any collar stemming
 Surface trunklines generate significant levels of noise and airblast
 A detonating cord downline to a bottom primer can desensitise the column for an
insensitive explosive such as ANFO

OHM METER:
Used for testing the continuity and resistance of blasting circuits. These are of two types.

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i) Powered by low voltage hand operated generator.

ii) 1.5v dry battery type.
EXPLODER:
Used for firing shots electrically, these are of two types:
i) Generator type: - Magneto of dynamo (for large capacity) operated by a quick twist of
strong down wardpush of handle.
ii) Condenser discharge type: - Can be battery of dynamo powered.

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Blasting:
In terms of processing, blasting is the critical first step in the rock-fragmentation process.
Maximum profitabilitydepends largely on good blasting. Consider that drilling and blasting
are the first operations performed in any hard-rockquarry operation. Therefore, the results
of these operations will affect more down-line activities, such as loading, haulingand
crushing, than anyother processing operation.Blasting should always be viewed in the
"global" sense. One should examine not only the effect of changes on thedrilling and
blasting program, but also how the change will affect the productivity and economics of
other down-line costcenters. Blasting should also be viewed in the "local" sense. No other
quarry operation has more capacity to causecommunity dissent than blasting.All quarry
operations should have in place a proper public-relations program designed to
communicate to the communitythat proper safety precautions and procedures are in place
with regard to its blasting program.To understand the principles of rock blasting, it is
necessary to start with the rock fragmentation process that follows thedetonation of the
explosives in a drill hole. The explosion is a very rapid combustion, in which the energy

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contained inthe explosives is released in the form of heat and gas pressure. The
transformation acts on the rock in three consecutivestages.

Compression: a pressure wave propagates through the rock at a velocity of 2,500–6,000

m/sec, depending on rock typeand type of explosives. This pressure wave creates
microfractures which promote rock fracturing.
Reflection: during thenext stage, the pressure wave bounces back from the free surface,
which is normally the bench wall or natural fissures inthe rock. The compression wave is
nowtransformed into tension and shear waves, increasing the fracturing process.
Gas pressure: large volumes of gas are released, entering and expanding the cracks
under high pressure. Where thedistance between the blasthole and the free face has
been correctly

Fragmentation
In the 1990s increasing emphasis was placed on the role of fragmentation at the
operation. In particular the effect offragmentation on crushing, load and haul, and run-of-
mine leach pad efficiency has received considerable attention.Better predictive
techniques have been developed, and computer-aided methods for determining the
fragmentationdistributions in actual blasts are now available. Fragmentation studies can
lead to improved profits at many operations.
For example, studies at one operation showed that the same production could be
obtained with one less excavator ingood digging, when compared to poor digging
conditions. This is a result with both capital- and operating-costimplications.For maximum
success it is essential that the mine or quarry carefully design its blasts to achieve the
desired results.These designs must be accurately implemented in the field. The blasts
must be shot in a safe manner, with the areaproperly barricaded and all persons removed
a safe distance away. Environmental affects such as ground vibration,airblast and fume
production must also be controlled.
Explosives
The past 15 years or so have seen new explosive formulations reach the marketplace,
and reductions in the use of someproducts that have been in use for longer periods. The
principal newcomers have been the emulsions, and emulsion-ANFO blends usually called
Heavy ANFO, that denotes its greater density than ANFO dry mixes.
Emulsions

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The formulation of an emulsion is very similar to that of blasting slurries (water gels).
However, the cross-linking agentused to stiffen the slurry is replaced by an emulsifying
agent. This water-in-oil emulsifying agent suspends minutedroplets of the ammonium
nitrate (or a combination of AN with either calcium nitrate or sodium nitrate) oxidizer
withinthe fuel. This yields a very intimate oxidizer and fuel mix that leads to high
detonation velocities.Emulsions may be bulk loaded, or used in packaged form. Packaged
products are usually employed in small holediameters. They are mechanically sensitized
using microballoons to introduce sufficient air into the mix and control thedensity. Bulk
emulsions are used in larger diameters and may be mechanically or chemically
sensitized, with chemicalsensitization being less costly. Bulk-loaded product fully fills the
cross sectional area of the hole and delivers maximumenergy to the surrounding rock.
This is a characteristic of all bulk-loaded products unless they are intentionallydecoupled
as is often the case in presplitting. Packaged emulsion will usually result in
somedecoupling with a reductionin borehole pressures. This generally is not a great
problem in small diameter blastholes.
Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil (ANFO)
ANFO remains one of the most commonly used products in quarry blasting. It is a
combination of ammonium nitrate(oxidizer) and number-two fuel oil (fuel). Number-one
fuel oil may be used in cold-weather applications.Blasting grade AN prills are made by
spraying molten AN into a prilling tower. Droplets fall under carefully controlledcooling
conditions. The AN solidifies while falling, taking on an approximately spherical shape of
relatively uniformsize. Prilling tower conditions must be such that will produce a "porous"
prill that will absorb the proper amount of fueloil (6 percent by weight). For those with
overseas operations especially it will be important to confirm that a porous prillis being
produced. High density prills will not properly absorb the fuel oil and blasting performance
will suffer, unlessthese have been crushed to about -20 mesh.Blasting-grade AN prills
are typically +6, -14 mesh in size. This uniformity in the size of the prills results in a
poorpacking density, with considerable interstitial voids present. Hence a product which
typically bulk loads in a densityrange of 0.80 to 0.85 gm/cc. Some packaged ANFO
products use a blend of sizes, where a portion of the prill is crushed,leading to densities
of about 1.05 gm/cc. This product can be loaded in wet holes provided it is contained in
asuitablywaterproof bag.
ANFO has virtually no water resistance. Many people are of the impression that it takes
several hours before water attackseriously affects ANFO. The reality, however, is that
degradation of the product is immediate. Even if holes will bedetonated 2 or 3 hours after
loading, performance will have been seriously affected.Therefore, whenever ANFO is to
be loaded into wet holes, the blastholes should first be pumped and a plastic linerplaced
in the hole. The ANFO is loaded inside the liner. Care should be taken to obtain a liner
that has a high integrity.Even a few pinholes are enough to allow water to attack ANFO.
For hole diameters less than 5 in., using plastic liners isgenerally difficult. Therefore, small
diameter waterproof products such as emulsions or slurries are generally used forsmall
diameter, wet holes.One way to increase the energy output in ANFO is to add aluminum.
The reaction of ammonium nitrate with aluminumreleases more energy per unit of weight.
The aluminum must be of a suitable size to be reactive, but not so fine as toconstitute an
explosion hazard. This generally means a size range of -20, +150 mesh.The upper limit
on aluminum addition is usually about 15 percent. As more Al is added to the mix

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increasingpercentages of the energy are trapped in a solid product of detonation. Beyond

15 percent Al by weight there is littleadditional energy output for the aluminum added.

Heavy ANFO
Another way to increase the energy output of ANFO is to add emulsion to it. The emulsion
fills the voids between theprills, the density increases and there is more energy output
per unit of blasthole volume. This class of explosives areknown as Heavy ANFO. They
provide a cost effective way to increase the energy output of ANFO.Heavy ANFO may be
produced solely for the purpose of increasing the energy output. However, at higher
emulsionpercentages by weight these products become waterproof. Such formulations
can be bulk loaded into wet holes.Experiment has shown that the performance of Heavy
ANFO becomes sluggish as moreemulsion is added unless theemulsion has been
sensitized by gassing or microballoons. It appears that in hard-rock performance will
suffer whenthere is more than 30 percent ofunsensitized emulsion in the mix. In softer
formations greater percentages ofunsensitizedproduct can usually be employed because
suitable fragmentation of the rock depends to a greater degree onheave energy. The
degree of non-ideal detonation introduced by the lack of sensitization means that a
greater degree ofthe total energy is released as heave energy.
A waterproof product is typically produced at 50 percent emulsion addition. However, to
obtain a product that can bepumped reliably it is common to use a waterproof Heavy
ANFO containing 60 to 70 percent emulsion. Such productsshould always be made with
a sensitized emulsion, or performance will suffer.When waterproof heavy ANFO blend is
loaded into wet holes it should always be loaded from the bottom up. This isachieved
using a bulk truck with a hose that can extend to the bottom of the blasthole. The product
is pumped throughthe hose. The hose is retracted as loading proceeds, but is always kept
in the explosive. The water rises on top of theadvancing column of denser explosive.
Mixing does not occur if the loading is carefully performed.When Heavy ANFO is augured
into wet holes it spatters on impact with the water, and prill goes into the solution. Wateris
mixed into the explosive column. Bridging may occur with portions of the explosive
column separated by a water gap.Since the gap sensitivity of these products is not large
this may lead to the failure of a portion of the explosive column todetonate unless it
happens to be primed on both sides of the water gap.Heavy ANFO is also produced as a
packaged product. In this case it is sensitized using microballons, which improvesthe
shelf life. Package products can be used where there are insufficient wet holes to warrant
bulk loading, or in smalltonnage operations. It is also used as a toe load in holes that have
only a few feet of water in the bottom of the hole, andcan be used in small-diameter
packaged formulations.
Dynamite
There is still a considerable amount of dynamite sold annually in the U.S. However, pits
and quarries have almostcompletely moved from the use of dynamites to small diameter,
cap- sensitive emulsions and slurries for appropriateapplications. Dynamites are
explosive substances that depend upon nitroglycerin or nitrostarch for sensitiveness.
Theseproducts are usually cap sensitive with a detonation velocity dependent upon the
diameter and density.Dynamites are used as decoupled charges in presplitting. They are
also used sometimes to prime ANFO in smalldiameters. For this latter application a
product with high detonation velocity should be chosen because it will have thehigher

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detonation pressures (a function of the square of the detonation velocity) that are
important for efficient primingof ANFO.

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MODULE 3 BLASTING ACCESSORIES

3.0 Explosives and blast-initiation accessories

Some of the explosive described above are cap sensitive. This means the product can
be efficiently detonated by ablasting cap or delay detonator of adequate strength, or by
compatible detonating cord. Small-diameter emulsions andslurries are typically cap
sensitive. Themanufacturer should be consulted as to the proper accessories to use.

3.1 Safety Fuse

This consists of a core of blasting gunpowder tightly wrapped with coverings of textile and
insulated with coverings of textile and insulated against moisture by waterproofing
materials like asphalt and plastics. The coverings act as protection for the black powder
core against water, oil and other materials which can change the burning speed or
desensitise the powder. The covering also prevents side-spit which can cause premature
detonation if it sets fire to the explosives charge. The burning rate between 98 – 120 s/m

3.2 Igniter Cord

These are a thin, flexible, incendiary cord which burns with a vigorous
flame. They are used for igniting any number of connector capped fuses
and therefore eliminate the need to light fuses individually. They are
protected by a waterproof polyethylene sheath. The incendiary
composition of slow igniter cord will to support combustion even though
the outer sheath is punctuality in the presence of moisture. However, the
incendiary cores of fast, medium depends entirely on their waterproof
sheaths to resist the harmful effect of moisture.

