What is BInary Data?

What is BInary Data Examples How can be

Binary data in biostatistics refers to categorical data Let's consider a clinical trial testing the effectiveness Binary da
that can take only two possible values. These values of a new drug for a specific disease. One binary relationship
are typically represented as "0" and "1" or "yes" and variable of interest could be the occurrence of side of different
"no." Binary data is commonly used to represent the effects. Each patient in the trial is either classified as using statisti
presence or absence of a certain characteristic or having experienced side effects (1) or not (0). This
outcome. binary data helps assess the safety profile of the * Chi-square
drug. * Logistic re
* Odds ratio
In a study investigating the association between
smoking and lung cancer, a binary variable could be
smoking status. Individuals can be categorized as
either current smokers (1) or non-smokers (0). This
binary data allows for the comparison of lung cancer
incidence between the two groups.
How can be binary data analyzed?
Binary data is often analyzed to evaluate
relationships, make predictions, or assess the impact
of different factors on the outcomes of interest by
using statistical techniques such as:

* Chi-square tests
* Logistic regression
* Odds ratios.
What is a prospective cohort study? Pospective cohort study ~ Key characteris

A prospective cohort study is a type of observational study that follows a Study Design: In a prospective cohort stud
group of individuals over a specific period of time to investigate the their exposure status, such as being expos
association between certain exposures or risk factors and the development specific characteristic. They are then follow
of outcomes or diseases. the outcome or disease being investigated.

In a prospective cohort study, participants are identified based on their Exposures and Risk Factors: The study colle
exposure status and then followed forward in time to observe the interest. These factors may include lifes
occurrence of the outcome of interest. environmental exposures, or any other vari
association with the outcome being studied.
Prospective cohort studies are valuable for studying the natural progression
of diseases, identifying risk factors, establishing temporal relationships, and Follow-up Period: Participants in a prospec
evaluating the impact of exposures on health outcomes. They provide time to observe the occurrence of the out
important evidence for understanding causality and informing preventive depending on the research question and th
and therapeutic interventions. may range from months to years or even dec

Data Collection: Data on both exposures an

Participants are typically assessed at regula
exposure status, potential confounding facto
Outcome Assessment: The primary outcom
beginning of the study and is defined and
occurrence of the outcome is ascertained b
be based on clinical assessments, medical
sources.

Statistical Analysis: Statistical analysis in a p

the association between exposure variables
statistical techniques such as relative risks,
estimate the strength and significance of the
confounding factors.
 tudy ~ Key characteristics Prospective cohort study example
prospective cohort study, the participants are enrolled based on Consider a hypothetical prospective cohort study investiga
us, such as being exposed to a particular risk factor or having a association between a specific risk factor (Exposure A) and the deve
c. They are then followed over time to determine if they develop of a particular disease (Outcome B) over a 5-year follow-up period.
ase being investigated. numerical example with data and calculations:

Factors: The study collects data on the exposure or risk factors of Study Population:
tors may include lifestyle choices, behaviors, genetic factors, Total number of participants enrolled: 2,000
sures, or any other variables that are believed to have a potential Number of participants exposed to Exposure A: 800
outcome being studied. Number of participants not exposed to Exposure A: 1,200

articipants in a prospective cohort study are followed forward in Exposure and Outcome:
e occurrence of the outcome. The duration of follow-up can vary Exposure A: The presence or absence of a specific risk factor (e.g
esearch question and the nature of the outcome being studied. It consumption of a certain food)
nths to years or even decades. Outcome B: Development of a particular disease (e.g., diabetes)

a on both exposures and outcomes are collected during the study. Follow-up Period:
ically assessed at regular intervals to collect information on their 5 years
ential confounding factors, and the occurrence of the outcome.
Outcome Assessment:
nt: The primary outcome or disease of interest is identified at the Number of participants who developed Outcome B (disease) amo
udy and is defined and measured in a standardized manner. The exposed to Exposure A: 50
utcome is ascertained by following participants over time and can Number of participants who developed Outcome B (disease) amo
assessments, medical records, laboratory tests, or other reliable not exposed to Exposure A: 30

