Titration

Acid-base titration

(A comprehensive revision)

For grade 11, Ahmadhiyya International School, Male’

Applications of titration:
• It is a quantitative technique primarily used to
determine the amount of a substance in a sample

• Using the amount, in moles, we can also find

- concentration (mole/volume)
- molecular mass if the sample is pure (mass/mole)
- purity if the sample is impure

• Further, using the molecular mass, we can

- calculate the number of water of crystallization
in a hydrated salt
- identify an unknown metal in a metal hydroxide
Apparatus used for titration:
Terminology used:

Titrant - burette solution

Burette reading – the reading on

the burette which matches with the
bottom of the meniscus of the
solution filled.

Titre value – the difference

between final and initial burette
readings. It’s the volume of the
titrant that completely reacts with
the solution in conical flask.

(note: A burette has graduations

from top to bottom for a total
volume of 50 cm3)
Fundamental idea behind titration:
• Titration can be described as carrying out a chemical reaction with
regulated addition of one reactant from burette to another reactant in
the conical flask.

• Indicators are used to indicate the completion of the reaction

(endpoint) so that we can stop adding the burette solution and note
down how much of the burette solution is used to completely react with
the solution taken in the conical flask.

• One of those solutions is of known concentration called standard

solution and the other one contains the analyte of unknown
concentration.

• Using the moles of substance in standard solution, we can find the

moles of the analyte. For this calculation we need the mole ratio
between the two substances reacting together in the titration.
Standard solutions:
Standard solutions are made by dissolving known mass of a
substance in deionised water and making it upto an accurate
volume in a volumetric flask.
Primary standards:
The substances used to make standard solutions are called primary
standards. The desired properties are:

• Solid with high molar mass

• Available in a high degree of purity
• Chemically stable
• Do not absorb moisture from atmosphere
• Soluble in water
• React rapidly and completely with other substances when used in
titrations
Example: sulfamic acid, NH2SO3H, with molar mass 97.1 g mol-1
Steps to prepare the standard solutions:
Steps to prepare 250 cm3 of a standard solution:

1. Dissolve a known and required mass of the given substance in

roughly 100 cm3 deionised water in a beaker.

2. Transfer the solution into a 250 cm3 volumetric flask (using funnel).

3. Rinse the beaker with distilled water and transfer the washing into
the volumetric flask. (Finally rinse the funnel and take it out).

4. Make up the solution to the graduation mark using distilled water

and mix well.
Note:
• The bottom of the meniscus should match with the graduation
mark.
• Step 3 is done to make sure all the substance is transferred into the
volumertic flask.
Titration procedure:
For example to determine the moles of sodium hydroxide in a solution
by titrating with standard sulfamic acid solution:

1. Rinse the conical flask with deoinised water and place it on a white tile.
2. Using a pipette filler, rinse the pipette with deionised water and then with some of
the sodium hydroxide solution.
3. Use the pipette to transfer 25.0 cm3 of the sodium hydroxide solution to the conical
flask.
4. Add about 3 drops of indicator.
5. Rinse the burette with deionised water and then with some of the sulfamic acid
solution.
6. Fill the burette with the sulfamic acid solution and set it up in the stand above the
conical flask.
7. Record the burette reading.
8. Add the sulfamic acid solution to the conical flask, while swirling the flask, until the
indicator just changes colour, and again record the burette reading.
9. Empty and rinse the conical flask with deionised water, and repeat the titration
until concordant titres have been obtained.
Techniques used and the reason:
Technique Reason Effect on result if not
followed
Use a white tile Provides white background May result in overshooting
to observe the color change the endpoint.
clearly at the endpoint Increases the titre value.
Rinse the pipette and burette To prevent the solutions from If burette solution is diluted,
with deionised water and getting diluted by the water titre increases.
then with solution to be drops remaining on the inner If pipette solution is diluted
filled. wall titre decreases.
Rinse the conical flask with Rinsing the conical flask with The additional amount of
deionised water only, not the solution is not required solution sticking on the inner
with solution to be filled. as it is not a measuring tool wall increases the moles of
unlike pipette. The required the substance and so titre
volume is already measured value increases.
with pipette and conical flask
just holds the solution for
titration. If it is rinsed with
solution, then some amount
of solution sticking on the
inner wall will be added in
excess.
Technique Reason Effect if not followed
While transferring the pipette Pipette is calibrated to Titre value increases
solution into the conical flask, measure the stated volume
don’t try to blow the drop left excluding the drop at the tip.
in the tip.
Add about 3 drops of indicator. Acid-base indicators are Adding more or varying
weak acids and take part in amount for each titration
the reaction during titration. will give inaccurate and
non-precise titre values.
Fill the burette without air gap. Air gap occupies some Titre value increases.
Make sure the tip is filled with volume which would
the solution. account for titre value.

