LESSON 6

LEARNER DIFFERENCES
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OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Cite and discuss theories of intelligence
2. Discuss how learners differ according to intelligence; and
3. Explain the meaning of critical thinking and how to develop it.
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A. MEANING OF INTELLIGENCE
 Intelligence may be defined in terms of:
(a) function - ability to understand things accurately and quickly. Ability to solve problems.
(b) origin and – nature and nurture controversy; fluid and crystallized intelligence (Cattel)
(c) structure – e.g. structure of the intellect (Guilford)

B. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

1. General – Factor Theory of Intelligence (Spearman’s g)

 By Charles Spearman
 Also known an Unifactor Theory
 The most important element of intelligence is the g factor, defined as the ability to educe
abstract relationships, Individuals differ in the amount of “g” they possess.
 The meaning of intelligence is synonymous with g. Specific factors, “s” are unique to each
test of intelligence tests and therefore of lesser value than “g”.
 Although the s factors are unique to each other, some of them appear to correlate with each
other. Theses correlated specific factors are called group factors.
 Spearman identified the two group factors as:
a. verbal ability
b. numerical ability.
2. Multi-Factor Theories of Intelligence
 This theory holds that there are different types of intelligence. The number of different
kinds of intelligence depends on statistical methods used to derive the basic abilities,
called factors, as well as on the beliefs of the proponent of the theory.
a. Thorndike’s Position
 Edward Lee Thorndike is considered the “father of educational psychology” and is the
proponent of the learning theory called “connectionism”.
 Thorndike claimed that mental functions could be classified into separate types of
ability. These abilities are:
a. Completion (C )
b. Arithmetic (A)
c. Vocabulary (V)
d. Directions (D)
b. Thurstone’s Position
 According to Louis Leon Thurstone, intelligence is represented neither by “g” nor by
multiple connections, as claimed by Thorndike but a number of “primary abilities”
which are independent of each other. These primary abilities are:
a. Number (N)- ability to do calculations accurately and rapidly
b. Verbal (V) – measured by vocabulary and other verbal test
c. Word Fluency (W)- measured by the number of words related in
some ]way that can be produced in a specific period of time.
d. Space(S)- ability to visualize patterns and objects when they are rotated
or when they are part of a configuration change.
e. Memory (M)- ability to memorize rote material.
f. Reasoning (R)- primarily inductive reasoning.
g. Perceptual Speed (P) – ability to note visual details rapidly.

c. Guilford’s Position
 J.P. Guilford postulated a “structure of intellect” which is composed of operations,
products, and content.
 Operations are basic intellectual processes of thinking used by individuals. These
are:
a. Cognition - discovery, rediscovery, recognition of information or
understanding
b. Memory – retention or the ability to bring forth information learned
previously
c. Divergent Production – searching for multiple, creative, or novel solutions to
a problem
d. Convergent Production – searching for correct solution to a problem
e. Evaluation- placing a value judgment on knowledge and thought
 Content refers to the type of material or content on which operations are
performed . These are:
a. Figural- concrete material as perceived through the senses.
b. Symbolic- letters, digits, and other conventional signs
c. Semantic – verbal meaning or ideas
d. Behavioral- knowledge regarding other persons.
 Products refer to the results of performing operations on content. It indicates the
form of thought produced by the individual.
a. Units- production of a single word, definition, or isolated bit of information
b. Classes- production of a concept or the noting of similarities
c. Relations- production of an analogy, an opposite, or any other form of
relationship
d. Systems- production of internally consistent set of classifications of various
forms or content
 e. Transformation- production of change of meaning, arrangement, or
organization.
f. Implications- production of information beyond the given data

3. Hierarchical Models
 Phillip Vernon attempted to reconcile the different views on intelligence by
proposing a hierarchical model of intelligence.
 At the top of the hierarchy is the broadest factor analogous to Spearman’s “g”. The
major group factors constitute the next line of specificity and include verbal-
educational factors and a spatial-mechanical factor. These factors can be further
subdivided into minor group factors such as verbal and numerical; and mechanical
reasoning, spatial, and manual abilities.
 4. CATTELL’S FLUID AND CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE
 Fluid Intelligence - more biological or genetically determined and consequently non-
verbal and culture free. It changes less over short time periods and is more affected by
brain injury.
 Crystallized Intelligence- develops from the application of fluid intelligence to a specific
or environment context. It is used more on tasks where habits become fixed.
5. TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