Statistical analysis in a prospective cohort study involves evaluating

ween exposure variables and the development of outcomes. Various
s such as relative risks, hazard ratios, or odds ratios are used to
h and significance of the associations while controlling for potential
 Calculations
tive cohort study investigating the Incidence Risk: Incidence ris
actor (Exposure A) and the development Diabetes No diabetes Total (disease) over a specific time
over a 5-year follow-up period. Here's a Exposure A by the total number of individ
culations: 50 750 800
(Exposed)
Incidence risk among the exp
Exposure A
30 1170 1200 Risk A = Number of particip
d: 2,000 (Unexposed) Exposure A / Total number of
xposure A: 800
to Exposure A: 1,200
Incidence risk among the une
Risk B = Number of participan
ce of a specific risk factor (e.g., regular Exposure A / Total number of

ular disease (e.g., diabetes)

ped Outcome B (disease) among those 3.75 Risk A =

0.0375 Risk B =
ped Outcome B (disease) among those
Incidence risk interpretation:

The risk of developing the dis

to Exposure A and 2.5% amon
lations Risk Ratio: The risk ratio (also known as relative risk
exposure and outcome by comparing the risk of dev
nce Risk: Incidence risk refers to the probability of developing the outcome group to the risk in the unexposed group.
se) over a specific time period. It is calculated as the number of new cases divided
total number of individuals at risk. Risk Ratio (RR) = Risk A / Risk B

nce risk among the exposed (Risk A):

= Number of participants with Outcome B (disease) among those exposed to
ure A / Total number of participants exposed to Exposure A.
RR = 2.5
nce risk among the unexposed (Risk B):
= Number of participants with Outcome B (disease) among those not exposed to Risk ratio interpretation:
ure A / Total number of participants not exposed to Exposure A
Indicates that individuals exposed to Exposure A h
the disease compared to those unexposed.

Number Needed to Treat (NNT): The number ne

number of individuals who need to receive a sp
prevent one additional outcome event compared to
6.25% Risk difference = 0.0375
2.50% NNT = 1 / Risk difference

nce risk interpretation:

sk of developing the disease (Outcome B) was 6.25% among individuals exposed

osure A and 2.5% among those not exposed.
NNT = 26.666667

NNT interpretation:

The average number needed to treat suggests tha

need to receive treatment to prevent one additiona
so known as relative risk) quantifies the association between
omparing the risk of developing the outcome in the exposed
xposed group.
kB

xposed to Exposure A had 2.5 times the risk of developing

ose unexposed.

(NNT): The number needed to treat (NNT) represents the

o need to receive a specific treatment or intervention to
ome event compared to a control group.

ed to treat suggests that approximately 27 individuals would

to prevent one additional case of the disease.
What is a control study? Control study key characteristics
A case-control study is a type of observational study design commonly Study Design: In a case-control study, partici
used in epidemiology to investigate the association between an outcome their outcome status. The study includes indiv
or disease (cases) and potential risk factors or exposures (controls). (cases) and individuals who do not have t
controls are selected to be representative of th
In a case-control study, individuals with the outcome of interest are cases arise.
compared to individuals without the outcome to determine the presence
or absence of specific exposures or risk factors. Outcome (Cases): The cases are individual
outcome or disease being investigated. They
Case-control studies are valuable for generating hypotheses and exploring medical records, disease registries, or othe
the relationship between potential risk factors or exposures and specific carefully defined to ensure consistency and rel
outcomes or diseases. They provide important evidence for identifying
associations and informing further research, prevention strategies, and Controls: The controls are individuals who d
targeted interventions. disease being studied. They should be selecte
from which the cases arise and should be rep
in terms of their characteristics and potential r

Exposure Assessment: In a case-control study,

cases and controls is determined retrospecti
about their past exposures or risk factors, such
exposures, or demographic information. Th
through interviews, questionnaires, or medica

