2.

5 Transformations 143

first reflect the graph about the x-axis then shift up 1. Theorem 2.4 tells us m3 (x) = −m2 (x)
will handle the reflection.

y y
(5, 2)
2 2
(−1, 1) (−3, 0) 1

−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x
(−3, 0) −1
(−1, −1)
−2 −2
(5, −2)
reflect across x-axis
q
1 3
−−−−−−−−−−−−→ q
1 3
y = m2 (x) = 2
x + 2
multiply each y-coordinate by −1 y = m3 (x) = −m2 (x) = − 2
x + 2

Finally, to handle the vertical shift, Theorem 2.2 gives m(x) = m3 (x) + 1, and we see that
the range of m is (−∞, 1].

y y
2 (−3, 1) 2

(−3, 0) 1
(−1, 0)
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x
(−1, −1) (5, −1)
−2 −2
(5, −2)
shift up 1 unit
q
1 3
−−−−−−−−−−−−→ q
y = m3 (x) = −m2 (x) = − 2
x + 2
add 1 to each y-coordinate y = m(x) = m3 (x) + 1 = − 12 x + 3
2
+1

Some comments about Example 2.5.3 are in order. First, recalling the properties of radicals
from Intermediate Algebra, we√know that √ √the functions g and j are the same, since j and g have
√
the same domains and j(x) = 9x = 9 x = 3 x = g(x). (We invite the reader to verify that
the all of the points we plotted on the graph of g lie on the graph of j and vice-versa.) Hence, for
√
f (x) = x, a vertical stretch by a factor of 3 and a horizontal shrink by a factor of 9 result in
the same transformation. While this kind of phenomenon is not universal, it happens commonly
enough with some of the families of functions studied in College Algebra that it is worthy of note.
Secondly, to graph the function m, we applied a series of four transformations. While it would have
been easier on the authors to simply inform the reader of which steps to take, we have strived to
explain why the order in which the transformations were applied made sense. We generalize the
procedure in the theorem below.
144 Functions

Theorem 2.7. Transformations. Suppose f is a function. To graph

g(x) = Af (Bx + H) + K

1. Subtract H from each of the x-coordinates of the points on the graph of f . This results
in a horizontal shift to the left if H > 0 or right if H < 0.

2. Divide the x-coordinates of the points on the graph obtained in Step 1 by B. This results
in a horizontal scaling, but may also include a reflection about the y-axis if B < 0.

3. Multiply the y-coordinates of the points on the graph obtained in Step 2 by A. This
results in a vertical scaling, but may also include a reflection about the x-axis if A < 0.

4. Add K to each of the y-coordinates of the points on the graph obtained in Step 3. This
results in a vertical shift up if K > 0 or down if K < 0.

Theorem 2.7 can be established by generalizing the techniques developed in this section. Sup-
pose (a, b) is on the graph of f . Then f (a) = b, and to make good use of this fact, we set
Bx + H = a and solve. We first subtract the H (causing the horizontal shift) and then divide by
B. If B is a positive number, this induces only a horizontal scaling by a factor of B1 . If B < 0,
then we have a factor of −1 in play, and dividing by it induces a reflection about the y-axis. So
we have
x = a−HB as the input
to g which corresponds to the input x = a to f . We now evaluate
g a−HB = Af B · a−H
B + H + K = Af (a) + K = Ab + K. We notice that the output from f is
first multiplied by A. As with the constant B, if A > 0, this induces only a vertical scaling. If
A < 0, then the −1 induces a reflection across the x-axis. Finally, we add K to the result, which is
our vertical shift. A less precise, but more intuitive way to paraphrase Theorem 2.7 is to think of
the quantity Bx + H is the ‘inside’ of the function f . What’s happening inside f affects the inputs
or x-coordinates of the points on the graph of f . To find the x-coordinates of the corresponding
points on g, we undo what has been done to x in the same way we would solve an equation. What’s
happening to the output can be thought of as things happening ‘outside’ the function, f . Things
happening outside affect the outputs or y-coordinates of the points on the graph of f . Here, we
follow the usual order of operations agreement: we first multiply by A then add K to find the
corresponding y-coordinates on the graph of g.

