Introduction to LRFD for Foundation and Substructure

Design – Module 3
132010B August 2021

1
Welcome and Introduction

Welcome to NHI Course Number 132010B, Introduction to LRFD for

Foundation and Substructure Design, Module 3: Load and Load
Combinations.

2
Module and Lesson Learning Outcome

Upon completion of this module, you will be able to recognize basic load,
load combinations, and load factors associated with LRFD. This will be
accomplished through the completion of the lessons, where you will be able
to:

• Identify permanent and transient type loads;

• Recognize permanent load combinations and load factors; and

• Identify maximum and minimum load factors for permanent loads.

This module will take approximately 90 minutes to complete.

3
Lessons in this Module

This module contains the following lessons.

1. Loads Applied to Structures;

2. Load Combinations and Load Factors; and

3. Maximum and Minimum Load Factors.

During each lesson, knowledge checks are provided to test your

understanding of the material presented.

4
Lesson 1: Loads Applied to Structures

Let’s get started with the first lesson, where you will learn about the loads
applied to structures. At the end of this lesson, you will be able to identify
permanent and transient type loads.

This lesson will take approximately 50 minutes to complete.

5
Load Designations

AASHTO identifies all loads as either permanent loads or transient loads.

Permanent loads are best described as loads that are assumed to be
constant or varying over a long time interval relevant to the life of the
structure. Permanent loads are generally very predictable.

In contrast to permanent loads, transient loads may vary over a short

amount of time relative to the life of the structure, may change direction,
and are generally less predictable than permanent loads.

Force effects are a deformation, stress, or stress resultant such as axial

force, shear force, torsional force, or flexural moment, caused by applied
loads, imposed deformations, or volumetric changes.

6
Permanent Loads

Permanent loads that will be covered in this lesson include the following.

• Dead load of components or DC;

• Dead load of wearing surface or DW;

• Earth load vertical or EV;

• Earth load horizontal or EH;

• Effects of locked-in force effects from construction or EL;

• Earth load surcharge or ES; and

• Downdrag or DD.

7
Dead Load

Let’s start by looking at dead loads. The DC loads are the dead loads of the
structural components and the non structural attachments of the structure.
The DW loads are the dead loads of the wearing surface and the utilities
that are on the structure.

AASHTO Table 3.5.1-1 provides unit weights for dead loads and can be
used when more precise dead load information is not available. The DC
and DW loads are broken down in AASHTO because the DC loads are
more predictable than DW loads.

View each type of dead load to learn more.

8
Dead Load of Structural Components - DC

The DC loads are the dead loads of structural components and

nonstructural attachments. They include the weight of fabricated structure
components such as structural steel girders, signs, and prestressed
concrete beams. They also include cast-in-place structure components
such as footings, deck slabs, and abutments. Additionally, DC loads
include nonstructural attachments such as lighting fixtures, signs, scuppers,
and railings.

View AASHTO Table 3.5.1-1.

9
Wearing Surface and Utility Loads

The DW loads are the dead loads of wearing surfaces and utility loads.
They include the loads from asphalt wearing surfaces, future overlays,
planned widening, and miscellaneous items such as gas or water lines, and
other supported utility services.

10
Dead Load of Wearing Surface - DW

AASHTO Table 3.5.1-1 shows the unit weight for various types of material.

Material : Unit Weight (kcf)

• Aluminum alloys : 0.17

• Bituminous wearing surfaces : 0.140

• Cast iron : 0.450

• Cinder filling : 0.060

• Compacted sand, salt, or clay : 0.120

11
Dead Load of Wearing Surface - DW

AASHTO Table 3.5.1-1 shows the unit weight for various types of material.

Material : Unit Weight (kcf)

• Concrete:

o Lightweight : 0.110

o Sand-Lightweight : 0.120

o Normal weight with ƒc ≤ 5.0 ksi : 0.140

o Normal Weight with 5.0 < ƒc ≤ 15.0 ksi : 0.140 + 0.001 ƒc

• Loose Sand, Silt or Gravel : 0.100

12
Dead Load of Wearing Surface - DW

AASHTO Table 3.5.1-1 shows the unit weight for various types of material.

Material : Unit Weight (kcf)

• Soft Clay : 0.100

• Rolled Gravel, Macadam, or Ballast : 0.140

• Steel : 0.490

• Stone Masonry : 0.170

13
Dead Load of Wearing Surface - DW

AASHTO Table 3.5.1-1 shows the unit weight for various types of material.

Material : Unit Weight (kcf)

• Wood

o Hard : 0.060

o Soft : 0.050

• Water

o Fresh : 0.0624

o Salt : 0.0640

14
Dead Load of Wearing Surface - DW

AASHTO Table 3.5.1-1 shows the unit weight for various types of material.

Material : Unit Weight (kcf)

Item : Weight per Unit Length (klf)

• Transit Rails, Ties, and Fastening per Track : 0.200

15
Dead Load of Structural Components - DC

AASHTO Table 3.5.1-1 shows the unit weight for various types of material.

Material : Unit Weight (kcf)

• Aluminum alloys : 0.17

• Bituminous wearing surfaces : 0.140

• Cast iron : 0.450

• Cinder filling : 0.060

• Compacted sand, salt, or clay : 0.120

16
Dead Load of Structural Components - DC

AASHTO Table 3.5.1-1 shows the unit weight for various types of material.

Material : Unit Weight (kcf)

• Concrete:

o Lightweight : 0.110

o Sand-Lightweight : 0.120

o Normal weight with ƒc ≤ 5.0 ksi : 0.140

o Normal Weight with 5.0 < ƒc ≤ 15.0 ksi : 0.140 + 0.001 ƒc

• Loose Sand, Silt or Gravel : 0.100

17
Dead Load of Structural Components - DC

AASHTO Table 3.5.1-1 shows the unit weight for various types of material.

Material : Unit Weight (kcf)

• Soft Clay : 0.100

• Rolled Gravel, Macadam, or Ballast : 0.140

• Steel : 0.490

• Stone Masonry : 0.170

18
Dead Load of Structural Components - DC

AASHTO Table 3.5.1-1 shows the unit weight for various types of material.

Material : Unit Weight (kcf)

• Wood

o Hard : 0.060

o Soft : 0.050

• Water

o Fresh : 0.0624

o Salt : 0.0640

19
Dead Load of Structural Components - DC

AASHTO Table 3.5.1-1 shows the unit weight for various types of material.

Material : Unit Weight (kcf)

Item : Weight per Unit Length (klf)

• Transit Rails, Ties, and Fastening per Track : 0.200

20
Earth Load Vertical - EV

Now let’s start taking a look at the earth loads beginning with the vertical
earth load. Earth load vertical or EV, is the vertical pressure from the dead
load of earth fill. The vertical pressure of an earth fill dead load acts on the
top of footings and on the back face of battered walls and abutment stems.
The load is determined by multiplying the volume of fill by the density and
the gravitational acceleration or unit weight.

21
Earth Load Horizontal - EH

The next group of earth loads you will learn about are the horizontal earth
loads. There is much to learn about horizontal earth loads and the topics
are broken down to include:

• Earth load horizontal or EH;

• Earth pressure;

• Lateral earth pressure or p;

• Passive pressure estimate for cohesive soils or p sub p;

• Movement requirements;

• Equivalent-fluid method pressure estimation or Rankine; and

• Equivalent-fluid method with sloping backfill.

View each horizontal earth load topic to learn more.

22
Earth Load Horizontal - EH

The force effects of horizontal earth pressures or EH, due to partial or full
embedment into soil must be considered during substructure design. The
horizontal earth pressures are principally those resulting from static load
effects.

EH depends on:

• Structure type such as gravity, cantilever, anchored, MSE etc.;

• Characteristics of retained earth such as type of earth, unit weight,

and shear strength;

• Compaction effort used during the placement of soil backfill;

• Location of ground water within the retained soil; and

• Movement such as the anticipated or permissible magnitude and

direction of horizontal substructure movement.

23
Earth Pressure

The stiffness of the structure and the characteristics of the retained earth
are the most significant factors in the development of horizontal earth
pressure distributions.

Let’s look at three types of earth pressure distributions used to design

structures.

• Active earth pressure;

• At-rest earth pressure; and

• Passive earth pressure.

