1 - Vectors and Tensors - Lesson1
1 - Vectors and Tensors - Lesson1
Tensors
• A vector of unit length is called a unit vector. The
unit vector along A may be defined as follows:
𝑨
𝑒̂𝑨
𝐴
𝑨 𝐴 𝑒̂𝑨
• Thus any vector may be represented as a product of its
magnitude and a unit vector along the vector. A unit
vector is used to designate direction. It does not have
any physical dimensions.
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Vector Addition
• Let A, B, and C be any vectors. Then there exists a
vector A + B, called sum of A and B, such that
• (1) A + B = B + A (commutative).
• (2) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (associative).
• (3) there exists a unique vector, 0, independent of
A such that
• A + 0 = A (existence of zero vector).
• (4) to every vector A there exists a unique vector
−A (that depends on A) such that
A + (−A) = 0 (existence of negative vector).
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Multiplication of vector by scalar
• Let A and B be vectors and α and β be real numbers
(scalars). To every vector A and every real number
α, there corresponds a unique vector αA such that
• (1) α(βA) = (αβ)A (associative).
• (2) (α + β)A = αA + βA (distributive scalar addition).
• (3) α(A + B) = αA + αB (distributive vector addition).
• (4) 1∙ A = A ∙ 1 = A, 0 ∙ A = 0.
• Two vectors A and B are equal if their magnitudes
are equal, |A| = |B|, and if their directions are
equal.
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Linear Independence of Vectors
• The concepts of collinear and coplanar vectors can
be stated in algebraic terms. A set of n vectors is
said to be linearly dependent if a set of n numbers
β1, β2, . . . , βn can be found such that
β1A1 + β2A2 + ∙ ∙ ∙+βnAn = 0
• If this expression cannot be satisfied, the vectors
are said to be linearly independent.
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Scalar Product
• When a force F acts on a mass point and moves
through a displacement vector d, the work done by
the force vector is defined by the projection of the
force in the direction of the displacement, as
shown in Figure, times the magnitude of the
displacement. Such an operation may be defined
for any two vectors. Since the result of the product
is a scalar, it is called the scalar product. We denote
this product as F ∙ d ≡ (F, d) and it is defined as
follows:
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F ∙ d ≡ (F, d) = Fd cos θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
The scalar product is also known as the dot product
or inner product.
• 1. Since A ∙ B = B ∙ A, the scalar product is
commutative.
• 2. If the vectors A and B are perpendicular to each
other, then A ∙ B = ABcos(π/2) = 0. Conversely, if A ∙
B = 0, then either A or B is zero or A is
perpendicular, or orthogonal, to B.
• 3. If two vectors A and B are parallel and in the
same direction, then A ∙ B = ABcos 0 = AB, since
cos 0 = 1. Thus the scalar product of a vector with
itself is equal to the square of its magnitude:
A ∙ A = A A = A2. 6
• 4. The orthogonal projection of a vector A in any
direction is given by A ∙ .
• 5. The scalar product follows the distributive law
also:
A∙(B + C) = (A ∙ B) + (A ∙ C).
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Vector Product
• Let us describe the moment about a point O of a
force F acting at a point P, such as shown in Figure
(a). By definition, the magnitude of the moment is
given by M = Fℓ where ℓ is the perpendicular
distance from the point O to the force F (called
lever arm). If r denotes the vector OP and θ the
angle between r and F as shown in Figure (a) such
that 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, we have l = r sin θ and thus M = Fr
sin θ.
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• A direction can now be assigned to the moment.
Drawing the vectors F and r from the common
origin O, we note that the rotation due to F tends
to bring r into F, as can be seen from Figure (b). We
now set up an axis of rotation perpendicular to the
plane formed by F and r. Along this axis of rotation
we set up a preferred direction as that in which a
right‐handed screw would advance when turned in
the direction of rotation due to the moment, as can
be seen from Figure (a).
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• Along this axis of rotation, we draw a unit vector
𝑴 and agree that it represents the direction of the
moment M. Thus we have
M = Fr sin θ 𝑴 = r × F.
• The product of two vectors A and B is a vector C
whose direction is specified by the condition that C
be perpendicular to the plane of the vectors A and
B and points in the direction in which a right‐
handed screw advances when turned so as to bring
A into B, as shown in Figure (b).
