Simulado para IPhO

Escrito por Caio Augusto

Instruções de Prova
• O simulado possui duração de 5 horas. Consiste de 3 problemas teóricos valendo um total de 30
pontos.
• Se houver resultados numéricos, estes devem ser escritos com o número de algarismos significativos
apropriado. Não se esqueça de indicar as unidades.
• Escrever nas folhas de resposta tudo o que considerar relevante para a resolução da questão. Utilize o
mı́nimo de texto possı́vel, devendo exprimir-se, sobretudo, com equações, números, figuras e gráficos.
• Caso necessario, olhe a tabela de constantes importantes na ultima pagina.
 Simulado IPhO
Q1-1

Super Superconductors
Introduction
Superconductors react to an external magnetic field Bext in such a way that they tend to expel it completely
from their interior: a superconductor is a perfect diamagnet. This means that when the superconductor is
exposed to an external magnetic field Bext , it creates locally a perfectly “compensating field” µ0 M = −Bext
where M is the magnetization and µ0 = 4π × 10−7 Tm A−1 such that the sum of µ0 M and the external
magnetic field inside the superconductor is zero.
We can give superconductors a dimensionless magnetic susceptibility χ = µB0ext M
which represents the ratio of
the compensating field and the external magnetic field. From what we have said above, a perfect diamagnet
has a susceptibility of χ = −1. This problem will investigate how diamagnetic materials (i.e. materials with
χ < 0) can levitate above permanent magnets under certain circumstances.
Unfortunately, superconductors at normal pressures have to be cooled down way below room temperature
to operate. There are other materials with diamagnetic properties even at room temperature, however their
magnetic susceptibilities are usually only a tiny fraction of χ = −1. One such material is pyrolytic graphite. It
is possible to levitate this piece of graphite at room temperature using powerful permanent magnets at costs
of as low as a dollar!

In the figure above, four cube shaped permanent magnets are placed such that a stable levitation is possible.
This is achieved by having the poles of the cube alternate from north to south (such that adjacent cubes have
opposing polarities). Unfortunately, the correct quantitative analysis of levitation in this specific geometry is
very complicated. We will simplify the problem by considering the levitation of a diamagnetic torus above a
cylindrical permanent magnet.

The left side of the above figure denotes the simplification we will work with. We have a diamagnetic torus
with a radius a levitating above a cylindrical magnet.
The middle shows a simplified diagrams where we have approximated the cylindrical permanent magnet with
a point like magnetic dipole µ⃗ , and the torus by a circle with radius a and an infinitely small cross section A
such that the total mass m is distributed equally along the circumference of the circle.
The right side of the figure shows the coordinate system we ask you to work with.
 Simulado IPhO
Q1-2

This series of problems will guide you through several calculations and considerations that will allow
you to investigate magnetic levitation in detail and investigate the conditions that make stable levitation
possible.

PART A. Dipole
In general, the magnetic dipole µ
⃗ of a magnetized volume V (where V is the volume of the cylindrical magnet)
is a vector, given by µ
⃗ = VM ⃗ . This points from the south to the north pole of the magnet. We can now
estimate the value of the magnetic dipole moment µmag = |µmag ⃗ | of the permanent magnet. The strongest
available permanent magnets consist of an alloy of Neodymium, Iron, and Boron. If they are fully saturated,
they produce a magnetization of µ0 Mmag ≈ 1.3T in their interior. The cylindrical magnet in this problem has
a radius R = 2mm and a height h = 2mm.

A.1 Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment µmag of this magnet, ex- 0.4pt
pressed by Mmag , R, and h, and as a number with correct units.

We now consider the magnetic field created by the magnet. We choose the origin of our coordinate system at
⃗ r) at the position ⃗r produced by a
the position of the magnetic dipole. It is known that the magnetic field B(⃗
magnetic dipole moment µ ⃗ mag is:

2
µmag · ⃗r) − µ
⃗ r) = µ0 3⃗r(⃗ ⃗ mag r
B(⃗
4πr5

The diamagnetic ring with radius a resides above the dipole at a distance z in the direction of µ
⃗ mag , with its
center directly above the dipole so that the symmetry axis of the circle is parallel to⃗m ag.

A.2 ⃗ r) at the position

Please calculate all components of the magnetic field vector B(⃗ 1.0pt
x = 0 and y = a on the ring, expressed in terms of µmag , a, and z.

In equilibrium, the forces acting on the diamagnetic ring determine the distance z it levitates above the magnet.
We first consider a line element dr of the circle at the position x = 0 as shown in the image below:

We will calculate the magnetic potential energy of this line element, which we will call the partial magnetic
potential energy, which we can use to calculate that of the whole ring, which can then be used to derive the
magnetic force acting on the ring.