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Active Earth Pressure

Structures that can tilt, move horizontally, or deflect structurally away from
the retained soil, as is the case with most retaining walls and abutments,
can mobilize an active state of stress in the retained soil mass. These
structures should be designed using an active, or minimum, earth pressure
distribution. Abutments are usually designed using an active earth pressure
distribution.

25
At-Rest Earth Pressure

At-Rest Earth pressure is used because movement is restrained by the

superstructure to prevent adverse effects.

26
Passive Earth Pressure

Walls which are forced to deflect horizontally toward the retained soil
should be designed to resist the passive earth pressure. For practical
purposes, the passive state of stress occurs most commonly as a result of
horizontal deflection of the embedded portions of retaining walls into the
supporting soil.

In LRFD, passive earth pressure is treated as a resistance rather than a

load.

27
Coefficient of Lateral Earth Pressure

The lateral earth pressure requires determination of the coefficient of lateral

earth pressure that includes k sub o, k sub a, and k sub p.

Ko = 1-sinϕ’f

• K sub o is the coefficient of at-rest lateral earth pressure and is equal

to one minus the sine of the effective friction angle of the soil, referred
to as phi prime sub f. Refer to AASHTO Article 3.11.5.2 for more
information.

Ka = (sin2(θ+ϕ’f )/(Γ[sin2 θsin(θ-δ))

• K sub a is the coefficient of active lateral earth pressure and is equal

to the sine squared of the angle at back face of wall to the horizontal,
referred to as theta, plus the effective angle of internal friction,
referred to as phi prime sub f, divided by Gamma times the sine
squared of the angle at back face of wall to the horizontal times the
sine of the angle at back face of wall to the horizontal minus the
friction angle between fill and wall, referred to as delta. The
coefficient of active lateral earth pressure value is based on the

28
 Coulomb earth pressure theory and is shown in AASHTO Figure
C3.11.5.3-1. Refer to AASHTO Article 3.11.5.3 for in-depth
information about this equation including the figures and other
equations associated with it.

K sub p is the coefficient of passive lateral earth pressure. For noncohesive

soils, values may be taken from AASHTO Figures 3.11.5.4-1 and 3.11.5.4-
2, or calculated based on wedge theory. For cohesive soils, the passive
lateral earth pressure is calculated using AASHTO Equation 3.11.5.4-1 and
is covered in more detail later in this lesson. Refer to AASHTO Article
3.11.5.4 for more information.

pp = kpYsz+2c√𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝

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Lateral Earth Pressure

Remember from the earth pressure screen, that EH is dependent on the

stiffness of the structure and characteristics of the retained earth among
other things. The lateral earth pressure is linearly proportional with depth
and the resultant acting at one third the height of the structure is measured
from the bottom of the structure.

The lateral earth pressure is equal to the coefficient of horizontal earth

pressure referred to as k, multiplied by the soil weight referred to as
gamma sub s, and the depth below the surface, or z.

p = kysz

k= ko’ka’orkp

Where:

• Ys = soil weight (kcf)

• z = depth below the surface of earth (ft)

• k = coefficient of horizontal earth pressure

• p = lateral earth pressure (ksf)

30
The coefficient of horizontal earth pressure is based on the angle of internal
friction and can vary depending on where it is taken. It can be taken as the
at-rest earth pressure coefficient, the active earth pressure coefficient, or
the passive earth pressure coefficient. The active earth pressure coefficient
is based on the Coulomb theory and is typical for cantilever walls over five
feet with structural grade backfill reaching active conditions. Deflection is
required to use the active or passive coefficients.

Refer to AASHTO sections 3.5.2 and 3.11.5.1 for more information.

31
Passive Pressure Estimate Cohesive Soils

The passive pressure estimate for cohesive soils is used for vertical or
sloping walls with horizontal backfill, or for vertical walls with sloping
backfill.

The passive pressure estimate for cohesive soils is equal to the coefficient
of horizontal earth pressure times the soil weight times the depth plus two
times the soil cohesion, times the square root of the coefficient of horizontal
earth pressure.

Pp= kpysz+2c√𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Where:

• pp = passive pressure estimate for cohesive soils (ksf)

• kp = coefficient of horizontal earth pressure

• Ὑs = soil weight (kcf)

• z = depth below the surface of earth (ft)

• c = soil cohesion (ksf)

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Refer to AASHTO Figures 3.11.5.4-1 and 3.11.5.4-2 for coefficient of
horizontal earth pressure values.

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Equivalent-Fluid Method Pressure

The equivalent fluid method can only be used when the Rankine earth
pressure theory is applicable and when the backfill is free-draining. With
the equivalent fluid method, the earth pressure is equal to the equivalent
fluid unit weight of the soil times the depth below the surface of the soil.
Basic assumptions for the Rankine method include a smooth and vertical
wall and no friction or adhesion exists between the wall and the soil.

AASHTO Table 3.11.5.5-1 gives the equivalent fluid unit weight of soil
values for wall heights less than 20 feet, for sand or gravel that is loose,
medium dense, or dense, and for level backfill or backfill sloping less than
25 degrees.

Table Description:

Type of Soil (Row Header)

Level Backfill (Column Header)

Backfill with B equals 25 degrees (Column Header)

Level Backfill At-Rest Y e q (kcf)

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Level Backfill Active Delta over H equals 1 over 240 Y e q (kcf)

Backfill with B equals 25 degrees At-Rest Y e q (kcf)

Backfill with B equals 25 degrees Active Delta over H equals 1 over 240 Y
e q (kcf)

Loose sand or gravel (Row Header)

Level Backfill 0.055

Level Backfill 0.040

Backfill with B equals 25 degrees 0.065

Backfill with B equals 25 degrees 0.050

Medium dense sand or gravel (Row Header)

Level Backfill 0.050

Level Backfill 0.035

Backfill with B equals 25 degrees 0.060

Backfill with B equals 25 degrees 0.045

Dense sand or gravel (Row Header)

Level Backfill 0.045

Level Backfill 0.030

Backfill with B equals 25 degrees 0.055

Backfill with B equals 25 degrees 0.040

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Movement Requirements

AASHTO Table C3.11.1-1 shows the approximate values of relative

movements in feet required to reach active or passive earth pressure
conditions (Clough and Duncan, 1991).

Delta equals the movement of the top of the wall required to reach
minimum active or passive pressure by tilting or horizontal translation. H is
the height of the wall.

Let’s look at an example. If you have a 10 foot high wall with backfill of
dense sand, the active condition would be reached when deflections of the
wall away from the fill equal 0.01 feet, very small, whereas the passive
condition would be reached when deflection of the wall towards the fill is
equal to 0.1 feet.

Refer to AASHTO Figures 3.11.5.4-1 and 3.11.5.4-2 for more information.

Table Description:

Type of Backfill (Column Header)

Values of Delta over H (Column Header)

36
Values of Delta over H Active (Column Sub Header)

Values of Delta over H Passive (Column Sub Header)

Type of Backfill Dense Sand

Active 0.001

Passive 0.01

Type of Backfill Medium dense sand

Active 0.002

Passive 0.02

Type of Backfill Loose sand

Active 0.004

Passive 0.04

Type of Backfill Compacted silt

Active 0.002

Passive 0.02

Type of Backfill Compacted lean clay

Active 0.010

Passive 0.05

Type of Backfill Compacted fat clay

Active 0.010

Passive 0.05

37
Equivalent-Fluid Method with Sloping Backfill

For sloping backfill, the vertical component of the earth pressure resultant
is equal to the horizontal component of the earth pressure resultant times
the tangent of the angle of backfill.

Pv=Phtanβ

The horizontal component of the earth pressure resultant is equal to one

half the equivalent fluid unit weight of soil times the wall height squared.

Ph=0.5yeqH2

38
Most abutments are designed using which of the following?

Most abutments are designed using which of the following?

a) At-rest earth pressure

b) Full soil embedment

c) Active earth pressure

d) A load rather than resistance

The correct answer is c) Active earth pressure.

39
EL – Effects of Locked-In Force Effects from Construction

Now that you have learned about dead loads and earth loads, let’s look at
loads that are miscellaneous locked-in force effects resulting from the
construction process. Accumulated locked-in force effects resulting from
the construction process are typically addressed in segmental
superstructure construction. For the usual substructure designs (as
presented in this course), these force effects are small enough and can be
ignored. For precast post-tensioned segmental substructures, locked-in
force effects must be taken into account during the design.