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• The vector product is usually denoted by
C = A × B = AB sin(A,B) = AB sin θ
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• 1. The products A × B and B × A are not equal. In
fact, we have A × B ≡ −B × A.
Thus the vector product does not commute.
• 2. If two vectors A and B are parallel to each other,
then θ = π or 0 and sin θ = 0. Thus
A × B = 0.
Conversely, if A × B = 0, then either A or B is zero, or
they are parallel vectors. It follows that the vector
product of a vector with itself is zero A × A = 0.
• 3. The distributive law holds but the order of the
factors must be maintained:
(A + B) × C = (A × C) + (B × C).
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Triple Products of Vectors
• The product A(B ∙ C) is a multiplication of the vector
A by the scalar B ∙ C.
• The product A ∙ (B × C) is a scalar and it is termed
the scalar triple product. The product A ∙ (B × C),
except for the algebraic sign, is the volume of the
parallelepiped formed by the vectors A, B, and C as
shown in Figure.
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• 1. The dot and cross can be interchanged without
changing the value:
A ∙ B × C = A × B ∙ C ≡ [ABC].
• 2. A cyclical permutation of the order of the vectors
leaves the result unchanged:
A ∙ B × C = C ∙ A × B = B ∙ C × A ≡ [ABC].
3. If the cyclic order is changed, the sign changes:
A ∙ B × C = −A ∙ C × B = −C ∙ B × A = −B ∙ A × C.
• 4. A necessary and sufficient condition for any
three vectors, A,B,C to be coplanar is that A ∙ (B ×
C) = 0. Note also that the scalar triple product is
zero when any two vectors are the same.
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• The vector triple product A × (B × C) is a vector
normal to the plane formed by A and (B × C). The
vector (B × C), however, is perpendicular to the
plane formed by B and C. This means that A × (B ×
C) lies in the plane formed by B and C and is
perpendicular to A as shown in Figure.
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• Thus A × (B × C) can be expressed as a linear
combination of B and C: A × (B × C) = m1B + n1C.
• It can be shown that m1 = A ∙ C, n1 = −A ∙ B, and
hence
A × (B × C) = (A ∙ C)B − (A ∙ B)C.
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Plane area as a vector
• The magnitude of the vector C = A × B is equal to
the area of the parallelogram formed by the vectors
A and B, as shown in Figure. In fact, the vector C
represents both the magnitude and the direction of
the product A and B. Thus, a plane area may be
looked upon as possessing a direction in addition to
a magnitude, the directional character arising out
of the need to specify an orientation of the plane in
space.
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Plane area as a vector
• It is customary to denote the direction of a plane
area by means of a unit vector drawn normal to
that plane. To fix the direction of the normal, we
assign a sense of travel along the contour of the
boundary of the plane area in question. The
direction of the normal is taken by convention as
that in which a right‐handed screw advances as it is
rotated according to the sense of travel along the
boundary curve or contour, as shown in Figure.
Let the unit normal vector be
given by . Then the area can
be denoted by S = S .
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Components of a Vector
• In a three‐dimensional space, a set of no more than
three linearly independent vectors can be found.
Let us choose any set and denote it as e1, e2, e3.
This set is called a basis. We can represent any
vector in three dimensional space as a linear
combination of the basis vectors
A = A1e1 + A2e2 + A3e3.
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Summation Convention
• The component form of vector A:
A = A1e1 + A2e2 + A3e3
can be abbreviated as
summation convention
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• The repeated index is called a dummy index
because it can be replaced by any other symbol
that has not already been used in that expression.
As an example
expresses three equations when the range of i and j
is 1 to 3:
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• The orthonormal basis is ( , , ).
• The vector A is
or
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Kronecker Delta and Permutation Symbols
• Kronecker delta δij and alternating symbol eijk
where
We define the cross product as
where
if i, j, k are in cyclic order
and not repeated (i = j = k),
if i, j, k are not in cyclic order
and not repeated (i = j = k)
if any of i, j, k are repeated 23
• The symbol is called the alternating symbol or
permutation symbol.
• By definition, the subscripts of the permutation
symbol can be permuted without changing its
value; an interchange of any two subscripts will
change the sign
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• In an orthonormal basis
• The components of a vector in an orthonormal
coordinate system
and hence
• Further, the Kronecker delta and the permutation
symbol are related by the identity, known as the e‐
δ identity
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Example
Simplify the following expressions
• Expanding the expression using the index notation,
we obtain
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