ALGEBRA

A complete introduction

P. Abbott and Hugh Neill

 Contents
Introduction
1 The meaning of algebra
1.1 An illustration from numbers
1.2 Substitution
1.3 Examples of generalizing patterns
1.4 Letters represent numbers, not quantities
1.5 Examples of algebraic forms
2 Elementary operations in algebra
2.1 Use of symbols
2.2 Symbols of operation
2.3 Algebraic expression – terms
2.4 Brackets
2.5 Coefficient
2.6 Addition and subtraction of like terms
2.7 Worked examples
2.8 The order of addition
2.9 Evaluation by substitution
2.10 Multiplication
2.11 Powers of numbers
2.12 Multiplication of powers of a number
2.13 Power of a product
2.14 Division of powers
2.15 Easy fractions
2.16 Addition and subtraction
2.17 Multiplication and division
3 Brackets and operations with them
3.1 Removal of brackets
 3.2 Addition and subtraction of expressions within brackets
3.3 Worked examples
3.4 Systems of brackets
3.5 Worked examples
4 Positive and negative numbers
4.1 The scale of a thermometer
4.2 Motion in opposite directions
4.3 Positive and negative numbers
4.4 Negative numbers
4.5 Graphical representation of the number line
4.6 Addition of positive and negative numbers
4.7 Subtraction
4.8 Graphical illustrations
4.9 Multiplication
4.10 Division
4.11 Summary of rules of signs for multiplication and division
4.12 Powers, squares and square roots
5 Equations and expressions
5.1 Understanding expressions
5.2 Using function machines
5.3 Function notation
5.4 Inverse functions
5.5 An introduction to solving equations
6 Linear equations
6.1 Meaning of an equation
6.2 Solving an equation
6.3 Worked examples
6.4 Problems leading to simple equations
7 Formulae
7.1 Practical importance of formulae
 7.2 Treatment of formulae
7.3 Worked examples
7.4 Transformation of formulae
7.5 Worked examples
7.6 Literal equations
7.7 Worked examples
8 Simultaneous equations
8.1 Simple equations with two unknown quantities
8.2 Solution of simultaneous equations
8.3 Worked examples
8.4 Problems leading to simultaneous equations
8.5 Worked examples
9 Linear inequalities
9.1 The idea of an inequality
9.2 Representing inequalities
9.3 Solving inequalities
9.4 A trap for the unwary
9.5 Simultaneous inequalities
10 Straight-line graphs; coordinates
10.1 The straight-line graph
10.2 The law represented by a straight-line graph
10.3 Graph of an equation of the first degree
10.4 Worked examples
10.5 Position in a plane; coordinates
10.6 A straight line as a locus
10.7 Equation of any straight line passing through the origin
10.8 Graphs of straight lines not passing through the origin
10.9 Graphical solution of simultaneous equations
11 Using inequalities to define regions
11.1 Defining regions
 11.2 Regions above and below straight lines
11.3 Greatest or least values in a region
11.4 Linear programming
12 Multiplying algebraical expressions
12.1 Multiplying expressions when one factor consists of one
term
12.2 Product of expressions with two terms
12.3 When the coefficients of the first terms are not unity
12.4 Multiplication of an expression with three terms
12.5 Square of an expression with two terms
12.6 Square of an expression with three terms
12.7 Cube of an expression with two terms
12.8 Product of sum and difference
13 Factors
13.1 The process of finding factors
13.2 Factors consisting of one term only
13.3 Worked examples
13.4 Factors with two terms
13.5 Worked examples
13.6 The form x2 + ax + b
13.7 Worked examples
13.8 The form ax2 + bx + c
13.9 Expressions which are squares
13.10 Difference of two squares
13.11 Worked examples
13.12 Evaluation of formulae
13.13 Sum and difference of two cubes
13.14 Worked examples
14 Fractions
14.1 Algebraic fractions
 14.2 Laws of fractions
14.3 Reduction of fractions
14.4 Multiplication and division
14.5 Addition and subtraction
14.6 Simple equations involving algebraical fractions
15 Graphs of quadratic functions
15.1 Constants and variables
15.2 Dependent and independent variables
15.3 Functions