Statistical Analysis: The main analysis in a

comparing the frequency or odds of exposure
The association between exposure and out
using odds ratios, which estimate the relativ
compared to controls. Statistical techniques s
commonly used to control for potential confou

Strengths and Limitations: Case-control stu

when studying rare outcomes or diseases sin
identified compared to prospective cohort stu
quick and cost-effective. However, they
(participants may have difficulty accurately r
may be influenced by selection bias if the cont
the population.
aracteristics Control study example
se-control study, participants are selected based on Consider a hypothetical case-control study investigating the association
The study includes individuals who have the outcome between a specific exposure (Exposure A) and the occurrence of a particular
ls who do not have the outcome (controls). The disease (Outcome B). Here's a numerical example with data and
o be representative of the population from which the calculations:

Study Population:
e cases are individuals who have developed the Number of cases (individuals with Outcome B): 100
eing investigated. They are identified either through Number of controls (individuals without Outcome B): 200
ase registries, or other sources. Cases should be
sure consistency and reliability in the study. Exposure and Outcome:
Exposure A: The presence or absence of a specific risk factor (e.g., exposure
s are individuals who do not have the outcome or to a certain chemical)
They should be selected from the same population Outcome B: Development of a particular disease (e.g., lung cancer)
arise and should be representative of the population
cteristics and potential risk factors. Exposure Assessment:
Number of cases exposed to Exposure A: 40
: In a case-control study, the exposure history of both Number of cases not exposed to Exposure A: 60
determined retrospectively. Participants are asked Number of controls exposed to Exposure A: 60
ures or risk factors, such as behaviors, environmental Number of controls not exposed to Exposure A: 140
graphic information. This information is collected
uestionnaires, or medical records review.

The main analysis in a case-control study involves

ncy or odds of exposure between cases and controls.
een exposure and outcome is typically quantified
ich estimate the relative odds of exposure in cases
Statistical techniques such as logistic regression are
ntrol for potential confounding factors.

ations: Case-control studies are particularly useful

utcomes or diseases since cases can be more easily
o prospective cohort studies. They are also relatively
ctive. However, they are prone to recall bias
e difficulty accurately recalling past exposures) and
selection bias if the controls are not representative of
 Calculations
ng the association Odds per Case: The odds per case represents the odd
ence of a particular Diabetes No diabetes
e with data and Exposure A Odds per Control: The odds per control represe
50 450 controls.
(Exposed)
Exposure A
10 490
(Unexposed)
Total 60 940 Odds for exposure A for case and control

ctor (e.g., exposure

Case: 5
ng cancer) Control: 0.9183673

Interpretations:
Odd per case = 5
It means that individuals who have diabetes have ap
being exposed to exposure A compared to individuals

Odd per control = 0.92

It means that individuals who are controls (those wit

odds of being exposed to exposure A compared to in
cases (with diabetes).
 Odds ratio: The odds ratio (OR) quantifies the association be
outcome by comparing the odds of exposure among cases to
odds per case represents the odds of exposure among cases among controls.

The odds per control represents the odds of exposure among OR = (Odds of Exposure A among cases) / (Odds of Exposure A amo

or case and control OR = 5.4444444 OR Long formula =

Odds ratio interpretation

The odds ratio indicates that the odds of exposure to Exposure

5.44 times higher among cases (having diabetes) compared
diabetes).

duals who have diabetes have approximately five times the odds of
posure A compared to individuals without the disease.