3.2.1 Igniter cord properties

Type Burning rate Colour Resistance to Principal

(s/m) moisture application
Slow 30-45 Cream Good, even Tunnelling
when protective
sheath is
damaged
IC 57 13-26 Green Good if sheath is Stoping when
intact. Fair if sequential firing
of shots is

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sheath is necessary.
damaged. Normally used
with 1.2m fuses
Medium 8-16 8-16 Grey Good if sheath is Stoping when
intact. Nil if sequential firing
sheath is of shots is
damaged. necessary.
Normally used
with 0.9m fuses
Fast 1-6 Brown Good if sheath is Stoping when
intact. Fair if sequential firing
sheath is of shots is
damaged. necessary.
Normally used
with 0.9m fuses

3.2.2 Sequential firing of shotholes

The choice of igniter cord to fire fuses in sequence is influenced by two opposing factors:
 The time taken for the igniter cord to burn between successive connectors must
be longer than the variation in burning time between fuses.
 The igniter cord flame must be sufficiently far ahead of the exploding shots not to
be affected by them (i.e. < 5m in stoping).

3.3 Electric starters

These are small electric circuits capable of producing heat. They are
used to electrically initiate igniter cord in development ends and
underground stoping. It can also initiate pyrotechnic charges in
fireworks, security and safety systems.

3.3.1 Benefits and Features

Benefits Features

• Easy and secure igniter cord • Wires are colour coded by month
connector for easy detection of ageing
• Remote ignition via blasting circuit products
• Reliable and instantaneous igniter • Wire lengths of 350mm, minimised
cord initiation, even underwater to be cost-effective
• Circuit can easily be tested • Plastic casing prevents water
ingress
• Standard type 0 fusehead

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• The plastic casing has a clip

designed to retain an igniter cord
strand in close proximity to the
initiating pyrotechnic charge

3.4 Detonators
A detonator is a small cylindrical aluminium or copper tube into which a powerful explosive
e.g. PETN is placed as a base charge. To suit various purposes, manufactures make No.
6 strength detonator which has 0.35g PETN, and No. 8 strength detonator which has
0.78g PETN
No. 6 detonator are used top detonate NG-based explosives and detonating cord, and
No. * are recommended for use with ANFO in small diameter holes or when additional
initiating strength is required.

3.4.1 PLAIN DETONATORS

The detonator consists of a small cylindrical aluminium or copper tube into which a
powerful explosive e.g. PETN is placed as a base charge and on top a primary charge is
placed normally lead azide. The primary charge is sensitive to initiation by the endspit of
the safety fuse and subsequently initiates the base charge.

3.4.2 Capped fuse

A capped consists of a safety fuse attached to a plain detonator.

Assembly of a plain detonator to a safety fuse:

(a) Select a dry place with adequate ventilation.
(b) Cut the fuse using a non ferrous knife so that the black
powder core is visible
(c) Cut the end of the fuse squarely and introduce it gently into the detonator against
the primary charge-leave no air gap.

(d) Crimp the detonator thoroughly to the fuse with an approved non ferrous crimper.
(e) Crimp the igniter cord connector at the other end.

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3.4.3 ELECTRIC DETONATORS

An electric detonator consists of a small cylindrical aluminium or copper tube into which
a powerful explosive e.g. PETN is placed as a base charge. This is topped by a primer
charge which is initiated by either an electric fuse head or bridge wire and an ignition
mixture and on top a primary charge is placed normally lead azide. In the match head or
fuse head type detonator, the two lead wires are connected within the device by a
platinum iridium wire of high resistance. The bridge wire is surrounded by a bead of
lighting composition which is readily ignited when sufficient current is passed. The
resulting flame initiates the primer charge used and ruptures the bridgewire. In contrast
to the fusehead or match head detonators, the bridgewire can fire the loose charge
without rupturing the bridgewire.

In an electric detonator containing a delay element, the delay powder is initiated and burns
at a predetermined time before igniting the caps primer charge. The burning rate of the
delay powder and the length of the column determine the time interval between
application of the adequate electrical energy and the detonation of the cap.
Detonators are supplied with tags or period of identification, each have a distinctive
numbered tag to facilitate easy identification of each delay period

Electric detonators can be divided into three different classes due to their inherent timing
properties:
 Instantaneous detonators
 Short period delay detonators
 Long period delay detonators

(a) INSTANTANEOUS ELECTRIC DETONATORS:

Comprises of Cu of Al. Tube of 7mm dia and a little longer than the plain detonator so as
to accommodate the fuse head and the neoprene plug. Copper Detonators are for gassy
coal mine where highly incendiary Al. is prohibited. Explosive charges are ignited by an
electric fuse head of Nickel-Chromium-Iron alloy bridge wire soldered to the ends brass
foils separated by an insulating piece of card board.
Fuse Head Composition: Potassium Chlorate, Nitro Cellulose, Charcoal (See Sketch)

(b) SHORT PERIOD DELAY DETONATORS:

These are used when shaft sinking, tunnelling or drifting where the dimensions of the
tunnel are such as to require more delays than available with 0-14 range of LPD’s. This
delay between consecutive LPDs increases from 0.5 second between the lower delays
numbers to just over 2seconds between the last or number. If flyrock is to be minimised,
the delay interval should not be less than 90 millisecond.

(c) LONG DELAY DETONATORS

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These allow approximately ½ a second delay between consecutive groups and periods.
They are the normal choice in tunnelling rounds owing to their suitably under tight
breaking conditions.

Advantages
• Less vibration and noise.
• Improved fragmentation.
• No limit to the number of holes per blast.
• Electrical shot firing equipment not necessary.
• Easier to train operators

Disadvantages
• More chance of cutoffs although experience and judicious use of relays can
eliminate this problem.

3.5 DETONATING FUSE

It is a cord containing of an inner core of explosive
usuallyETN (Pentaerythrol Tetranitrate) enclosed in a
plastic encasement and wrapped in a braid of various
textiles and water proofed. It is a strong, flexible, continuous
detonator. It serves the same purpose as detonators and
directly initiates the high explosives but needs a detonator
for initiation. It detonates at a speed in excess of 7000 m/s.
10g/m of detonating cord will initiate detonator sensitive
explosive but requires a primer to initiate blasting agents such as ANFO.

It is safer to handle than a blasting cap.It is simple cheap but

difficult to obtain precise timing. It is not affected by stray
currents. It is suitable for secondary blasting and single shot
work. For delay blasting in quarries and open pits detonating
relays can be included in the trunklines. It has the advantage
that any
number of holes can be fired on a
different delay.

The delay element is inserted as close

as possible to the hole firing next and
as faraway as possible from that firing
first. If the trunk liners should be
disturbed either prior or during
blasting the detonation will proceed
only as far as the break and then stop.
In large complicated designs the blast

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is such that firing information has two path by each to reach individual holes.

Advantages:
 Versatile, safe for use in extraneous electricity environments, simultaneously firing
without detonators, no hole limit, totally consumed, inexpensive.
 Incorporation of delay connector in 1950, allowed sequential blasting of larger
patterns than electric
Disadvantages
 It will dislodge any collar stemming
 Surface trunklines generate significant levels of noise and airblast
 A detonating cord downline to a bottom primer can desensitise the column for an
insensitive explosive such as ANFO

3.5.1 CORD RELAY:

These devices permit short delay to be introduced into trunk lines of detonating cords. A
cord relay consists of two delay detonators mounted inside a resilient plastic shell. They
are bi-directional in operation, Cord Relays are available in the 15 Ms, 17 Ms, 25 Ms, 50
Ms, 75 Ms, 100 Ms, delay time. The shorter delay intervals are generally required for
small (65-90mm) dia blast holes drilled on close spacing whereas the longer intervals are
suited to larger blast holes drilled on wider spacing. Cord Relays are designed for use
with detonating cords, which have core loads of 10 gm/M. No special connecting tool is
needed.

Shock-tube systems
The shock-tube system is a plastic tube with a thin explosive coating on the inside of the
tube. Upon detonation thismaterial continuously detonates at a low velocity of
approximately 6,500 fps. Thus, the plastic tubes are not and the noise level is low. It is,
therefore, good to use as lead-in line to initiate a non-electric blast in populated areas. Itis
also used to connect holes together when used as part of a long lead-surface delay
system. It is used in the blasthole asa long lead down-the-hole (DTH) delay system to
replace detonating cord downlines, or as a pigtail on DTH delays usedin conjunction with
detonating cord. Shock tube systems, unlike some detonating cords, will not set off a
primer andmust always be used with a DTH initiator and compatibleprimer.
Electric detonators
Fewer blasts in surface mines and quarries are initiated with electric systems today than
once was the case. However, thispractice is certainly still followed by many, especially in
quarrying.
Construction of electrical caps and delays is similar to non-electric components, except
that the energy to ignite theignition compound is provided electrically. This does have the
advantage of minimizing noise on surface, but has thedisadvantage of being more
susceptible to stray radio frequency and currents, lightening, etc.The instantaneous
electric blasting cap is sometimes called an E.B. cap. Like the non-electric blasting cap it
is a thinmetal shell containing various sensitive ignition powders and primary initiating
high explosives sealed in a waterproofassembly. The electric cap is completely sealed
with water-resistant plugs with only two insulated "leg wires" emerging.Inside the cap the
leg wires are joined by a short piece of fineresistance wire called a "bridge wire." The

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bridge wiremay be imbedded either directly into an ignition mixture or in an electric match.
In either case, when an ample electriccurrent passes through this bridge wire it heats it
to incandescence. This ignites the ignition mixture and initiates theprimer and base
charges in the cap. Thus, the electric blasting cap converts a relatively small amount of
electrical energyinto a primary-initiating explosion capable of detonating cap-sensitive
high explosives with which it is in intimatecontact.
Delay electric caps are similar to instantaneous caps in construction and action, except
that between the ignition chargeand the primer charge there is a column of powder called
a "delay charge" which serves as a time fuse. Delay E.B. capsare of two general types:
millisecond, and long-period delay. A wide choice of delay intervals are available running
fromabout 8milliseconds (a millisecond is one-thousandth of a second) through to about
12 seconds. Most quarries usemillisecond delays because of the improved breakage and
reduced vibration they provide. Many underground operationsuse the long-periods,
although many have switched over to milliseconds.
Scores of different hook-ups may be made. Determination of electrical resistances and
other details pertinent to firingelectrically are discussed in manufacturers' literature
available to guide mine and quarry operators. Success requires thatthe operator precisely
follow directions of the manufacturer who produced the electrical devices they utilize.
Suchdirections give the exact procedure required to properly:
1. Select and lay out the blasting circuit.
2. Connect wires and protect splices.
3. Test the circuit.
4. Apply the required electrical energy.
5. Protect the circuit from extraneous electricity.

Electronic blasting systems

Both the shock-tube system and electric detonators rely on a pyrotechnic delay element
to attain their delay timing.These pyrotechnic delays are subject to timing inaccuracies
called "scatter." Scatter can be caused by variations in thepyrotechnic composition, age
and temperature. Deviation from the detonators nominal firing time can cause out-
ofsequence firing. This will result in high vibrations, airblast and poor blast performance.
Recognizing the accuracy issueand the safety concerns with both the electric system
(stray current) and shock tube (cannot be tested) the industry hasmoved towards a more
advanced initiation technology called electronic-blasting systems.Electronic-blasting
systems are unique as they have eliminated the pyrotechnic delay element and replaced
it with ahigh-accuracy timing "chip." These systems now deliver 1/10th of a millisecond
timing accuracy with delays up to20,000 milliseconds. The systems are available in both
programmable and fixed times. Programmable systems allow theblast engineer to design
blasts specific to the site conditions.Electronic systems also bring with them many safety
advantages such as being fully testable with self-diagnostics, ableto operate in areas of
extraneous current and greater blast control through accurate timing.Field tests have
proven that the use of electronic-blasting systems with proper blast designs have reduced
vibrationlevels,airblasts and significantly improved blast performance.

