CHAPTER 2

Database System Concepts

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 Data Models and Their Categories
 History of Data Models
 Schemas, Instances, and States
 Three-Schema Architecture
 Data Independence
 DBMS Languages and Interfaces
 Database System Utilities and Tools
 Centralized and Client-Server Architectures
 Classification of DBMSs

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 Data Model:
◦ A set of concepts to describe the structure of a
database, the operations for manipulating these
structures, and certain constraints that the database
should obey.
 Data Model Structure and Constraints:
◦ Constructs are used to define the database structure
◦ Constructs typically include elements (and their data
types) as well as groups of elements (e.g. entity,
record, table), and relationships among such groups
◦ Constraints specify some restrictions on valid data;
these constraints must be enforced at all times
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 Data Model Operations:
◦ These operations are used for specifying database
retrievals and updates by referring to the constructs
of the data model.
◦ Operations on the data model may include basic
model operations (e.g. generic insert, delete,
update) and user-defined operations (e.g.
compute_student_gpa, update_inventory)

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 Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data models:
◦ Provide concepts that are close to the way many users
perceive data.
 (Also called entity-based or object-based data models.)
 Physical (low-level, internal) data models:
◦ Provide concepts that describe details of how data is stored
in the computer. These are usually specified in an ad-hoc
manner through DBMS design and administration manuals
 Implementation (representational) data models:
◦ Provide concepts that fall between the above two, used by
many commercial DBMS implementations (e.g. relational
data models used in many commercial systems).
 Self-Describing Data Models:
◦ Combine the description of data with the data values.
Examples include XML, key-value stores and some NOSQL
systems.
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 Database Schema:
◦ The description of a database
◦ Includes descriptions of the database structure,
data types, and the constraints on the database.
 Schema Diagram:
◦ An illustrative display of (most aspects of) a
database schema.
 Schema Construct:
◦ A component of the schema or an object within the
schema, e.g., STUDENT, COURSE.

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 Database State:
◦ The actual data stored in a database at a particular
moment in time. This includes the collection of all
the data in the database.
◦ Also called database instance (or occurrence or
snapshot).
 The term instance is also applied to individual
database components, e.g. record instance, table
instance, entity instance

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 Database State:
◦ Refers to the content of a database at a moment in
time.
 Initial Database State:
◦ Refers to the database state when it is initially
loaded into the system.
 Valid State:
◦ A state that satisfies the structure and constraints
of the database.

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 Distinction
◦ The database schema changes very infrequently.
◦ The database state changes every time the database
is updated.

 Schema is also called intension.

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 Proposed to support DBMS characteristics of:
◦ Program-data independence.
◦ Support of multiple views of the data.
 Not explicitly used in commercial DBMS
products, but has been useful in explaining
database system organization

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 Defines DBMS schemas at three levels:
◦ Internal schema at the internal level to describe
physical storage structures and access paths (e.g
indexes).
 Typically uses a physical data model.
◦ Conceptual schema at the conceptual level to describe
the structure and constraints for the whole database
for a community of users.
 Uses a conceptual or an implementation data model.
◦ External schemas at the external level to describe the
various user views.
 Usually uses the same data model as the conceptual
schema.
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 Mappings among schema levels are needed to
transform requests and data.
◦ Programs refer to an external schema, and are
mapped by the DBMS to the internal schema for
execution.
◦ Data extracted from the internal DBMS level is
reformatted to match the user’s external view (e.g.
formatting the results of an SQL query for display in
a Web page)

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 Logical Data Independence:
◦ The capacity to change the conceptual schema without
having to change the external schemas and their
associated application programs.
 Physical Data Independence:
◦ The capacity to change the internal schema without
having to change the conceptual schema.
◦ For example, the internal schema may be changed when
certain file structures are reorganized or new indexes
are created to improve database performance

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 When a schema at a lower level is changed,
only the mappings between this schema and
higher-level schemas need to be changed in
a DBMS that fully supports data
independence.
 The higher-level schemas themselves are
unchanged.
◦ Hence, the application programs need not be
changed since they refer to the external schemas.