Make sure that the tip of the To prevent the burette Titre value increases
burette is inside the neck of solution from falling outside
the conical flask during of the conical flask.
titration.
Make sure that the burette is To get the accurate burette Inaccurate titre value.
upright. reading. This error may be cancelled
The eye level is perpendicular if the same mistake is
to the bottom of the meniscus repeated while taking all
while taking reading. readings.
Technique Reason Effect if not followed
Record the burette reading to To increase the accuracy of Inaccurate titre.
the nearest half of a small the reading
division (0.05 cm3) using a
light background to see the
bottom of the meniscus.
Add the burette solution To avoid overshooting the Titre value increases.
steadily at first, then much end point (adding excess
more slowly as the end point burette solution).
is approached, then drop by Swirling is to ensure
drop when very close to the complete mixing of the
endpoint, swirling all the solutions which otherwise
time. might delay the endpoint.
Stop adding the burette Adding more solution does Titre value increases.
solution when the indicator not change the colour
just changes colour. further, it only intensifies the
colour. An intense colour
indicates its an overshooting
of the endpoint.
Repeat the titrations to get To make sure the titre values The result is not reliable.
concordant titre values are consistent. It increases
(difference is within 0.20 the reliability of the result.
cm3)
Acid-base Indicators:
• Acid-base indicators are weak acids that undergo protonation in
acidic medium and deprotonation in alkaline medium.

• These substances exhibit different colours in protonated and

depronated states - that is in acidic and alkaline medium respectively.

• This property makes them suitable to act as indicators in acid-base

titration where the pH changes sharply at neutralization point. When
the pH switches between acidic and alkaline conditions the indicator
changes the colour.

For example, phenolphthalein is an acid-base indicator.

protonated deprotonated
phenolphthalein phenolphthalein
(in acid) ⇌ (in alkali)
colourless pink
Choosing indicators:
Indicator is chosen depending upon the type of acid and base
titrated.

Type of acid and base Suitable Indicator

Strong acid – weak base Methyl orange

Weak acid- strong base Phenolphthalein

Strong acid-strong base either methyl orange or

phenolphthalein can be used.

However, phenolphthalein is
preferred as it shows a clear
endpoint.

Note: for weak acid- weak base no suitable indicator is available. We follow other
techniques such as thermometric titration (you learnt in energetics, unit-2).
Colour change of indicator at the endpoint:
The table below gives the colour of the indicators in acidic, alkaline and
neutral medium.

Indicator Colour in acid Colour in neutral Colour in

solution alkali
Methyl orange red orange yellow
Phenolphthalein colourless colourless pink
For example:

• If sodium carbonate solution (in conical flask) is titrated with HCl (in burette)
Methyl orange changes from yellow to orange

• If ethanoic acid (in conical flask) is titrated with NaOH (in burette)
Phenolphthalein changes from colourless to pale pink

• If NaOH (in conical flask) is titrated with HCl (In burette)

Phenolphthalein changes from pink to colourless
Results obtained from titration:
The following table presents some typical titration results:
Titration number 1 2 3 4
Final burette reading/ cm3 24.15 25.30 24.60 23.25

Initial burette reading/ cm3 1.20 2.70 1.90 0.60

Titre / cm3 22.95 22.60 22.70 22.65

Concordant titres (within 0.20 cm3) Χ √ √ √

• Usually the first titration is a trial run done quickly to get a rough titre value.
- mostly it is an overshot endpoint and not concordant with other titres.
- it is not used in calculating the mean titre.