Electronic Detonators
- Idea of electronics first discussed beginning 1990s

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- Recognised potential to increase detonator accuracy

and improve customer results
- Costly technology served as a deterrent
- Minesite drive to increase accuracy, resulted in
various manufacturers beginning to develop and
market versions of electronic detonators

NONEL
NON-ELECTRIC DETONATORS
All commercial detonators require an initiating spark which may be produced by one of
the following:
a) Flame from core in burning safety fuse: Plain detonator.
b) Fusion of bridge wire by an electric current: Electric detonator.
c) Flame from initiation of reactive powder in a tube: Shock tube detonator.

NONEL NEPD
This is a shock tube detonator system manufactured by Dyno Nobel, Sweden which
contains no primary explosive in its composition thus making it safer in use.
There are three Nonel detonator types:
1. Nonel MS
2. Nonel LP
3. Nonel Unidet
1. Nonel MS
This is a short delay detonator system of 25msincrements from period No. 3 (75ms) to
period No. 20(500ms). The detonator tubes are connected usingeither a Snapline
connector or low energy detonatingcord. (3.6-5.0g/m).
2. Nonel LP
This is a long period delay for use in undergroundapplications. It is available in delay
periods from no. 0to no. 60 with time delay of 25 to 6000 ms nominaltime with 6m the
length. Tubes are connected usingeither Bunch connectors or low energy detonating
cord(3.6-5.6 g/m)

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3. Nonel Unidet
This is a detonator system designed for surfaceapplications. The principle is that the
same delay
period is used for every hole with the timing betweenholes being affected by surface
delays incorporatedinto connector units. For double-decked holes acommon delay period
is used for the bottom deck withanother common delay for the top deck. Unidets
areavailable in the following delays:
Nominal time* (ms)
U 450 450
U 475 475
U 500 500
* Nominal times with 6m length tubes.

Initiation and delay sequencing methods

Low explosives like black powder, can be ignited by the flame from a fuse or a match;
secondary explosives require stronger ignition, usually a powerful high temperature
shock from a substance that detonates at a very rapid rate. Fulminate of mercury, lead
azide, and PETN satisfy this requirement, and the last two have been widely used in
blasting caps. The fulminate of mercury has little binding and tends to be mixed with
potassium chlorate so that the compound can be pressed into the bottom of blasting
caps. Lead azide (PbN6) is more powerful than fulminate, is less effected by water, but
is more difficult to ignite, thus is generally mixed with lead styphinate and aluminum to
lessen this difficulty. Tetryl, (C7H5N5O8) is also a powerful explosive and is sometimes
used as a main charge with the azide as the initiator. (This type of detonator is not
allowed in coal mines due to the high temperature of detonation.) The majority of
detonators are copper or aluminum cased and are initiated using safety fuse, electrically
or with shock tube. The advantages and disadvantages are discussed in a later
section.There are two basic methods of initiating an explosive; electrically and non-
electrically.

Electrical Methods
The general term “electric firing devices” applies to blasting supplies which are activated
electrically. The usual arrangement is a metal shell, referred to as a detonator, with two
wires leading in from one end.

Electrical Detonators
An electrical detonator, as shown in Figure 11.1, consists of an aluminum or copper
tube in which a powerful explosive (PETN, lead azide or fulminate of mercury) is

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pressed as a base charge. This is topped by a primer charge which is initiated by either
an electrical fusehead or a bridge wire and ignition charge. The dimensions of a
detonator are generally 7.6 mm in
diameter and between 25 and 50
mm in length.
In the matchhead or fusehead
type detonator, the two lead wires
are connected within the device
by a fine platinum-iridium wire of
high resistance. The bridge wire is
surrounded by a bead of igniting
composition which is readily
ignited when sufficient current is
passed through the bridge wire.
The resulting flame initiates the
primer charge and ruptures the
bridge wire. The detonators are
generally made with a loose
charge contained in a plastic cup
in which the bridge wire sits. In contrast to the fuse or matchhead detonators, the bridge
wire can fire the loose charge without rupturing the bridge wire. This is an important
advantage when firing caps in series; though in parallel circuits it has the disadvantage
that there is a continual electrical drain. The plastic cup both insulates the charge, which
is the most sensitive part of the detonator, from stray currents and isolates it from
shock. When current is applied to the cap, the following events take place sequentially,
providing the current is adequate:
(1) The loose charge ignites (initiation);
(2) The bridge wire ruptures;
(3) The base charge detonates.
This is always the sequence but the actual times are not precise and are statistically
distributed, as shown in Figure 11.2. This figure represents a frequency time plot for
large numbers of single detonators when tested with varying currents.

It can be seen that as the current is

increased, the spread of the curves
becomes less, the overlap is eliminated and
the mean times are reduced. If the current
is so low that there is overlap between the
rupture and the initiation curves, then when
firing in series, misfires may result as caps
will have their bridge wires ruptured before
some are initiated. For these reasons it is
desirable to know the firing characteristics
of electrical detonators.

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Rules on use of Electric detonators

(1) Always use a minimum of 1.5Aper series. It must be assumed that some current
leakage is always present.
(2) Never use more than 35 caps per series. The probability of rupture/initiation overlap
increases as the square of the number of caps.
(3) Never mix caps of different manufacture because of differences in characteristic
times.
(4) Under difficult conditions do not use instantaneous caps. These are the first to break
the circuit.
(5) Never use instantaneous electric blasting caps with delay caps.
Instantaneous caps are commonly available in a variety of strengths to suit different
applications.
Two which are most commonly available are:
(1) No. 6 cap (0.35 g PETN) for use with high explosives.
(2) No. 8 cap (0.78 g PETN) for use with blasting agents in small diameter holes where
additional initiating strength is required.

Both long period instantaneous delays and short period caps find wide application in
both surface and underground blasting operations. The most notable advantages
derived from their use include:
(i) Reduced vibration and concussion;
(ii) Improved fragmentation due to delays;
(iii) More predictable flyrock throw;
(iv) Reduced overbreak and backbreak;
(v) Minimized cut-off.

Electrical Hook Ups

Detonators may be connected together electrically in a firing circuit as follows, see
Figure 11.7:
(1) Parallel - most infrequent, most difficult;
(2) Series - commonly used for a small number of caps;
(3) Series/parallel - most common for a larger number of caps.
Circuits may be designed using
Ohm’s and Kirchoff’s laws with the
knowledge of cap and lead wire
resistance. Resistance of caps
depends on their construction and
lead wire length.
In series circuits, all the caps are
joined up together to provide a
single path for the current; one leg
wire of one cap is connected to
one from another cap, the other
from the second cap to one from
the third and so on. The two free
ends are connected by lead wires

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to a blasting machine or other source of power. Experience has shown that the length of
a series circuit should be limited.
Normally, no more than 50 caps should be connected, and where there is a risk of
current leakage, it is preferable to keep the number down to 30 or less. In Canada, the
minimum current requirement is 1.5 amperes per circuit.

The following example illustrates the method of calculating the voltage and power
requirements.

For example, consider the following situation:

Number of S.P. detonators 30

Length of leg wires 3m
Resistance per cap 1.5 ohms
Blasting cable 300 m of twin lead No. 10 wire
Blasting cable resistance 0.0033 ohms/m

Series
For all caps in series, see Figure 11.7:

Parallel
In parallel circuits, one wire from each cap is connected to one side of the blasting
circuit and the other wire to the other side of the circuit. The parallel hook up offers good
protection against stray currents, static electricity and induced currents because
premature firing will not occur unless the extraneous current is well above the minimum
level required for firing a single cap.
Parallel circuits are often used in large development headings, tunnels or shafts where
charges are close together and the leg wires may be connected with minimal splicing of
extra wire to bus bars.
Powerlines are usually used to fire parallel circuits because of the high amperage
required and the time for which it must be sustained.
In a typical ladder circuit, illustrated in Figure 11.7, each cap provides a separate path
for the electric current and due to the bus wire resistance, which provides an uneven
distribution of electric current, the caps fire progressively in rapid succession. In this

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example the top and bottom caps do not begin to receive minimum firing current until a
certain time has elapsed. Then, as the preceding caps are initiated one after another,
an inductive surge of current is produced which may cause destructive arcing unless a
shunt resistor is used to dissipate the extra power (typically 500mm(20 in) of 16 gauge
Nichrome wire).
Other methods of minimizing electric arcing include:
(1) Use No. 16 gauge bare copper bus wires and space cap connections at about 300
mm
(12 in) apart;
(2) Use a power supply of adequate rating;
(3) Use a firing switch which positively applies the firing current;
(4) Only use detonators with delays greater than 150 ms.
The following example (using the same parameters as before) illustrates the method of
calculating the voltage and power requirements of a parallel circuit.

1/R(caps) = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ... + 1/R30 = 30/1.5

R(caps) = 0.05 ohms
R(leads) = (600)(0.0033) = 2 ohms
R(total) = R(caps) + R(leads) = 0.05 + 2 = 2.05 ohms

Now by specification, 0.6 amps/cap is required for single caps.

Therefore: I = i = 30 x 0.6 = 18 amps and:

Voltage (V) = IR = 18 x 2.05 = 36 volts

Power (P) = VI = 36 x 18 = 648 watts
Energy = VIt = 648 x (4 x 10-3) = 2.6 J or 87 mJ/cap

Series-Parallel
In series-parallel circuits a number of caps are connected in two or more series, each of
which is then connected in parallel across the lead wires. Each series should balance
with the other series, i.e. for 90 holes in three series, make three series of 30 holes
each or for 65 holes, make two series of 33 holes and 32 holes respectively. Series-
parallel circuits have the advantage that a number of electric blasting caps can be fired
with a reasonable power requirement and also the whole circuit, as well as an individual
series, can be tested with a blasting galvanometer.

In this case, the voltage and power requirements may be calculated as follows:
For 3 series, 10 detonators in each, balanced resistance, see Figure 11.7.
Total current = i = 3 x 1.5 = 4.5 amps
Resistance of each series = R = 10(1.5) = 15 ohms
Resistance of caps = R(caps) then 1/R(caps) = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
= 3/15 therefore R(caps) = 5 ohms
R(leads) = (600)(0.0033) = 2 ohms
R(total) = R(caps) + R(leads) = 5 + 2 = 7 ohms

Therefore: Voltage (V) = IR = 4.5 x 7 = 31.5 volts

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Power (P) = VI = 31.5 x 4.5 = 142 watts

Energy = VIt = 142 x (4 x 10-3) = 568 mJ or 19 mJ/cap
Most blasting machines have adequate capacity for firing at 20 mJ for each detonator.

Methods of Electrically Firing a Blast

Electrical blasts may be initiated in three ways:

(1) By a portable blasting machine;

(2) By electrical energy from a powerline; or
(3) By electrical energy from a portable generator.