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 Data Definition Language (DDL)
 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
◦ High-Level or Non-procedural Languages: These
include the relational language SQL
 May be used in a standalone way or may be embedded
in a programming language
◦ Low Level or Procedural Languages:
 These must be embedded in a programming language

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 Data Definition Language (DDL):
◦ Used by the DBA and database designers to specify
the conceptual schema of a database.
◦ In many DBMSs, the DDL is also used to define
internal and external schemas (views).
◦ In some DBMSs, separate storage definition
language (SDL) and view definition language (VDL)
are used to define internal and external schemas.
 SDL is typically realized via DBMS commands provided
to the DBA and database designers

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 Data Manipulation Language (DML):
◦ Used to specify database retrievals and updates
◦ DML commands (data sublanguage) can be
embedded in a general-purpose programming
language (host language), such as COBOL, C,
C++, or Java.
 A library of functions can also be provided to access
the DBMS from a programming language
◦ Alternatively, stand-alone DML commands can be
applied directly (called a query language).

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 High Level or Non-procedural Language:
◦ For example, the SQL relational language
◦ Are “set”-oriented and specify what data to retrieve
rather than how to retrieve it.
◦ Also called declarative languages.
 Low Level or Procedural Language:
◦ Retrieve data one record-at-a-time;
◦ Constructs such as looping are needed to retrieve
multiple records, along with positioning pointers.

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 Stand-alone query language interfaces
◦ Example: Entering SQL queries at the DBMS
interactive SQL interface (e.g. SQL*Plus in ORACLE)
 Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in
programming languages
 User-friendly interfaces
◦ Menu-based, forms-based, graphics-based, etc.
 Mobile Interfaces:interfaces allowing users to
perform transactions using mobile apps

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 Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in
a programming languages:
◦ Embedded Approach: e.g embedded SQL (for C, C++, etc.),
SQLJ (for Java)
◦ Procedure Call Approach: e.g. JDBC for Java, ODBC (Open
Databse Connectivity) for other programming languages as
API’s (application programming interfaces)
◦ Database Programming Language Approach: e.g. ORACLE
has PL/SQL, a programming language based on SQL;
language incorporates SQL and its data types as integral
components
◦ Scripting Languages: PHP (client-side scripting) and Python
(server-side scripting) are used to write database programs.
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◦ Menu-based (Web-based), popular for browsing on the
web
◦ Forms-based, designed for naïve users used to filling in
entries on a form
◦ Graphics-based
 Point and Click, Drag and Drop, etc.
 Specifying a query on a schema diagram
◦ Natural language: requests in written English
◦ Combinations of the above:
 For example, both menus and forms used extensively in Web
database interfaces

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◦ Natural language: free text as a query
◦ Speech : Input query and Output response
◦ Web Browser with keyword search
◦ Parametric interfaces, e.g., bank tellers using
function keys.
◦ Interfaces for the DBA:
 Creating user accounts, granting authorizations
 Setting system parameters
 Changing schemas or access paths

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 To perform certain functions such as:
◦ Loading data stored in files into a database.
Includes data conversion tools.
◦ Backing up the database periodically on tape.
◦ Reorganizing database file structures.
◦ Performance monitoring utilities.
◦ Report generation utilities.
◦ Other functions, such as sorting, user monitoring,
data compression, etc.

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 Data dictionary / repository:
◦ Used to store schema descriptions and other
information such as design decisions, application
program descriptions, user information, usage
standards, etc.
 Application Development Environments and
CASE (computer-aided software engineering)
tools:
◦ PowerBuilder (Sybase), JBuilder (Borland),
JDeveloper 10G (Oracle)

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 Centralized DBMS:
◦ Combines everything into single system
including- DBMS software, hardware,
application programs, and user interface
processing software.
◦ User can still connect through a remote
terminal – however, all processing is done at
centralized site.

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 Specialized Servers with Specialized functions
◦ Print server
◦ File server
◦ DBMS server
◦ Web server
◦ Email server
 Clients can access the specialized servers as
needed

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 Provide appropriate interfaces through a
client software module to access and utilize
the various server resources.
 Clients may be diskless machines or PCs or
Workstations with disks with only the client
software installed.
 Connected to the servers via some form of a
network.
◦ (LAN: local area network, wireless network, etc.)