The effects of locked-in loads are caused by redistribution of force effects

introduced into the substructure from construction staging and sequencing,
removal of temporary support systems, use of special erection equipment,
and post-tensioning to name a few. Basically, any strain induced effects
that remain in the substructure due to the construction process are
considered locked-in or built-in loads.

40
ES – Uniform Surcharge Loads

Another type of permanent load that needs to be considered is a uniform

surcharge load, or ES. These loads place constant horizontal earth
pressure on backfills. The force effects of earth surcharge loads on backfills
must be considered for the design of walls and abutments. Where a
uniform surcharge is applied over a retained earth surface, the additional
horizontal earth pressure due to the surcharge is assumed to remain
constant with depth and has a magnitude equal to the coefficient of earth
pressure due to surcharge times the uniform surcharge applied to the
upper surface of the active earth wedge.

If you recall from the lateral earth pressure screen, the coefficient of earth
pressure due to surcharge is based on the type of earth pressure
distribution. The coefficient can be equal to that for active earth pressure
conditions, for at-rest conditions, or for passive conditions.

A surcharge load is any load which is imposed upon the surface of the soil
close enough to the excavation to cause a lateral pressure to act on the

41
system in addition to the basic earth pressure. These loads can be strip
loads or point loads.

View each type of load to learn more.

42
ES – Uniformly Loaded Strip Parallel

Shown on the screen is an example of the horizontal pressure on a wall

restrained from movement resulting from a uniformly loaded strip parallel to
the wall.

Δph=2p/π [δ-sinδcos(δ+2a)

The horizontal pressure on a wall restrained from movement resulting from

a uniformly loaded strip parallel to the wall may be computed by the
formula shown where:

• Horizontal pressure, delta sub ph, is the uniform load intensity on a

strip parallel to the wall (ksf);

• Alpha is the angle between the horizontal front face of the wall and
the near edge of the load taken at a specified depth and as shown in
the figure; and

• Delta is the angle between the horizontal front face of the wall and
the far edge of the load taken at a specified depth and as shown in
the figure.

43
The formula states that the horizontal pressure on a wall restrained from
movement is equal to two times the load divided by pi multiplied by the
entire value of delta minus the sine of delta times the cosine of delta plus
two times alpha.

44
ES – Point Load

Shown on the screen is an example of the horizontal pressure on a wall

restrained from movement resulting from a point load.

Δph=p/πR2[(3zX2/R3) – (R(1-2v)/R+z)]

The horizontal pressure on a wall restrained from movement resulting from

a point loaded may be computed by the formula shown where:

• R, X, and Z are distances and termed the resultant, horizontal, and

vertical components, respectively from a point on the wall to the point
of load application;

• nu = Poisson’s ratio; and

• P = load.

AASHTO Figure 3.11.6.2-3 and Figure 3.11.6.2-4 cover other loading

conditions not covered in this lesson.

45
DD – Downdrag

The final type of permanent load to be covered in this lesson is downdrag.

Where a deep foundation has been installed through a soil layer which is
subject to settlement of the soil around the pile relative to the pile,
downdrag forces are induced on the deep foundation as shown in the
figure. Downdrag is an earth pressure that acts downward on the sides of
the pile or shaft. This downward earth pressure results in a negative skin
friction along the side of the pile or shaft that lessens the upward resistance
created by skin friction and results in added load to the foundation.

Downdrag has two effects: added load and lost resistance. Both are
calculated as the side resistance of soil layers that will settle relative to the
pile.

Pile capacity is assessed at the strength limit state by taking the factored
downdrag loads added to the factored vertical dead load.

Settlement is assessed at the service limit state by adding the downdrag

loads to the vertical dead load.

46
The magnitude of downdrag has been shown to be a function of the
effective stress acting on the pile and may be computed in a similar manner
as the positive shaft resistance calculation.

47
DD – Downdrag methods

Downdrag is the settlement adjacent to a pile or shaft and occurs at sites

underlain by compressible clay, silt, or peat, or where fill has recently been
placed on an earlier surface where the groundwater elevation has dropped.

Downdrag is calculated using skin friction resistance equations which are

methods alpha, beta, or lambda.

Using method alpha, downdrag equals the adhesion factor from AASHTO
Figure 10.7.3.8.6b -1 times the mean undrained shear strength. This
method is used for piles or shafts in clay.

Using method beta, downdrag equals the factor from AASHTO Figure
10.7.3.8.6c-1 times the vertical effective stress. This method is used for
normally consolidated and lightly overconsolidated clays.

Using method lambda, downdrag equals lambda from AASHTO Figure

10.7.3.8.6d-1 times the passive lateral earth pressure. This method is used
to relate the unit side resistance to passive earth pressure.

These equations use the following variables.

48
 • Alpha is the adhesion factor;

• S sub u is the mean undrained shear strength (ksf);

• Beta is the factor from AASHTO Figure 10.7.3.8.6c-1;

• Sigma prime sub v is the vertical effective stress (ksf);

• Sigma prime sub v plus 2 times the mean undrained shear strength
factor is the passive lateral earth pressure (ksf); and

• Lambda is the empirical coefficient from AASHTO Figure 10.7.3.8.6d-

1.

Avoid battered piles where downdrag is possible. Downdrag is reduced by

applying a thin coat of bitumen to the pile surface, covering the piles with
sleeves, using lightweight fills, or simply reducing the settlement that may
impact the pile.

49
Which cause matches with the Earth load vertical load?

Which cause matches with the Earth load vertical load?

a) Settlement

b) Construction process

c) Passive earth pressure

d) Dead load of earth

The correct answer is: d) Dead load of earth.

50
Which cause matches with the Locked-in load load?

Which cause matches with the Locked-in load load?

a) Settlement

b) Construction process

c) Passive earth pressure

d) Dead load of earth

The correct answer is: b) Construction process.

51
Which cause matches with the Earth load horizontal load?

Which cause matches with the Earth load horizontal load?

a) Settlement

b) Construction process

c) Passive earth pressure

d) Dead load of earth

The correct answer is: c) Passive earth pressure.

52
Which cause matches with the Downdrag load?

Which cause matches with the Downdrag load?

a) Settlement

b) Construction process

c) Passive earth pressure

d) Dead load of earth

The correct answer is: a) Settlement.

53
What are the two effects of downdrag?

What are the two effects of downdrag?

a) Less load

b) Added load

c) Less resistance

d) Greater resistance

The correct answers are b) Added load; and c) Less resistance.

54
Transient Loads

Now that you have learned about permanent loads, let’s move on to
discuss transient loads, including:

• Vertical live load or LL;

• Pedestrian live load or PL;

• Vehicular dynamic load allowance or IM;

• Vehicular braking force or BR;

• Vehicular centrifugal force or CE;

• Vehicular collision force or CT;

• Vessel collision force or CV;

• Earthquake or EQ;

• Friction or FR;

• Ice load or IC ;

• Live load surcharge or LS;

55
• Water load and stream pressure or WA;

• Wind load or WS;

• Wind on live load or WL;

• Creep or CR;

• Settlement or SE;

• Shrinkage or SH;

• Temperature gradient or TG; and

• Uniform temperature or TU.

56
LL – Vehicular Live Load

The primary transient load is vehicular live load, commonly known as truck
traffic. The force effects of truck traffic are in part modeled using a highway
design umbrella vehicle to represent typical variations in axle loads and
spacing.

View each load component to learn more.

57
Design Truck and Design Tandem

Vehicular live loading on roadways, bridges, or incidental structures is

designated HL-93 and modeled incorporating the following design truck
and design tandem components.

The AASHTO design truck is the HS20-44 design vehicle, a 72 kip vehicle
adopted for highway design in 1944, and consists of an 8 kip steering axle,
32 kip tractor tandem, and 32 kip semi-trailer tandem. Each tandem is a
pair of 16 kip axles. All axles have a transverse wheel spacing of 6 feet.

The design tandem in LRFD is a 50 kip design, that includes a pair of 25

kip axles spaced 4 feet apart and transverse wheel spacing of 6 feet.

58
Design Lane and Multiple Presence Factors

Vehicular loading is modeled incorporating the design lane and multiple

presence factor components as described below.

The design lane load in LRFD consists of a 0.64 kips per lineal foot or klf
load, uniformly distributed in the longitudinal direction. This lane load is
transversely distributed over a 10 foot width. Unlike the HS20 loading, there
is no additional concentrated load applied.

Multiple presence factors modify the live load based on the number of
lanes loaded. In order to distribute the live load across all lanes, the live
load is multiplied by the multiple presence factors, based on the number of
lanes. These multiple presence factors are specified in AASHTO Article
3.6.1.1.2.