4−3f (1−2x)
Example 2.5.4. Below is the complete graph of y = f (x). Use it to graph g(x) = 2 .
2.5 Transformations 145

y
(0, 3)
3

1
(−2, 0) (2, 0)
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1

−2

−3
(−4, −3) (4, −3)

Solution. We use Theorem 2.7 to track the five ‘key points’ (−4, −3), (−2, 0), (0, 3), (2, 0) and
(4, −3) indicated on the graph of f to their new locations. We first rewrite g(x) in the form
presented in Theorem 2.7, g(x) = − 23 f (−2x + 1) + 2. We set −2x + 1 equal to the x-coordinates of
the key points and solve. For example, solving −2x + 1 = −4, we first subtract 1 to get −2x = −5
then divide by −2 to get x = 25 . Subtracting the 1 is a horizontal shift to the left 1 unit. Dividing by
−2 can be thought of as a two step process: dividing by 2 which compresses the graph horizontally
by a factor of 2 followed by dividing (multiplying) by −1 which causes a reflection across the y-axis.
We summarize the results in the table below.

(a, f (a)) a −2x + 1 = a x

5
(−4, −3) −4 −2x + 1 = −4 x= 2

3
(−2, 0) −2 −2x + 1 = −2 x= 2

1
(0, 3) 0 −2x + 1 = 0 x= 2

(2, 0) 2 −2x + 1 = 2 x = − 12

(4, −3) 4 −2x + 1 = 4 x = − 32

Next, we take each of the x values and substitute them into g(x) = − 32 f (−2x + 1) + 2 to get
the corresponding y-values. Substituting x = 25 , and using the fact that f (−4) = −3, we get
     
5 3 5 3 3 9 13
g = − f −2 + 1 + 2 = − f (−4) + 2 = − (−3) + 2 = + 2 =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

We see the output from f is first multiplied by − 23 . Thinking of this as a two step process,
multiplying by 32 then by −1, we see we have a vertical stretch by a factor of 32 followed by a
reflection across the x-axis. Adding 2 results in a vertical shift up 2 units. Continuing in this
manner, we get the table below.
146 Functions

x g(x) (x, g(x))

5 13 5 13


2 2 2, 2

3 3


2 2 2, 2

1
− 52 1 5


2 2 , − 2

− 12 − 12 , 2


2

− 32 13
− 32 , 13


2 2

To graph g, we plot each of the points in the table above and connect them in the same order
and fashion as the points to which they correspond. Plotting f and g side-by-side gives
− 32 , 13
` ´ `5 13
´
y y ,
2 2 2

6 6
5 5
4 4
(0, 3)
3 3
` 1 ´ `3 ´
2 −2,2 2
,2
1
(−2, 0) (2, 0)
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1 −1
−2 −2
`1
, − 52
´
−3 −3 2
(−4, −3) (4, −3)
−4 −4

The reader is strongly encouraged11 to graph the series of functions which shows the gradual
transformation of the graph of f into the graph of g. We have outlined the sequence of transfor-
mations in the above exposition; all that remains is to plot all five intermediate stages.

Our last example turns the tables and asks for the formula of a function given a desired sequence
of transformations. If nothing else, it is a good review of function notation.

Example 2.5.5. Let f (x) = x2 . Find and simplify the formula of the function g(x) whose graph
is the result of f undergoing the following sequence of transformations. Check your answer using
a graphing calculator.

1. Vertical shift up 2 units

2. Reflection across the x-axis

11
You really should do this once in your life.
2.5 Transformations 147

3. Horizontal shift right 1 unit

4. Horizontal stretch by a factor of 2

Solution. We build up to a formula for g(x) using intermediate functions as we’ve seen in previous
examples. We let g1 take care of our first step. Theorem 2.2 tells us g1 (x) = f (x)+2 = x2 +2. Next,
we reflect the graph of g1 about the x-axis using Theorem 2.4: g2 (x) = −g1 (x) = − x2 + 2 =

−x2 − 2. We shift the graph to the right 1 unit, according to Theorem 2.3, by setting g3 (x) =
g2 (x − 1) = −(x − 1)2 − 2 = −x2 + 2x − 3. Finally, we induce a horizontal stretch by a factor of 2

2
using Theorem 2.6 to get g(x) = g3 21 x = − 21 x + 2 21 x − 3 which yields g(x) = − 14 x2 + x − 3.