The partial magnetic potential energy dEpot of this line segment dr depends on the partial magnetic di-
pole moment d⃗ µgr = dV · M⃗ gr of the line element with the volume dV filled with pyrolytic graphite (hence the
⃗ r) created by the magnetic dipole at the position ⃗r of dr. With
index “gr”), and it also depends on the field B(⃗
 Simulado IPhO
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⃗ r), you can express M

the given magnetic susceptibility χgr of pyrolytic graphite and B(⃗ ⃗ gr and d⃗ ⃗ gr
µgr = dV · M
in a straightforward way.

The potential energy stored by a magnetic moment µ ⃗ in the presence of a magnetic field B ⃗ is given by
the scalar product Epot = −⃗ ⃗
µ · B. In our problem, the partial magnetic potential energy dEpot of the line
element dr with partial magnetic moment d⃗ µgr is dEpot = −d⃗ ⃗ The total magnetic potential energy Ering
µ · B.
of the ring is then the sum of all partial magnetic potential energies, summed over all line elements dr of the
ring.

A.3 Show that the total magnetic potential energy Ering of the ring can be expressed 1.4pt
as:
−χgr aAµ2mag (a2 + 4z 2 )
Ering = µ0
8π(a2 + z 2 )4

Note that the force can now obtained from the energy using the relationship:
dEring
Fz = −
dz

A.4 So far we have ignored force components in directions other than z. What can be 0.3pt
said about the total force on the whole ring in the x and y directions?.

A.5 Calculate the z component of the magnet force on the whole ring, expressed in terms 0.3pt
of χgr , µmag , a, z, and the cross sectional area A of the torus.

Levitation
Knowing the z-component of the magnetic force of the whole ring, we can now find an equation for the levitation
height z of the ring above the magnetic dipole. We assume that besides χgr and µmag, the mass density ρ of
the pyrolytic graphite and the gravitational acceleration g are known.

B.1 Find an expression that describes how the ring radius a depends on the levitation 1.7pt
height z, if the ring levitates in equilibrium of forces. Here χgr , µmag , z, g, and ρ
are given quantities.
Please also sketch the function a(z) using the numeric values of µmag , χgr = −450 ·
10−6 , ρ = 2100kg/m3 and g = 9.81ms−2 over the full range of possible z values. If
you were not successful to calculate µmag in part (a), use here and in the following
the numerical value µmag = 0.022 in correct SI units.

B.2 Which is the theoretically maximum achievable levitation height zmax and for which 0.7pt
a would it be realized? χgr , µmag , g, and ρ are given quantities.

B.3 What is the maximum possible ring radius a for which magnetic and gravitational 0.7pt
forces cancel out? χgr , µmag , g, and ρ are given quantities.

Assume that the ring is at first slightly vertically displaced below its levitation height. If released, it will either
moved back upwards to the original position (i.e, that position was stable), or the ring will drop down (i.e., the
position was unstable)

B.4 Develop a criterion for a stable levitation with respect to the z direction: for which 0.7pt
values of z is the levitation stable? χgr , µmag , g, and ρ are given quantities.

Now we assume that the ring is slightly horizontally displaced at its levitation height. If released, it will either
 Simulado IPhO
Q1-4

move back to the original position (i.e., that position was stable) or the ring will be sideways expelled from it
(i.e., that position was unstable).

B.5 Develop a criterion for a stable levitation with respect to the radial direction: for 1.1pt
which values of z is the levitation stable? Again, χgr , µmag , g, and ρ are given quan-
tities. Using the results from the previous question, identify the z value for which a
levitation is stable with respect to disturbances in both z and radial directions.

If the ring is levitating in a stable position and subsequently slightly displaced from this position by a small
displacement ∆z in the z direction, there will be a restoring force ∆Fz . The ratio of this restoring force and
the small displacement ∆z around the equilibrium position defines a “spring constant” k = − ∆F ∆z , similar to
z

the case of an extended spring.

B.6 Calculate the spring constant k, where a, z, χgr , µmag , g, and ρ are given quantities, 0.3pt
for the limit of a really small ∆z.

If the ring is released after such a small displacement in the z direction,

q it will oscillate around its equilibrium
1 k
position. The resulting oscillation frequency is given by f = 2π m .

B.7 Calculate the oscillation frequency from the known quantities χgr , µmag , g and ρ 0.7pt
for the maximum and minimum stable levitation heights.