15.4 Graph of a function
15.5 Graph of a function of second degree
15.6 Some properties of the graph of y = x2
15.7 The graph of y = −x2
15.8 The graphs of y = ax2
15.9 The graphs of y = x2 ± a, where a is any number
15.10 Graph of y = (x − 1)2
15.11 Graph of y = (x − 1)2 − 4
15.12 The graph y = x2 − 2x − 3
15.13 Solution of the equation x2 − 2x − 3 = 0 from the graph
15.14 Graph of y = 2x2 − 3x − 5
15.15 Graph of y = 12 − x − x2
15.16 Using graphics calculators
15.17 Using graphs to solve quadratic inequalities
15.18 Using quadratic inequalities to describe regions
16 Quadratic equations
16.1 Algebraical solution
16.2 The method of solution of any quadratic
16.3 Solution of 2x2 + 5x − 3 = .0
16.4 Worked examples
16.5 Solution of quadratic equations by factorization
16.6 Worked examples
 16.7 General formula for the solution of a quadratic equation
16.8 Solution of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
16.9 Worked examples
16.10 Problems leading to quadratics
16.11 Simultaneous equations of the second degree
16.12 When one of the equations is of the first degree
16.13 Solving quadratic inequalities
17 Indices
17.1 The meaning of an index
17.2 Laws of indices
17.3 Extension of the meaning of an index
17.4 Graph of 2x
17.5 Algebraical consideration of the extension of
the meaning of indices
17.6 Fractional indices
17.7 To find a meaning for a0
17.8 Negative indices
17.9 Standard forms of numbers
17.10 Operations with standard forms
18 Logarithms
18.1 A system of indices
18.2 A system of logarithms
18.3 Rules for the use of logarithms
18.4 Change of base of a system of logarithms
19 Ratio and proportion
19.1 Meaning of a ratio
19.2 Ratio of two quantities
19.3 Proportion
19.4 Theorems on ratio and proportion
19.5 An illustration from geometry
 19.6 Constant ratios
19.7 Examples of equal ratios
20 Variation
20.1 Direct variation
20.2 Examples of direct variation
20.3 The constant of variation
20.4 Graphical representation
20.5 To find the law connecting two variables
20.6 Worked example
20.7 y partly constant and partly varying as x
20.8 Worked example
20.9 y varies as the square of x – that is, y ∝ x2
20.10 y varies as the cube of x – that is, y ∝ x3
20.11 y varies as or , that is,
20.12 Inverse variation:
20.13 Graph of
20.14 Other forms of inverse variation
20.15 Worked examples
20.16 Functions of more than one variable
20.17 Joint variation
20.18 Worked examples
21 The determination of laws
21.1 Laws which are not linear
21.2 y = axn + b. Plotting against a power of a number
21.3 Worked example
21.4 y = axn. Use of logarithms
21.5 Worked example
22 Rational and irrational numbers and surds
22.1 Rational and irrational numbers
22.2 Irrational numbers and the number line
 22.3 Geometrical representation of surds
22.4 Operations with surds
23 Arithmetical and geometrical sequences
23.1 Meaning of a sequence
23.2 The formation of a sequence
23.3 Arithmetic sequences, or arithmetic progressions
23.4 Any term in an arithmetic sequence
23.5 The sum of any number of terms of an arithmetic
sequence
23.6 Arithmetic mean
23.7 Worked examples
23.8 Harmonic sequences or harmonic progressions
23.9 Geometric sequences or geometric progressions
23.10 Connection between a geometric sequence and an
arithmetic sequence
23.11 General term of a geometric sequence
23.12 Geometric mean
23.13 The sum of n terms of a geometric sequence
23.14 Worked examples
23.15 Increasing geometric sequences
23.16 Decreasing geometric sequences
23.17 Recurring decimals
23.18 A geometrical illustration
23.19 The sum to infinity
23.20 Worked examples
23.21 Simple and compound interest
23.22 Accumulated value of periodical payments
23.23 Annuities
Appendix
Answers
 Introduction
Algebra, like arithmetic, deals with numbers. The two subjects
have much in common; indeed, algebra has been called 'generalized
arithmetic', though this is a very incomplete description of it. It would
perhaps be more correct to say that algebra is an extension of
arithmetic.