We use the calculator to graph the stages below to confirm our result.

shift up 2 units
−−−−−−−−−−−−→
add 2 to each y-coordinate

y = f (x) = x2 y = g1 (x) = f (x) + 2 = x2 + 2

reflect across x-axis

−−−−−−−−−−−−→
multiply each y-coordinate by −1

y = g1 (x) = x2 + 2 y = g2 (x) = −g1 (x) = −x2 − 2

shift right 1 unit

−−−−−−−−−−−−→
add 1 to each x-coordinate

y = g2 (x) = −x2 − 2 y = g3 (x) = g2 (x − 1) = −x2 + 2x − 3

148 Functions

horizontal stretch by a factor of 2

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→
multiply each x-coordinate by 2

1
y = g3 (x) = −x2 + 2x − 3 = − 14 x2 + x − 3


y = g(x) = g3 2x

We have kept the viewing window the same in all of the graphs above. This had the undesirable
consequence of making the last graph look ‘incomplete’ in that we cannot see the original shape
of f (x) = x2 . Altering the viewing window results in a more complete graph of the transformed
function as seen below.

y = g(x)

This example brings our first chapter to a close. In the chapters which lie ahead, be on the
lookout for the concepts developed here to resurface as we study different families of functions.
2.5 Transformations 149

2.5.1 Exercises
1. The complete graph of y = f (x) is given below. Use it to graph the following functions.

4 (0, 4)
3
2
1

x
−4 −3 −1 1 3 4
(−2, 0) −1 (2, 0)
−2
(4, −2)
−3
−4

The graph of y = f (x)

(a) y = f (x) − 1 (d) y = f (2x) (g) y = f (x + 1) − 1

(b) y = f (x + 1) (e) y = −f (x) (h) y = 1 − f (x)
1
(c) y = 2 f (x) (f) y = f (−x) (i) y = 12 f (x + 1) − 1

2. The complete graph of y = S(x) is given below. Use it to graph the following functions.

y
(1, 3)
3

1
(−2, 0)
(0, 0)
−2 −1 1 x
(2, 0)
−1

−2

−3
(−1, −3)

The graph of y = S(x)

(a) y = S(x + 1) (c) y = 21 S(−x + 1)

(b) y = S(−x + 1) (d) y = 12 S(−x + 1) + 1
150 Functions

3. The complete graph of y = f (x) is given below. Use it to graph the following functions.

y
(0, 3)
3

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
(−3, 0) −1 (3, 0)

(a) g(x) = f (x) + 3 (g) d(x) = −2f (x)

1
(h) k(x) = f 32 x


(b) h(x) = f (x) − 2
2
(i) m(x) = − 14 f (3x)


(c) j(x) = f x − 3
(d) a(x) = f (x + 4) (j) n(x) = 4f (x − 3) − 6
(e) b(x) = f (x + 1) − 1 (k) p(x) = 4 + f (1 − 2x)
3
(l) q(x) = − 12 f x+4


(f) c(x) = 5 f (x) 2 −3

√
4. The graph of y = f (x) = 3 x is given below on the left and the graph of y = g(x) is given
on the right. Find a formula for g based on transformations of the graph of f . Check your
answer by confirming that the points shown on the graph of g satisfy the equation y = g(x).

y y
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

−11
−10−9−8−7−6−5−4−3−2−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x −11
−10−9−8−7−6−5−4−3−2−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3
−4 −4
−5 −5

√
3
y= x y = g(x)

5. For many common functions, the properties of algebra make a horizontal scaling the same
as
√ a vertical scaling by (possibly) a different factor. For example, we stated earlier that
√
9x = 3 x. With the help of your classmates, find the equivalent vertical scaling produced
√
2
by the horizontal scalings y = (2x)3 , y = |5x|, y = 3 27x and y = 12 x . What about
√
2
y = (−2x)3 , y = | − 5x|, y = 3 −27x and y = − 12 x ?
2.5 Transformations 151

6. We mentioned earlier in the section that, in general, the order in which transformations are
applied matters, yet in our first example with two transformations the order did not matter.
(You could perform the shift to the left followed by the shift down or you could shift down
and then left to achieve the same result.) With the help of your classmates, determine the
situations in which order does matter and those in which it does not.

7. What happens if you reflect an even function across the y-axis?

8. What happens if you reflect an odd function across the y-axis?

9. What happens if you reflect an even function across the x-axis?

10. What happens if you reflect an odd function across the x-axis?

11. How would you describe symmetry about the origin in terms of reflections?

12. As we saw in Example 2.5.5, the viewing window on the graphing calculator affects how we see
the transformations done to a graph. Using two different calculators, find viewing windows
so that f (x) = x2 on the one calculator looks like g(x) = 3x2 on the other.