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 Provides database query and transaction services to
the clients
 Relational DBMS servers are often called SQL
servers, query servers, or transaction servers
 Applications running on clients utilize an
Application Program Interface (API) to access server
databases via standard interface such as:
◦ ODBC: Open Database Connectivity standard
◦ JDBC: for Java programming access

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 Client and server must install appropriate client
module and server module software for ODBC or
JDBC
 A client program may connect to several DBMSs,
sometimes called the data sources.
 In general, data sources can be files or other
non-DBMS software that manages data.
 See Chapter 10 for details on Database
Programming

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 Common for Web applications
 Intermediate Layer called Application Server or Web
Server:
◦ Stores the web connectivity software and the business
logic part of the application used to access the
corresponding data from the database server
◦ Acts like a conduit for sending partially processed
data between the database server and the client.
 Three-tier Architecture Can Enhance Security:
◦ Database server only accessible via middle tier
◦ Clients cannot directly access database server
◦ Clients contain user interfaces and Web browsers
◦ The client is typically a PC or a mobile device
connected to the Web
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 Based on the data model used
◦ Legacy: Network, Hierarchical.
◦ Currently Used: Relational, Object-oriented, Object-
relational
◦ Recent Technologies: Key-value storage systems, NOSQL
systems: document based, column-based, graph-based
and key-value based. Native XML DBMSs.
 Other classifications
◦ Single-user (typically used with personal computers)
vs. multi-user (most DBMSs).
◦ Centralized (uses a single computer with one database) vs.
distributed (multiple computers, multiple DBs)

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 Homogeneous DDBMS
 Heterogeneous DDBMS
 Federated or Multidatabase Systems
◦ Participating Databases are loosely coupled with high
degree of autonomy.
 Distributed Database Systems have now come to
be known as client-server based database
systems because:
◦ They do not support a totally distributed environment,
but rather a set of database servers supporting a set of
clients.

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 Cost Range: from free open-source systems to
configurations costing millions of dollars
 Examples of free relational DBMSs: MySQL,
PostgreSQL, others
 Commercial DBMS offer additional specialized
modules, e.g. time-series module, spatial data
module, document module, XML module
◦ These offer additional specialized functionality when
purchased separately
◦ Sometimes called cartridges (e.g., in Oracle) or blades
 Different licensing options: site license, maximum
number of concurrent users (seat license), single
user, etc.
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 Type of access paths within database system
◦ E.g.- inverted indexing based (ADABAS is one such
system).Fully indexed databases provide access by
any keyword (used in search engines)
 General Purpose vs. Special Purpose
◦ E.g.- Airline Reservation systems or many others-
reservation systems for hotel/car etc. Are special
purpose OLTP (Online Transaction Processing
Systems)

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 Network Model
 Hierarchical Model
 Relational Model
 Object-oriented Data Models
 Object-Relational Models

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 Relational Model:
◦ Proposed in 1970 by E.F. Codd (IBM), first commercial
system in 1981-82.
◦ Now in several commercial products (e.g. DB2,
ORACLE, MS SQL Server, SYBASE, INFORMIX).
◦ Several free open source implementations, e.g.
MySQL, PostgreSQL
◦ Currently most dominant for developing database
applications.
◦ SQL relational standards: SQL-89 (SQL1), SQL-92
(SQL2), SQL-99, SQL3, …
◦ Chapters 5 through 11 describe this model in detail
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 Object-oriented Data Models:
◦ Several models have been proposed for implementing
in a database system.
◦ One set comprises models of persistent O-O
Programming Languages such as C++ (e.g., in
OBJECTSTORE or VERSANT), and Smalltalk (e.g., in
GEMSTONE).
◦ Additionally, systems like O2, ORION (at MCC - then
ITASCA), IRIS (at H.P.- used in Open OODB).
◦ Object Database Standard: ODMG-93, ODMG-version
2.0, ODMG-version 3.0.
◦ Chapter 12 describes this model.

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 Object-Relational Models:
◦ The trend to mix object models with relational was
started with Informix Universal Server.
◦ Relational systems incorporated concepts from object
databases leading to object-relational.
◦ Exemplified in the versions of Oracle, DB2, and SQL
Server and other DBMSs.
◦ Current trend by Relational DBMS vendors is to extend
relational DBMSs with capability to process XML, Text
and other data types.
◦ The term “Object-relational” is receding in the
marketplace.

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 Data Models and Their Categories
 Schemas, Instances, and States
 Three-Schema Architecture
 Data Independence
 DBMS Languages and Interfaces
 Database System Utilities and Tools
 Database System Environment
 Centralized and Client-Server Architectures
 Classification of DBMSs
 History of Data Models

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