• However, this rough titre is useful in obtaining the other titres quickly. While doing
the other titrations, initially the burette solution is added fast, then slowed down
when it approaches the rough titre value, while constantly swirling the conical flask.

Mean (average) titre value = 22.60 + 22.70 + 22.65 = 22.65 cm3

3
Sample calculation to find the concentration of an analyte:
A titration is carried out between sodium hydroxide solution of unknown concentration and a
standard sulfamic acid solution.

Volume of sodium hyrdoxide taken in the conical flask = 25.0 cm3

Volume of sulfamic acid used from burette (mean titre value) = 22.65 cm3
Concentration of sulfamic acid solution = 0.0985 mol dm-3

NaOH(aq) + NH2SO3H(aq) → NH2SO3Na(aq) + H2O(l)

Calculate the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution.

(Note : here the analyte is sodium hydroxide and standard is sulfamic acid. Always start the
calculation with the standard)

Step-1: moles of sulfamic acid, n = cv = 0.0985 x 22.65/1000 = 0.00223 mol

Step-2: moles of sodium hydroxide

sulfamic acid : sodium hydroxide

1 : 1
0.00223 : x x = 0.00223 moles

Step-3: Concentration of sodium hydroxide , c = n/v

= 0.00223/ 0.025 = 0.0892 mol dm-3
Random and systematic errors:
Error: the difference between the experimental value and the accepted or correct
value
Random error Systematic error
Causes: Causes:
• unpredictable variations in conditions • defect in the apparatus. For example,
such as temperature or pressure. For wrongly calibrated pipette with
example, measuring the volume of a gas graduation mark a little low always
which varies with temperature and measures less volume.
pressure.
• repeating the same type of error by
• a difference in recording a reading not following the techniques for all
that is difficult to get exactly right. For readings taken. For example, always
example, it is difficult to exactly keep our keeping the eye level above the
eyelevel at the bottom of the meniscus. meniscus.
There could be a little variation.
Systematic errors make all the values to
Random errors are difficult to correct. be either too high or too low. So, it can
They make some values too high and not be minimised by averaging. A careful
others too low. It can be minimized only analysis can help to find the cause and to
by averaging. correct.
Accuracy and precision:
Accuracy: a measure of how close values are to the accepted or correct value

Precision: a measure of how close values are to each other

A simple representation:
Centre of the archery is the correct value. The arrows hit are the experimental
values.

Not accurate – Accurate – Not accurate – Experimental

Experimental values are far Experimental values values are far from the
from the correct value. are close to the correct correct value.
value.
Precise – Experimental Not precise – Experimental
values are close to each Precise – Experimental values are far from each
other. values are close to other.
each other.
It’s due to systematic error. No error at all. It’s due to random error.
Measurement uncertainty:
It is the potential error involved when using a piece of apparatus to make a
measurement.

It’s usually the half of the smallest possible measurement.

For example, the smallest possible measurement in a burette is

0.1 cm3. So, the measurement uncertainty is 0.05 cm3.

So, a burette reading shown on the diagram can be written as

20.95 ± 0.05 cm3 including the measurement uncertainty.