• 1 lane = 1.20;

• 2 lanes = 1.00;

• 3 lanes = 0.85; and

• more than 3 lanes = 0.65.

59
PL – Pedestrian Loads

Pedestrian loads must be calculated when vehicular bridges support

pedestrian sidewalks or for pedestrian bridges used solely for pedestrian
and/or bicycle traffic.

AASHTO requires a pedestrian load of:

• 0.075 ksf when sidewalks are wider than two feet; and

• 0.085 ksf when bridge is for pedestrians or bicyclists only.

60
IM – Vehicular Dynamic Load Allowance

The force effects of dynamic vehicle loading on structures is reflected by

applying a dynamic load allowance factor to the design truck or tandem
portion of the design load, not including the lane load, centrifugal force, or
braking force. Lane load refers to a uniformly distributed load in the
longitudinal direction of 0.64 klf.

This factor accounts for the effects of bridge characteristics such as span
length and type, vehicle speed, gross weight and number of axles, roadway
roughness and surface discontinuities.

For bridge foundations and abutments, these force effects are incorporated
into the loads used for superstructure design. The vehicular dynamic load
allowance is not applicable for walls with no superstructure reaction and for
foundations completely below ground.

61
What is the common name for LL (Vehicular Live Load)?

What is the common name for LL (Vehicular Live Load)?

a) Special permit vehicles

b) Collisions

c) Tandem truck design

d) Truck traffic

The correct answer is d) Truck traffic.

62
BR – Braking Force

Vehicle braking represents a horizontal force effect along the length of a

bridge which must be resisted by the structure foundations. In AASHTO,
these forces are taken as the greater of:

• 25 percent of the axle weight of the design truck or tandem in each

lane of traffic headed in the same direction;

• 5 percent of the design truck plus lane load in each lane of traffic
headed in the same direction; or

• 5 percent of the design tandem plus lane load in each lane of traffic
headed in the same direction.

Braking force is parallel to the traffic and the forces are applied at a
distance of six feet above the roadway surface. In addition, the multiple
presence factors specified in AASHTO Article 3.6.1.1.2 apply, similar to LL
– vehicular live load.

63
CE – Centrifugal Force

Vehicles traveling on a bridge located along a horizontal curve generate a

centrifugal force effect that must be considered in design. Centrifugal force
is perpendicular to traffic.

In AASHTO, the centrifugal force is estimated as the product of the design

axle load of the design truck or tandem, and the factor C. Factor C is equal
to four times the velocity squared divided by the product of three times the
gravitational acceleration times the radius.

Centrifugal forces are applied horizontally six feet above the roadway
surface. For substructure design, centrifugal forces represent a horizontal
force effect. Multiple presence factors apply, similar to LL – vehicular live
load.

64
CT – Vehicular Collision Force

CT is vehicular collision force. Structures not protected from collisions by

roadway and rail vehicles must be designed for the force effects of vehicle
collisions. AASHTO requires that abutments and piers located within a
distance of 30.0 feet to the edge of a roadway, or within a distance of 50.0
feet to the centerline of a railway track, be designed to resist an equivalent
static force of 600 kips acting in any direction in a horizontal plane at a
height of 5.0 feet above ground. This equivalent static force was developed
from analysis of full-scale crash tests.

For column piers, the force is applied as a point load. For other structures,
the load can be applied as a point force or distributed over an area deemed
suitable for the size of the structure and the anticipated impacting vehicle.
The area of distribution is not to exceed five feet wide by two feet high.
Measures deemed suitable for structure protection from vehicular collisions
include embankments, and structurally-independent, crashworthy, ground-
mounted barriers of suitable height.

65
CV – Vessel Collision

Some bridge substructures may be subjected to vessel collision by ships

and barges due to their proximity to navigation waterways. The principal
factors affecting the risk and consequences of vessel collisions with
substructures in a waterway are related to the characteristics of the vessel,
waterway, and bridge. The consequences of vessels colliding with a
structure are a function of the size, type, loading condition, and direction of
the vessel.

For ship collision, the equivalent static impact force is equal to 8.15 times
the vessel impact velocity times the square root of the deadweight tonnage
of the vessel.

For barge collisions with a barge bow damage length less than 0.34 feet,
the equivalent static impact force is equal to 4,112 times the barge bow
damage length.

For barge collisions with a barge bow damage length greater than or equal
to 0.34 feet, the equivalent static impact force is equal to 1,349 plus 110
times the barge bow damage length.

66
For ship collision

• Ps = 8.15V √𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷

For barge collision (aB < 0.34 ft.)

• PB = 4,112 aB

For barge collision (aB ≥ 0.34 ft.)

• PB = 1,349 + 110 aB

where:

• Ps and PB = equivalent static impact force (kip)

• aB = barge bow damage length (AASHTO Eq. 3.14.12-1) (ft.)

• DWT = deadweight tonnage of vessel (tonne)

• V = vessel impact velocity (ft/sec)

67
EQ – Earthquake Effects

EQ is a transient load due to the effect of earthquakes. The applicability

and determination of earthquake force effects is a complex topic which
involves many factors. In-depth coverage of this topic is outside the scope
of this course, however, a brief overview of the AASHTO LRFD
specifications regarding earthquake forces is provided.

Earthquake force effects are predominately horizontal and act through the
center of mass of the structure. Because most of the weight of a bridge is in
the superstructure, seismic loads are assumed to act through the bridge
deck. These loads are due to inertial effects and therefore are proportional
to the weight and acceleration of the superstructure.

Design is based on a low probability of earthquake effects being exceeded

during the life expectancy of the bridge. Basic design principals include:

• Resistance to small and moderate earthquakes without significant

damage;

• Use of realistic ground motion intensities and forces; and

68
• Complete or partial collapse of the bridge from a large earthquake is
avoided.

69
FR – Friction Forces

Friction forces are caused by sliding between members. Use extreme

values of the coefficient of friction between surfaces when calculating the
effect of friction. Low and high friction coefficients can be found in
textbooks. The effect of moisture, possible deterioration, or contamination
of surfaces can be considered where applicable.

70
IC – Ice Loads

IC or ice load force effects on piers are a function of the size of ice floes,
the strength and thickness of ice, and the geometry of the pier. In
determining the ice force, site conditions and the modes of ice floe must be
considered.

The effective ice crushing strength, p, can range from about 8 ksf, for ice
near melting point and substantially disintegrated, to 32 ksf, where ice
breakup occurs or where the ice temperature is measurably below the
melting point.

For piers on large bodies of water, crushing and bending ice failure usually
control the design. On smaller streams, impact failure usually controls the
dynamic ice force for design.

71
CT is the load symbol for which load name?

CT is the load symbol for which load name?

a) Vehicular dynamic load

b) Braking Force

c) Centrifugal force

d) Vehicular collision force

The correct answer is: d) Vehicular collision force.

72
CE is the load symbol for which load name?

CE is the load symbol for which load name?

a) Vehicular dynamic load

b) Braking Force

c) Centrifugal force

d) Vehicular collision force

The correct answer is: c) Centrifugal force.

73
BR is the load symbol for which load name?

BR is the load symbol for which load name?

a) Vehicular dynamic load

b) Braking Force

c) Centrifugal force

d) Vehicular collision force

The correct answer is: b) Braking Force.

74
IM is the load symbol for which load name?

IM is the load symbol for which load name? Vehicular dynamic load

a) Braking Force

b) Centrifugal force

c) Vehicular collision force

The correct answer is: a) Vehicular dynamic load.

75
LS – Live Load Surcharge

Live load surcharge includes both the vertical load from the design
vehicular live load and a horizontal live load surcharge. Live load surcharge
models the force effects of traffic loads on backfills using an equivalent
uniform soil surcharge behind the abutment or wingwall. The live load
surcharge is expected to act on the surface of the backfill within a distance
equal to one half the wall height behind the back face of the wall. Live load
surcharge effects produce a horizontal pressure component on a wall in
addition to vertical earth loads. The magnitude of the horizontal pressure
due to the surcharge load is a function of the type of load, be it point or
uniformly distributed, magnitude and proximity of surface loading, the
strength of the backfill, and the stiffness of the wall relative to wall
displacement.

View the live load surcharge equation.