92 Risk ratio = 5
uals who are controls (those without diabetes) have 0.92 times the Odds ratio = 5.4444444
ed to exposure A compared to individuals who have diabetes among
.
fies the association between exposure and
osure among cases to the odds of exposure

Odds of Exposure A among controls)

OR Long formula = 5.4444444

of exposure to Exposure A were approximately

g diabetes) compared to control (not having
What is a clinical trial? Chi square test in clinical trials
A clinical trial is a research study that is conducted with human In a clinical trial, the chi-square test is a statistical te
participants to evaluate the safety, efficacy, and effectiveness of analyze categorical data and determine whether t
new medical interventions, treatments, therapies, or preventive significant association between two or more categorica
measures.
It is commonly used to evaluate the efficacy or effectiv
Clinical trials are essential in advancing medical knowledge, treatment or intervention in comparison to a control gro
developing new treatments, and improving patient care.
The chi-square test can be used to assess the diff
Assmptions for Chi square proportions or frequencies of specific outcomes
between different treatment groups.
Independence: The observations within each group should be
independent of each other. This assumption ensures that the It compares the observed frequencies in each categor
proportions are not influenced by or related to each other. expected frequencies under the assumption of no asso
no difference between the groups.
Random Sampling: The data should be obtained through
random sampling from the populations of interest. Random
sampling helps to ensure that the samples are representative of
their respective populations and reduces the risk of bias.

Large Sample Sizes: For approximate inference (using methods

such as the normal approximation or Z-test), both sample sizes
should be large enough so that the sampling distribution of the
proportion can be approximated by a normal distribution. A
general rule of thumb is that the number of successes and
failures in each group should be at least 10.

Independent Samples: The two groups being compared should

be independent of each other. This assumption ensures that the
proportions in one group are not influenced by or related to the
proportions in the other group.

Level of Measurement: The variable being analyzed should be

categorical with two categories (e.g., success/failure, yes/no) or
binary. The test of difference in proportions is not appropriate
for continuous or ordinal data.
s Outcome A Outcome B
Total
Success Failure
e test is a statistical test used to
determine whether there is a Treatment A (New drug) 80 25 105
two or more categorical variables. Treatment B (placebo) 30 70 100
e the efficacy or effectiveness of a Total 110 95 205
mparison to a control group.

sed to assess the difference in Relationship between treatment and outcome?

of specific outcomes or events Ho: There is no relationship ( association) between treatments and outcome
ups.
Ha: There is a relationship (association) between treatments and outcome
uencies in each category with the
e assumption of no association or
ps. Proportions
Overall success proportion = 0.5365853659
Overall failure proportion = 0.4634146341
 Expected frequency
The expected frequency represents the count of participants that
would be expected in each cell if there were no relationship between
the variables being studied.

and outcome Obs freq - Exp freq = 0

Obs freq - Exp freq <> 0 Chi square critical value (3.84
Outcome A Outcome B
Success Failure Total
The degrees of freedom for a 2
Using Chi square table:
Treat ment A (New drug) 56.34 48.66 105
Treatment B (placebo) 53.66 46.34 100
Total 110 95 205

Chi square statistic = 43.947254

Decision rule:
If the chi square statistic is larger than the chi square critical value,
we reject Ho.
Otherwise we do not reject Ho.
hi square critical value (3.841) Chi square test conclusion
e degrees of freedom for a 2x2 table is (2-1) x (2-1) = 1. Since the chi square statistic or value (43.947) is > than the chi
ing Chi square table: critical value (3.841) we reject Ho in favor of Ha. Meaning th
relationship (association) between treatments and outcomes.
 Fisher's test
Fisher's exact test is a statistical test that can be used as an
alternative to the chi-square test in certain situations. It is
typically employed when the sample size is small (typically with
cells having expected frequencies less than 5) or when the
assumptions of the chi-square test are not met.