2.5.2 Answers
y
1. (a) y = f (x) − 1
(−1, 4) 4
y
3
4
2
3 (0, 3)
1
2
x
1 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
(−3, 0) −1 (1, 0)
x −2
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1 (3, −2)
(−2, −1) (2, −1) −3
−2
−4
−3
(4, −3)
−4
(c) y = 12 f (x)

(b) y = f (x + 1)
152 Functions

y
(f) y = f (−x)
4 y
3 4 (0, 4)
2 (0, 2) 3
1 2

x 1
−4 −3 −1 1 3 4
(−2, 0) −1 (2, 0) (4, −1) x
−4 −3 −1 1 3 4
−2
(−2, 0) −1 (2, 0)
−3 −2
(−4, −2)
−4 −3
−4

(d) y = f (2x)
y

4 (0, 4)
3
2
1
(1, 0)
x
−4 −3 −2 (−1, 0) 2 3 4

−2
(2, −2)
−3
−4

(e) y = −f (x)
y

4
3
(4, 2)
2

(−2, 0) 1 (2, 0)
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
−2
−3
−4 (0, −4)
2.5 Transformations 153

(g) y = f (x + 1) − 1 (i) y = 12 f (x + 1) − 1
y y
4 4
(−1, 3) 3 3
2 2
1 (−1, 1) 1

x x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1 (1, −1) −1 (1, −1)
(−3, −1)
(−3, −1) −2 −2
(3, −2)
−3 −3
(3, −3)
−4 −4

(h) y = 1 − f (x)
y

4
(4, 3)
3

(−2, 1) 2 (2, 1)
1

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
−2
−3 (0, −3)
−4

2. (a) y = S(x + 1) (b) y = S(−x + 1)

y y

3 (0, 3) 3 (0, 3)

2 2

1 1
(−3, 0) (−1, 0) (1, 0) (3, 0)

−3 −2 −1 x 1 2 3 x
(1, 0) (−1, 0)
−1 −1

−2 −2

−3 −3
(−2, −3) (2, −3)
154 Functions

(c) y = 12 S(−x + 1) (d) y = 12 S(−x + 1) + 1

y y

2 ` 3´ 3 ` 5´
0, 2 0, 2
1 2
(1, 0) (3, 0) (1, 1) (3, 1)
1
1 2 3 x
(−1, 0) (−1, 1)
−1
−1 1 3 x
2, − 23 2, − 12
` ´ ` ´
−2 −1

3. (a) g(x) = f (x) + 3 (d) a(x) = f (x + 4)

y y
(−4, 3)
(0, 6)
6 3

5 2

4 1

3
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 x
(−3, 3) 2 (3, 3) (−7, 0) (−1, 0)

1
(e) b(x) = f (x + 1) − 1
y
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x (−1, 2)
−1 2

1 1
(b) h(x) = f (x) − 2
y
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 x
“ ”
5
0, 2 −1
3
(−4, −1) (2, −1)
2

1 (f) c(x) = 35 f (x)

y
“ ”
0, 9
“ −3 −2 ” −1 1 2“ 3 ”x
2 5
−3, − 1
2
−1 3, − 1
2
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
(−3, 0) −1 (3, 0)
2


(c) j(x) = f x − 3
y“ ”
2,3
3
3

−3
“ −2 ”−1 1 2 3
“ ”x
−7
3
,0 −1 11 , 0
3
2.5 Transformations 155

(g) d(x) = −2f (x) (j) n(x) = 4f (x − 3) − 6

y y
(−3, 0) (3, 0) (3, 6)
6
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
−1 5

−2 4

−3 3

−4 2

−5 1

−6
(0, −6) 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6
2 (0, −6) (6, −6)


(h) k(x) = f 3x
y
3
(0, 3)
(k) p(x) = 4 + f (1 − 2x) = f (−2x + 1) + 4
y
“ ”
2 1,7
7 2

1
6

5
“ −4 ” −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 “4 x”
−9
2
,0 −1 9,0
2 4
(−1, 4) (2, 4)

(i) m(x) = − 14 f (3x)

3

y 2

1
(−1, 0) (1, 0)
−1 1 x −1 1 2 x
−1

0, − 43
` ´
−1
(l) q(x) = − 21 f x+4
− 3 = − 12 f 1



2 2x +2 −3
y

−10−9−8−7−6−5−4−3−2−1 1 2 x
−1
−2
(−10, −3) (2, −3)
−3
−4
“ ”
−4, − 9
2

√ √
4. g(x) = −2 3 x + 3 − 1 or g(x) = 2 3 −x − 3 − 1
156 Functions
Chapter 3

Linear and Quadratic Functions

3.1 Linear Functions

We now begin the study of families of functions. Our first family, linear functions, are old friends as
we shall soon see. Recall from Geometry that two distinct points in the plane determine a unique
line containing those points, as indicated below.