76
WA – Water Loads

Force effects on structures due to water loading include static pressure,

buoyancy, and stream pressure. Static water and the effects of buoyancy
need to be considered whenever substructures are constructed below a
temporary or permanent ground water level. Buoyancy must be considered
during design of a spread footing or pile cap located below the seasonal
high-water elevation. Stream pressure effects include stream currents and
waves, and floating debris.

Static pressure is assumed to act perpendicular to the water surface.

Buoyancy is an uplift force, taken as the sum of the vertical components of
static pressures acting on all components below the design water level.

View the water loads equation.

77
WA - Water Loads Equation

Longitudinal stream pressure acts on the major axis of the substructure

unit. Lateral stream pressure acts at an angle to the longitudinal axis.

Longitudinal stream pressure and lateral stream pressure are both equal to
their respective drag coefficients for piers times the velocity squared
divided by 1000.

Longitudinal stream pressure:

• P = (CdV2)/1000

Lateral stream pressure:

• P = (CLV2)/1000

where:

• p = pressure of flowing water (ksf)

• CD and CL = drag coefficients for piers

• V = design velocity (ft./sec.)

Drag Coefficients are specified in AASHTO Tables 3.7.3.1-1 and 3.7.3.2-1.

78
CD & CL – Drag Coefficients

Table 3.7.3.1-1 shows the drag coefficient for different types of pier nose,
and Table 3.7.3.2-1 shows the lateral drag coefficient for various angles
between the direction of flow and longitudinal axis of the pier.

Angle, ϴ ,between direction of flow and longitudinal axis of the pier : CL

• 0 degrees : 0.0

• 5 degrees : 0.5

• 10 degrees : 0.7

• 20 degrees : 0.9

• ≥ 30 degrees : 1.0

79
LS – Live Load Surcharge Equation

Table 3.7.3.1-1 shows the drag coefficient for different types of pier nose,
and Table 3.7.3.2-1 shows the lateral drag coefficient for various angles
between the direction of flow and longitudinal axis of the pier.
Angle, ϴ ,between direction of flow and longitudinal axis of the pier : CL

• 0 degrees : 0.0

• 5 degrees : 0.5

• 10 degrees : 0.7

• 20 degrees : 0.9

• ≥ 30 degrees : 1.0

80
LS – Live Load Surcharge Equation

Live load surcharge is applicable when a live load acts within a distance
equal to one half the wall height behind the wall. The uniform increase in
horizontal earth pressure due to live load surcharge is equal to the product
of the coefficient of lateral earth pressure, the soil weight, and the
equivalent height of soil.

Equivalent heights of soil h sub eq, are taken from AASHTO Tables
3.11.6.4-1 and 3.11.6.4-2. Linear interpolation is to be used for
intermediate wall heights.

With live load surcharge, there will be sliding between the bearings as the
superstructure loads are transmitted to the substructure. The direction of
the live load surcharge is horizontal, similar to that of earth pressure.

The increase in horizontal pressure to live load surcharge is determined by:

∆p = kὙs heq

where:

81
• ∆p = constant horizontal earth pressure due to live load surcharge
(ksf)

• k = coefficient of lateral earth pressure

• Ὑs = soil weight (kcf)

• heq = equivalent height of soil (ft)

82
LS – Live Load Surcharge Equation

Table 3.11.6.4-1 shows the equivalent height of soil for vehicular loading on
abutments perpendicular to traffic, and Table 3.11.6.4-2 shows the same
for walls parallel to traffic.

Abutment Height (ft) : heq (ft)

• 5.0 : 4.0

• 10.0 : 3.0

• ≥20.0 : 2.0

83
LS – Live Load Surcharge Equation

Table 3.11.6.4-1 shows the equivalent height of soil for vehicular loading on
abutments perpendicular to traffic, and Table 3.11.6.4-2 shows the same
for walls parallel to traffic.
Retaining Wall Height (ft) : heq (ft) Distance from wall backface to edge of
traffic (0.0ft : 1.0ft or Further)

• 5.0 : 5.0 : 2.0

• 10.0 : 3.5 : 2.0

• ≥20.0 : 2.0 : 2.0

84
WS, WL – Wind Loads

The principal wind loads that need to be considered include horizontal wind
pressure effects on the structure, WS, and on vehicles, WL. For small or
low structures, wind loading does not usually govern the design. However,
for large or tall bridges, wind loading can govern the design and should be
investigated.

Where wind loading is important, the wind pressure should be evaluated

from two or more different directions for the windward (or facing the wind),
leeward (or facing away from the wind), and side pressures to determine
which produce the most critical loads on the structure.

View the wind loads equation.

85
WS, WL – Wind Loads Equation

The design wind pressure is equal to the base wind pressure multiplied by
the value of the design wind velocity divided by the base wind velocity
squared. This is also equal to the base wind pressure times the design
wind velocity squared divided by 10,000.

The wind on structure design pressure is multiplied by the exposed

structure area.

Wind on live load is equal to a 0.10 klf moving force acting normal to, and
six feet above the roadway and transmitted to the structure.

For skew angles, normal and parallel components are given in AASHTO
Table 3.8.1.3-1. These components can act at any angle. Wind attack
angle is measured from a line perpendicular to superstructure longitudinal
axis.

Vertical wind pressure is 0.020 ksf times the deck width, applied at the
quarter point of the deck.

Wind on structure, design load:

86
PD = PB (VDZ/VB)2 = (PB[V2DZ/10,000])

where:

• PD = wind on design structure pressure(ksf)

• PB = base wind pressure(ksf)

• VDZ = design wind velocity at design elevation (mph)

• VB = base wind velocity at design elevation (mph)

87
TU, TG, CR, SH, SE – Superimposed Deformation Force
Effects

Internal forces develop on structure components as a result of temperature

changes, creep and shrinkage of materials, and settlement of structures.
These forces should be considered for substructure design when
applicable.

View the examples of superimposed deformation force effects.

88
TU, TG, CR, SH, SE – Examples

The following examples illustrate how superimposed forces may be of

significance for substructure design.

• Temperature changes in the superstructure are transmitted as a force

to the substructure unit through fixed or non-sliding bearings.
Temperature forces transmitted through fixed or non-sliding bearings
should be considered as TU forces, and forces transmitted through
sliding bearings should be considered as friction or FR forces. This is
of significance because of the different load factors applied to TU
versus FR;

• Long span bridges or large substructure units where creep,

shrinkage, and temperature forces can become significant;

• Design of an integral bridge abutment where the passive resistance

of the abutment backfill must be evaluated for the temperature
gradient used for superstructure design; and

• Analysis of force effects, after the construction, which exceed

tolerable foundation movements. Determine how foundation

89
settlement due to soft ground or scour, or longitudinal differential
settlement along a culvert, affects the performance of structure
components.

90
Lesson Review

Let's take a moment to review the concepts you learned during this lesson.

91
True or False: Creep, shrinkage, and temperature forces
become significant for long bridge spans and long
substructure units.

True or False: Creep, shrinkage, and temperature forces become

significant for long bridge spans and long substructure units.

a) True

b) False

The correct answer is a) True. Creep, shrinkage, and temperature forces

become significant for long bridge spans and long substructure units.

92
Wind loads are wind pressure and they act on which of the
following?

Wind loads are wind pressure and they act on which of the following?

a) Vehicles

b) Earthquakes

c) Stream pressure

d) Structures

e) All of the above

The correct answers are a) Vehicles; and d) Structures.

93
Which of the following effects are due to water loads?

Which of the following effects are due to water loads?

a) Buoyancy

b) Stream pressure

c) Static pressure

d) Skin friction

The correct answers are a) Buoyancy; b) Stream pressure; and c) Static

pressure.

94
Lesson Summary

Now, let’s review the learning outcome for this lesson.

You learned to identify permanent and transient type loads and now
understand the affect each of these loads has in the substructure design
process. In the next lesson, you will see how these loads are combined and
the factors that are applied to them in the limit state evaluation.

This concludes Lesson 1: Loads Applied to Structures.

95
Lesson Conclusion

If you would like to further review the material covered in this lesson,
please return to the beginning of this lesson.

If you are confident that you understand the learning outcome, please
continue on to the next lesson.

96
Lesson 2: Load Combinations and Load Factors

Let’s get started with the second lesson, where you will learn about load
combinations and load factors. At the end of this lesson, you will be able to
recognize permanent load combinations and load factors.

This lesson will take approximately 20 minutes to complete.