Fisher's test: when to use it? Fisher's test: when n

When to use Fisher's exact test: When not to use Fishe

43.947) is > than the chi square
avor of Ha. Meaning there is a Small sample size: Fisher's exact test is particularly useful when Large sample size: W
ments and outcomes. dealing with small sample sizes, where the expected frequencies expected frequencies
in the cells of a contingency table are less than 5. test is generally co
computationally effic
Low expected frequencies: If any expected frequency in a
contingency table is extremely low (below 1), Fisher's exact test Approximation accu
can be preferred. calculations, which c
sample sizes. In su
Independence assumption violation: Fisher's exact test can be approximation is o
used when the assumption of independence between variables is burdensome.
violated, which is a requirement for the chi-square test to be
valid.
Fisher's test: when not to use it? Fisher's test: what to use if it can't be used?
When not to use Fisher's exact test: If Fisher's exact test is not used: If Fisher's exact test is not used,
and the assumptions for the chi-square test are not met, there
Large sample size: When the sample size is large (typically with are alternative statistical tests available depending on the specific
expected frequencies of 5 or more in each cell), the chi-square situation.
test is generally considered appropriate and is often more
computationally efficient. These alternatives include:

Approximation accuracy: Fisher's exact test involves exact Simulation-based methods: Monte Carlo simulation methods,
calculations, which can be computationally intensive for larger such as the permutation test or bootstrap resampling, can be
sample sizes. In such cases, an asymptotic chi-square test used to assess the significance of associations between variables
approximation is often sufficient and less computationally in contingency tables.
burdensome.
Exact conditional tests: Exact conditional tests, such as the
Barnard's test or the mid-p exact test, provide alternative
approaches for assessing associations in contingency tables.

Log-linear models: Log-linear models can be used when

examining the relationship between multiple categorical
variables simultaneously.
 Treatment Outcome
A Success
A Success
A Failure
A Success
B Failure
B Failure
ed? B Success
s exact test is not used, B Success
test are not met, there B Failure
epending on the specific

o simulation methods,
ap resampling, can be
tions between variables

nal tests, such as the

st, provide alternative
ontingency tables.

can be used when

multiple categorical
Chi-Square Test

Observed Frequencies
Column variable Calculations
Row variable C1 C2 Total fo-fe
R1 80 25 105 23.65854 -23.65854
R2 30 70 100 -23.65854 23.65854
Total 110 95 205

Expected Frequencies
Column variable
Row variable C1 C2 Total (fo-fe)^2/fe
R1 56.34146 48.65854 105 9.934537 11.50315
R2 53.65854 46.34146 100 10.43126 12.07831
Total 110 95 205

Data when p value is greater than level of significance or Statistic

Level of Significance 0.05 We fail to reject Ho kind of we accept Ho and reject Ha
Number of Rows 2
Number of Columns 2
Degrees of Freedom 1

Results
Critical Value 3.841459
Chi-Square Test Statistic 43.94725
p-Value 3.373E-11
Reject the null hypothesis

Expected frequency assumption

is met.
vel of significance or Statistic is lower than the critical value
accept Ho and reject Ha
Chi square test of association (aka Independence test) Chi square test for proportions

The chi-square test of association, also known as the chi-square test for The chi-square test for proportions is a sta
independence, is a statistical test used to determine if there is a significant percentages between two groups or con
association or relationship between two categorical variables. proportions is statistically significant.
It assesses whether the observed frequencies in a contingency table are
significantly different from what would be expected if the variables were This test is typically used when the outco
independent. categories (e.g., success/failure, yes/no) and
categories differ significantly between the gro
The test calculates a chi-square statistic by comparing the observed
frequencies to the expected frequencies under the assumption of The test calculates a chi-square statistic by co
independence. A significant result indicates that there is evidence of an proportions assuming the null hypothesis of n
association between the variables, suggesting that they are not is evidence of a statistically significant differen
independent.
Assumptions
Assumptions
Independence: The observations within each
Independence: The observations in the contingency table should be assumption ensures that the proportions are n
independent of each other. In other words, the data should be collected in
such a way that each observation is not influenced by or related to any Random Sampling: The data should be obtain
other observation in the table. of interest. Random sampling helps to ens
respective populations and reduces the risk of
Random Sampling: The data should be obtained through random sampling
from the population of interest. This assumption ensures that the sample is Large Sample Sizes: For approximate inferenc
representative of the population and reduces the risk of bias. or Z-test), both sample sizes should be larg
proportion can be approximated by a norma
Expected Frequencies: The expected frequencies in each cell of the number of successes and failures in each grou
contingency table should be reasonably large. Generally, it is recommended
that no more than 20% of the cells have expected frequencies below 5. Independent Samples: The two groups bein
Extremely low expected frequencies can affect the validity of the chi-square This assumption ensures that the proportions
test and may require alternative tests, such as Fisher's exact test. proportions in the other group.