Both subjects employ the fundamental operations of addition,

subtraction, multiplication and division of numbers, subject to the
same laws. In each, the same symbols, +, −, ×, ÷, ÷, are used to
indicate these operations, but in algebra, as new processes are
developed, new symbols are invented to assist the operations.
Terms such as fractions, ratio, proportion, square root, etc. have the
same meaning in both subjects, and the same rules govern their
use.

In arithmetic you use numbers whose values are known; you operate
with these and obtain definite numerical results. In algebra, however,
while you may use definite numbers on occasions, you are, in
the main, concerned with general expressions and general results, in
which letters or other symbols represent numbers not named or
specified.

Algebra is an essential tool in mathematics and underpins most

areas of mathematics and science. The ability to manipulate
equations and formulae is a key part of trigonometry,
calculus, mechanics and statistics. Physics and chemistry are
obvious examples of subjects that use a great many formulae but
other subjects such as economics or psychology also rely on
algebra. For example, when psychologists test a hypothesis on a
large group of subjects they need to use algebra to help interpret the
results.

Algebra has many applications in everyday life: algebra enables you

to input a formula into a spreadsheet, or work out the compound
interest payable to you on your bank account. A toy manufacturing
company might use algebra to work out the optimal number of a
particular doll to produce given certain constraints of expected sales,
limited running time and manufacturing costs: this is a process called
linear programming. Architects need to solve complex equations
when designing a new building, a statistician will use algebraic
formulae when interpreting the results of the latest opinion poll and a
pharmacist will use a formula to work out the correct dosage of a
drug. When you buy a new carpet, you work out the area of the
flooring to find the total cost. When you go on a long journey
you might make a rough calculation to estimate your arrival time. All
of these examples involve the use of algebra.

Often algebraic processes are used informally, but actually writing

down and formalizing an approach to solving a problem is very
powerful. For example, you can manually enter the numbers 10, 20,
30, 40, 50, …, 1000 into column A of a spreadsheet or you can enter
10 into cell A1, '=A1+10' into cell A2 and then copy the formula down
into the required number of cells. The end result is the same, but the
second method is much more efficient. To work out the amount
of money you will have in a savings account after 5 years at 5%
interest, you could work out the amount after year 1, then year 2 and
so on, or you can use the formula: final amount = initial investment ×
1.055.

Algebra is often used when solving brain training puzzles, albeit

informally. These puzzles hone your logical thinking skills and are,
studies suggest, good for preserving your mental health. Often
puzzles are solved by using algebraic techniques. For example, a
puzzle like: 'If 4 coffees and 3 cakes cost £11.70 and 2 coffees and 1
cake cost £5.10, how much is a cake?' can be reasoned out using
the algebraic thinking. One line of reasoning would be: '2 coffees and
1 cake cost £5.10, so 4 coffees and 2 cakes would cost £10.20. But
4 coffees and 3 cakes cost £11.70 and the difference between the
orders is 1 cake or £11.70 − £10.20 = £1.50. So a cake costs £1.50.'
You would use exactly the same reasoning to solve simultaneous
equations, but algebra allows you to generalize the method.
Wrestling with a tricky algebra problem or concept is deeply
satisfying – once you have finally solved it there is a definite
'eureka!' moment.

The ability to think logically, reason clearly, to manipulate numbers

and spot patterns is key to many careers, and a large number of
employers will specifically ask for these attributes. Being confident
with algebra is fundamental to these skills.

Algebra is such a wide and comprehensive subject that this book

cannot be regarded as anything more than an elementary
introduction to it. It will help you to learn something of the principles
and foundations of the subject, thus enabling you to proceed to the
study of more detailed and advanced books. It also provides the
knowledge of algebra required for engineering, etc. Consequently
some of those elementary sections of the subject which are of little
use for these purposes have not been included.

The exercises are progressive and designed to enable you to test

your knowledge of what you have studied and to provide material for
your training in that power of manipulation which is so essential.
They contain few of the more complicated or academic problems
which are beyond the practical requirements of the ordinary student.

An appendix contains a very brief summary of the meaning of

permutations and combinations, the binomial theorem, and the
nature of the roots of a quadratic equation. Also included are those
formulae which you may require when beginning work on the
calculus or other branches of mathematics.

While the fundamental laws of algebra have not been entirely

overlooked, rigid proofs of them have been omitted, owing to
exigencies of space. It is hoped, however, that the logical basis of
the subject has not been seriously impaired by the omissions.

Some emphasis has been placed on the graphical aspects of parts

of the subject, since experience has shown that they prove
stimulating and provide revealing help to the student.
No previous mathematical knowledge is required for this work,
beyond that of arithmetic. References have occasionally been made
to theorems in geometry or trigonometry for the benefit of those
students who have some knowledge of them.

The author would like to thank mr Hugh Neill for his work on recent
editions. This includes updating and modernizing the text. Thanks
too to mr C.E. Kerridge for permission to use examples from
National Certificate mathematics Vol I and mr H. marshall for the use
of examples from Vol II.