P (x0 , y0 )

Q (x1 , y1 )

To give a sense of the ‘steepness’ of the line, we recall we can compute the slope of the line
using the formula below.

Equation 3.1. The slope m of the line containing the points P (x0 , y0 ) and Q (x1 , y1 ) is:
y1 − y0
m= ,
x1 − x0
provided x1 6= x0 .

A couple of notes about Equation 3.1 are in order. First, don’t ask why we use the letter ‘m’
to represent slope. There are many explanations out there, but apparently no one really knows
for sure.1 Secondly, the stipulation x1 6= x0 ensures that we aren’t trying to divide by zero. The
reader is invited to pause to think about what is happening geometrically; the anxious reader can
skip along to the next example.
1
See www.mathforum.org or www.mathworld.wolfram.com for discussions on this topic.
158 Linear and Quadratic Functions

Example 3.1.1. Find the slope of the line containing the following pairs of points, if it exists. Plot
each pair of points and the line containing them.

1. P (0, 0), Q(2, 4) 4. P (−3, 2), Q(4, 2)

2. P (−1, 2), Q(3, 4) 5. P (2, 3), Q(2, −1)

3. P (−2, 3), Q(2, −3) 6. P (2, 3), Q(2.1, −1)

Solution. In each of these examples, we apply the slope formula, Equation 3.1.
y
4
Q
3

4−0 4
1. m= = =2 2

2−0 2 1

P 1 2 3 4 x

y
4
Q
3
4−2 2 1
2. m= = = 2
3 − (−1) 4 2 P
1

−1 1 2 3 x

y
4

P 3

1
−3 − 3 −6 3
3. m= = =− −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
2 − (−2) 4 2 −1

−2

−3 Q

−4

y
3

2−2 0 2
4. m= = =0 P Q
4 − (−3) 7 1

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
3.1 Linear Functions 159

y
3 P

−1 − 3 −4
5. m= = , which is undefined 1 2 x
2−2 0 −1 Q

−2

−3

y
3 P

−1 − 3 −4
6. m= = = −40 1 2 x
2.1 − 2 0.1 −1 Q

−2

−3

A few comments about Example 3.1.1 are in order. First, for reasons which will be made clear
soon, if the slope is positive then the resulting line is said to be increasing. If it is negative, we
say the line is decreasing. A slope of 0 results in a horizontal line which we say is constant, and
an undefined slope results in a vertical line.2 Second, the larger the slope is in absolute value, the
steeper the line. You may recall from Intermediate Algebra that slope can be described as the
ratio ‘ rise 1
run ’. For example, in the second part of Example 3.1.1, we found the slope to be 2 . We can
interpret this as a rise of 1 unit upward for every 2 units to the right we travel along the line, as
shown below.
y

‘up 1’
3
‘over 2’
2

−1 1 2 3
x

2
Some authors use the unfortunate moniker ‘no slope’ when a slope is undefined. It’s easy to confuse the notions
of ‘no slope’ with ‘slope of 0’. For this reason, we will describe slopes of vertical lines as ‘undefined’.
160 Linear and Quadratic Functions

Using more formal notation, given points (x0 , y0 ) and (x1 , y1 ), we use the Greek letter delta ‘∆’
to write ∆y = y1 − y0 and ∆x = x1 − x0 . In most scientific circles, the symbol ∆ means ‘change
in’. Hence, we may write
∆y
m= ,
∆x
which describes the slope as the rate of change of y with respect to x. Rates of change abound
in the ‘real world,’ as the next example illustrates.

Example 3.1.2. At 6 AM, it is 24◦ F; at 10 AM, it is 32◦ F.

1. Find the slope of the line containing the points (6, 24) and (10, 32).

2. Interpret your answer to the first part in terms of temperature and time.

3. Predict the temperature at noon.

Solution.
32−24 8
1. For the slope, we have m = 10−6 = 4 = 2.

2. Since the values in the numerator correspond to the temperatures in ◦ F, and the values in
2 2◦ F
the denominator correspond to time in hours, we can interpret the slope as 2 = = ,
◦
1 1 hour
or 2 F per hour. Since the slope is positive, we know this corresponds to an increasing line.
Hence, the temperature is increasing at a rate of 2◦ F per hour.

3. Noon is two hours after 10 AM. Assuming a temperature increase of 2◦ F per hour, in two
hours the temperature should rise 4◦ F. Since the temperature at 10 AM is 32◦ F, we would
expect the temperature at noon to be 32 + 4 = 36◦ F.