Sample Size: The sample size should be adequate to provide enough Level of Measurement: The variable being a
statistical power to detect any meaningful associations. Larger sample sizes (e.g., success/failure, yes/no) or binary. The te
tend to produce more reliable results. continuous or ordinal data.

Level of Measurement: The variables being analyzed should be categorical

or ordinal in nature. The chi-square test is not appropriate for continuous Example
or interval-level data. Research Question: Is there a significant differ
a specific disease?
Example
Research Question: Is there an association between smoking status and the Table Data:
presence of lung cancer?

Table Data:

In this example, we have collected data on th

for two drug treatments (Treatment A or
In this example, we have collected data on the presence of lung cancer (Yes frequencies.
or No) based on smoking status (Smoker or Non-Smoker). The table Treatment A
presents the observed frequencies. To compare the proportions of treatment ou
perform Improved
a chi-square test for proportions.
50
To examine the association between smoking status and the presence of difference in the effectiveness of the two t
lung cancer, we can perform a chi-square test of association. The test will treatmentNot Improved
outcomes. 30
determine if there is a significant relationship between smoking status and Total 80
the occurrence of lung cancer.
Lung No Lung
Total
Cancer Cancer
Smoker 80 120 200
Non-Smoker 40 160 200
presents the observed frequencies.
perform a chi-square test for proportions.
To examine the association between smoking status and the presence of difference in the effectiveness of the two t
lung cancer, we can perform a chi-square test of association. The test will treatment outcomes.
determine if there is a significant relationship between smoking status and
the occurrence of lung cancer.
Lung No Lung
Total
Cancer Cancer
Smoker 80 120 200
Non-Smoker 40 160 200
Total 120 280 400
 e test for proportions Chi square test How to decide which to use?
quare test for proportions is a statistical test used to compare the proportions or The choice between the chi-square test for i
es between two groups or conditions. It examines whether the difference in the difference in proportions depends on
ns is statistically significant. question and the type of data you have.
is typically used when the outcome of interest is a categorical variable with two The chi-square test for independence is used
(e.g., success/failure, yes/no) and you want to determine if the proportions of the if there is a significant association or relation
differ significantly between the groups. variables. It assesses whether the observed
table are significantly different from what wou
alculates a chi-square statistic by comparing the observed proportions to the expected were independent.
ns assuming the null hypothesis of no difference. A significant result indicates that there
e of a statistically significant difference in proportions between the groups. On the other hand, the test for the differenc
you want to compare the proportions or perce
ons conditions. It examines whether the differenc
significant.
ence: The observations within each group should be independent of each other. This
n ensures that the proportions are not influenced by or related to each other.

ampling: The data should be obtained through random sampling from the populations
t. Random sampling helps to ensure that the samples are representative of their
populations and reduces the risk of bias.

mple Sizes: For approximate inference (using methods such as the normal approximation
both sample sizes should be large enough so that the sampling distribution of the
n can be approximated by a normal distribution. A general rule of thumb is that the
successes and failures in each group should be at least 10.

ent Samples: The two groups being compared should be independent of each other.
mption ensures that the proportions in one group are not influenced by or related to the
ns in the other group.

Measurement: The variable being analyzed should be categorical with two categories
ess/failure, yes/no) or binary. The test of difference in proportions is not appropriate for
s or ordinal data.