The publishers would like to thank Sophie Goldie for her work on this
edition of the book.
 1
The meaning of algebra
In this chapter you will learn:

• that in algebra letters stand for numbers

• how to substitute numbers for letters
• how to write down simple algebraic expressions.
1.1 An illustration from numbers
The following example illustrates the use of letters to represent
generalizations in number. You know that

• if any integer – that is, a whole number – is multiplied by 2, the

result is always an even number

• if any even number is increased by 1, the result is an odd number.

These two statements can be combined in one as follows.

If any integer is multiplied by 2 and the product increased by 1,

the result is an odd number.

This is a generalization about an odd number, expressed in words.

This can be expressed by means of algebraical symbols as follows.

• let n be any integer

• then 2 × n is always an even number

• therefore 2 × n + 1 is always an odd number.

The last step shows an algebraic expression which you can use to
represent any odd number.

The brevity and lucidity of this expression compared with the full
description of an odd number above will be apparent. But its value
goes beyond this. You can manipulate this algebraic form, you can
operate with it and, in this way, you can use it in the solution of
problems.

First note, however, that when expressing the product of two or more
numbers represented by letters or a numeral and letters, you can
leave out the multiplication sign. Thus 2 × n can be written as 2n,
and 2 × n + 1 as 2n + 1. This cannot be done with two numerals,
such as 25, because under the decimal system the figure ‘2’ has a
place value. multiplication may also be shown by a dot, so 2 ·
n means 2 × n or 2n.

If any odd number can be represented by 2n + 1, then, since when

any odd or even number is increased by 2 the result is the next odd
or even number, the next odd number greater than 2n + 1 is 2n + 1 +
2 or 2n + 3.

Similarly 2n + 5 is the next odd number above 2n + 3.

So the expressions

form a sequence, or a succession of consecutive increasing odd

numbers.

Similarly, if you subtract 1 from an even number, you obtain an odd

number.

represents a sequence of decreasing odd numbers.

Note: The succession of ‘dots’ after the sets of odd and even
numbers indicates that you could write down more such numbers if it
were necessary.

1.2 Substitution
In the algebraic representation of a set of odd numbers – namely

since n represents any integer, you could, by assigning some

particular value to n, obtain the corresponding odd number.
Consequently the sequence of increasing odd numbers
corresponding to this particular value of n is

Similarly, the decreasing odd numbers when n = 50 can be found by

substituting this value of n in the sequence

Then you get the corresponding arithmetical values

1.3 Examples of generalizing patterns

There are many situations which you can describe by using an
algebraic expression or formula. Here are three examples which
show how you can describe a typical pattern in a sequence by using
letters.

Look at the pattern of dots in each of the shapes in Figure 1.1 below.

Figure 1.1
In the second pattern there are 2 × 2 (= 4) dots, in the third pattern
there are 3 × 3 (= 9) dots, in the fourth pattern there are 4 × 4 (= 16)
dots. In the next pattern there are 5 × 5 (= 25) dots. If the pattern
continued in the same way there would be 10 × 10 (= 100) dots in
the tenth shape. To find the number of dots in any particular pattern
you find the position of the pattern in the sequence and then multiply
this number by itself. The number of dots in the seventeenth pattern
in the sequence would be 17 × 17 (= 289) dots. In a similar way in
the nth pattern there would be n × n (or n2) dots.

Look at the pattern of shapes in Figure 1.2. Each one is made up of

a different number of lines. The first has 3 lines, the second has 5
lines, the third has 7 lines, the next again has two more lines and so
on. These are the odd numbers. The number of lines in each shape
is two more than the number in the previous shape.

Figure 1.2

You can relate the number of lines in any given shape to the position
of the shape in the sequence. The fourth shape has 2 × 4 + 1 (= 9)
lines, the fifth shape has 2 × 5 + 1 (= 11) lines, the sixth shape has 2
× 6 + 1 (= 13) lines, whilst the tenth shape would have 2 × 10 + 1 (=
21) lines.

To find the number of lines in any particular shape you find the
position of the shape in the sequence, double this number and
then add 1.

You can use letters to describe the number of lines in a particular

shape. If you use the letter n to describe the position of the nth
shape in the sequence, then you can write the number of lines as 2
× n + 1, or 2n + 1. You can use this expression to write down the
number of lines in any shape. For example in the 17th shape the
value of n to be substituted in 2n + 1 is 17, so the number of lines is
2 × 17 + 1 (= 35) lines.

Look at the second pattern of shapes in Figure 1.3, below. This time
each one is made up of a number of squares. As in the previous
example, you can find an expression which allows you to write down
the number of lines in any given shape.