97
Loads

Substructure design requires identification of the loads that may act on a

substructure unit, the combination of the loads at the applicable limit states,
and the appropriate load factors that must be performed to produce the
controlling force effects. Mathematically, this is explained by AASHTO
equation 3.4.1.1 which states that the total factored force is equal to the
summation of the load modifier times the load factors times the force effect
from the specified loads.

Substructure design requires identification of the loads that may act on a

substructure unit as explained by AASHTO Equation 3.4.1.1:

Q = ∑ ηiὙi Qi

where:

• Q = total factored force effect

• ηi = load modifier (AASHTO 1.3.2)

• Ὑi = load factors specified by AASHTO

• Qi = force effect from specified loads

98
AASHTO Limit State Evaluation

AASHTO requires that a limit states evaluation be performed for structure

and foundation design. The limit state evaluation requires:

• All applicable limit states are evaluated;

• Each load for each limit state is modified by a prescribed load factor,
gamma; and

• Factored loads for each limit state are combined in a prescribed

manner.

If you recall from previous lessons, a limit state is a condition beyond which
the bridge or component ceases to satisfy the provisions for which it was
designed.

99
AASHTO Load Factor Tables

Selection of the load factors to be used is a function of the type of load and
the limit state being evaluated. As defined in AASHTO, the limit states, load
factors, and load combinations which must be investigated are presented in
AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1 Load Combinations and Load Factors and in
AASHTO Table 3.4.1-2 Load Factors for Permanent Loads.

Note that load modifiers can be found in AASHTO Article 1.3

Again, only certain loads are applicable at each limit state which make up a
load combination. All applicable limit states must be evaluated. Each
unfactored load must be modified by a prescribed load factor and the
resulting factored loads must be combined in a prescribed manner.

These tables are frequently referred to as you proceed thru the screens. In
order to view the tables as they are referenced, select the paperclip icon at
the bottom of the screen for a document that can be printed for your use.

View the AASHTO tables listed.

100
AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1 Load Combinations and Load Factors

This is AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1 – Load Combinations and Load Factors,

and it applies to permanent and transient loads.

The load combinations are the loads shown along the first row compared to
the limit states shown in the first column.

The corresponding load to limit state value shown in the table is the load
factor. Note that the first column of loads are permanent loads.

The gamma sub p is the permanent load factor for the permanent loads at
the strength and extreme event limit states. This value is taken from
AASHTO Table 3.4.1-2 – Load Factors for permanent loads, gamma sub p.

Gamma sub TG is the temperature gradient factor for the temperature

gradient load. Gamma sub SE is the settlement gradient factor for the
settlement load. Both of these factors are derived on a project specific
basis as outlined in AASHTO.

101
AASHTO Table 3.4.1-2 Load Factors for Permanent Loads

AASHTO Table 3.4.1-2 shows the minimum and maximum load factors for
permanent loads. The designer must determine which factor applies for
their design situation.

102
Load Combinations

When using AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1, only certain loads are applicable at
each limit state which make up a load combination.

With LRFD, all applicable limit states must be evaluated. Each unfactored
load must be modified by a prescribed load factor and the resulting factored
loads must be combined in a prescribed manner.

Let’s look at the load combination for the following limit states.

• Strength limit state;

• Extreme event limit state;

• Fatigue limit state; and

• Service limit state.

Load combinations that typically apply for geotechnical design include

Strength I and IV; Service I; and Extreme I and II. Strength IV is for long
span bridges. Strength II and V often control for lateral loads.

Refer to AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1 for more information.

103
View each limit state to learn more.

104
The Strength I Limit State is the control for structures
subjected to which of the following characteristics?

The Strength I Limit State is the control for structures subjected to which of
the following characteristics?

a) Subjected to high winds

b) High dead to live load ratios

c) Seismically active area

d) Very high live to dead load ratios

The correct answer is d) Very high live to dead load ratios.

105
Identify Loads and Load Factors

Now that you have learned about limit states, let’s move on to learning
about load factors.

Loads refers to the permanent and transient loads that have been
previously discussed. The load factor is a value defined by AASHTO that is
multiplied by the unfactored load to produce the factored load. The
magnitude of the value is based on the uncertainty of the load. There are
maximum and minimum load factors for permanent loads.

If you need a review of permanent and transient loads, view each load
category to learn more.

106
Review of Transient Loads

Remember from the last lesson, the following transient loads that you
learned about.

• Vehicular live load – LL;

• Pedestrian live load – PL;

• Vehicular dynamic load allowance – IM ;

• Vehicular braking force – BR;

• Vehicular centrifugal force – CE;

• Vehicular collision force – CT;

• Vessel collision force – CV;

• Earthquake – EQ;

• Friction – FR;

• Ice load – IC ;

• Live load surcharge – LS ;

107
• Water load and stream pressure – WA

• Wind load – WS;

• Wind on live load – WL;

• Creep – CR;

• Settlement – SE;

• Shrinkage – SH;

• Temperature gradient – TG; and

• Uniform temperature – TU.

108
Review of Permanent Loads

Remember from the last lesson, the following permanent loads that you
learned about.

• Dead load of components – DC;

• Dead load of wearing surface – DW;

• Earth load vertical – EV;

• Earth load horizontal – EH;

• Effects of locked-in force effects from construction – EL;

• Earth load surcharge – ES; and

• Downdrag – DD.

109
Load Combinations

Modern bridge design must account for the inherent uncertainty in loads
applied from a superstructure to its substructure components. More
specifically, this entails considering the probability or level of certainty of
various loads, either in magnitude or combination of load types. This
probability is used to evaluate the load capacity or the deformation potential
of substructure components.

If you remember from Module 2, LRFD accounts for this uncertainty by the
application of load modifiers and load factors for various permanent and
transient load types using the LRFD equation. As a review, this equation
states that the sum of the load modifier multiplied by the load factor
multiplied by the force effect is less than or equal to the resistance factor
multiplied by the nominal resistance which is equal to the factored
resistance.

∑ ɳi γi Qi ≤ Φ Rn = Rr

where:

• ɳi = Load modifier (eta)

110
• γi = Load factor (gamma)

• Qi = Force effect

• Φ = Resistance factor (phi)

• Rn = Nominal resistance

• Rr = Factored resistance

111
Strength Limit State

View each strength limit to learn more.

112
Strength Limit State – Strength I

Strength I is for normal vehicular use, with basic load combinations, and no
wind. Strength I controls the design in many substructures with a very high
live to dead load ratio.

The live load factor for Strength I is greater than that for Strength II, 1.75
versus 1.35, because the variability of the live load is greater for normal
vehicular traffic than for a permit vehicle.

The live load factor for Strength I is greater than that for Strength V, 1.75
versus 1.35, because the variability of the live load is greater for normal
vehicular use without wind than for a bridge subjected to a wind of 55 mph,
and because less traffic is anticipated during design wind conditions.

Refer to AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1 for more information.

113
Strength Limit State – Strength II

Strength II is used for owner-specified or permit design vehicles and

assumes no wind load.

Note that the live load factor for Strength I is greater than that of Strength II,
at 1.75 versus 1.35. This is due to greater variability of normal vehicular
use in Strength I than of the special or permit use allowed with Strength II.

Refer to AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1 for more information.

114
Strength Limit State – Strength III

For Strength III, the wind load combination is greater than 55 mph. When
wind load represents the primary load, this limit sate may be the design
controlling limit state. The live load factor is zero because the live load due
to vehicular traffic is considered unstable and therefore unlikely under
extreme wind conditions.

The load factor for wind load on structures for Strength III is greater than
that for Strength V, 1.40 versus 0.40. This is because the wind load
represents the primary load for Strength III where structures are subjected
to a wind velocity greater than 55 mph, compared to Strength V where wind
velocity of 55 mph represents just one component of all loads placed on the
structure.

Refer to AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1 for more information.

115
Strength Limit State – Strength IV

The conditions for Strength IV include a very high dead load to live load
ratio generally greater than 7.0. Strength IV typically controls for long span
bridges greater than 600 feet. Strength IV is not applicable to investigation
of substructures and bearing because other load combinations adequately
address substructures and bearing.

Refer to AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1 for more information.

116
Strength Limit State – Strength V

Strength V is for normal vehicular use and wind velocity of 55 mph. The
wind load factor is less than 1.00 since the component is subject to
vehicular and wind loading simultaneously. When wind load represents the
primary load, this strength limit state could be the controlling limit state for
design. The load factors for wind load for Strength V are less than 1.00 to
account for the probability of the maximum value of these loads occurring
simultaneously. Refer to AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1 for more information.

