Data Communication: TOPOLOGY: NETWORKS: MULTIPLEXING:

Exchange of data between two devices Way in which a network is laid out physically Collection of devices called nodes connected • Process of transmitting multiple signals
through a transmission medium. The devices or logically. Geometric representation of by media links known as communication simultaneously through a single path by
must be a part of communication system relationship of nodes and links. Relationship channel. combining them. • Path refers to the
made up of hardware and software. A data can be peer to peer (share link equally) or Nodes can be any devices with the capability physical link between devices. • A path can
communication system is said to be effective primary secondary (one device controls to send or receive data such as computers, have many channels which is a portion of
and efficient if it takes care of: traffic, others transmit accordingly). Two or printers etc. path that carry transmission between a pair
Delivery: data delivery to correct more devices connect to a link and two or Distributed Processing: Instead of a single of devices.
destination more links form a topology. large machine doing all the works, tasks are multiplexer (MUX): combines multiple data
Accuracy: data must be reliable and should 5 basic topologies: divided and given to multiple computers. streams into a single stream (many to one).
not be erroneous at receiver end Bus, Ring, Star, Tree, Mesh. Advantages: demultiplexer (DEMUX): splits the combines
Timeliness: delivery of data in timely Ring and Mesh are best for peer to peer. Security/Encapsulation Limited access and stream into different signals or streams (one
manner Star and tree for primary secondary. interactions for individual system • to many).
Components: Bus Topology: Distributed database No overhead of single Three multiplexing techniques:
Message: data to be exchanged (text, voice, Multipoint, Single cable(backbone) links all system storing whole database • Faster • Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) •
image or combination of these) devices, Nodes connected to cable through problem-solving Multiple system working on Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM) • Time
Sender: device such as computer, droplines and tap, Signal gets weaker as it part of a single problem • Security through Division Multiplexing (TDM), divided into
workstation, telephone, television that send travels farther (energy loss through heat), redundancy Multiple system run similar synchronous TDM and asynchronous TDM
message Easy to install, less cabling, Difficult program, if one fails others can be consulted (statistical TDM or Concentrator)
Receiver: device such as computer, reconfiguration and fault isolation, Single • Collaborative processing Interactive FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
workstation, telephone, television that break in cable brings the whole network working between users working on (FDM) ANALOG TECHNIQUE:
receives message from sender down. collaborative tasks • Available bandwidths of single
Medium: physical pathway through which Ring Topology: transmission medium are divided into
message travels from sender to receiver, it Dedicated point to point line configuration Network Criteria: multiple channels; each frequency channel
can be wired or wireless and makes use of to two devices on either side, Signal passed Some important network criteria that must is given to different devices. • Signals from
cables, optical fibres, microwaves, radio in one direction until destination is reached, be met for a network to be counted as different devices modulate (modifies carrier
waves etc. each device has repeater, regenerates signal, efficient and effective: wave to encode information) different
Protocols: set of rules that represents an Easy to install and reconfigure, Simple fault Performance: Depends on the number of carrier frequencies (carrier wave have
agreement between sender and receiver to isolation, Unidirectional traffic is a users, type of transmission medium, constant frequency, like sine wave). •
have a secure and understanding disadvantage, Break in ring disables entire hardware and software used Modulated signals are combined and
communication. network, can be solved by using dual ring. Reliability: Depends on the frequency of transmitted through single link. • Channels
Star Topology: failure, recovery time, catastrophe are separated by unused bandwidths known
SIGNALS: Dedicated point to point link to central (protection from fire, theft etc.) as guard bands to prevent overlapping.