We have seen in the introduction that ideal superconductors have a dimensionless magnetic susceptibility χ =
−1. We now assume that we have a superconducting ring instead of of pyrolytic graphite.

B.8 What would be the maximum stable levitation height zmax,stable for a high tem- 0.7pt
perature superconductor with ρ = 6400kgm−3 if χ = −1 and if the same magnet is
used as in the previous examples.
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Q2-1
1
Motion of a Rolling Rod
Introduction
In this problem, the motion of a uniform rod (stick) with length L, ended with caster-wheels at both ends, will
be investigated on a flat surface. The casters at each end of the rod can spin freely and independently (see
Figure 1) and have a negligible mass compared to the rod. The friction between the rod and the caster-wheels is
negligible. The diameter of the caster-wheels are a bit larger than the diameter of the rod, but both diameters
are much smaller than the length of the rod. The gravitational acceleration is g.

Figura 1: Sketch of the rod with the caster-wheels.

Part 1: Flat Surface

The rod is placed on a horizontal flat surface and pushed such that each end of the rod get different horizontal
initial velocity (v1 and v2, pointing in the same direction) perpendicular to the axis of the rod. The casters roll
without slipping on the surface.

A.1 Calculate the initial velocity v0 of the center of the rod and the initial angular 0.8pt
velocity ω0 of the rod using v1 , v2 and L

A.2 Describe the motion of the center of mass of the rod! Determine the parameter(s) 0.8pt
of its orbit

A.3 What should be the minimum value of the coefficient of static friction µ for the 0.6pt
casters to not slip on the surface?

In the following sections the case of the inclined surface will be considered. The angle between the inclined
surface and the horizontal plane is α.

Part 2: Small angle

If α is infinitesimally small, the motion of the rod slightly changes: the motion of the center of mass is appro-
ximately the same as in the previous section but a constant drift velocity vdrift added to the solution. Use a
coordinate system as in Figure 2.

B.1 Calculate the magnitude and the direction of vdrift as a function of the small α, 1.9pt
the initial velocities of the two ends of the rod (v1 and v2 , pointing in the same
direction) and the gravitational acceleration g

B.2 Sketch the orbit of the center of mass of the rod 0.5pt

1 copied from 2011 WoPhO

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Part 3: Finite Angle

If α is finite, the details of the motion of the rod changes. Place the rod on the inclined plane along the steepest
line of the surface (so the rod is parallel with the inclined edges of the plane). Consider that the initial velocity
v0 of the center of mass of the rod is perpendicular to the axis of the rod and the initial angular velocity ω0 is
perpendicular to the surface as shown in Figure 2.

C.1 Calculate the time evolution of the velocity v(t) = (vx (t), vy (t)) of the center of 0.8pt
mass of the rod in the Cartesian coordinate system shown in Figure 2.

Figura 2: The initial conditions of the rod in section 3.

C.2 Depending on the magnitude of the v0 and ω0 , it can occur, that the center of 0.8pt
the rod stops for a moment during its motion. Express the condition(s) for such a
behavior using the parameters v0 , ω0 , g, α and L

C.3 Determine the maximum displacement of the center of the rod in the direction of 1.2pt
the steepest line (y-direction) as function of v0 and ω0

Part 4: Horizontal in Inclined surface

Investigate another situation where the rod is placed horizontally on the inclined surface. Consider that the
initial angular velocity ω0 of the rod is perpendicular to the surface but the initial velocity of the center of the
rod is zero (see Figure 3).

Figura 3: The initial conditions of the rod in section 4.

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Q2-3

D.1 Describe the motion of the center of mass of the rod! Determine the parameter(s) 1.6pt
of its orbit

D.2 What should be the minimum value of the coefficient of static friction µ in this case 1.0pt
for the casters to not slip on the surface?
 Simulado IPhO
Q3-1

Vortices in superfluid2
Introduction
Superfluidity is a property of flowing without friction. Everyday experience tells us that motion of an ordinary
fluid (say, water at room temperature) is always accompanied by viscous dissipation of energy, so that the flow
gradually becomes slower unless it is maintained by external forces. In contrast, superfluid exhibits no loss of
kinetic energy: once excited the motion of superfluid can continue indefinitely. Superfluidity was originally
discovered experimentally in liquid helium.

We study properties of superfluid helium at zero temperature. It will be treated as an incompressible fluid with
density ρ. Flow continuity (the fact that the mass flowing into and the mass flowing out of a given infinitesimal
volume are equal) implies that the flux of helium velocity ⃗v through a closed surface is always zero. Superfluid
velocity in this aspect is analogous to the magnetic field intensity. By analogy with the magnetic field lines,
“streamlines” are tangential to the fluid velocity at each point and their density is proportional to its magnitude.