The majority of portable blasting machines are designed for series firing but can be
used for series/parallel circuits with certain limitations. They should never be used on
parallel circuits. There are two types of portable blasting machine. One type develops a
pulsing direct current by either a quick hand twist or by the firm downward thrust of a
rack bar. The unit is so designed such that no current is passed until the current is at its
peak. The other is the condenser discharge type which utilizes the charging of a bank of
condensers by either a battery or hand generator source; when fully charged, these
condensers are discharged through the blasting circuit by a suitable switching
arrangement.
Blasting machines should be stored in a cool, dry area and should be handled with
reasonable care to ensure they will give adequate performance. In cold temperatures, the
battery output of the condenser/discharge type machine will be greatly reduced and the
condensers will not be charged to full capacity.
An underground firing system can consist of the following equipment:
(1) Step-down transformer;
(2) High output exploder;
(3) Distribution box;
(4) Mains blasting booster.
The step-down transformer is required to reduce the mines voltage to the design
voltage of the exploder.
The high output exploder is designed to fire up to 5,000 standard detonators in series-
parallel circuits. AC voltage fluctuation is controlled by charging the exploders
capacitors with a low current line from the mains. Once the capacitors have been fully
charged the energy can be released to initiate the round(s).
Distribution boxes are used to simplify the connection of multiple series in parallel
circuits and allow the testing of individual circuits without disconnecting them from the
terminals.

Mains blasting boosters are located near the face and operate from a low current 100 -
250 V power source. Once its capacitor is charged it produces a low current, high
voltage to ensure initiation of the blast.

Precautions with Electrical Blasting

Static

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In dry air, low humidity and in the presence of rapid moving ammonium nitrate (AN),
sand or dust, static charge build-up is possible and provides a blasting hazard. When
loading AN/FO, a man or truck may be charged to 10,000 volts with an energy of 15 mJ.
The charge required to initiate a typical Canadian detonator is 6mJ and therefore this
charge is sufficient to cause cap detonation. For this reason, leg wire shunting should
be used to increase the energy required (up to 100 mJ) for detonation to in excess of
the static charge present. Other precautions include:

(1) Grounding chains on loading equipment;

(2) Personnel grounding during and after loading;
(3) The use of conductive loading hoses, i.e. Lo stat.

Radio Transmitters
The wires on the blasting cap, or in the circuit, may act as an antenna. If the
configuration of the wires is just right, and if the radio transmitter is close enough, this
antenna may pick up enough current to cause detonation. The following distances are
recommended.

Blasting Near High Voltage Powerlines

Whenever it is necessary to blast with electric caps near high voltage powerlines,
special blasting procedures should be used. Because of the large quantity of electric
energy carried by these lines and because of the high cost of repairing a damaged line,
careful attention must be given to ensuring that the powerline does not present a hazard
to electric blasting and that the blast does not damage the powerline. The following
minimum distances should be followed in setting up a blasting circuit close to a
powerline.

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There are five factors that should be considered when evaluating the effect of a high
voltage
powerline on an electric blasting circuit. These are:

Capacitive Coupling
This applies to electrical energy that the powerline’s electric field may introduce into the
blasting circuit. A practical example of capacitive coupling is the transfer of electrical
energy between two parallel plates in a capacitor. Fortunately, capacitive coupling is
very inefficient and only negligible energy is transferred to the electric blasting cap
circuit. Therefore, little concern need be given to it.

Inductive Coupling
This applies to electrical energy that the powerline’s magnetic field may introduce into
the electric blasting cap circuit. A practical illustration of inductive coupling is the
transfer of electrical energy by a transformer. As with capacitive coupling, inductive
coupling is also very inefficient, especially with the balanced load, three phase
powerline systems that are in general use. However, if the powerline is struck by
lightning, or if a fault (i.e. a short-circuit between one, or more, of the phases and the
ground) occurs, an unbalanced surge current might flow in the powerline and provide
more severe inductive coupling effects.

Stray Current
The neutral, or ground, in most power systems is connected to earth at each tower or
pole. Some neutral current flow may occur in poly-phase systems and part of this
neutral current may pass through the earth thus setting up a source of stray current.

Wire Thrown Over the Powerline

The firing line or electric blasting circuit wires could be thrown up into contact with the
powerline as a result of the blast. This could cause a short circuit from the powerline,
through the blasting circuit to earth and may injure or kill the shotfirer. Therefore, if the
combined length of the firing line and twice the leg wire length used, exceeds the
distance from the blasting machine to the powerline, the applicable procedures in the
RECOMMENDATIONS section should be used.

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Lightning Strikes on the Powerline

The purpose of the overhead ground wires is to protect the high voltage phase wires by
intercepting lightning strikes and grounding them to earth. Although a lightning strike is
usually carried to earth within several poles (or towers) of the strike, it could be carried
greater distances, especially if the lightning strikes a phase wire. This could serve to
increase stray current and/or the effects of capacitive and inductive coupling. Hence,
the appropriate procedures given in the RECOMMENDATIONS section should be
followed.

RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommended procedures for minimizing the factors by which a high voltage
powerline may represent a hazard to electric blasting are as follows:
1. Capacitive and Inductive Coupling:
(i) Keep the blasting circuit wires close to the ground;
(ii) Eliminate large closed wire loops by using duplex or twisted pair wire;
(iii) Always try to run the firing line perpendicular to the powerline direction;
(iv) Prior to any electric blasting, make pick-up tests using a worst-case simulated circuit
to determine that the effects of inductive and capacitive coupling are minimal. Follow
this up with periodical rechecks. The procedures for making these tests are described at
the end of this section.
2. Stray Current:
(i) Keep the blasting circuit isolated from earth by either insulating the splices with
electrician’s tape, or by keeping them off the ground;
(ii) Prior to any electric blasting make tests to determine that stray currents in the area
are minimal. Follow this up with periodic rechecks. The procedure for making these
tests is described at the end of this section.
3. Wires Thrown Over the Powerline:
(i) Do not run the firing line under the powerline;
(ii) Anchor the blasting circuit to the ground;
(iii) Employ a positive means to open the firing line immediately after the blast is fired. A
suitable positive opening means consists of a 25 to 50 cm length of detonating cord
taped to the firing line. The detonating cord should be initiated by a short delay E.B.
Cap, that is properly connected into the blasting circuit.
4. Electrical Storms:
(i) Extend the area of concern for an electrical storm from within 1.5 to 3.0 km of the
blast site to within 8 to 16 km;
(ii) If there are any electrical storms within this distance of the blast site, discontinue the
loading operation and remove all personnel to a position of safety until the storm has
passed over;
(iii) When retreating from the blast site, open all shunts on wired-up electric blasting cap
circuits making sure that the bare wire ends are insulated from contact with the earth.
Leave individually shunted electric blasting caps as they are;
(iv) Replace all shunts immediately upon return to the blast site after the storm has
passed over. The pick-up tests to detect excessive capacitive or inductive coupling or
stray current should be made using a suitable electrical measuring instrument.

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The tests that are to be made prior to any electric blasting should be performed using a
simulated blasting circuit and measuring any extraneous electricity introduced into this
circuit with the test meter. The tests can be made more severe by using a special circuit
layout for each test that provides worst-case conditions. These layouts are as follows:

Capacitive Coupling
Suspend a 15-30m(50-100 ft) length of wire about 1.2-1.6m(4-5 ft) in the air using
wooden stakes. Connect one end of the wire to earth through a one ohm resistor.
Connect the test meter across the one ohm resistor.
Inductive Coupling
Lay out a rectangular loop of wire with the sides parallel to the powerline direction about
30 m long and the sides perpendicular to the powerline direction about 15 m (50 ft) long.
Connect a one ohm resistor between the two wire ends from the loop. Connect the test
meter across the one ohm resistor.

Stray Current
Insert two metal stakes about 30 m (100 ft) apart in the ground under the powerline
such that a line connecting the stakes will be parallel to the powerline direction.Wet
around the stakes with water to assure good electrical contact. Connect a one ohm
resistor to the stakes using a piece of extension wire on the ends of the resistor leads.
Connect the test meter across the one ohm resistor. If the powerline is AC, inductive
and capacitive coupling and stray current measurements can be made. Set the range
selector on the test meter to the highest AC voltage range. If no reading or only an
insignificant deflection is obtained, switch the selector to increasingly more sensitive
voltage ranges. Continue this until either an appreciable reading is obtained or the most
sensitive range is reached.
If the powerline is DC, inductive and capacitive coupling will not be present; only stray
current measurements will be meaningful. Set the range selector on the test meter to
the highest DC voltage range. If no reading or only insignificant deflection is obtained,
switch the selector to increasingly more sensitive voltage ranges. Continue this until
either an appreciable reading is obtained or until the most sensitive range is reached.
It is generally recommended that millivolts should be the maximum permissible reading.
If higher readings are obtained do not attempt to blast using electric caps. Field
experience has indicated that generally readings of a millivolt, or less, are encountered.
It should be realized that proper laying out of the blasting circuit to minimize inductive
and capacitive coupling and to prevent the entrance of stray current, should reduce any
extraneous electricity to much lower values than indicated by these worst-cases
condition tests.
Once it has been ascertained that coupled energy and stray current are not excessive,
rechecks can be made on either a permanent simulated blasting circuit if this is
possible, or by measuring the current introduced into the actual blasting circuit. When
running tests on the actual blasting circuit, use only a BlastingVOMMeter or equivalent
meter that is designed for connecting into live blasting circuits.
One other subject that should be discussed concerns procedures to follow after the blast.
No responsible operator should leave the area after the blast until he has inspected for
any hazardous conditions. If any are found, such as blasting circuit wires thrown over the

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powerline or damaged powerline equipment, barricade the area and post a guard. The
barricade and guard should remain until the power company is notified and can send a
crew to repair the damage. These repairs should be made only by experienced and
properly equipped personnel. It is usual to use non-electric initiation of each hole if
electrical blasting is hazardous. If non-electric initiation is used the lead in line can be
initiated with capped safety fuse, a shock tube shot firer or with a highly insensitive electric
detonator.

SURFACE DELAY
SNAPLINE CONNECTOR UNITS
Delay Time* (ms) Colour
0 0 Green
17 17 Yellow
25 25 Red
42 42 White
67 67 Blue
*Nominal time with 3.6m length tubes.
Snapline Connector units contain a detonator with a
reduced base charge as well as a small primary
explosive charge.
Booster

Summary
The following summarizes the advantages of using delay detonators in production
blasting.
• Improved fragmentation due to the greater freedom for the material to relieve.
• Greater flexibility in firing sequences and burden to spacing relationships due to the
ability to orient the blastthrough the tie-in.
• Greater ability to control blast vibration and airblast.
• More predictable blast movement and flyrock control.
• Reduced backbreak behind the last row of holes.
• Minimized cut-offs.
For extensive information about explosive and initiation produces provided by many
domestic and overseasmanufacturers the reader is referred to the Explosives Product
Guide included in the Membership Directory and DeskReference published each year by
the International Society of Explosive Engineers.

Blast-design factors
There are a number of factors to be considered when designing a blast. These include:
• Material type to be blasted and the blast pattern and hole loading to use in the given
rock.
• Degree of fragmentation desired.
• The geological structure and the attitude of the tie-in lines relative to the structure.
• The type and performance of the explosive charge.
• The type of initiation system and the duration of millisecond delays and accuracy
needed.