• Data is sent over a physical medium as controller(hub), No direct traffic between Security: Protection from unauthorized WAVE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (WDM)
signals • Signals are electromagnetic waves devices, controller does exchange of data, access and viruses ANALOG TECHNIQUE:
or electrical current used for carrying data Easy to install and reconfigure, Robust, one Applications: • Similar to FDM except optical signals are
from a device to another • The data and link fail affects only that link, Easy fault Electronic Messaging, EDI (Electronic Data transmitted through fiber optic cable •
signals that represent data can be of analog isolation, more cabling than some Interchange), Cellular telephones, Cable Multiplexing and Demultiplexing is done
or digital form topologies, Hub fail disables entire network. television, Teleconferencing, Manufacturing, using prism• Input beams of light from
Marketing and sales, financial services, different devices are combined to form a
Directory Services and Information Services wider band of light with the help of
multiplexer

ANALOG SIGNALS: Tree Topology: TRANSMISSION MEDIA: • Demultiplexer separates the signals and
• Analog refers to a continuous Variant of star as nodes are connected to • Transmission medium can be anything that passes to respective destined devices
phenomenon • Analog data consist of hub, Different in the case that some nodes can carry information from a source to TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (TDM)
continuous waves, an example would be are not directly linked to central hub they destination • It can be free space, metallic DIGITAL TECHNIQUE:
sound • Loudspeaker, microphones, sensors are connected to a secondary hub, Central cable, fiber optic cable or anything else • • Different devices have different allotted
are all analog devices • Analog signal is a node is active hub (contains repeater), The information is carried as time interval known as time slot at which it
continuous wave form that changes over Secondary may be active or passive, electromagnetic signals, which are a can transmit data • The signals from
time • Both analog and digital signals can be Secondary hubs allows more devices to be combination of electrical and magnetic different sources are transmitted in the form
periodic or aperiodic • In a periodic signal, a attached, Pros and cons same as star. fields that includes power, voice, radio of frames • Frames contain a cycle of time
pattern is repeated over same time interval Mesh Topology: waves, infrared light, visible light, ultraviolet slots in which each frame consists of one or
• A single full pattern is called cycle and time Dedicated point to point link to every other light, and X, gamma, and cosmic rays. Each more slots dedicated to each user
taken for a cycle is period • Aperiodic signals device, n (n 1)/2 physical links to connect n of these constitutes a portion of the Synchronous TDM:
changes constantly without repeating a devices, each connection can carry its own electromagnetic spectrum but not all • Multiplexer allocates same time slot to
pattern • Analog signals can be simple or data load, eliminates traffic, Robust, one link portions of the spectrum are used for each device at all times even when a device
composite • Simple analog signal (sine fail doesn’t bring whole system down, telecommunications. doesn’t have anything to transmit • If the
wave) cannot be further decomposed and Privacy, Security, Fault isolation easy, large • Transmission media can be divided into device does not have anything to transmit,
composite ones can be decomposed to amount of cabling, Installation and two broad categories: then the slot will be empty • For n input
multiple sine waves • The height of an reconfiguration difficult 1) Guided Media 2) Unguided Media lines, each frame has at least n slots
analog signal is known as amplitude • GUIDED MEDIA: Asynchronous TDM (Statistical TDM) :
Frequency refers to the number of cycles in CABLE MODEMS: • Signal traveling through guided media is • For n input lines, the frame consists of m
one second. Period and frequency are Traditional modems use telephone lines, directed and contained by the physical limits slots (m < n) • Time slots are not fixed and
inverse of each other. • Phase specifies the which have narrow bandwidth • If of the medium which include twisted pair are allocated to devices that has data to
location of a point within a wave cycle in a bandwidth is high, higher data rates can be cable, coaxial cable, and fiber optic cable • send • Each slot contains an address part
periodic waveform and is measured in acquired • Cable modems use coaxial cable Twisted pair and coaxial cable use metallic that identifies the source of the data
degrees or radians provided by cable TV which can have a (copper) conductors that sends and receives
DIGITAL SIGNALS: bandwidth of 750MHz and more • This signals in the form of electric current while LINE CONFIGURATION:
• Digital data is discrete, discontinuous bandwidth is normally divided into 6MHz optical fiber is a cable that sends and Way in which communication devices are
representation of any data or information • bands using FDM(Frequency Division receives signals in the form of light connected to a communication link. Link is
Digital signal is discrete and have only Multiplexing) • Each band provides a TV UNGUIDEDMEDIA: the physical communication pathway
limited set of values with transition from channel, two bands can be used for •wireless communication• Transmit through which the data is transferred. The
one value to another being instantaneous • downloading and uploading information electromagnetic waves without using any type of connection can be:
Bit interval refers to the time taken to send a from the Internet • A splitter directs TV physical media • Signals are broadcasted 1.Point-to-Point: Dedicated Link between
single bit • Bit rate refers to the number of bands to TV set and internet access bands to through free space • Unguided signals travel two devices, Entire capacity of link reserved
bit intervals per second or number of bits PC from source to destination through different for transmission between the two devices.
sent in one second • Computers, CDs, DVDs ways such as: 2.Multipoint or Multidrop: More than two
are examples of digital devices DTE DCE Interface Standards: • Ground propagation (radio waves travel devices share the link spatially or
• Organizations such as Electronic Industries through lowest portion of atmosphere, they temporally. Spatially shared – simultaneous
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE): Association (EIA) and International are low in frequency and spreads in all use of link, Time shared – Users take turns.