This theory was developed by Robert Sternberg. The theory holds that there are three
important parts of intelligence: (1) componential, (2) experiential, and (3) contextual

a. Componential Intelligence - measured by intelligence tests. People who score high in

componential intelligence may get good grades in school but they may not be outstanding in
thinking of new, original ideas or in every-day street-smart intelligence.
b. Experiential Intelligence - focuses on how people perform on tasks with which they have
either no previous experience or great experience. A person with high experiential
intelligence can solve a new problem easily even with no prior experience. Also, he or she
can figure out how familiar tasks can be performed more automatically.
c. Contextual Intelligence - intelligence in everyday life- street smarts. Contextual intelligence
requires adapting to, selecting, and shaping one’s real- world environment (or context). Part
of contextual intelligence is practical intelligence. This skill involves knowing the pathway to
success in your culture or environment. Another part of contextual intelligence is social
intelligence: the ability to understand others and interact successfully with them.

6. GARDNER’S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

 Gardner’s Theory of is based on his belief that that the brain has evolved separate
systems for different adaptive abilities, talents, or mental skills that he calls
“intelligences”.
 COGNITIVE TESTS

 Cognitive Tests measures mental capacity ( intelligence), aptitude and achievement Tests

A. ACHIEVEMENT TEST

 Achievement tests measure the level of knowledge, skill, or accomplishment in an area or

endeavor. Achievement tests are designed to measure the degree of learning that has taken
place as a result of exposure to a relatively defined learning experience.
 The basic function of achievement tests is to determine how much the learners know about
certain topics or how well they can perform certain skills. Achievement testing involves the
assessment of achieved competence.
 Achievement tests may be standardized nationally, regionally, locally or it may not be
standardized at all.

Teacher-Made Tests
 Designed by teachers to measure achievement of students in terms of current
educational objectives of a certain school or teacher.
 Tests are designed in accordance with the teacher’s syllabi or the school’s
educational program.

Summative and Formative Evaluation

1. Summative evaluation – calls for administering an achievement test at the end of a unit or course
of study to determine whether the students have attained the objectives of instruction.
 2. Formative evaluation - testing and other methods of assessing educational progress take place
continuously during the process of instruction.

Purposes of Achievement Testing

1. Assessment of Achieved Competence

2. Diagnosis of Strengths and Weaknesses
3. Assignment of Grades
4. Certification and Promotion
5. Advanced Placement and Credit by Examination
6. Curriculum and Program Evaluation
7. Accountability
8. Information for educational policy

B. APTITUDE TEST

 Aptitude is a measure of future performance. The most important characteristic of an

aptitude test is its ability to predict success prior to instruction or training.
 A person’s aptitudes are assessed for purposes of academic and career or occupational
counseling and placement.
 Aptitude measures are of value only if they correlate highly with criteria.
 Aptitude measures must have high predictive validity.
 Aptitude tests are called Tests of Special Abilities.
 Examples of Aptitude Tests are the Differential Aptitude Test (DAT) and the General
aptitude Test Battery (GATB)

Reasons For Using Aptitude Tests

 Selecting Individuals
 Placing individuals
 Feedback

General and Specific Abilities

1. General aptitude- represents a composite of cognitive abilities that can be used to forecast
achievement and other behaviors in a wide range of situations.
2. Specific aptitude – represents a special or specific ability that can be enhanced through
training.

C. INTELLIGENCE TEST

D. TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS

1. Group Intelligence Tests

 Intelligence tests that that can be administered to many examinees at a time.