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• For a given pattern, the ratio of burden to spacing as defined by the tie-in or the layout.
• Subgrade drilling needed to fully break to the pit floor.
• Crest and toe locations (or average backbreak from the last row if the fact is not dug
out).
• Upper bench elevations to determine hole depths.
• Blast size required to maintain quarry or mine production.
• Blasting ground vibration and airblast, and the design requirements to maintain
acceptable levels.
Blasthole layout
Once a suitable pattern and loading have been determined it is important that the holes
be accurately laid out in the fieldand drilled in the proper location. Irregular blasthole
locations lead to less acceptable blasting results, unless theimproperly drilled holes are
redrilled. Burden and spacing dimensions vary and the tie-in is more difficult on
irregularpatterns. Some portions of the blast will be overshot, while other areas will
experience hard toe and coarserfragmentation.
It is especially important that the front row holes be properly located. If there is too much
burden (especially at the toe)fragmentation will suffer and the remainder of the blast will
not properly relieve. Hard toes are likely to be in evidence.When there is too little burden,
the high-pressure explosion gases cannot be contained. Rapid gas venting through
theface will occur. Greater flyrock throw and airblast can be expected. There will be hard
toes and blocky fragmentation.
Mines that have a survey department can measure toe and crest locations on the bench
and plot these on the blast planmap, upon which drill pattern is designed. Thus, the front
row locations can be more accurately determined. Quarries,where on-going surveying
capability is less common can obtain a better idea of the face profile using a hand level
andtape. Standing at the crest of the bench a point on the pit floor can be sighted and the
angle measured with the hand level.Using simple trigonometry for the right triangle, the
base length can be calculated since the bench height is known. Thisbase length is the
total horizontal distance from the crest of the bench to the point measured on the pit
floor.A 100-ft. tape is used to measure the distance from the point on the pit floor back to
the toe of the bench. The differencebetween the total base length and this distance is the
crest to toe offset. The blastholes can then be set back from the cresta suitable distance
to yield an acceptable toe burden (or one can identify areas where an overburdened toe
is likely tooccur). In areas where safety working around the high wall is a concern the
operation should consider laser profiling andbore tracking the blast to confirm the face
conditions and profile. Laser equipment and or services are available to helpacquire this
information.

Blasthole loading
It is important that holes be loaded correctly in accordance with the design. Improperly
loaded holes can lead to poorfragmentation and/or excessive flyrock and noise. The hole
depths must be correct. Operators must decide how shortholes can be before redrilling is
required. In very hard rock a blasthole that is one or two ft. short can result in hard toe.In
softer rock more variance is acceptable, but is seldom more than four or five ft.Modern-
day bulk trucks have more sophisticated measuring and control systems. The operator
can set the weight to beloaded in the blasthole and the truck shuts off automatically.

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However, this does not eliminate the need to bob theblasting tape in the hole during
loading. The truck-control systems cannot tell about voids or cavities in the hole, norabout
control-system malfunctions. Thus to avoid over or under loading, and to obtain the
correct column rise, it is stillimportant to tape the hole during loading.Accurate loading is
especially important regarding the column rise and corresponding stemming height. The
explosivecolumn must rise high enough in the given rock type to fully break to the surface
of the upper bench. Good breakage isrelated to the depth of burial of the top of the charge.
Too great a depth of burial and the top of the blast will be poorlyfragmented.
On the other hand, if the explosive column rises too high in the hole the depth of burial is
low, gases vent rapidly to thesurface, and there is more flyrock and noise. Also, the radius
of the crater of fully broken material formed around thehole decreases and there may be
hard areas between holes.
Front-row stemming height
Stemming heights on the front row may need to be increased. Since the bench-face angle
is less than 90 degrees theburden on the front row holes is continuously decreasing
between the toe and collar of the hole. Depending on where thefront row blasthole must
be drilled to maintain a suitable toe distance the burden may become too small to contain
theexplosion gases at the normal column rise. To avoid gas venting to the face causing
flyrock, noise and loss ofperformance, stemming on front-row holes may need to be
increased.A simple measurement can be made in the field to determine the stemming
height on the front row, using a telescopingsurveyors rod and a 100-ft blasting tape. The
rod is placed at the collar of the hole and extended over the face to thelength of the
desired minimum burden. A weighted tape is passed along the rod, through the ring at
the top of thesurveyor's pole and then drops vertically until it strikes the face. The total
length is read from the tape. The burdendistance is subtracted from the total, giving the
vertical distance. This is the stemming height. For example, if 6-1/2 in.holes at the quarry
require a 12-ft. minimum burden and the total taped length is 29 ft., the vertical distance
is: 29-12 =17 ft.
This is the stemming height required to maintain minimum burden on the charge. Failure
to make appropriateadjustments to front row stemming may well lead to hazardous
flyrock.

Blast tie-ins and burden to spacing relationships

Drilled and loaded blast patterns may be tied-in to create different burden to spacing
relationships. Commonly useddesigns are:
1. Square pattern tied en-echelon or across two free faces. Known as a V-1 tie-in. This is
a non-staggered pattern. Tie-inis on the diagonal of the square and is oriented at 45
degrees to the free face. The effective burden is 0.707 times thedrilled burden. The ratio
of the effective spacing on the tie-in to the effective burden is 2:1.
2. Staggered square pattern tied on the diagonal of the parallelogram. This is known as
the V-2 tie-in. The orientation is34 degrees to the face. The effective burden is 0.56 times
the drilled burden. The ratio of effective spacing to effectiveburden is 3:1.
3. Staggered equilateral pattern tied-in on the V-2 configuration. The angle to the free
face is 30 degrees. The effectiveburden across the tie-in is 0.50 times the drilled spacing.
The ratio of effective spacing to effective burden is 3-5:1.

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4. Row on row tie-in. In this case successive rows detonate in progression. There is no
burden reduction and the effectiveburden and spacing are the same as the drilled
dimensions. The rows detonate parallel to the face rather than at an angle.
Generally in open pits and quarries the tie-ins described above are preferred.
Millisecond delay timing
The duration of millisecond delay times must also be considered. Field experiments have
shownthat 1 to 1-1/2 ms-perft.of effective burden is the minimum that can be considered
if any relief is to be obtained for holes firing on successivedelay periods.
For good relief, it is typically found that 2 to 2-1/2 ms-per-ft. of effective burden are
required. In some cases wheremaximum relief is desired 5 to 6 ms-per-ft. may be
appropriate. When delay times are long care must be taken to avoidcutoffs and misfires
depending upon the type of initiation system being used. A down-the-hole delay of
sufficientduration to allow much of the surface tie-in lines and blasthole downlines to be
consumed before blastholes begindetonating is the usual procedure taken to avoid these
problems.

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MODULE 4: HANDLING,USE, TRANSPORTATION AND STORAGE OF

EXPLOSIVES

4.1 Transportation of explosives

1. All explosives immediately after being unloaded be conveyed directly to
amagazine.
2. Explosives being conveyed shall always be in charge of;
(a) The holder of the permit authorising the purchase, possession or
acquisition of such explosives.
(b) An employee of the holder of the permit who has been authorised inn
writing.
(c) Where a firm or transport company has been contracted to transport
explosives on behalf of the holder of the permit. The firm should have an
authorisation in writing from the holder of the permit. The firm should have
authorisation in writing from the holder stating the holder stating the
holder’s permit number which must be endorsed with his approval by the
inspector of mines.
3. The driver shall be at least 18 years.

4. The driver shall stay with the vehicle until such time as explosives leave reached
their destination and have been unloaded.

5. When explosives to be transported exceed 5000kgs in mass the distance

exceeds 100km, the driver of the vehicle shall be accompanied by at least one
competent person.

6. No explosives shall be conveyed with passengers, mail, any other substances

matter or material which is likely to cause fire or a detonation including goods of
a dangerous nature such as inflammable materials, acids, chemicals,
compressed gases, forage, matches, substances liable to spontaneous
combustion, waste, machinery or parts, tools, plough, iron, steel or any ,material
having exposed iron or steel.

7. No other person other than the driver and the competent person shall ride in or
upon any vehicle carrying explosives.

8. The driver shall mantain a distance of not less than 45m between his vehicle
and any vehicle in front of his vehicle unless the circumstances render this
impracticable.

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9. No person shall smoke

(i) In or any vehicle with explosives,

(ii) Within 20m of any vehicle onto or from which explosives are being loaded
or unloaded.

10. The driver or person in charge shall ensure that the engine is switched off during
loading and unloading.

11. No person shall unload from a vehicle enroute except in the event of a
breakdown of such vehicle provided that at it scams absolutely necessary to
unload the whole or part of a

i. explosives enroute all possible care shall be taken to protect the

explosives from fire, shock or damp
ii. No ex[plosives shall be placed near inhabitated buildings.
iii. The explosives shall b e reloaded and the journey shall be continous as
soon as possible.
iv. An inspector of explosives shall be notified as soon as possible of the full
circumstances necessitating the unloading of explosives enroute.

12. During athunderstorm a vehicle carrying explosives shall be halted off the road at
least 500m from inhabitant buildings.

4.2 Construction and condition of vehicle

 Should run on at least 4 wheels.
 Be in serviceable condition.
 Provided with efficient brakes.
 All metal portions should be covered with wood or rubber.
 The vehicle to have earthing chain on the chassis.
 Explosive should be securely fastened in the vehicle so that they form part and parcel
of the vehicle.
 The mass of explosive should not exceed the gross vehicle mass of the vehicle.
 Provision of a fire extinguisher.
 Explosives to be covered with tarpaulin.
 Red flags should be fixed in the front and back of the vehicle.

4.3 Traveling in built up areas

1. When transporting explosives only routes published in the government gazette shall
be used.
2. The vehicle should avoid towns and villages as far as is practicable.
3. Conveyance should be done only between sunrise and sunset.

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4. Mechanically propelled vehicles shall not exceed a speed of 50km/hr

5. An animal drawn vehicle must not proceed at a faster speed than walking pace.

a. The keys of any magazine shall when not in use should be kept securely locked
in a safe.
b. Duplicates of the keys of any magazine shall be kept by the licence securely
locked in a safe and shall be available in case of emergency or for the purpose of
inspection.

An immovable magazine is mound and a space not less than 20m wide
surrounding the mound shall be kept clear of vegetation and unless an inspector
gives written permission to the contrary shall be securely fenced in.

OHM METER:
Used for testing the continuity and resistance of blasting circuits. These are of two types.
i) Powered by low voltage hand operated generator.
ii) 1.5v dry battery type.
EXPLODER:
Used for firing shots electrically, these are of two types:
i) Generator type: - Magneto of dynamo (for large capacity) operated by a quick twist of
strong down ward push of handle.
ii) Condenser discharge type: - Can be battery of dynamo powered.

4.2 Transportation and storage of explosives

OPTIMUM BLAST DESIGN : TECHNO ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

The measure of effectiveness of drilling and blasting operations is not in terms of blasting
cost alone, but rather byits contribution of the efficiency and economy of total excavation
system. Savings accrued through excessivereduction in the cost of drilling and blasting
may well be lost by increased loading, handling and crushing costs. Anoptimum blast,
with improved fragmentation, accounts for increased cost of drilling and blasting, while

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the cost of loading, handling and crushing are lowered.