Any device that is a source or destination of Telecommunication Union directions from an antenna) • Sky
binary data • Generates data to be sent to Telecommunication Standards Committee propagation (high frequency radio waves
the receiver and passes it to DCE • It can be (ITU T) have developed radiate upward to ionosphere and are
a terminal, computer, printer or any other standards that define the mechanical, reflected backwards) • Line of sight
device electrical and functional of the connection propagation (very high frequency signals are
between DTE and DCE • Some EIA standards transmitted in straight lines from antenna to
are EIA 232, EIA 442, EIA 449 • ITU T antenna)
standards are called V series and X series
such as X.21
Categories of Networks: Data link protocols: SWITCHING: Optical Fiber Communication:
Networks are categorized according to size, A protocol in data communications is the set Exchange of information from one network • The information source provides an
ownership, distance they cover and physical of rules used to implement one or more to another or one network segment to electrical signal to a transmitter which drives
architecture as follows: layers of the OSI model. A data link protocol another. Switches are hardware and/or an optical source to give modulation of the
LAN (Local Area Network): Privately owned, is a set of rules used to implement the data software devices which can create light wave carrier. The optical source which
cover single office, building or campus • The link layer. Data link protocols can be divided temporary connections between two or provides the electrical optical conversion
resources in network such as printer, into two subgroups: more devices linked to the switch and not may be either a semiconductor laser or light
application programs are shared by • asynchronous protocols directly. Switches occupy the same place in emitting diode (LED). • The transmission
computers present in it • Ethernet and Wi Fi • synchronous protocols the network as hubs, but can read MAC medium consists of an optical fiber cable
are two primary ways to enable LAN Asynchronous Protocols: address and forwards data to network and the receiver consists of an optical
connections • Preferably a system can be Asynchronous protocols, used primarily in segment with the destined receiver. It can detector which provides demodulation of
reserved as a server, which has large disk modems, feature start and stop bits and be called as a bridge with many ports the optical carrier. Photodiodes,
drive capacity to store major software and variable length gaps between characters. In Circuit Switching: phototransistors and photoconductors are
others as client who can access the services asynchronous transmission a clock is not Creates direct physical connection between utilized for the detection of the optical signal
of server. required, instead it uses start and stop bits. two devices such as phones or computers. and the optical electrical conversion. •
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Extend Data flows in a half-duplex mode, 1 byte or a Connection between two stations is a Analog modulation involves the variation of
over entire city • Can be owned by private character at a time, and in a continuous dedicated path made of one or more links. the light emitted from the optical source in a
company or public company such as local stream of bytes. Before starting communication, stations continuous manner. With digital modulation
telephone company • May serve as an Different asynchronous protocols: must reserve resources such as channels, discrete changes in the light intensity are
Internet Service Provider (ISP) • Can be a 1) XMODEM: It is a half-duplex, stop and switch buffers, switch processing time, and obtained (i.e., on off pulses).
single network as cable television, or a wait ARQ protocol. Besides a NAK or an ACK, switch input/output ports and they remain Advantages of Optical Fiber
number of LANs connected to form larger the sender can receive a cancel signal (CAN), dedicated during data transfer until the Communication:
network • Devices used to carry data include which aborts the transmission. The first field teardown phase. • Enormous potential bandwidth. Optical
modem, wire, cable. is a one byte start of header (SOH) which Crossbar Switching: fiber technology provided high bandwidth
WAN (Wide Area Network): • Spread over a tells header field is going to begin next. The Connects n inputs to m outputs in a grid, than metallic cable systems. • Small size and
large geographical area • Switched WAN second field is a two-byte header (first one using electronic microswitches (transistors) weight. Optical fibers have very small
network is used to connect multiple end indicates sequence number; second one is at each Crosspoint. Connecting n inputs to m diameters which are often no greater than
nodes to a switched WAN network to used to check the validity of the sequence outputs requires n x m cross points and the diameter of a human hair. • Immunity to
connect to other nodes or the public number). The fixed data field holds 128 hence makes the size of the crossbar huge interference, crosstalk and also provide
Internet. Example: asynchronous transfer bytes of data. CRC field checks for errors in and is also inefficient because only small signal security. • Low transmission loss.