Figure 1.3

The number of lines increases by three for each new shape. You can
relate the number of lines in any given shape to its position in the
sequence. The first shape has 1 + 3 (= 4) lines, the second shape
has 1 + 3 + 3 (= 7) lines, the third shape has 1 + 3 + 3 + 3 (= 10)
lines, whereas the tenth shape would have 1 + 10 × 3 (= 31) lines.

To find the number of lines in any particular shape you find the
number of squares in the shape, multiply this number by 3 and
then add 1.

You can use letters to describe the number of lines in a particular

shape. If you use the letter n to describe the number of squares in
the nth shape in the sequence, then you can write the number of
lines as 3 × n + 1, or 3n + 1. You can then use this expression to
write down the number of lines in any shape. For example in the
17th shape the value of n to be substituted in 3n + 1 is 17, so the
number of lines is 3 × 17 + 1 (= 52) lines.

There are various ways of looking at the number of lines in the

pattern of squares. Each of these can lead to a different way of
describing the typical shape. For example, in each shape the
number of horizontal lines is double the number of squares in the
shape and the number of vertical lines is one more than the number
of squares. If you use the letter n to represent the number of squares
in the shape then the total number of lines is 2n + (n + 1) which you
can also write as 3n + 1, as before. Another way might be to take the
number of lines in each of the n squares and then to subtract the
number of vertical lines where two adjacent squares touch, since
these have been counted twice. The number of lines in n squares is
4n. The number of lines counted twice is one less than the number
of squares, that is, n − 1, so the total number of lines in the n
squares is 4n − (n − 1), which can also be rewritten as 3n + 1, as
before (see Section 3.2).

Using letters to describe the general case, in situations like these, is

a very powerful way of summarizing what might otherwise be an
extremely lengthy process. Algebraic expressions and formulae are
the mathematician’s shorthand which in many cases allow
information to be both concise and extremely precise at the same
time.

1.4 Letters represent numbers, not quantities

Such things as length, weight, cost are called quantities. In short,
anything which can be measured is called a quantity.

Letters are not used to represent these quantities. Thus in the

formula:

l stands for the number of cm (or m, as the case may be) and to
obtain it you must first determine the unit to measure the quantity,
and then use a letter to represent the number of units.

It is important, therefore, that when you use letters in algebraical

expressions, you clearly state what each letter represents.

Thus you should say:

• let l represent the number of cm in the length or, more briefly, let
the length be l cm;
• similarly, let n be the number of people, and let c be the cost in
pence.

The sign ‘=’ means ‘equals’ or ‘is equal to’. It should connect two
expressions which are equal in magnitude.

1.5 Examples of algebraic forms

Here are a few examples of what are called algebraic forms, that is,
the expression in algebraic symbols and signs of operation of
statements about quantities.

Example 1.1
Express in algebraic form the number of pence in x pounds added to y pence.

To express pounds in pence you multiply by 100, giving:

So the total number of pence is 100x + y.

Example 1.2
A car travels for t hours at v km/h. How far does it go? How far will it go in
20 minutes?

The car goes v km in 1 hour and so 2v km in 2 hours, 3v km in 3 hours and so on;

in t hours it will go t × v km.

20 minutes is hour and so the car travels × v km in 20 minutes.

In hour the car travels v kilometres.

Example 1.3
There are two numbers. The first is multiplied by 3 and 5 is added to the product.
This sum is divided by 4 times the second number. Express the result in algebraic
form.

Begin by choosing letters to represent the unknown numbers.

Let x represent the first number.

Let y represent the second number.

Then three times x increased by 5 is represented by 3x + 5, and four times the

second number is 4y.

The division of 3x + 5 by 4y is written as

Exercise 1
1 Write down expressions for:
1 the number of pence in £x
2 the number of pounds in n pence.

2 If £a is divided among n boys, how many pence will each boy get?

3 If n people subscribe £a each and m other people subscribe b pence each,

how many pence are subscribed in all?

4 Write down the number of:

1 metres in a kilometres
2 pilots in x jumbo jets
3 tonnes in y kilograms.

5 The sum of two numbers is 28. If one number is n, what is the other?

6 The difference between two numbers is x; if one of them is 50, what is the
other?

7 The product of two numbers is a; if one of them is x, what is the other?

8 If the average length of a woman’s step is x cm:

1 how far will she walk in 100 steps?
 2 how many steps will she take in walking 1.8 km?

9 A number n is multiplied by 2, and 5 is added to the sum. Write down an

expression for the result.

10 If x is an odd number, write down expressions for:

1 the next odd numbers above and below it
2 the next even numbers above and below it.