CONCEPT OF OPTIMUM BLASTING

The concept developed by Mackenzie describes the total blasting cost as :-
Ct= Cd+CB+cl+Cc
P
Where
Ct = Total blasting cost per tonne of finished product.
Cd = Cost of drilling
Cb = Cost of blasting
Cl = Cost of loading
Ch = Cost of Hauling
Cc = Cost of Crushing
P = Total tones of production

Fig. is representation of what Mackenzie believed was the relationship between blasting
cost and drilling costBeginning from to the point to the left of OPTIMUM, he found that it
was possible to reduce TOTAL costincreasing BLASTING COST. He found that better

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fragmentation produced increased shovel loading efficiency,reduced maintenance repair

cost for shovels and dumpers and increased crusher output. Mackenzie achieved
asuperior "degree of fragmentation" primarily by using more energetic of high strength
Explosives. He found higherBLASTING COST produced a very significant reduction in
TOTAL COST.
IMPORTANCE OF DEGREE OF PERFORMANCE
Fragmentation levels required depend on the type of the excavating and hauling
equipment. Fragmentation coarserthan optimum results in decrease in the loading
efficiency and increase in the downtime of loading equipment withadded cost of
maintenance.On the other hand, to achieve fragmentation finer than optimum, cost of
drilling and blasting may risedisproportionately, which may not be offset by the additional
advantage in loading. The blast design should,therefore, be aimed at optimum
fragmentation to economise the overall cost of mining.Once the optimum fragmentation
requirements for a particular mining equipment is decided, the question arises as
todetermine which would need secondary breaking. As has already been mentioned
above, any attempt to produce"Zero Boulder Blast" would severely affect the drilling and
blasting cost. The optimum ratio of percentage ofoversize boulders against the volume of
rock of 1-2%.

Blast Economics:
Efficient explosives application is the least expensive method of fragmenting and casting
rock. Blast casting the overburden off coal dramatize the economic advantages of using
explosive energy to increase production rate andenlarge over all operating profit margins.
Fig below graphically illustrate the economic advantages of changing theblast design to
an over burden casting configuration. In this case, the burden and spacing dimensions
were reducing,which caused the drilling costs to rise marginally. In addition, higher energy
explosives where added to increase theenergy factor, which is required for higher
fragmentation and higher through achieved in case of over burdencasting. Despite the
increase in drilling and explosives cost. a major reduction in total operating cost was
observeddue to increase in production and sooner access to the coal. Moreover,
reduction in operating maintenance cost dueto less running of stripping and hauling

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equipment because of less material to handle.

Blast Hole Diameter:

The optimum blast hole diameter is governed by factors such as type of Explosives, Rock
mass properties, and degree offragmentation desired and height of bench. An optimum
blast hole diameter is that which accommodates that muchquantity of Explosives charge
which not only breaks away several fold great rock mass but also displaces it toconvenient
distance for efficient handling by shovel.However, in recent years, there is a discernible
trend towards larger diameter because of lower drilling cost, andmore dependable yield
of energy, which assures good fragmentation.But at the same time, if diameter is too large
the corresponding large blast hole array may result in poorfragmentation, especially in
the case of highly fissured of jointed strata.

Technical Considerations in Selecting Optimum Diameter for Blast Hole Drilling

(a) Influence of hole size on fragmentation:
Many a mining engineers are firmly of the view that an increase in hole diameter
automatically means poorerfragmentation. Nothing could be further from truth.
The Taconite iron ore mines of Minnesota, USA exhibits the classical example, where
over the years, the operationshave progressed from 190 to 380 mm diameter holes with
continual improvement in fragmentation. There has beeninstances of operations that
have had to reducehole size because the blasting was producing too many fines.The
phenomenon may be better understood by assuming that the larger the hole diameter,
the larger the drill pattern,the larger the fragments. But suppose the hole diameter is
increased, but not the drill pattern would not thefragmentation be improved?
(b) Energy Utilization Factors:

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Following example shows energy comparison (measured in million ft-lbs per foot) for
various Explosives diameter,which is indicative of the fact that with decrease in hole
diameter measured energy also decreases.
1. Measured energy of ANFO in a 1 inch hole = 4.8 million ft-lbs/ft.
Measured energy of ANFO in a 8 inch hole = 19.2 million ft-lbs/ft.
19.2 - 4.8% more energy utilization = ----------- x 100 = 300%
4.8
2. Measured energy of " Gelaprime A of 3½ inch diameter in a 4 inch hole = 6.9 million ft-
lbs/ft
Measured energy of " Gelaprime A of 3½ inch diameter in a 4 inch hole = 6.9 million ft-
lbs/ft
35.9 - 6.9% more energy utilization = ----------- x 100 = 420%
6.9
(c) Production requirements
Application of large diameter drills with high rate of penetration becomes indispensable
to meet high productionrequirements. The same production could be achieved with
smaller diameter holes but the number of drill machinesrequired would be abnormally
high.
SELECTION OF OPTIMUM BURDEN & SPACING
The most critical among geometric parameters of blasting is the burden, which has the
greatest influence onfragmentation. For any particular geological setting, there is an
optimum burden for which the volume of wellfragmentedand loosened rock is maximum.If
burden is too large, shock wave remains incapable of extending radial cracking upto the
free face and heaveenergy is unable to provide adequate displacement. Gasses are
bottled up within the blast holes for period of time,which results in rapid decay of effective
borehole pressure.On the other hand, if the burden is too low, fracturing by shock
increases and breakage by heave energy decreasesand much of heave energy is lost as
air blast.Thus, the optimum fragmentation burden is that which allows the gasses to
losses virtually all of their energies bythe time they escape into the atmosphere without
producing any air blast, with minimum objectionable side effects,like toe, air blast, ground
vibrations etc.
Optimum Burden B = 37.8 (Pe/Pr) 1/3 x d
Pe = Density of Explosive
Pr = Density of rock
d = Dia of Hole (mm)
For lime stone quarry B = 0.024 x d + 0.85 other formula
K = 20 - 35
B = Burden in feet
D = Dia in Inches
CMRI equation (Pal Roy 93)
B=
De 5.93 L ½
H x ------- x ------- + 0.37 -----
Dh RQD C
Where B = Burden (M)
S = Spacing (M)

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H = Bench Height (M)

De = Dia of Explosives (MM)
Dh = Dia of Hole (MM)
RQD = Rock quality designation
= 100 (0.1λ + 1) e -0.1 x λ
λ = No. of bedding per meter
L = Loading density Kglm
C = charge factor Kg/M3
Thumb Rule B = 20 - 30 times dia of hole.
Spacing
Spacing must be large enough to prevent excessive overlap and over break zones behind
adjacent holes but justsmall enough to give a relatively even distribution of Explosives
energy in the rock to be broken.An interesting conclusion of the study conducted by the
Department of Mining Engineering, Banaras HinduUniversity was that, at Burdens smaller
than optimum fragmentation burden, the fragmentation was finer even at S/Bvalue of 5.0
compared to the results obtained at optimum and greater than optimum fragmentation
burden withsmaller S/B values of even 1.0.
For Lime Stone
S = 0.9 B + 0.91
KD
B = --------
12

Sub - Drilling
Effective sub drilling of about 8.d or 0.3 x B has been found to be satisfactory. In dipping
faces, sub drilling of 10.dto 12.d may be necessary in front row because of the excessive
toe burden. Sub drilling beyond 12.d rarely succeedsin pulling heavy toe. Instead it tends
to make the situation worse.
Optimum Ratio of Toe Burden
------------------------------------- = 40
Hole Dia
Stemming
The gaseous energy of an Explosives column will be utilised only if stemming is proper.
It should be around 0.7 xBurden.
Depth of Hole
It mainly depends upon the size of machinery, but for better blast results depth D = 2.1 -
2.25 B (B is Burden)
Delay Initiation Sequences
In multi row blasting, various delay initiation sequences are possible. They are :
1. Instantaneous
2. Row Delay
3. V, V1, V2 pattern

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Delay Initiators commonly used are :

1. Electric delay detonators (ms) in conjunction with detonating cord down lines and/or
Trunk lines. Delaydetonators are tied to down lines of individual holes or to trunk line.
2. Cord Relays (Detonating Relays) in conjunction with detonating cord trunklines and
down lines.
3. Down-the-hole non-electric delay initation system such as NONEL/ Raydet with of
without additional surfacedelays.
4. Use of electric delay detonators in conjunction with sequential blasting machine.
5. Combination of 3 and 4.
The success of blasts using electric delay detonators largely depends on its accuracy,
quality and satisfactoryfunctioning of these detonators. Only II delay periods (0-10) are
available in short delay detonators (ms) whichgreatly restricts the blast size, especially if
one plans to use v or vi patterns or is required to provide a delay intervalhigher than their
nominal values, thus warranting a need to skip one or two delay numbers.
In cord relays, the blasting engineer has a very simple and versatile tool, which helps him
carry out big blasts usinglarge number of rows and yet ensuring adequate delay interval
provided for. The probability of a misfire in a blastusing cord relays is rather remote,
because, while blasting, with detonating relays, additional surface detonationpaths are
always provided for the blast holes thus ensuring trouble free blasts. the pros and cons
of the variousinitiation sequences mentioned earlier are discussed below.
1. Instantaneous Blasts:Figure shows a multirow blast where are no delays in the
surface hookup. Allboreholes detonate more or less simultaneously. Except the first row,
the back rows cannot effectively breakoutand move in a forwardly direction. They crater
up towards the only free face available, viz. bench surface. Suchblasts results in poor
fragmentation, tight muck piles, excessive fly rock and ground vibration/air blast.
Thismethod is not recommended.
2. Row Delay:Most blasters prefer this method for ease of tying-in. In this method,
individual rows in a blast aredelayed in a sequence, (figure) so that the front row fires first
and then the back rows in a sequence, thuscreating free face for the individual rows.
Though lot of forward movement of broken rock is achieved in thismethod. The muck pile
is generally very loose and scattered. Simultaneous detonation of all holes in a row,results
in high charge weights per delay resulting in excessive ground vibrations and often back

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break isconsiderable because of simultaneous detonation of all charges in the back row.
This result in uneven walls andslope stability problems, modified row delay is shown in
figure, which reduces, side-tear. Staggered holepatterns give marginally better
fragmentation as compared to in-line patterns figure.

3. V, V1, V2 Patterns:These Pattern are far superior, to row delays. These result in
superior fragmentation due toreduce hole burdens and increased spacing at the time of
hole initiation and also due to inflight collision ofbroken rock during its movement. For
example, in square pattern where holes are drilled S = B initiation in a 'V'sequence results
in holes getting effectively staggered and also the effective spacing (se) to effective
burden(Be) ration viz Se/Be is equal to 2 and Be reduces to a value equal to
approximately 0.7B. In this sequence,though fragmentation is superior, forward dis-
placement of rock is slightly restricted resulting in heaping up atthe centre of the face.
This can be overcome by using patterns such as modified square V of
square/staggeredV1/V2. The delayed action of holes in the back row reduces over break
ensuring increased wall stability.The best available pattern is one where the holes are
drilled (staggered) on a equilateral triangle pattern. This ina drilled spacing to burden
ration of approximately 1.16. It has been observed that an effective spacing (Se) toBurden
(Be), ratio of about 3.5" is achieved with holes drilled on an equilateral triangle grid and
fired using aV1 initiation sequence.
Drilling (staggered) equilateral triangular pattern require more operator skill and
supervision as compared to inlinepatterns. Clear marking of the hole positions in advance
by a responsible person would help the drillersimmensely. Fig. gives various delay
patterns discussed above.