mode (ATM) network the data field. percent of cross points are in use at a given Optical fiber cables have very low
Point to point wide area network (WAN): 2) YMODEM: It is similar to XMODEM, time. transmission loss and hence the
consists of two end nodes connected by a except data unit is 1024 bytes, 2 CANs are Multistage Switching: requirement for intermediate repeaters and
leased line. Example: dial up line that needed to abort transmission, ITU T CRC is Combine crossbar switches in several stages, the associated electronics is reduced, giving
connects a home computer to the Internet • used for error checking and multiple files i.e., splitting the crossbar switch into the a substantial cost advantage • Ruggedness
Devices used for data transmission are Optic can be sent simultaneously. smaller units and then interconnecting and flexibility. Although protective coatings
wires, Microwaves and Satellites Other 3)ZMODEM: Combines XMODEM and them. Devices are linked to switches that are are essential, optical fibers may be
network include PAN (Personal Area YMODEM linked to a hierarchy of other switches. The manufactured with very high tensile
Network) which connects a mobile 4) BLAST (Blocked Asynchronous design of a multistage switch depends on strengths. the fibers may also be bent to
computer cell phone/PDA and confine to Transmission): Similar structure of XMODEM the number of stages and the number of quite small radii or twisted without damage.
an individual. CAN (Campus Area Network) but it is full duplex with sliding window flow switches desired in each stage. Normally, the
is a network of multiple interconnected control. middle stages have fewer switches than first
LANs in a limited geographical area such and last.

as in school campus for getting accessibility 5) Kermit: Similar to XMODEM. Additionally, Packet Switching: Disadvantages:
in different departments such as allows the transmission of control characters Message divided into fixed or variable size • Limited Application as it can only be used
administrative office, libraries, research labs, as text by adding fixed number to their code packets. Each packet contains data and on ground and cannot be used directly with
two different buildings etc. and adding # character in front of them. # control information such as priority values, mobile communication. • Low power light
can be sent as text by adding another # in source and destination addresses. No emitting sources are limited to low power. •
CSMA/ CD: front of it. resource reservation such as bandwidths or Installation is cost effective since they need
It is a carrier sense multiple access/ collision Synchronous Protocols: In synchronous processing time, resources are allocated on special test equipment. • Difficult to merge.
detection network protocol to transmit data transmission, the sender and receiver demand. • Additional components to reproduce
frames. The CSMA/CD protocol works with a should have synchronized clocks and data Message Switching: original signal such as repeaters are needed
medium access control layer. Therefore, it can flow in a full duplex mode also, in the Uses store and forward approach. A node, for long distance transmission when the
first senses the shared channel before form of blocks or frames. Each block of usually a special computer with a number of signal gets weak(attenuates).
broadcasting the frames, and if the channel characters is labelled with the disks, receives a message and stores it until Applications of Optical Fiber
is idle, it transmits a frame to check whether synchronization characters so that sender appropriate route is free to send. It is Communication:
the transmission was successful. If the frame knows where the new byte starts since there considered a switching technique because • Alternatives to conventional copper
is successfully received, the station sends is no gap between the data. Synchronous there is no direct link between the sender twisted pair cables in telephone system. • It
another frame. If any collision is detected in protocols are divided into two: and receiver of a transmission. A message is can be placed near high voltage power lines,
the CSMA/CD, the station sends a jam/ stop Character Oriented Protocols: In a delivered to the node along one path then as it doesn’t suffer from electromagnetic
signal to the shared channel to terminate character-oriented protocol, the frame or rerouted along another to its destination. interference. • Used in broadcast television,
data transmission. After that, it waits for a packet is interpreted as a series of cable television, remote monitoring and
random time before sending a frame to a characters, each usually has 1 byte (8 bits) Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN): surveillance. • Used in transmission of
channel. size. All control information is in the form of was introduced so as to digitize the digital data generated by computers such as
CSMA/ CA: an existing character encoding system (e.g., telephone network, to standardize between CPU to peripherals, CPU to CPU. •
It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision ASCII characters). subscriber services, provide interface Military applications include
avoidance network protocol for carrier Bit Oriented Protocols: In a bit-oriented between user and network, and facilitate communications, command and control links
transmission of data frames. It is a protocol protocol, the frame or packet is interpreted the internetworking of existing voice and on ships and aircraft, data link for satellite
that works with a medium access control as a series of bits. Control information can data networks. earth stations. • Used in sensors such as
layer. When a data frame is sent to a be one or multiple bits depending on the SERVICES temperature sensors, position sensors,
channel, it receives an acknowledgment to kind of information. Bearer services: allows user to send gyroscope.