Now it may well happen that in the previous scenario, at noon the temperature is only 33◦ F.
This doesn’t mean our calculations are incorrect. Rather, it means that the temperature change
throughout the day isn’t a constant 2◦ F per hour. Mathematics is often used to describe, or model,
real world phenomena. Mathematical models are just that: models. The predictions we get out
of the models may be mathematically accurate, but may not resemble what happens in the real
world.

In Section 1.2, we discussed the equations of vertical and horizontal lines. Using the concept
of slope, we can develop equations for the other varieties of lines. Suppose a line has a slope of m
and contains the point (x0 , y0 ). Suppose (x, y) is another point on the line, as indicated below.

(x, y)

(x0 , y0 )
3.1 Linear Functions 161

We have

y − y0
m =
x − x0
m (x − x0 ) = y − y0

y − y0 = m (x − x0 )

y = m (x − x0 ) + y0 .

We have just derived the point-slope form of a line.3

Equation 3.2. The point-slope form of the line with slope m containing the point (x0 , y0 )
is the equation y = m (x − x0 ) + y0 .

Example 3.1.3. Write the equation of the line containing the points (−1, 3) and (2, 1).
Solution. In order to use Equation 3.2 we need to find the slope of the line in question. So we
∆y 1−3
use Equation 3.1 to get m = ∆x = 2−(−1) = − 23 . We are spoiled for choice for a point (x0 , y0 ).
We’ll use (−1, 3) and leave it to the reader to check that using (2, 1) results in the same equation.
Substituting into the point-slope form of the line, we get

y = m (x − x0 ) + y0

2
y = − (x − (−1)) + 3
3
2 2
y = − x− +3
3 3
2 7
y = − x+ .
3 3
We can check our answer by showing that both (−1, 3) and (2, 1) are on the graph of y = − 23 x+ 73
algebraically, as we did in Section 1.3.

In simplifying the equation of the line in the previous example, we produced another form of a
line, the slope-intercept form. This is the familiar y = mx + b form you have probably seen in
3
We can also understand this equation in terms of applying transformations to the function I(x) = x. See the
exercises.
162 Linear and Quadratic Functions

Intermediate Algebra. The ‘intercept’ in ‘slope-intercept’ comes from the fact that if we set x = 0,
we get y = b. In other words, the y-intercept of the line y = mx + b is (0, b).

Equation 3.3. The slope-intercept form of the line with slope m and y-intercept (0, b) is
the equation y = mx + b.

Note that if we have slope m = 0, we get the equation y = b which matches our formula for
a horizontal line given in Section 1.2. The formula given in Equation 3.3 can be used to describe
all lines except vertical lines. All lines except vertical lines are functions (why?) and so we have
finally reached a good point to introduce linear functions.

Definition 3.1. A linear function is a function of the form

f (x) = mx + b,
where m and b are real numbers with m 6= 0. The domain of a linear function is (−∞, ∞).

For the case m = 0, we get f (x) = b. These are given their own classification.

Definition 3.2. A constant function is a function of the form

f (x) = b,
where b is real number. The domain of a constant function is (−∞, ∞).

Recall that to graph a function, f , we graph the equation y = f (x). Hence, the graph of a
linear function is a line with slope m and y-intercept (0, b); the graph of a constant function is a
horizontal line (with slope m = 0) and a y-intercept of (0, b). Now think back to Section 2.4.1,
specifically Definition 2.5 concerning increasing, decreasing and constant functions. A line with
positive slope was called an increasing line because a linear function with m > 0 is an increasing
function. Similarly, a line with a negative slope was called a decreasing line because a linear function
with m < 0 is a decreasing function. And horizontal lines were called constant because, well, we
hope you’ve already made the connection.

Example 3.1.4. Graph the following functions. Identify the slope and y-intercept.
3.1 Linear Functions 163

1. f (x) = 3 3 − 2x
3. f (x) =
4
x2 − 4
2. f (x) = 3x − 1 4. f (x) =
x−2
Solution.

1. To graph f (x) = 3, we graph y = 3. This is a horizontal line (m = 0) through (0, 3).

2. The graph of f (x) = 3x − 1 is the graph of the line y = 3x − 1. Comparison of this equation
with Equation 3.3 yields m = 3 and b = −1. Hence, our slope is 3 and our y-intercept is
(0, −1). To get another point on the line, we can plot (1, f (1)) = (1, 2).

y
4
y 3
2
4
1
3
−2−1 1 2 x
−1
2
−2
1 −3
−4
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
f (x) = 3 f (x) = 3x − 1

3. At first glance, the function f (x) = 3−2x

4 does not fit the form in Definition 3.1 but after some
rearranging we get f (x) = 3−2x4 = 3
4 − 2x 1 3
4 = − 2 x + 4 . We identify m
1 3

= − 2 and b = 4 . Hence,
1 3
our graph is a line with a slope of − 2 and
a y-intercept of 0, 4 . Plotting an additional
1
point, we can choose (1, f (1)) to get 1, 4 .