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FLYROCK PROBLEMS IN OPENPIT BLASTING

Flyrock in open pit blasting usually means the unexpected/undesired outward projection
of rock mass from blasting.Flyrock should be differentiated from 'throw' which now a days
can be fairly controlled to produce a desired shapeof the muck-pile for efficient loading.
The Flyrock generated as such often poses a serious problem to the users ofExplosives,
as not only the mine equipment are at risk, but also the personal safety and adjacent
property areendangered.
Cause / Formation of Flyrock
Many factors could contribute to the occurrence of undesired fly rock, like:
i) Front Row Burden:Flyrock can be ejected from front row blast holes where insufficient
burden exists eitherat the collar or at the toe. Reduced collar burden often occurs with
vertical drilling in an inclined face to take care ofthe desired toe burden; on the other hand
sufficient toe burden; could occur where the face has been under-cut orwhere excessive
blast-hole deviation has occurred in angle drilling (see figure)

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ii) Stemming Depth/Stemming Material:The collar region is usually fractured before

hand due to back-breakfrom previous blast or due to sub-grade blasting from the bench
above. As the stemming depth decreases, a largerproportion of explosion gases become
available for premature ejection of this pre-fractured rock.
The stemming material acts to confine the explosion gases to perform the useful work
before venting. Withinefficient stemming material the gases stream-up the blast-hole
prematurely resulting in fly rock formation.
iii) Initiation Sequence:Progressive relief of burden in forward direction through use of
inter-row delays isessential for optimum fragmentation and muck-pile looseness.
However if the inter-row delay intervals are notadequately designed then the rear rows of
holes may crater upward in absence of forward displacement; this willcreate substantial
fly rock. Similar phenomena can happen when blast-holes are initiated out of sequence
(back rowinitiated before front row).
iv) Blast Pattern/Blast Shape:When Explosives charge column is overburdened,
vertical crate ring can takeplace causing fly rock. Also when the borehole depth to burden
ratio is around unity, forward displacement isinhibited due to higher stiffness length may
have to be reduced to accommodate the necessary quantity of charge inthe hole, leading
to the fly rock from the collar region.If the shape of the blasting round is such that length
to width ratio fir the bench is less than 1.5, the rock on bothsides of the blast area has a
constraining of drag effect on forward displacement thus resulting in fly rock from
rearrows.
v) Major Geological Faults : Where Explosives charges intersect or are in close
proximity to the majorgeological faults or planes of weakness, the high pressure explosion
gases preferentially stream out along theseweakness plans. The concentrations of gas
pressure energy in these areas lead to fly rock formation.
Range of Fly Rock
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One of the most extensive study of the distance that fly rock is thrown by uncovered
Explosives has been conductedby Lundborg. His work based on the observations that
the throw distance and eject velocity is proportional to thespecific charge or powder factor.
Large specific charges produce greater throw distances.
Since most production blasting involves holes of 100mm. to 250mm. in diameter, the
maximum throw can be 500 to1000m.As an example for a specific charge of 0.56 Kg/m3
and for hole diameter 113mm, 150mm and 250mm the maximumthrow of fly rocks will be
250m, 750m and 1020m respectively.For a specific charge of 0-75 Kg/m3 for hole
diameter of 32mm (secondary blasting) the maximum throw will be246 m.

MODULE 5: EXPLOSIVES AND BLASTING MINING

5.1 Purpose of blasting Theory of Breakage

To reduce one solid piece into smaller pieces (fragmentation), which can be easily
moved or excavated. Underground blasting, for example, requires greater fragmentation
than surface blasting because of the size of the equipment that can beused and the
difficulty of access.

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Theory of rock breakage

Involves two basic processes:

• Radial cracking

• Flexural rupture

Rock is stronger in compression than in tension. Therefore, the easiest way to break
rock is to subject it to a tensile stress greater than its ultimate strength in tension.
Rocks are heterogeneous (contain different types of rocks). They differ in their density.

The distance from the borehole to the free face is the burden.

• The denser the rock the faster the waves

• Proper fragmentation when enough to travel to the face and back overcoming the tensile
strength of the rock.

• Along the face the outermost edge is stretched in tension which causes cracks.

Flexural rupture

The second process in breaking rock by bending the rock to the point where the outside edge,
the side in tension, breaks.

• Caused by the rapid expansion of gases in borehole.

• Analogous to the bending and breaking of a beam.

• Movement or displacement are required in addition to cracking.

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After detonation the radial cracks expandsand the gas starts to the movement byputting a CS
against the borehole wallcausing its bending.

• The deeper the hole, the greater the burdenand borehole spacing.

5.2 Development round drilling and blasting pattern design principles

Development blasting is done towards one free face. The rock is thus constricted in the
case of tunnelling and a second free face has to be created towards which the rock can
break and be thrown away from the surface. This second face is produced by a burn
cut in the tunnel face and can be a parallel hole cut, a V-cut, a fan cut. After the cut
opening is made, the stoping towards the cut will begin.

The cut

All cut holes in the large hole cut are drilled parallel to each other and the blasting is
carried out towards an empty large drill hole which is acting as an opening. The parallel
hole cut is a development of the burn cut, where all the holes are parallel and normally
of the same diameter.

The cut may be placed at any location on the tunnel face. The cut may be placed
alternatively on the right or left side thus placing the cut in alternatively undisturbed
rock.

When designing the cut, the following parameters are of importance for a good result:

 The diameter of the large hole

 The burden
 The charge concentration
 The drilling precision is of utmost importance as any slight deviation can cause
the blasthole to meet the large hole or the burden to become excessively big.
Too big a burden will only cause breakage resulting in a smaller or greater loss in
advance

Drilling and Blasting for Tunneling In Rocks :

Tunneling in rocks is currently performed mainly by blasting, as this method only is
capable of providingsufficiently high effectiveness and economics in the construction of
tunnel in tough rocks.Tunneling by tunnel borers is considered to be less effective
especially as regards the construction of tunnels of largecross sectional areas.
Drifting /Tunnel Driving Methods in Rocks :
The shot holes in a stone drift or tunnel are arranged in a particular form or pattern. The
drifting pattern, holes aregenerally divided into three groups, e.g. Cut holes, Easer and
Trimmers.

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Cut holes: Shot holes in this group are generally longer (approx. 15 cm) than the shot
holes of other group. Theseholes are fired first to created free face for the shots of
easers. Since these holes first make the opening in the face,they are prime responsible
for the depth of pull.
Easers: The shot holes of this group are placed in the drift around the cut holes in two
or more rings depending onthe cross - sectional area. These holes ease the burden
between the succeeding shot holes to enlarge the excavationarea of the drift.
Trimmers: The shot holes of this group are place around the easer which are fired at
the last to make the finalshape of the drift.

The following type of cuts commonly use in Drifting / Tunneling :

a) Cone / Pyramid / Diamond cut: Four or Six cut holes are driven at the middle of the
face which converges at the end to form either a Cone or a Pyramid or diamond shape.
Maximum concentration of charge is at the apex ofthese cut holes, which are fired first
to create a free face for the rest of the shot, which are fired next with the help ofdelays.
b) Wedge Cut: Horizontal cut holes are driven in inclined at an angle less than 45
degree to the face towards thecentre. Like Cone / Pyramid cut maximum concentration
of charge at the apex of these cut holes, which are firedfirst to create a free face for the
rest of the shot, which are fired next with the help of delays.
c) Parallel holes cut (Burn Cut, Cylinder Cut, Coromant Cut ) : A cluster of parallel
shot holes are drilled atperpendicular to the face to blast out a cavity in the centre of the
heading. Some of the holes are heavily charge withexplosives while others are kept
empty to provided free face for reflection of shock waves. There is specificgeometrical
relationship between the diameter of empty hole and spacing between the centres of
empty hole andcharged holes in a given rock, which gives the essential condition of free
breakage.
d) Drag Cut / Draw Cut : These type of cut is most suitable for the laminated rocks for
"controlled blasting " indrivage of smaller cross-sectional area to brake the rock along
the cleavage planes.

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Despite their limitations stated above, burn cuts offer the advantages: The
advance per round does not dependupon the working space available for drilling blast
holes at acute angles to the face. (With a wedge cut, the width theTunnel restricts the
apical angle and, hence, the advance per round, specially in tunnels with small cross-
sectionalareas).

Design of Burn Cut holes - The overriding principle of all burn cut designs is as
follows: Burden on loaded holesare selected so the volume of the rock broken by any
hole cannot be greater than what would occupy the void spacecreated by either the
burn hole or subsequent holes firing. In this calculation one must also consider the fact
thatwhen rock web breaks between holes, it will occupy a larger space. In other words,
the swell factor of the blastedrock must be considered.
One of the parameters for good advance of the blasted round is the diameter of the
large empty hole. The larger thediameter, the deeper the round may be drilled, and a
greater advance can be expected. One of the most commoncauses of short advance is
too small an empty hole in relation to the hole depth. An advance of approximately
95%can be expected for a hole depth of 4 m, and one empty hole with 102 mm
diameter. If several empty holes are used,a fictitious diameter has to be calculated. The
fictitious diameter of the opening may be calculated in accordancewith the formula;
𝐷 = 𝑑 √𝑛D
Where D = fictitious empty large hole diameter;
d = diameter of empty large holes;
n =number of holes.

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In order to calculate the burden in the first square, the diameter of the large hole is used
in the case of one large hole,and the fictitious diameter in the case of several large
holes.
The distance between the blasthole and the large empty hole should not be greater than
1.5 times the diameter of thelarger hole for the opening to be clean blasted. If the
distance is longer, there is merely breakage, and when thedistance is shorter, there is a
great risk that the blasthole and empty hole will meet.

Calculation of the 1st square

So the position of the blastholes in the 1st square is expressed as:
𝑎 = 1.5∅
Where; a = C- C distance between the largehole and the blasthole,
d = diameter of the large hole.
In the case of several large holes, the relation is expressed as:
𝑎 = 1.5𝐷
Where a = C- C distance between the centre point of the large holes and the blasthole,
D = fictitious diameter.

Therefore, side of the 1st square 𝑤1 = 𝑎√2

Position of blastholes in the 2nd square of the cut located at a distance of B1 from one
of the sides of the 1st square, insuch a way that 𝐵1 = 𝑊1and C-C distance between the
centre point of the large holes and the blasthole in the 2 ndsquare is 1.5𝑤1 . Therefore,
side of the 2nd square 𝑤1 = 1.5𝑤1 √2.

Similarly, blastholes in the 3rd square of the cut located at a distance of B2 from side of
2nd square, in such a waythat𝐵2 = 𝑊2 and C-C distance between the centre point of the
large holes and the blasthole 3rd square is 1.5w2.

Therefore, side of the 3rd square𝑤3 = 1.5𝑤2 √2.Similar calculation be followed for 4th
square as well.

The holes closest to the empty holes must be charged carefully. Too low a charge
concentration in the hole may notbreak the rock, while too high a charge concentrate of
ion may throw the rock against the opposite wall of the largehole with such high a
velocity that the broken rock will be recompacted there, and not blown out through the
largehole. Full advance is then not obtained. Generally, in average blastability rock, for
34 to 37 mm dia. blastholes in the1st square are charged at a charge concentration of
0.5kg/m; for 2nd square blastholes charge concentration of0.75kg/m; for 3rd square
blastholes charge concentration of 1.15kg/m and for 4th square blastholes
chargeconcentration of 1.25kg/m should be used.