check whether the channel is clear. If the BIT ORIENTED PROTOCOLS include: information from one device to another on a
station receives only a single (own) • Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) network. The transfer voice, data and video Data Circuit Terminating Equipment (DCE):
acknowledgment, that means the data • High Level Data Link Control (HDLC) take place without processing or changing Data generated by DTE is converted to
frame has been successfully transmitted to • Link Access Protocols (LAPs) the information. It belongs to first 3 layers of analog or digital signal to be sent over
the receiver. But if it gets two signals (its • Local Area Networks (LANs) OSI model (physical, data link, network). It communication channel • Another DCE at
own and one more in which the collision of SDLC was the first to be introduced. HDLC can be provided using circuit or packet receiver’s side receives the data, converts it
frames), a collision of the frame occurs in was developed based on SDLC. Later, LAPs switched networks. to a form suitable for the DTE there and
the shared channel. Detects the collision of and LANs were derived from HDLC. Teleservices: These are value added services delivers it • Hence, DCE transmits or
the frame when a sender receives an provided by the network. The information receives analog or digital signals through a
acknowledgment signal. may be processed and changed. It belongs network • Modem is an example of a DCE
to 4 7 layers (transport, session,
presentation, application). It includes
telephony, telefax, videotex, and
teleconferencing. Supplementary Services
provide additional functionality to the
bearer services and teleservices.
ENCODING AND MODULATING: Ray Theory: LINE DISCIPLINE: Multiple access protocol: When a sender
To transform data into signals four The phenomenon of splitting of white light The line discipline functions of the data link and receiver have a dedicated link to
conversion methods are prominent. Data into its constituents is known as dispersion. layer oversee the establishment of links and transmit data packets, the data link control is
stored in the form of 0s and 1s are converted The concepts of reflection and refraction of the right of a particular device to transmit at enough to handle the channel. Suppose
to digital signals to be carried from one place light are based on a theory known as Ray a given time. Line discipline can be done in there is no dedicated path to communicate
to another. This is called digital-to-digital. theory or geometric optics, where light rays two ways: enquiry/acknowledgment or transfer the data between two devices. In
Conversion or encoding digital data into a are considered as waves and represented (ENQ/ACK) and poll/select. The first method that case, multiple stations access the
digital signal. Analog-to-digital conversion or with simple geometric lines or rays. is used in peer-to-peer communication; the channel and simultaneously transmits the
digitizing an analog signal involves Total Internal Reflection: The refractive second method is used in primary-secondary data over the channel. It may create collision
converting an analog signal into a digital index of a medium is defined as the ratio of communication and cross talk. Hence, the multiple access
signal Digital-to-analog conversion or the velocity of light in a vacuum to the ENQ/ACK: Used in peer-to-peer protocol is required to reduce the collision
modulating a digital signal is converting velocity of light in the medium.A ray of light communication. Using ENQ/ACK, a session and avoid crosstalk between the channels.
digital signal to analog signal Converting travels more slowly in an optically dense can be initiated by either station on a link as A. Random Access Protocol: In this protocol,
analog data to analog signal is called analog- medium than in one that is less dense, and long as both are of equal rank. The initiator all the station has the equal priority to send
to-analog: conversion or modulating an the refractive index gives a measure of this first transmits a frame called an enquiry the data over a channel. In random access
analog signal. effect of bending of a light ray when passing (ENQ) asking if the receiver is available to protocol, one or more stations cannot
Unipolar: Polarity of a pulse represents from one medium to another.When a ray is receive data. The receiver must answer depend on another station nor any station
whether it is positive or negative, Unipolar incident on the interface between two either with an acknowledgement (ACK) control another station. Depending on the
encoding uses only one polarity, i.e., either dielectrics of differing refractive indices (e.g., frame if it is ready to receive or with a channel's state (idle or busy), each station
positive or negative voltage represents one glass–air), refraction occurs. negative acknowledgement (NAK) frame if it transmits the data frame. However, if more
of the two binary states, usually 1, and other Acceptance Angle: It is the maximum angle is not. If neither an ACK nor a NAK is received than one station sends the data over a
is represented by zero voltage. Hence, of a ray (comes from air or vacuum outside within a specified time limit, initiator channel, there may be a collision or data
unipolar encoding uses only one level of the fiber) against the fiber axis that hits the retransmits data. conflict. Due to the collision, the data frame
value. fiber core, which allows the incident light to FLOW CONTROL: Flow control refers to a set packets may be lost or changed. And hence,
Polar: Polar encoding uses two voltage be guided/propagated by the core without of procedures used to restrict the amount of it does not receive by the receiver end.