It means the reading could be anywhere between 20.90 and 21.00 cm3.
Measurement uncertainty for some pieces of apparatus used to measure volume:

Apparatus capacity Measurement uncertainty for each reading

Burette 50 cm3 ± 0.05 cm3
Pipette 25 cm3 ± 0.06 cm3
Volumetric flask 250 cm3 ± 0.3 cm3
Percentage uncertainty:
Percentage uncertainty = total error x 100
measured value

Total error = uncertainty for each reading x number of readings taken

Apparatus (measured value) Number of readings taken

Burette (titre value) 2 as initial and final readings. The
Thermometer (temperature change) measurement is the difference
Mass balance (difference in mass) between initial and final readings.
Pipette 1
Volumetric flask
Measuring cylinder
Gas syringe
Example: Calculate the percentage uncertainty for the titre value of 21.05 cm3 if the
burette has an uncertainty of ± 0.05 cm3 for each reading.

Percentage uncertainty = ± 0.05 x 2 x 100

21.05

= ± 0.48 %
Minimising percentage uncertainty:

Percentage uncertainty = total error x 100

measured value

Total error = uncertainty for each reading x number of readings taken

• The percentage uncertainty can be minimised by decreasing the numerator or

by increasing the denominator in the above expression.

• Numerator, which includes uncertainty, can be decreased by using more precise

apparatus. It requires changing the apparatus.
Example, thermometer with smaller divisions in graduation or mass balance with
more decimal places.

• Denominator, which is the measured value, can be increased by modifying the

procedure. It does not require changing the apparatus.
Example, titre value can be increased either by using more diluted solution in
the burette or more concentrated solution in the conical flask.
Examples from past papers:
Oct 2019
Unit 2
Question 19

The second and third titres are concordant

(Hint: start with the standard solution)

Moles of sodium hydroxide = c x v = 0.005 x 0.0211 = 0.0001055 moles

Moles of sulfuric acid in 10 cm3 sample:

NaOH : H2SO4
2 : 1
0.0001055 : x x = 0.00005275 moles

Moles of sulfuric acid in 40 cm3:

10 cm3 : 0.00005275 moles

40 cm3 : x x = 0.000211 moles

SO2 : H2SO4
1 : 1 so, its 0.000211 moles of SO2
Volume of sulfur dioxide = moles x molar volume
= 0.000211 x 24
= 0.005064 dm3

Volume of air bubbled = bubbling rate x time

= 10 x 30
= 300 dm3

Concentration of sulfur dioxide in air, in ppm = volume of sulfur dioxide x 106

volume of air bubbled

= 0.005064 x 106
300

= 16.88 ppm
Oct 2019 unit 3 Question 4

1. Dissolve the given substance in deionised water in a beaker.

2. Transfer the solution into a 250 cm3 volumetric flask.

3. Rinse the beaker and transfer the washings into the volumetric flask and
make up the solution to the graduation mark using distilled water.

4. Mix the solution in the flask.

Colourless to pale pink

Mean titre = (11.90 + 11.70)/2 = 11.80 cm3

(Hint: start with the standard solution)

Moles of sodium hydroxide = c x v = 0.213 x 0.01180 = 0.0025134 mol

Moles of H2X in 25 cm3:

H2X : NaOH
1 : 2
x : 0.0025134 x = 0.0012567 mol

Moles of H2X in 250 cm3 = 0.0012567 x 10

= 0.012567 mol
Molar mass = mass / moles
= 1.13/ 0.012567
= 89.9

( Percentage uncertainty = total error x 100

measured value

Total error = uncertainty for each reading x number of readings taken)

Percentage uncertainty = 0.05 x 2 x 100

11.70

= 0.85 %
 Make the titre value larger by using more diluted sodium hydroxide solution in
the burette.

An additional question:

Write the effect on your answer in part (b) (iv), of not rinsing the pipette with the acid
solution before the measurement. (2)

(Hint: Answer in part (b) (iv) is molar mass of H2X.

Always first find the effect of mistake/error on titre. Refer slides 9 to 11.
Then find the effect on the final answer by tracking how the titre value is used in
its calculation.)

Pipette solution is diluted. So, titre value decreases.

Moles of H2X decreases. So, molar mass increases.
Thank you !
and
All the best!