True superflow has an important property of being irrotational: circulation of superfluid velocity ⃗v
along any closed path within helium is zero ˆ
⃗v · d⃗l = 0
L
This statement must be amended if superfluidity is absent along a thin “vortex filament”. The thickness of
the filament itself is of approximately atomic dimensions a, but the vortex induces long range velocity field in
surrounding superfluid: velocity circulation around such filament is the circulation quantum3
ˆ 
 ⃗v · d⃗l = 2πκ
 
 
L

and zero if the path can be contracted to a single point without crossing the vortex, see the figure below. This
supports the analogy between superflow and the magnetic field created by wires carrying current: superposition
of two valid velocity distributions is a valid velocity distribution and the velocity at any point is equal (up to
a dimensional factor) to the magnetic field produced by the unit currents running through a system of wires
representing vortex filaments.

Figura 4: Vortex filament (red) in superfluid (light blue). Velocity circulations along paths L1 , L2 , L5 , and L6
are all zero, but those for L3 and L4 are equal to ±2πκ. Note that circulations along L3 and L4 have opposite
signs.

2 copied
from 2017 Asian Physics Olympiad
3 Circulationquantization is a macroscopic quantum effect and corresponds to the angular momentum quantization in Bohr
model. The circulation quantum can be expressed as κ = h/(2πmHe , where mHe is the mass of helium atom.
 Simulado IPhO
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Part A. Steady filament (0.75 points)

Consider a cylindrical beaker (radius R0 ≫ a) of superfluid helium and a straight vertical vortex filament in its
center as shown in the figure below

A.1 Plot the streamlines. Find out the velocity v at a point ⃗r. 0.25pt

A.2 Work out the free surface shape (height as a function of coordinate (⃗r)) around the 0.5pt
vortex. Free fall acceleration is g. Surface tension can be neglected.

Figura 5: Straight vortex along the axis of a beaker.

Part B. Vortex motion (1.4 points)

Free vortices move about in space with the flow4 . In other words each element of the filament moves with the
velocity ⃗v of the fluid at the position of that element.

As an example, consider a pair of counter-rotating straight vortices placed initially at distance r0 from
each other, see the figure below. Each vortex produces velocity v0 = κ/r0 at the axis of another. As a result,
the vortex pair moves rectilinearly with constant speed v0 = κ/r0 so that the distance between them remains
unchanged.

Figura 6: Parallel vortex filaments with opposite circulations.

B.1 Consider two identical straight vortices initially placed at distance r0 from each other 0.25pt
as shown in Fig. 4 of the exercise (Figure 7 in the exam). Find initial velocities of
the vortices and draw their trajectories.

4 This is a consequence of momentum conservation, see next section.

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Figura 7: Parallel vortex filaments with opposite circulations.

A beaker of helium (see Part A) is filled with triangular lattice (u ≪ R0 ) of identical vertical vortices, see Fig.
5 of the exercise.

Figura 8: Triangular lattice of vortices in a beaker. The view from above.

B.2 Draw the trajectories of vortices A, B, and C (located in the center). 0.15pt

B.3 Find velocity ⃗v (⃗r) of a vortex positioned at ⃗r 0.4pt

B.4 Find the distance AB(t) between the vortices A and B at time t. Treat AB(0) as 0.35pt
given.

B.5 Work out the ”smoothed out”(omitting the lattice structure) free helium surface 0.25pt
shape z(⃗r)

Part C. Momentum and energy (1.75 points)

The long range velocity field is the major contribution to the energy of a system of vortices, it is insensitive to
exact structure of the filament. The filament itself can not be properly described by the macroscopic theory
and apparent singularities (infinities) are insignificant. Real physical quantities, such as the energy, of the
region inside a thin tube of radius a around the filament should be neglected. Outside of this tube the density
of superflow kinetic energy ρv 2 /2 (where ρ = const) is analogous to the energy density of the magnetic field
B 2 /(2µ0 ) — they are both quadratic in respective variables. This analogy together with the correspondence
between magnetic field and superfluid velocity generated by vortices (currents) facilitates calculation of the flow
energy for a given system. For instance, given the inductance of a circular wire loop L ≈ µ0 R log(R/a), where
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R is the loop radius and a is wire radius, we get the superfluid vortex loop energy5

U ≈ 2Rρπ 2 κ2 log(R/a)

Total fluid momentum is also determined by the long range velocity distribution. It is obtained by integration
of the momentum density ρ⃗v . Again, consider a flow generated by a circular vortex loop placed in xy plane. It
is obvious from the symmetry considerations, that total momentum has only z component:

The innermost integration is in fact an integration along appropriate paths parallel to z-axis, see Fig. 6. From
the circulation identity (2) it follows that
ˆ
q(x, y) = ⃗v · d⃗l
L(x,y)

is piecewise constant. Particularly, it is zero for paths passing outside the ring and 2πκ for paths inside it. Total
momentum is therefore
P = ρ · πR2 · 2πκ = 2π 2 ρR2 κ

Figura 9: Velocity field of a circular vortex loop and integration paths (green) for q(x, y) calculation.