 Some group intelligence tests are the following:
1. Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM)
 The RPM is a nonverbal group test typically used in educational settings. It is a test used
in measuring abstract reasoning and regarded as a non-verbal estimate of fluid
intelligence. It is the most common and popular test administered to groups ranging
from 5-year-olds to the elderly. The test was originally developed by John C. Raven in
1936.
2. Culture Fair Intelligence Test
 The Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFIT) was created by Raymond Cattell in 1949 as an
attempt to measure cognitive abilities devoid of sociocultural and environmental
influences. It is available in 3 scales: Scale 1 for Children, Scale 2 for “normal” adults and
Scale 3 for Superior Adults.
 It is composed of four subtests: Series, Classification, Matrices, and Topology
(Conditions)
3. SRA Verbal Form
 The SRA Verbal Test is a test of general ability, and measures an individual's adaptability
and flexibility in problem solving. Due to its verbal nature, it was recommended only to
be used with people who are familiar with the English language. The results could be
utilized in personnel placement or in educational placement.
 The educational interpretation provides 3 scores: the L score (total linguistics score), the
Q score (quantitative - math), and the T score (total score).
4. MD-5 (MacKenie Davey & Co.)
 The test was first developed in 1972 and is described as a test of mental ability for staff
selection and placement at managerial and supervisory levels. Its prime concern is with
the abilities to deduce relationships and to apply the rules governing them.
5. Purdue Non-language Test (PNLT)
 The PNLT aims to measure mental ability. It is an abstract reasoning test applicable
to all and can be used effectively to people with different cultural backgrounds.
6. Neo Mental Ability Test
 A measure of verbal mental ability intended mainly for people who finished high school
or college. It can be used for in the educational setting such as in placement, counseling
and screening of students. It can also be used in the selection and placement of
personnel in the industrial setting.

7. Panukat ng Katalinuhang Pilipino (PKP)

 The PKP was developed to measure the mental ability of Filipinos whose aged 16 and
Above.
 The test is intended for use in school, business and industry as well as other situations
where assessment of intelligence of adult Filipinos is called for.
 Its subtests are:
a. Talasalitaan (Vocabulary) – measures ability to deal with words as used in a
sentence.
b. Ugnayan (Analogy) – measures skill in perceiving relationships.
c. Kakayahan sa Bilang (Numerical Ability) – measures basic mathematical concepts
and processes in various problem-solving situation within the sphere of Filipino
experiences.
2. Individual Intelligence Tests
 Intelligence tests that can be administered only to one examinee at a time are the Wechler
Scales and the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale.
a. Wechsler Scales
 David Wechsler designed a series of individual intelligence tests to measure the intelligence
of people from pre-school through adulthood.
 The test intended for pre-school is called Wechsler Pre-school and Primary Scale of
Intelligence (WPPSI) which has undergone a series of revision. Latest edition is the WPPSI III.
 The test intended for elementary and secondary school students is the Wechsler Intelligence
Scale (WISC) which has also undergone a series of revision. Latest version is the WISC IV.
 The Wechsler test intend for adults is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). The latest
revision is known as the WAIS-IV.

b. Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS)

 The SBIS V (latest edition ) was designed to assess intelligence of examinees as young as
2-year old and as old as 85 or older.
 Psychometric soundness indicate very high reliability (internal consistency & test-retest)
as well as content and predictive validity.
 The test is composed of 10 subtests under five (5) factors.

INTERPRETING INTELLIGENCE

 Results of intelligence tests are interpreted based on a norm. This norm can be in the form of
Deviation IQ (DIQ) and Percentiles.
 The Wechsler Scale and the SBIS propose similar levels of intelligence but there are slight
variations in the terminologies.
 Generally, in interpreting intelligence , the following may be used:

IQ LEVEL % of Percentile
Population

130 + Very Superior 2.2 98 & above

120 – 129 Superior 6.7 91 - 97
110 – 119 High (Above) Average 16.1 75 - 90
90 – 109 Average 50.0 25 - 74
80 – 99 Low (Below) Average 16.1 9 – 24
70 – 79 Border Line 6.7 2- 8
Below 70 Extremely Low (Mentally Deficient) 2.2 Below 2