levels, one positive and one negative refraction to the cladding.Any rays which are data the sender can send before waiting for ALOHA: It is designed for wireless LAN (Local
Bipolar: Uses three voltage levels line: incident on fiber core at angle greater than acknowledgment. Two methods have been Area Network) but can also be used in a
positive, negative, and zero. zero level is acceptance angle will be transmitted to the developed to control the flow of data across shared medium to transmit data. Using this
used to represent binary 0. core– cladding interface at an angle less than communications links: stop-and-wait and method, any station can transmit data across
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): critical angle, and will not be totally sliding window. a network simultaneously when a data
Frequency and phase remain constant, only internally reflected. Stop-and-Wait: The sender waits for an frameset is available for transmission.
amplitude changes • Based on0 or 1, the Numerical Aperture:The numerical aperture acknowledgment after every frame it sends. PURE ALOHA: Whenever data is available for
peak amplitude of the signal is different and is a measurement of the ability of an optical Only when an acknowledgment has been sending over a channel at stations, we use
corresponding peak amplitude is constant fiber to capture light and is determined by received is the next frame sent. This process Pure Aloha. In pure Aloha, when each station
during each bit duration • High noise the refractive index contrast between core of alternately sending and waiting repeats transmits data to a channel without checking
interference • On-Off-Keying (OOK) is an ASK and cladding of the fiber, assuming that the until the sender transmits an end of whether the channel is idle or not, the
technique in which one of the bit values is incident beam comes from air or vacuum transmission (EOT) frame. chances of collision may occur, and the data
represented by no voltage and hence there is Skew Rays: A meridional ray is a ray that Sliding Window: It refers to imaginary boxes frame can be lost. When any station
a reduction in the amount of energy required passes through the axis of an optical fiber. A at both the sender and the receiver. This transmits the data frame to a channel, the
to transmit information skew ray is a ray that travels in a zig-zag path window can hold frames at either end and pure Aloha waits for the receiver's
and never crosses the fiber axis. They follow provides the upper limit on the no of frames acknowledgment. If it does not acknowledge
a helical path through the fiber. the receiver end within the specified time,

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): Modes: Modes describes the nature of that can be transmitted before requiring an the station waits for a random amount of
Frequency of the carrier signal changed to propagation of electromagnetic waves in a acknowledgment. Frames may be time, called the backoff time (Tb). And the
represent binary 1 or 0 and both peak wave guide. It is the allowed direction a light acknowledged at any point without waiting station may assume the frame has been lost
amplitude and phase remain constant • The wave or ray passes while satisfying the for the window to fill up and may be or destroyed. Therefore, it retransmits the
frequency of the signal during each bit conditions for total internal reflection. The transmitted as long as the window is not yet frame until all the data are successfully
duration is constant but different for 0 and 1 propagation of light can be in either of the full. transmitted to the receiver.