Figura 10: A nearly rectangular vortex loop, b ≪ d.

5 This expression is also valid only if log R/a ≫ 1.

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C.1 Consider a nearly rectangular vortex loop b×d, b ≪ d, Fig. 7. Indicate the direction 0.5pt
of its momentum P⃗ . Find out the momentum magnitude.

C.2 Calculate its energy U . 0.7pt

C.3 Suppose we shift a long straight vortex filament by a distance b in x direction, see 0.75pt
Fig. 8. How much does the fluid momentum change? Indicate the momentum
change direction. The filament length (constrained by the vessel walls) is d.

Figura 11: Momentum changes whenever the vortex shifts with respect to the fluid

Part D. Trapped charges (2.85 points)

Electrons, if injected in helium, get trapped in the vortex filaments. Here and below polarizability of helium
can be neglected (ϵ = 1).

Figura 12: Straight vortex in a uniform electric field.

D.1 Consider a straight vortex charged with uniform linear density λ < 0 in a uniform 0.5pt
⃗ Draw the vortex trajectory. Find its velocity as a function of time.
electric field E.

A circular vortex loop of radius R0 initially charged with uniform linear density λ < 0 is placed in a uniform
⃗ perpendicular to its plane, opposite to its momentum P⃗0
electric field E

Figura 13: (left) Vortex ring in a uniform electric field. (right) Cross section of the ring
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Q3-6

D.2 Draw the trajectory of the loop center C. Find the radius of the loop as a function 0.6pt
of time.

D.3 Find its velocity v(t) as a function of time. 1.5pt

D.4 The field is switched off at a time t∗ when the velocity reaches the value v ∗ = v(t∗ ). 0.25pt
Find the loop velocity v(t) at a later time t > t∗ .

Part E. Influence of the boundaries (3.25 points)

Solid walls alter the velocity field created by a vortex filament, because the fluid cannot flow through them.
Mathematically this means that the wall-normal velocity component vanishes at the wall surface.

Figura 14: Straight vortex filament near a flat wall.

E.1 Draw the trajectory of a straight vortex, initially placed at a distance h0 from a flat 0.5pt
wall. Find its velocity as a function of time.

Consider a straight vortex placed in a corner at a distance h0 from both walls.

Figura 15: Straight vortex filament in a corner.

E.2 What is the initial velocity v0 of the vortex? 0.75pt

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E.3 Draw the trajectory of the vortex. 0.5pt

E.4 What is the velocity of the vortex v∞ after very long time? 1.5pt
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Constantes Importantes
• Pi: π ≈ 3.1416
• Numero de Euler: e ≈ 2.73
• Velocidade da Luz : c ≈ 3 · 108 m/s
• Constante de Planck: h ≈ 6.63 · 10−34 Js
• Constante Gravitacional: G ≈ 6.67 · 10−11 N m2 /kg 2
• Constante de Boltzmann: kb ≈ 1.33 · 10−23 JK −1
• Numero de Avogrado: NA ≈ 6.022 · 1023 mol−1
• Constante dos gases ideais: R ≈ 8.31JK −1 mol
• Constante de Stefan-Boltzmann: σ ≈ 5.67 · 10−8 W m−2 K −4
• Permeabilidade eléctrica do vácuo: ϵ0 ≈ 8.854 · 10−12 C 2 N −1 m−2
• Permeabilidade magnética do vácuo: µ0 = 4π · 10−7 T mA−1
• Unidade de massa atômica: u ≈ 1.66 · 10−27 kg
• Massa do elétron: me ≈ 9.11 · 10−31 kg
• Massa do neutron: mn ≈ 1.67 · 10−27 kg
• Massa do proton: mp ≈ 1.67 · 10−27 kg
• Carga elétrica elementar: e ≈ 1.60 · 10−19 C
• Elétron-Volt: eV ≈ 1.60 · 10−19 J
• Raio de Bohr: a0 = 0.529 · 10−10 m
• Parsec: pc ≈ 3.086 · 1016 m