117
Extreme Event Limit State

The two categories for the extreme event limit state are:

• Extreme Event I which designs for earthquake loading combinations

and considers the possibility of partial live loads; and

• Extreme Event II which designs for ice loading combinations, vehicle

and vessel collisions, and the check flood.

Refer to AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1 for more information.

118
Fatigue Limit State

Fracture by fatigue is associated with the repetitive cyclic loading over time
and defined by loads resulting from a single design truck. Fatigue is due to
repeated application of loads less than the maximum design load.

The fatigue limit state has two categories Fatigue State I and Fatigue State
II. Fatigue State I is fatigue and fracture load combination related to infinite
load-induced fatigue life. Fatigue State II is fatigue and fracture load
combination related to finite load-induced fatigue life.

This limit state is primarily for superstructure design and is not normally
investigated by geotechnical engineers with respect to substructure design.

Refer to AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1 for more information.

119
Service Limit State

The service limit state is broken down into 4 categories.

• Service I is for the normal operational use of the bridge with 55 mph
wind. A load factor of 1.00 is used for all permanent loads and most
of the transient loads. Service I is the controlling limit state with
respect to deformation.

• Service II is to control yielding of steel structures and slip in slip-

critical connections due to live load such as bolted connections.

• Service III, for superstructures, is for tension in prestressed concrete

superstructures and for crack control.

• Service IV, for substructures, is for tension in prestressed concrete

columns and for crack control.

The Service II and Service III Limit States are used to evaluate specific
critical structural components and are not generally applicable to
foundation design.

Refer to AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1 for more information.

120
Lesson Review

Let's take a moment to review the concepts you learned during this lesson.

121
The selection of load factors is a function of what?

The selection of load factors is a function of what?

a) Load type

b) Limit states

c) Resistance factor

d) Construction materials

The correct answers are a) Load type; and b) Limit states.

122
How should permanent load factors be applied?

How should permanent load factors be applied?

a) Both the maximum and minimum extremes

b) Live load with a value > 1.0

c) Only to loads that increase the force effect

d) The load factor that produces the more critical combination

The correct answer is d) The load factor that produces the more critical
combination.

123
In which limit states are minimum and maximum permanent
load factors used?

In which limit states are minimum and maximum permanent load factors
used?

a) Service limit states

b) Strength limit states

c) Fatigue limit states

d) Extreme limit states

The correct answers are b) Strength limit states; and d) Extreme limit
states.

124
Lesson 2 Summary

Now, let’s review the learning outcome for this lesson.

You learned to recognize permanent load combinations and load factors

and how to determine the controlling limit states for a given design.

This concludes Lesson 2: Load Combinations and Load Factors.

125
Lesson 2 Conclusion

If you would like to further review the material covered in this lesson,
please return to the beginning of this lesson.

If you are confident that you understand the learning outcome, please
continue on to the next lesson.

126
Lesson 3: Maximum and Minimum Load Factors

Let’s move on to the third and final lesson in this module, where you will
learn how to determine the appropriate load factors to be used for a given
loading. At the end of this lesson, you will be able to identify the maximum
and minimum load factors to be used for permanent loads.

This lesson will take approximately 20 minutes to complete.

127
Maximum and Minimum Load Factors

The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Specifications describe the procedures to

compute loads, and to combine and factor loads for comparison to the
factored resistance.

LRFD requires that certain permanent loads, including earth loads, be

factored using maximum and minimum load factors as shown in AASHTO
Tables 3.4.1-1 and 3.4.1-2.

View the AASHTO tables listed.

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AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1 Load Combinations and Load Factors

This is AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1 – Load Combinations and Load Factors,

and it applies to permanent and transient loads. This table should look
familiar to you. If you recall from the previous lesson, this table was
introduced and covered in detail. This table gives the load factor to be used
for a specific type of load at a specific limit state.

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AASHTO Table 3.4.1-2 Load Factors for Permanent Loads

Shown on this slide is another table that was covered in the previous
lesson. AASHTO Table 3.4.1-2 shows the minimum and maximum load
factors for permanent loads. The designer must determine which factor
applies for their design situation.

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Criteria for Application of Load Factors

Several criteria should be considered when selecting load factors.

• Load factors should be selected to produce the largest total factored

force effect under investigation;

• For each load combination, both maximum and minimum extremes

should be investigated;

• For load combinations where one force effect decreases the effect of
another force, the minimum value should be applied to the load that
reduces the force effect;

• For permanent force effects, the load factor which produces the more
critical combination should be selected from AASHTO Table 3.4.1-2;
and

• If a permanent load increases the stability or load-carrying capacity of

a structural component, such as a load from soil backfill on the heel
of a wall, the minimum value for that permanent load must also be
investigated.

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Load Factors – Permanent Loads

Let’s take a look at the maximum and minimum factors for permanent
loads, which include:

• DC – dead loads of structural components and nonstructural

attachments;

• DW – dead loads of wearing surfaces and utilities;

• DD – downdrag;

• EH – horizontal earth pressure;

• EL – locked-in erection stresses;

• EV – vertical earth pressure;

• ES – earth surcharge loads; and

• CR – creep, PS – post-tensioning, SH – shrinkage.

View each type of permanent load to learn more.

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Load Factors – Permanent Loads – DC & DW

Dead load maximum and minimum load factors vary depending on the type
of load being considered. There are two types of dead loads recognized by
LRFD and they are DC, dead loads of structural components and non-
structural attachments.

DC – dead loads of structural components and nonstructural attachments

• Maximum load factor = 1.25

• Minimum load factor = 0.9

• At Strength IV limit state:

o Max load factor = 1.50

o Min load factor = 0.9

DW – dead loads of wearing surfaces and utilities

• Maximum load factor = 1.50

• Minimum load factor = 0.65

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AASHTO Table 3.4.1-2 Load Factors for Permanent Loads, γp

Type of Load, Fundation Type, and Method Used to Calculate Downdrag

(Column Header), Load Factor Maximum (Column Header), Load Factor
Minimum (Column Header). Type of Load, Fundation Type, and Method
Used to Calculate Downdrag DC: Componenet and Attachments,
Maxiumum 1.25, Minimum 0.90. Type of Load, Fundation Type, and
Method Used to Calculate Downdrag DC: Strength IV only, Maximum 1.50,
Minimum 0.90. Type of Load, Fundation Type, and Method Used to
Calculate Downdrag DD: Downdrag Piles (Column Sub-Header) DD:
Downdrag Piles, alpha Tomlinson Method, Maximum 1.4, Minimum 0.25.
DD: Downdrag Piles, Lambda Method, Maximum 1.05, Minimum 0.30. DD:
Downdrag Drilled shafts, O'Neill and Reese (1999) Method. Maximum 1.25,
Minimum 0.35. Type of Load, Fundation Type, and Method Used to
Calculate Downdrag DW: Wearing Surfaces and Utilities, Maximum 1.50,
Minimum 0.65. Type of Load, Fundation Type, and Method Used to
Calculate Downdrag EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure (Column Sub-Header)
EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure Active Maximum 1.50, Minimum 0.90. EH:
Horizontal Earth Pressure At-rest, Maximum 1.35, Minimum 0.90. EH:

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Horizontal Earth Pressure AEP for anchored walls, Maximum 1.35, Minium
N/A. Type of Load, Fundation Type, and Method Used to Calculate
Downdrag EL: Locked-in Construction Streses, Maxiumum 1.00, Minimum
1.00. Type of Load, Fundation Type, and Method Used to Calculate
Downdrag EV: Vertical Earth Pressure (Column Sub-Header). EV: Vertical
Earth Pressure Overall Stability, Maximum 1.00, Minimum N/A. EV: Vertical
Earth Pressure Retaining Walls and Abutments, Maximum 1.35, Minimum
1.00. EV: Vertical Earth Pressure Rigid Buried Structure, Maximum 1.30,
Minimum 0.90. EV: Vertical Earth Pressure Rigid Frames, Maximum 1.35,
Minimum 0.90. EV: Vertical Earth Pressure Flexible Burried Structures
(Column Sub-Sub-Header) Flexible Burried Structures Metal box Culberts,
Structural Plate Culverts with Deep Corrugations, and Fiberglass Culberts,
Maximum 1.5, Minimum 0.9. Flexible Burried Structures Thermoplastic
Culverts, Maximum 1.3, Minimum 0.9. Flexible Burried Structures All
others, Maximum 1.95, Minimum 0.9. Type of Load, Fundation Type, and
Method Used to Calculate Downdrag ES: Earth Surcharge, Maximum 1.50,
Minimum 0.75.