Question: Is there a significant difference in the effectiveness of two drug treatments for
disease?

a:

mple, we have collected data on the treatment outcomes (Improved or Not Improved)
drug treatments (Treatment A or Treatment B). The table presents the observed
es.
Treatment A Treatment B Total
re the proportions of treatment outcomes between the two drug treatments, we can
chi-square test for
mproved proportions.
50 The test
30 will determine
80 if there is a significant
in the effectiveness of the two treatments based on the observed proportions of
Not Improved
outcomes. 30 40 70
otal 80 70 150
 chi-square test for proportions. The test will determine if there is a significant
in the effectiveness of the two treatments based on the observed proportions of
outcomes.
w to decide which to use?
the chi-square test for independence and the test for
roportions depends on the nature of your research
e of data you have.

for independence is used when you want to determine

nt association or relationship between two categorical
s whether the observed frequencies in a contingency
y different from what would be expected if the variables

the test for the difference in proportions is used when

e the proportions or percentages between two groups or
nes whether the difference in proportions is statistically
Logit transformation Logit transformation
In the context of a regression model for a binary outcome, the logit Logistic regression is a statistical modeling t
transformation is a mathematical function used to model the relationship relationship between a binary (dichotomous)
between the predictor variables and the probability of the binary outcome more predictor variables.
occurring. The logit transformation is commonly employed in logistic
regression. In logistic regression, the dependent v
distribution, and the goal is to estimate the pr
The logit transformation converts the probability of the binary outcome the probability of success or the probabilit
(which ranges from 0 to 1) into a log-odds scale, which can take any real category) based on the values of the predictor
value from negative infinity to positive infinity. The logit function is defined
as the natural logarithm (base e) of the odds of the outcome occurring. It The relationship between the predictors and
can be represented as: the logistic function, which maps the line
variables to the probability scale.
logit(p) = ln(p / (1 - p)) where p is the probability of the binary outcome.
The logistic regression model takes the form:

log(p / (1 - p)) = β₀ + β₁x₁ + β₂x₂ + ... + βᵣxᵣ

where:

* log(p / (1 - p)) is the log-odds (logit) of the p

outcome,

* p is the probability of the outcome,

* β₀, β₁, β₂, ..., βᵣ are the coefficients (paramet

predictor variables x₁, x₂, ..., xᵣ.

The logistic regression model estimates the v

maximum likelihood estimation, aiming to fin
maximizes the likelihood of the observed data
n
a statistical modeling technique used to analyze the
a binary (dichotomous) outcome variable and one or
les.

on, the dependent variable follows a binomial

goal is to estimate the probability of the outcome (i.e.,
ccess or the probability of belonging to a specific
e values of the predictor variables.

een the predictors and the outcome is modeled using

which maps the linear combination of predictor
bility scale.
n model takes the form:

₁x₁ + β₂x₂ + ... + βᵣxᵣ

log-odds (logit) of the probability of the

of the outcome,

he coefficients (parameters) associated with the

₁, x₂, ..., xᵣ.

n model estimates the values of the coefficients using

estimation, aiming to find the best-fitting model that
od of the observed data.
b0 =
b1 =
 Treatment Outcome Logit eLogit Probab log likelihood
-1.661706 0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
0.6276325 0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
0.001 0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
0.001 0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824 Online calculator =
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
Coefficients interpretation
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824 Intercept (-1.66): When the treatme
odds (logit) of the outcome is -1.66
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824 odds of the outcome (death) is -1.66
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824 Coefficient for X (0.63): The coeffici
outcome for a one-unit increase in
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824 binary (0 for treatment A and 1 for
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824 treatment B and treatment A. Thu
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824 estimated increase of 0.63 in the log
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824 Odds ratio B/A
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
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0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
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0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
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0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
0 1 -1.661706 0.1898148 0.1595331 -1.8355039824
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1 1 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.2622951 -1.3382851728
1 1 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.2622951 -1.3382851728
1 1 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.2622951 -1.3382851728
1 1 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.2622951 -1.3382851728
1 1 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.2622951 -1.3382851728
1 1 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.2622951 -1.3382851728
1 1 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.2622951 -1.3382851728
1 1 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.2622951 -1.3382851728
1 1 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.2622951 -1.3382851728
1 1 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.2622951 -1.3382851728
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
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1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
1 0 -1.034074 0.3555555 0.7377049 -0.3042113634
-253.2042595
 Online calculator = https://www.statskingdom.com/420logistic_regression.html
ients interpretation
pt (-1.66): When the treatment variable (X) is 0, which corresponds to treatment A, the estimated log-
ogit) of the outcome is -1.66. In other words, when the patient is in treatment A, the estimated log-
the outcome (death) is -1.66.