11 A farmer buys sheep; x of them cost a pence each and y of them cost b
pence each. What is the total cost in pounds?

12 A number is represented by x; double it, add 5 to the result, and then divide
the whole by 6y. Write down an expression for the result.

13 What number must be subtracted from a to give b?

14 What number divided by x gives y as a quotient?

15 What is the number which exceeds b by a?

16 The numerator of a fraction is x increased by 2. The denominator is y

diminished by 5. Write down the fraction.

17 A car travels for m hours at v km/h. It then travels n hours at u km/h. How far
does it travel in all?

18 What is the total number of pence in

19 A train travels at v km/h. How far does it go in x hours and how long does it
take to go y km?

20 Two numbers, less than 10, are chosen. Add them; multiply this sum by 2;
add 4; multiply by 3; add 4 times one of the original numbers; take away 12;
take away 5 times the other original number. The result is 10m + n. What were
the original numbers? Interpret this result as a party trick.

Key ideas
• In algebra, symbols (often letters) rather than quantities are used to represent
numbers. You must state clearly what each letter represents.

• You do not need to write a ‘×’ symbol when writing algebra. So in an instruction
to double a number, n is written as 2n rather than 2 × n.

• You can replace the letters in an expression with numbers. This is called
substitution.
For example, when n = 5, then 2n + 4 = 2 × 5 + 4 = 14.

• Let n be any number then:

» 5n means 5 lots of n or 5 × n
» n + 5 means 5 more than n
» 5 − n means n less than 5
» n + m means m more than n, or the sum of n and m
» 3(n − 5) means subtract 5 from n and then multiply by 3
» n2 means n multiplied by n.
 2
Elementary operations in algebra
In this chapter you will learn:

• about operating with algebraic expressions

• about powers
• how to make algebraic expressions simpler.
2.1 Use of symbols
In order that you may become familiar with the processes of algebra
you need considerable practice in the use of symbols.
Consequently in this and subsequent chapters you will constantly be
using letters which represent numbers in a general way and without
any reference to quantities such as length, cost, etc., as was done in
the previous chapter.

Thus when the form a + b is used, it will, in general, not be using the
letters to refer to any particular quantity, but to stand for any
numbers.

2.2 Symbols of operation

Certain symbols of operation, such as +, −, ×, ÷, √, are common to
arithmetic and algebra, since they are used for operations which are
performed in both subjects. Usually, however, there is a certain
difference in the way they are employed. It is evident that while such
operations as

can be, and usually are, carried out at once with definite numerical
results; expressions such as

cannot be evaluated numerically while a and b represent any

numbers. Until numerical values are assigned to a and b you cannot
proceed further with the operation. But you can, and will, operate
with the expressions themselves, without any reference to their
numerical values.

In addition to the above, many other symbols of operation are used

in algebra, among them the following.

SYMBOL MEANING
= is equal to
 ≠ is not equal to
≈ is approximately equal to
> is greater than
< is less than

Nugget
When you write down a term you do not need to use the

symbols × or ÷. Instead write 6a for 6 × a and for 6 ÷ a.

2.3 Algebraic expression – terms

A combination of letters and symbols such as 2a + b is an example
of an algebraic expression. It may be defined as follows.

An algebraic expression is a combination of symbols which

stand for numbers and for operations with them.

For brevity, the term ‘expression’ is usually employed. When the

expression contains the symbols of operation ‘+’ or ‘−’, those parts of
the expression which they separate are called terms.

Thus 2a + 3b is an expression of two terms.

is an expression of three terms.

A combination of letters such as which does not contain either of

the signs + or − is an expression consisting of one term.

Nugget
In general, for a particular term you should write:
 • numbers first, then letters − so 3a not a3
• letters in alphabetical order – so 4ab not 4ba.

2.4 Brackets
It frequently happens that an expression, or part of an expression, is
to be operated as a whole. For example, suppose that you wish to
write in algebraic symbols ‘twice the sum of a and b’.

Evidently the arrangement 2 × a + b does not make it clear whether

the 2 is to multiply a only or the sum of a and b.

Consequently ‘brackets’ are used to enclose the part which is to be

operated on as a whole − namely, a + b, so you write 2(a + b).

In this arrangement the multiplication sign is omitted between the 2

and the bracket.

The brackets have the effect of indicating the order in which you
carry out the operations. So

means that you find the sum of a and b, multiply this by 2 and then
subtract c.

Similarly (a + b) × (c + d) or (a + b)(c + d) means that you find the

sum of a and b, and also of c and d, and then multiply the two
results.