4. If we simplify the expression for f , we get

x2 − 4  −2)(x
(x  + 2)
f (x) = = = x + 2.
x−2 (x
 −2)


If we were to state f (x) = x + 2, we would be committing a sin of omission. Remember, to

find the domain of a function, we do so before we simplify! In this case, f has big problems
when x = 2, and as such, the domain of f is (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞). To indicate this, we write
f (x) = x + 2, x 6= 2. So, except at x = 2, we graph the line y = x + 2. The slope m = 1
and the y-intercept is (0, 2). A second point on the graph is (1, f (1)) = (1, 3). Since our
function f is not defined at x = 2, we put an open circle at the point that would be on the
line y = x + 2 when x = 2, namely (2, 4).
164 Linear and Quadratic Functions

y
4
y
3
2
2
1
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x −1 1 2 3 x
3 − 2x −4 x2
f (x) = f (x) =
4 x−2

The last two functions in the previous example showcase some of the difficulty in defining a
linear function using the phrase ‘of the form’ as in Definition 3.1, since some algebraic manipulations
may be needed to rewrite a given function to match ‘the form.’ Keep in mind that the domains of
2 −4
linear and constant functions are all real numbers, (−∞, ∞), and so while f (x) = xx−2 simplified
to a formula f (x) = x + 2, f is not considered a linear function since its domain excludes x = 2.
However, we would consider
2x2 + 2
f (x) = 2
x +1
to be a constant function since its domain is all real numbers (why?) and
2+


2x2 + 2 2x 1

f (x) = 2 = 2 

=2
x +1 x+ 1

The following example uses linear functions to model some basic economic relationships.

Example 3.1.5. The cost, C, in dollars, to produce x PortaBoy game systems for a local retailer
is given by C(x) = 80x + 150 for x ≥ 0.

1. Find and interpret C(10).

2. How many PortaBoys can be produced for $15,000?

3. Explain the significance of the restriction on the domain, x ≥ 0.

4. Find and interpret C(0).

5. Find and interpret the slope of the graph of y = C(x).

Solution.

1. To find C(10), we replace every occurrence of x with 10 in the formula for C(x) to get
C(10) = 80(10) + 150 = 950. Since x represents the number of PortaBoys produced, and
C(x) represents the cost, in dollars, C(10) = 950 means it costs $950 to produce 10 PortaBoys
for the local retailer.
3.1 Linear Functions 165

2. To find how many PortaBoys can be produced for $15,000, we set the cost, C(x), equal to
15000, and solve for x

C(x) = 15000

80x + 150 = 15000

80x = 14850
14850
x = = 185.625
80
Since we can only produce a whole number amount of PortaBoys, we can produce 185
PortaBoys for $15,000.

3. The restriction x ≥ 0 is the applied domain, as discussed in Section 2.2. In this context,
x represents the number of PortaBoys produced. It makes no sense to produce a negative
quantity of game systems.4

4. To find C(0), we replace every occurrence of x with 0 in the formula for C(x) to get C(0) =
80(0) + 150 = 150. This means it costs $150 to produce 0 PortaBoys. The $150 is often called
the fixed or start-up cost of this venture. (What might contribute to this cost?)

5. If we were to graph y = C(x), we would be graphing the portion of the line y = 80x + 150
for x ≥ 0. We recognize the slope, m = 80. Like any slope, we can interpret this as a rate of
change. In this case, C(x) is the cost in dollars, while x measures the number of PortaBoys
so
∆y ∆C 80 $80
m= = = 80 = = .
∆x ∆x 1 1 PortaBoy
In other words, the cost is increasing at a rate of $80 per PortaBoy produced. This is often
called the variable cost for this venture.

The next example asks us to find a linear function to model a related economic problem.

Example 3.1.6. The local retailer in Example 3.1.5 has determined that the number of PortaBoy
game systems sold in a week, x, is related to the price of each system, p, in dollars. When the
price was $220, 20 game systems were sold in a week. When the systems went on sale the following
week, 40 systems were sold at $190 a piece.