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Load Factors – Permanent Loads – DD

Downdrag or DD is a load that is typically applied to deep foundations and

is to be factored with both a maximum load factor for combinations in which
the downdrag increases the load effects and a minimum load factor for
cases when the downdrag decreases the load effects. For downdrag, the
maximum load factor is 1.4 and the minimum load factor is 0.25. The load
factor depends on the method used to determine downdrag. Load factors
for three different methods are shown on the table. Maximum load factors
should be used in all cases involving deep foundation compression.
Minimum load factors are only used in cases where the pile or shaft is
intentioned in the absence of downdrag.

View AASHTO table 3.4.1-2.

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Load Factors – Permanent Loads – EH

Horizontal earth pressure or EH includes load factors for active and at rest
states of the structure. The active state refers to the relative small
movement of the structure away from the retained soil that results in a
decrease in lateral pressure relative to the at rest condition. The horizontal
earth pressure active state maximum load factor is 1.5 and the minimum
load factor is 0.9. The at rest state refers to the lateral earth pressure that
exists in level ground with the condition of no lateral movement. The
horizontal earth pressure at rest state maximum load factor is 1.35 and the
minimum load factor is 0.9. A maximum load factor for the apparent earth
pressure for anchored walls of 1.35 is also provided. There is no minimum
load factor for apparent earth pressure for anchored walls.

View AASHTO table 3.4.1-2.

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Load Factors – Permanent Loads – EL

Locked-in erection stresses, or EL, are related to construction processes

and are usually not a significant force. Locked-in erection stresses'
maximum load factor is one, and the minimum load factor is one.

View AASHTO Table 3.4.1-2.

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Load Factors – Permanent Loads – EV Part 1

Vertical earth pressure or EV includes load factors for overall stability,

retaining walls and abutments, rigid buried structures, rigid frames, and
flexible buried structures. For overall stability, the maximum load factor is
one. There is no minimum load factor for overall stability. For retaining
walls and abutments, the maximum load factor is 1.35 and the minimum
load factor is one. For rigid buried structures, the maximum load factor is
1.3 and the minimum load factor is 0.9. Rigid buried structures typically
include buried concrete structures, such as foundations, culverts, and
pipes, because their stiffness results in little deformation under loading. For
rigid frames, the maximum load factor is 1.35 and the minimum load factor
is 0.9. Rigid frames refer to structural members connected with rigid
connections that resist movement. Steel frame structures are an example
of rigid frames.

View AASHTO table 3.4.1-2.

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Load Factors – Permanent Loads – EV Part 2

Vertical earth pressure for flexible buried structures is divided into three
categories and includes metal box culverts and structural plate culverts with
deep corrugations, thermoplastic culverts, and all other types of flexible
buried structures. For metal box culverts and structural plate culverts with
deep corrugations, the maximum load factor is 1.5, and the minimum load
factor is 0.9. For thermoplastic culverts, the maximum load factor is 1.3,
and the minimum load factor is 0.9. For all other types of flexible buried
structures, the maximum load factor is 1.95, and the minimum load factor is
0.9.

View AASHTO Table 3.4.1-2.

140
Load Factors – Permanent Loads – ES

Earth surcharge loads, or ES, are a constant horizontal earth pressure that
is added to the basic earth pressure. For ES loads, the maximum load
factor is 1.5, and the minimum load factor is 0.75.

View AASHTO table 3.4.1-2.

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Load Factors – Permanent Loads – CR PS SH

The load factors for other types of permanent loads need to be considered
and include CR, force effects due to creep; PS, secondary forces from
post-tensioning; and SH, force effects due to shrinkage. These loads are
superimposed deformation with load factors specified by AASHTO table
3.4.1-3. Creep is a deformation of material properties of a concrete mass
caused by carrying a load over a period of time. Shrinkage is also a
deformation due to the material properties of concrete, and is a
consequence of the natural change in concrete from the loss of moisture
during drying. Keeping concrete moist during curing helps to reduce or
minimize creep and shrinkage. The project structural engineer should
provide guidance regarding the use of these load factors.

142
EH Horizontal Earth Pressure has load factors for the active
state, at-rest state, and apparent earth pressure for anchored
walls?

True or False: EH Horizontal Earth Pressure has load factors for the active
state, at-rest state, and apparent earth pressure for anchored walls?

a) True

b) False

The correct answer is a) True.

143
Load Factors – Transient Loads Part 1

You’ve learned about the maximum and minimum load factors for
permanent loads, now let’s begin to look at the load factors for transient
loads.

Load Factors for transient loads include the same load factors at various
limit states for LL or vehicular live Loads, IM or vehicular dynamic load
allowance, CE or vehicular centrifugal force, BR or vehicular braking force,
PL or pedestrian live load, and LS or live load surcharge as shown on
AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1 and include the following.

• Strength I is 1.75;

• Strength II and IV are 1.35;

• Extreme Event I is the load factor for earthquake loads, (relating to

earthquakes);

• Extreme Event II is 0.50;

• Service I is 1.0;

• Service II is 1.30;

144
 • Service III is 0.80; and

• Fatigue I and Fatigue II for LL, IM, and CE are 1.50 and 0.75
respectively.

The live load factor for the Extreme Event I limit state is determined on a
project-specific basis.

145
Load Factors – Transient Loads Part 2

Let’s continue looking at the load factors for transient loads. For WA or
water load and stream pressure, the load factor is 1.0 for applicable limit
states. For WS or wind load on structure, load factors are applied to a
couple of strength and service limit states with the load factors ranging from
1.40 to 0.30. For WL or wind load on live load, the load factor is 1.0 for a
strength and service limit state. FR or friction, has a load factor of 1.0.

146
Load Factors – Transient Loads Part 3

The final transient loads you will learn about are the force effects due to
temperature. TU is the force effect due to uniform temperature and TG is
the force effect due to temperature gradient. Both are superimposed
deformations.

TU or force effect due to uniform temperature, is the only transient load

with a range. For the strength limit state, TU load factors range from 0.50
minimum and 1.20 maximum for the strength limit state, and 1.00 minimum
and 1.20 maximum for the service limit state.

TU load factors are gamma TU values specified by AASHTO and include

0.50 value for a simplified analysis of concrete and taken in conjunction
with the gross amount of inertia in the column of pier. A gamma TU value of
1.0 load factor is used for a refined analysis of concrete in conjunction with
a partially cracked moment of inertia.

TG load factors are gamma TG values specified by AASHTO. Values are

0.0 at the strength limit and extreme limit states, 1.0 at the service limit

147
state when the live load is not considered, and 0.50 at the service limit
state when live load is considered.

148
Lesson 3 Review

Let's take a moment to review the concepts you learned during this lesson.

149
When selecting load factors which of the following is true?

When selecting load factors which of the following is true?

a) Select factors that only produce minimum force effects

b) Select load factors that produce the most critical combination for
permanent force effects

c) Select factors that only produce maximum force effects

d) Select factors that produce force effects that will only agree with the
design

The correct answer is b) Select load factors that produce the most critical
combination for permanent force effects.

150
Permanent loads due to superimposed deformation refers
to?

Permanent loads due to superimposed deformation refers to?

a) CR - creep

b) DD - downdrag

c) SH - shrinkage

d) PS - secondary forces from post-tensioning

The correct answers are a) CR - creep; c) SH - shrinkage; and d) PS -

secondary forces from post-tensioning.

151
Lesson 3 Summary

Now, let’s review the learning outcome for this lesson.

You learned how to determine the appropriate load factors to be used for
permanent loads and transient loads and are now able to identify the
maximum and minimum load factors for basic loads.

This concludes Lesson 3: Maximum and Minimum Load Factors.

152
Lesson 3 Conclusion

If you would like to further review the material covered in this lesson,
please return to the beginning of this lesson.

If you are confident that you understand the learning outcome, please
continue on to the Module Summary.

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Module Summary

This module described basic load, load combinations, and load factors
associated with LRFD.

You should now be able to:

• Identify permanent and transient type loads;

• Describe permanent load combination and load factors; and

• Identify maximum and minimum load factors for permanent loads.

154