• Although FSK shifts between two carrier two modes: single mode or multimode. Sender Window: At the beginning of a SLOTTED ALOHA: The slotted Aloha is
frequencies, the process of modulation Cylindrical Fiber: A planar waveguide and a transmission, the sender's window contains designed to overcome the pure Aloha's
produces a composite signal that is a cylindrical waveguide/cylindrical fiber are n - 1 frames. As frames are sent out, the left efficiency because pure Aloha has a very
combination of many simple signals, each shown below. A cylindrical waveguide or boundary of the window moves inward, high possibility of frame hitting. In slotted
with a different frequency fiber optic has an internal core that has a shrinking the size of the window. Once an Aloha, the shared channel is divided into a
Phase Shift Keying (PSK): higher index of refraction than the cladding. ACK arrives, the window expands to allow in fixed time interval called slots. So that, if a
Phase of the carrier is altered to represent Glass Fibers Largest category of optically a number of new frames equal to the station wants to send a frame to a shared
binary 1 or 0 while peak amplitude and transparent glasses from which optical fibers number of frames acknowledged by that channel, the frame can only be sent at the
frequency remain Constant • If binary 0 is are made consists of oxide of glasses. The ACK. beginning of the slot, and only one frame is
represented by a phase of 0-degree, phase most common oxide is silica (SiO2). To Receiver Window: At the beginning of allowed to be sent to each slot. And if the
can be changed to 180 degrees to send produce two similar materials that have transmission, the receiver window contains stations are unable to send data to the
binary 1 • The phase of the signal during slightly different indices of refraction for core not n - 1 frames but n - 1 spaces for frames. beginning of the slot, the station will have to
each bit duration is constant and differ based and cladding, either fluorine or various As new frames come in, the size of the wait until the beginning of the slot for the
on whether it is 0 or 1 • When two different oxides (referred to as dopants) such as B2O3, receiver window shrinks. The receiver next time. However, the possibility of a
phases (0 and 180 degrees) are used, it is GeO2 or P2O5 are added to silica. Plastic window therefore represents not the collision remains when trying to send a
known as 2-PSK or binary PSK Optical Fibers: Polymer(plastic) Optical number of frames received but the number frame at the beginning of two or more
Fibers (POF) are less widely used because of of frames that may still be received before an station time slot.
GSM (Global System for Mobile higher attenuation than glass fibers. Its main ACK must be sent. CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access): It is a
communications): It is the most successful use is in short distance applications. The core Lost Data Frame: If one or more frames are carrier sense multiple access based on media
digital mobile telecommunication system. As of these fibers is either so noise corrupted that they become lost in access protocol to sense the traffic on a
a part of building fully digital system, the polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA POF) or a transit, the next frame to arrive at the channel (idle or busy) before transmitting
groupe spéciale mobile (GSM) was founded perfluorinated polymer (PF POF). receiver will be out of sequence. The the data. It means that if the channel is idle,
in 1982, later named as global system for Optical Sources and Detectors: The optical receiver checks the identifying number on the station can send data to the channel.
mobile communications (GSM). The primary source is often considered to be the active each frame, discovers that one or more have Otherwise, it must wait until the channel
goal of GSM was to provide a mobile phone component in an optical fiber been skipped, and returns a NAK for the first becomes idle. Hence, it reduces the chances
system that allows users to roam throughout communication system. Its fundamental missing frame. A NAK frame does not of a collision on a transmission medium.
Europe and provides voice services function is to convert electrical energy in the indicate whether the frame has been lost or • CSMA/ CD:
compatible to ISDN and other PSTN systems. form of a current into optical energy (light) in damaged, just that it needs to be resent. • CSMA/ CA:
A GSM system that has been introduced in an efficient manner which allows the light Piggybacking: In real life, data frames are
several European countries for railroad output to be effectively launched or coupled normally flowing in both directions: from B. Controlled Access Protocol:
systems is GSM Rail. This system uses into the optical fiber. node A to node B and from node B to node It is a method of reducing data frame
separate frequencies and other services not Photodetectors: The function of a detector is A. This means that the control information collision on a shared channel. In the
available in the public GSM system. It gives to convert the received optical signal into an also needs to flow in both directions. When a controlled access method, each station
19 exclusive channels for railroad operators electrical signal, which is then amplified frame is carrying data from A to B, it can also interacts and decides to send a data frame
for voice and data traffic. before further processing. Optical detectors carry control information about arrived (or by a particular station approved by all other
GSM Mobile services: GSM permits the perform the exact opposite function of that lost) frames from B; when a frame is carrying stations. It means that a single station
integration of different voice and data of the optical sources; that is, they convert data from B to A, it can also carry control cannot send the data frames unless all other
services and the interworking with existing electric power into optical power. The two information about the arrived (or lost) stations are not approved. It has three types
networks. GSM has defined three different photodetector devices most commonly used frames from A. This is called Piggybacking. of controlled access: Reservation, Polling,
categories of services: bearer, tele, and in optical fiber communications systems are and Token Passing.
supplementary services. the PIN and APD devices.