ent for X (0.63): The coefficient of 0.63 represents the estimated change in the log-odds (logit) of the
e for a one-unit increase in the treatment variable (X). In this case, since the treatment variable is
0 for treatment A and 1 for treatment B), we can interpret it as the difference in log-odds between
ent B and treatment A. Thus, for patients in treatment B compared to treatment A, there is an Y hat = ao + boX + e
ed increase of 0.63 in the log-odds of the outcome (death). Y hat = Bo + B1X + e

Odds ratio B/A

bo +b1 = -1.034074
bo = -1.661706
0.6222964
1.8632017

1.8731706
Y hat = ao + boX + e
Y hat = Bo + B1X + e
Confounding Variable Intermediate Variable
* Confounding variables are external factors that are associated * Intermediate variables, also known as mediat
with both the exposure and the outcome. intervening variables, are variables that lie on the
pathway between the exposure and the outcome.
* They can distort or mask the true relationship between the
exposure and the outcome, leading to confounding bias. * They are affected by the exposure and, in turn, influe
mediate the relationship between the exposure a
* Confounding variables are typically considered at the analysis outcome.
stage to adjust for their effects and isolate the true association
between the exposure and the outcome. * Intermediate variables provide insight into the mech
or pathways through which the exposure affects the outc
* Controlling for confounding variables is important to obtain
unbiased estimates of the exposure-outcome relationship. * Analyzing intermediate variables may help understa
underlying processes and identify potential targe
intervention.
 In summary
so known as mediators or
ables that lie on the causal In summary, confounding variables are external factors that can
and the outcome. distort the relationship between the exposure and outcome,
while intermediate variables are variables that lie on the causal
osure and, in turn, influence or pathway and mediate the relationship between the exposure
ween the exposure and the and outcome.

e insight into the mechanisms

exposure affects the outcome.

bles may help understand the

entify potential targets for
Confounding Bias
Confounding bias refers to a situation in which a statistical
association between an exposure and an outcome is distorted or
falsely attributed to the exposure due to the presence of a third
variable, known as a confounding variable.

Confounding occurs when the relationship between the

exposure and outcome is mixed with the effects of the
confounding variable, leading to a misleading or incorrect
interpretation of the association.
 Cancer
Smoker 108
Non smoker 117
Total 225

Odds ratio = 1.517697

No Cancer Total Cancer No Cancer Total
163 271 Smoker 92.95 178.05 271
268 385 Non smoker 132.05 252.95 385
431 656 Total 225 431 656

Chi square = 6.3199305

Answers
a)
Decreases in 0.098
b)
OR = 2.1792919
c)
OR = 3.8728861
d)
Average Sd
1.354 0.162

95% CI Lower limit

95% CI Upper limit

In here the odds ratio is different fr

this we say since the CI does not in
 = 117.93%

= 287.29%

Odds Ratio (OR) greater than 1: If the odds ratio is greater than 1, it
suggests that the odds of the outcome are higher among individuals
exposed to a particular factor compared to those unexposed. In other
Log Exp words, the exposure is associated with an increased likelihood or risk of
1.03648 2.8192757 the outcome.
1.67152 5.3202484 Odds Ratio (OR) less than 1: If the odds ratio is less than 1, it indicates
that the odds of the outcome are lower among individuals exposed to a
odds ratio is different from 1 particular factor compared to those unexposed. In this case, the exposure
is associated with a decreased likelihood or protective effect against the
since the CI does not include 1 outcome.