This will be considered further at a later stage.

2.5 Coefficient
The expression 3a denotes a multiple of a and the number 3; the
indication of the multiple is called the coefficient of a. The
coefficient may be a definite number like 3, called a numerical
coefficient, or it may be a letter representing a number. Thus in the
expression ax, you may regard a as the coefficient of x; in problems
when you are thinking of multiples of a, x would be a coefficient of a
(in such a case you would usually write the expression as xa).

In general, if an expression is the product of a number of factors, any

one of them can be regarded as the coefficient of the product of the
others, when for any purpose we regard this product as a separate
number. Thus in 3ab,

In an expression, terms which involve the same letter, and differ only
in the coefficients of this letter, are called like terms. Thus in the
expression:

3a and 2a are like terms and 5b and 4b are like terms.

2.6 Addition and subtraction of like terms

In arithmetic you learn that the sum of

or

Similarly

or

The same is true for any number, as for example

In algebra, if you were to let a represent 12 in the statement (A)
above, you could write:

and for the other cases:

These last three cases are generalized forms of the preceding

examples, but it must be noted that, whereas in the arithmetical
forms you can proceed to calculate the actual value of the sum in
each, in the algebraical forms you can proceed no further in the
evaluation until a definite numerical value is assigned to a.

Subtraction leads to similar results. Just as

so

In this way, you can add or subtract like terms only. It is not possible,
for example, to perform any addition of two unlike terms such as 9a
+ 5b. The rule for adding together like terms will now be clear. It is
‘add the coefficients’. Thus the sum of 2x + 5x + 3x is 10x, whatever
x may be. The operation of ‘finding the sum’ is used to include both
addition and subtraction. This is called the ‘algebraic sum’.

When an expression contains more than one set of like terms, you
collect them and deal with them separately.

2.7 Worked examples

Example 2.1
Simplify 5a + 6b + 2a − 3b.

Collecting like terms:

and

Hence the whole expression is equal to 7a + 3b. In practice there is generally no

need to write down the above steps. You can make the calculations mentally.

Example 2.2
Simplify 15x − 3y + 6y + 7x − 5.

Collecting like terms and adding coefficients you get

2.8 The order of addition

If you count a number of things, the total is not affected by the order
in which you count them. Thus:

is the same in number as

This will be clear when you remember that 6 is the symbol for 6
units, and 4 is the symbol for 4 units.

In each case the total number of units is the same.

Thus algebraically 6a + 4a is the same in value as 4a + 6a. This is
true for any algebraic sum. Thus 6a + 5b − 3a can be written as 5b −
3a + 6a without altering the value of the expression. Briefly, the order
in which numbers may be added is immaterial.

2.9 Evaluation by substitution

If you wish to find the numerical value of an algebraical expression
for definite numerical values of the letters in it, you should first
simplify the expression by adding like terms. Then substitute the
numerical values for the letters.

Example 2.3
Find the value of 6x + 2y − 3x + 4y − 3 when x = 3 and y = 2.

Simplify the expression as in Section 2.6, giving

Substituting the given values,

Notice that brackets are introduced when it is desirable to keep terms separate for
evaluation.

Exercise 2.1
1 1 Find the value of 6 dozen + 4 dozen.
2 Simplify 6a + 4a and find its value when a = 12.

2 1 Find the value of (8 × 73) − (3 × 73).

2 Find the simplest form of 8b − 3b and find its value when b = 73.

3 Write down in its simplest form:

 and find its value when a = 5 and b = 8.

4 Add together 2a, 4a, a, 5a and 7a and find the value of the sum when a = 2.5.

5 Write the following expressions in their simplest forms:

1 15b + 11b
2 15x − 3x + 7x
3 9a − 4a + 6a + a
4 4x + 3x − 2x – x.

6 Write in their simplest forms:

1 5a − 2b − 3a + 6b
2 11p + 5q − 2q + p
3 a − 2 + 3b + 6 + 5a.

7 Add together:
1 4a − 5b, a + 6b, 5a + b
2 b + c − 3d, c + 2b + d, d – b – c
3 5x + 2y + 3z, x − y − 2z, 2x − y + z.

8 When a = 2, b = 3 find the numerical values of:

1 3a + 2b + 1
2 5a − 3b + 6
3 6a + 2b − 3a + 1
4 4a − 5b − 2b + 12a.

9 Simplify the following expressions and find their values when a = 4, b = 2, x =

3, y = 5.
1 4ab − 2ab + 6ab
2 5ax − 2ax + bx
3 6xy − 4xy + xy
4 ab + 6bx − ay + 3ab − 2bx.