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Organisation of blast hole drilling:

1. Making of blast hole: It should be made as accurately as possible, particularly the
line holes. This can be achieved by template, or marking use of spray paint as
convenient. A very efficient procedure of pointing holeson the working face with a light
projector with an optical attachment consisting of metallic casing, lenses and aframe
that receives a metallic plate carrying the location of the blast holes. Each hole is
represented on the plateas an orifice 1mm in dia. The projector is placed at a distance
from the working face equal to 1.5-3 times theheight of the working. Source of the light
is a lamp of 1000W. The apparatus is located using two marks.
Spotted on the face is an advance light spot projected through the plate on the face
correspond to the holes to bedrilled.
2. Charging and shooting of blast holes: To reduce the charging time it is possible to
employ compositeexplosive charges consisting of several cartridges placed whether in
paper shell or PVC pipes. The use ofcomposite charge, which is 5-10 times the carting
length, shortens the charging time by 50-60%.
3. Parallel wiring is generally used for firing shots from an electric power mains and
series for a blasting machine.In case of NONEL use of D-cord and electrical
instantaneous detonators is fired with exploder.
4. Periphery holes: To control over break, effective decoupling is required. It can be
done by,
(i) By using 25mm dia. Cartridge in 38mm dia. Hole.

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(ii) By using comparative weaker explosive

(iii) By keeping air gap between two explosives cartridges by using hollow bamboo
spacer of 150mm long.

5.3 Ring drilling pattern design principles

Blast Design

Is the safe and economic way to do blasting.

Factors affecting blasting design

• Geological factors (out of blaster’s control)

• Controllable factors

• Borehole dia.

• Burden

• Spacing

• Stemming

• Design of the delay firing system

Burden & spacing

Burden is the distance from the blast hole to the nearest perpendicular free face.

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BURDEN AND SPACING DETERMINATION

Spacing determination

Spacing is the distance between blast holes fired inthe same row

• It is necessary to complete burden calculationsbefore determining the spacing.

S= (BL)0.5

• B : burden, m

• L : borehole Length, m

PRINCIPLE IN THE USE OF EXPLOSIVES

Open up a New Excavation
Apart form mining, rock excavation is frequently necessary during the construction of
Roads, Railways, Canals, etc. In opening up a new excavation, the holes are normally
drilled with jackhammers and subsequently charged with gelatins. A drilling pattern
suitable for initial cut, 3M deep is shown in sketch.

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A cavity of the requisites width is first created by drilling and blasting holes 1.5-1.7 meters
deep in parallel rows. The holes in the two middle rows are inclined so as to form a wedge.
These inclined holes are blasted first, followed by other holes fired in sequence. The
resulting excavation is 1.5 meters deep and can be deepened further.

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BENCHING
Bench blasting is normally carried out by blasting a large number of parallel holes in each
round. Considering the blasting mechanics, with a compression- reflection-gas pressure
stage in consecutive order for each charge, it is of vital importance to have a proper delay
between each row, and even between individual holes in each row. A proper delay will
reduce rock throw, improve fragmentation, and limit ground vibrations. The blast should
be planned so that the rock from the first row of holes has moved about one third of the
burden, when the next row is blasted. The horizontal distance between the hole and the
free face is the burden, and the parallel distance between holes in a row is the spacing.
The ratio between spacing and burden will have great impact on the blasting result, and
1.25 can be considered as an average ratio. The optimum burden depends upon a
number of parameters, such as rock type, required fragmentation, type of explosives, hole
deviation, and hole inclination. Nevertheless, as large drill holes can accommodate more
explosives, there is a distinct relationship between burden and hole diameter.
As the bottom part of the blast is the constricted and critical part for successful blasting,
it is used as a basis for deciding all other parameters. Stemming of the top part of the
hole is used to ensure that the energy of explosives is properly utilised. It will also reduce
and control the fly rock ejected from the blast.

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Organisation of blast hole drilling:

1. Making of blast hole: It should be made as accurately as possible, particularly the line
holes. This can be effected by template, or marking use of spray paint as convenient. A
very efficient procedure of pointing holes on the working face with a light projector with
an optical attachment consisting of metallic casing, lenses and a frame that receives a
metallic plate carrying the location of the blast holes. Each hole is represented on the

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plate as an orifice 1mm in dia. The projector is placed at a distance from the working face
equal to 1.5-3 times the height of the working. Source of the light is a lamp of 1000W. The
apparatus is located using two marks.
Spotted on the face is an advance light spot projected through the plate on the face
correspond to the holes to be drilled.
2. Charging and shooting of blast holes: To reduce the charging time it is possible to
employ composite explosive charges consisting of several cartridges placed whether in
paper shell or PVC pipes. The use of composite charge, which is 5-10 times the carting
length, shortens the charging time by 50-60%.
3. Parallel wiring is generally used for firing shots from an electric power mains and series
for a blasting machine.
In case of NONEL use of D-cord and electrical instantaneous detonators is fired with
exploder.
4. Periphery holes: To control over break, effective decoupling is required. It can be
done by,
(i) By using 25mm dia. Cartridge in 38mm dia. Hole.
(ii) By using comparative weaker explosive
(iii) By keeping air gap between two explosives cartridges by using hollow bamboo spacer
of 150mm long.

5.5 Controlled Blasting

Control of Flyrock
It should be possible to control the fly rock formation to acceptable levels with an
appropriate blast design followedby adequate supervision during charging. the major
parameters associated with controlling fly rock include.

i) Blast-Hole Location/Charge Configuration:

To avoid the irregularities on the front row burden it is important to ensure that the holes
are correctly collared withrespect to the back-break/inclination of the face and also that
digging alongside the initiation face well controlled.
Regarding the charge configurations it is often misunderstood to assume that under
charging the front row holessolves all problems associated with fly rock. Inadequate
forward displacement of the front row burden arising out ofthe under charging of these
holes result in fly rock from vertical catering of the rear holes. It is therefore importantthat
the charging of the front holes should be critically determine with some tolerance
forforward throw to avoid harmful fly rock from the back. When the blast hold diameter is
increased say from 100 mmto 200 mm, the linear packing density of fully coupled
Explosives increases by the square of the ratio of thediameters. In such cases change in
the explosives charge distribution particularly in the collar portion is a must totake care of
the increased available gas volume with increased packing density. Where permanent
the bedding planesare encountered, deck charging should be used to reduce the
concentration of charge located directly adjacent tothese planes of weakness.

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ii) Stemming Medium:Where fly rock posses a serious problem, the stemming length
should not be less thanthe hole burden. Also an effective stemming material like crushed
angular rock should be used to prevent prematureventing of explosion gases through the
stemming column. the fine drill cuttings commonly used in most of theopencast operations
have been found to be a poor stemming medium as far as the fly rock control is
concerned.

iii) Initiation Pattern/Sequence : The forward fly rock could be fairly controlled to the
commonly used 'inlineopen loop' pattern. The maximum inter-row delay interval
consistent with the absence of cut off helped inminimising the fly rock formation. As a
thumb rule an inter-row delay of 4-8ms/m of burden could be used for thispurpose.
Adequate care should be taken while connecting the delay devices in the holes/rows and
the initiationsequence properly checked before firing to avoid initiation pf blast holes out
of sequence.

iv) Blast Pattern/Shape:Experience has shown that blasts designed on a face length to
width ratio in the range of3 to 4 produces minimum fly rock. In most of our opencast mines
as the face length available is limited; it may beuseful to restrict to a maximum of 4 rows
for large diameter holes.

v) Protection Cover : Protective covering of blast with blasting mats, scrap conveyor
belting of truck tyres etc.can be used when there is a serious need to drastically reduce
or even eliminate the incidence of fly rock. Howeveras this poses a constraint on the
overall rock movement, chances of fly rock due to cratering of rear charges could bethere
if the blast is not properly designed.
Fly rock also result from secondary blasting by pop shooting. This can happen if the
charge is too heavy of if theblast hole is incorrectly positioned in the burden. The blast
hole should be directed as locate the charge in the centreof the boulder. The correct
powder factor should also be determined and adhered to in routine secondary
blasting.Using the guidelines given above, it is hoped that the quarry managers should
be able to control the fly rock toacceptable levels from both primary and secondary
blasting thereby avoiding expensive losses.

To control overbreak and to aid the stability of the remaining rock formation.
• There are following methods:
• Line drilling (unloaded),
• Cushion blasting
• Smooth-wall blasting
• Presplitting

Line drilling
• Provides a plane of weakness to which the rock can break.
• Helps to reflect shock waves,
• Reduces the shattering effect of the rock outside the perimeter.
• Do not exceed 3 in in dia and are spaced one to four diameters apart (due to cost).
• Are not loaded

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• Requires more drilling more than the other controlled blasting methods.
• Is not very effective in non-homogeneous formations.

Cushion Blasting
• Requires a single row of holes ( 2 to 3.5 in) in dia.
• Permits a reduction in the No. of holes required by line-drilling
• Unlike line-drilling holes, the cushion holes are loaded with light charges.
• Holes are fully stemmed between charges, allowing no air gap, and are fired after the
production shot has been excavated.
• The stemming acts as a cushion to protect the finished wall from the shock waves. The
larger, the borehole, the greater the cushion.
• Not suitable for underground - tough stemming requirements.
• Drawbacks: (1) requires removal of excavated material before firing (costly due to
production delay – no excavation for entire area at once). (2) Sometimes the production
shot can break back
to the cushion holes, creating redrilling problems and causing loading changes.

Pre-splitting
• Creates a plane of shear in solid rows along the desired excavation before the
production
blast.
• All holes are loaded like cushion blasting
• Reduces overbreak
• Reduces the vibration

MISFIRES IN BLASTING
There are many circumstances under which a misfire can occur and there are official
regulations covering thetreatment of misfires. These should be strictly adhered to and
nothing in this chapter should be construed as alteringor amending such regulations. All
misfires should be treated with greatest care and all operations dealing with themshould
be entrusted only to experienced conscientious and careful men.
No person should be allowed to approach a misfire until either it has exploded or a sage
period has elapsed. Thisperiod should be at least 30 minutes with safety use initiation
and at least 5 minutes with electric shot firing.
1. Misfires with Safety Fuse Initiation :
In safety fuse firing faulty cutting of safety fuse, loose crimping, use of non-waterproof
fuse in watery conditionscan lead to misfires.

2. Misfires with Electric Shot Firing :

In electric shot firing faulty connections, detonators left-off unconnected, lead wires
becoming bare during stemminginternally shot-circuited cable / damage in the insulation,
inadequate firing current due to failure of the exploder toreach the rated output or the
number of detonators being greater that that can be fired by the exploder, currentleakage
and other factors can cause misfires.
3. Misfires with Detonating Fuse :

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While firing with detonating fuse incorrect method of limiting the detonating fuse, loop
cross-over, approach of adifferent branch of detonating fuse, improper joints and branch-
line failure, use of detonators with too long a delayinterval, wrong sequencing of shots
and improper handling / use if delay detonator-relays could lead to cut-offs ofdetonating
fuse.
4. Misfire with Exploders :
A large number of misfires are generally caused by the use of faulty exploders and use
of wrong type of exploder fora given purpose; Maintenance of exploders is very essential
to obtain the output. Following are the causes ofmisfires with exploders :
a. Inadequate exploder capacity
b. Faulty exploder-defective generator/conductor
c. Poor contact in rotating crank type exploders
d. Exhausted cells
e. Faulty indicator
Wherever possible, it is sager to fire the explosives using a fresh primer than to attempt
to dislodge it and recover thecartridges from the debris. However, before deciding on the
repriming of the explosives, consideration should begiven to the possibility of excessive
cracks in rocks, which may occur because of the relief of the burden of themisfired hole,
by adjacent shots.

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