1. Find a linear function which fits this data. Use the weekly sales, x, as the independent
variable and the price p, as the dependent variable.

2. Find a suitable applied domain.

4
Actually, it makes no sense to produce a fractional part of a game system, either, as we saw in the previous part
of this example. This absurdity, however, seems quite forgivable in some textbooks but not to us.
166 Linear and Quadratic Functions

3. Interpret the slope.

4. If the retailer wants to sell 150 PortaBoys next week, what should the price be?

5. What would the weekly sales be if the price were set at $150 per system?

Solution.

1. We recall from Section 2.2 the meaning of ‘independent’ and ‘dependent’ variable. Since x
is to be the independent variable, and p the dependent variable, we treat x as the input
variable and p as the output variable. Hence, we are looking for a function of the form
p(x) = mx + b. To determine m and b, we use the fact that 20 PortaBoys were sold during
the week the price was 220 dollars and 40 units were sold when the price was 190 dollars.
Using function notation, these two facts can be translated as p(20) = 220 and p(40) = 190.
Since m represents the rate of change of p with respect to x, we have

∆p 190 − 220 −30

m= = = = −1.5.
∆x 40 − 20 20
We now have determined p(x) = −1.5x + b. To determine b, we can use our given data again.
Using p(20) = 220, we substitute x = 20 into p(x) = 1.5x + b and set the result equal to 220:
−1.5(20) + b = 220. Solving, we get b = 250. Hence, we get p(x) = −1.5x + 250. We can
check our formula by computing p(20) and p(40) to see if we get 220 and 190, respectively.
Incidentally, this equation is sometimes called the price-demand5 equation for this venture.

2. To determine the applied domain, we look at the physical constraints of the problem. Cer-
tainly, we can’t sell a negative number of PortaBoys, so x ≥ 0. However, we also note that the
slope of this linear function is negative, and as such, the price is decreasing as more units are
sold. Another constraint, then, is that the price, p(x) ≥ 0. Solving −1.5x + 250 ≥ 0 results
500
in −1.5x ≥ −250 or x ≤ = 166.6. Since x represents the number of PortaBoys sold in a
3
week, we round down to 166. As a result, a reasonable applied domain for p is [0, 166].

3. The slope m = −1.5, once again, represents the rate of change of the price of a system with
respect to weekly sales of PortaBoys. Since the slope is negative, we have that the price
is decreasing at a rate of $1.50 per PortaBoy sold. (Said differently, you can sell one more
PortaBoy for every $1.50 drop in price.)

4. To determine the price which will move 150 PortaBoys, we find p(150) = −1.5(150)+250 = 25.
That is, the price would have to be $25.

5. If the price of a PortaBoy were set at $150, we have p(x) = 150, or, −1.5x+250 = 150. Solving,
we get −1.5x = −100 or x = 66.6. This means you would be able to sell 66 PortaBoys a week
if the price were $150 per system.
5
Or simply the demand equation
3.1 Linear Functions 167

Not all real-world phenomena can be modeled using linear functions. Nevertheless, it is possible
to use the concept of slope to help analyze non-linear functions using the following:

Definition 3.3. Let f be a function defined on the interval [a, b]. The average rate of change
of f over [a, b] is defined as:

∆f f (b) − f (a)
=
∆x b−a

Geometrically, if we have the graph of y = f (x), the average rate of change over [a, b] is the
slope of the line which connects (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)). This is called the secant line through these
points. For that reason, some textbooks use the notation msec for the average rate of change of a
function. Note that for a linear function m = msec , or in other words, its rate of change over an
interval is the same as its average rate of change.
y = f (x)

(b, f (b))

(a, f (a))

The graph of y = f (x) and its secant line through (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b))

The interested reader may question the adjective ‘average’ in the phrase ‘average rate of change.’
In the figure above, we can see that the function changes wildly on [a, b], yet the slope of the secant
line only captures a snapshot of the action at a and b. This situation is entirely analogous to the
average speed on a trip. Suppose it takes you 2 hours to travel 100 miles. Your average speed is
100 miles
2 hours
= 50 miles per hour. However, it is entirely possible that at the start of your journey, you
traveled 25 miles per hour, then sped up to 65 miles per hour, and so forth. The average rate of
change is akin to your average speed on the trip. Your speedometer measures your speed at any
one instant along the trip, your instantaneous rates of change, and this is one of the central
themes of Calculus.6
When interpreting rates of change, we interpret them the same way we did slopes. In the
context of functions, it may be helpful to think of the average rate of change as:
6
Here we go again...