10 Find the numerical value of when a = 2.

11 When x = 1, y = 2, z = 3, find the numerical value of:

12 When x = 4, y = 5, z = 1, find the values of:
1 3xy + 2yz − 3z − 1
2 xy + yz + zx
3 xy + y + x + 1.

13 If n is an odd number, write down the next three odd numbers greater than it
and find their sum.

14 Write down a sequence of four numbers of which the first is a, and each of
the others is twice the one which precedes it. Find their sum.

15 Write down a sequence of five numbers of which the first is a, the second is
greater than the first by d and each of the other three is greater by d than the
one which precedes it. Find their sum.

16 There are five numbers, the smallest of which is expressed by 2n + 5. Each of

the others is 3 greater than the one which precedes it. Write down the
numbers and find their sum.

2.10 Multiplication
In algebra, as in arithmetic, the multiplication of a number of
factors may be performed in any order. This can be written more
precisely in the following way.

The product of a number of factors is independent of the order

in which they are multiplied.

Thus:

and generally

and
Consequently if you need to multiply, say, 2a by 5 you can write the
product in the following form:

and

In this last example, a and b being unlike letters, you cannot proceed
further with the multiplication. You should note, however, that
although 4 × 3 is equal in value to 3 × 4, the two products do not
necessarily mean the same thing when they refer to quantities. If, for
example, 12 soldiers were to ‘form fours’, they would be arranged as
shown in Figure 2.1(a), the arrow showing the direction in which they
are facing. But if the same 12 soldiers were to ‘form threes’ they
would be arranged as in Figure 2.1(b).

Figure 2.1

Thus 3 rows of 4 soldiers require the same number of soldiers as 4

rows of 3 soldiers, but they are a different arrangement. Similarly if 4
people pay 3 pence each, the total amount paid is the same as that
when 3 people pay 4 pence each.

2.11 Powers of numbers

The product of equal numbers is called a power. Thus:

• 8 × 8 is called the second power of 8, or the square of 8

• 8 × 8 × 8 is called the third power of 8, or the cube of 8, there
being three equal factors

• 8 × 8 × 8 × 8 is called the fourth power of 8, there being four equal

factors.

Similarly:

a × a is the second power of a or the square of a

a × a × a is the third power of a or the cube of a
a × a × a × a is the fourth power of a.

The process of writing a power in full is tedious, and the form of it

restricts further operations, especially when the power is a high one.
Accordingly mathematicians made many attempts through centuries
to devise a symbolic method of representing the row of factors.
Finally, Descartes in 1637 used a numeral to mark the number of
factors or the power and wrote the cube of a, for example, as a3, the
fourth power as a4, etc. The figure used in this way is called an index
or exponent; it indicates the number of factors. Thus a × a × a × a ×
a is written as a5. With this symbolic method it is as easy to write
down the 20th power of a number as the 2nd.

But a new symbol, if it is to be satisfactory, must not only express

clearly and concisely the purpose for which it was devised, but also
be convenient for operations with it. You will see, from what follows,
that an index fulfils this condition, and later in the book you will see
how it lends itself to important developments.

2.12 Multiplication of powers of a number

Suppose you require to multiply two powers of a, say a2 × a3. These
numbers written in full are:

the brackets serving to separate the two powers. Then:

so the number of factors in the product is the sum of the number of
factors in the two groups.

In the example above, the product a × a × a × a × a is the 5th power

of a, and the index of the product is the sum of the indices of the two
factors.

You can apply the same reasoning to other cases and deduce the
general rule for the multiplication of two powers of a number.

When two powers of the same number are multiplied, the index
of the product is the sum of the indices of the factors.

Nugget
You can write this rule as:

Example 2.4
1 x4 × x4 = x4+4 = x8.

2 2a7 × a3 = 2a7+3 = 2a10.

3 5b2 × 3b5 = 5 × 3 × b2 × b5 = 15 × b2+5 = 15b7.

4 a2b × ab2 = a2 × a × b × b2 = a3b3.

This rule may be extended to the product of more than two factors.
So
2.13 Power of a product
Find the value of (ab)2.

The use of the bracket shows that, as stated in Section 2.4, the
expression within the bracket must be regarded as a whole.

So, by definition of a power,

You can see that the effect of this is that the index 2 must be
distributed over each of the factors. Thus:

So in arithmetic (2 × 5)2 = 22 × 52 = 4 × 25 = 100. Consequently

when taking a power of a product, the index of the power is said to
be distributed and applied to each factor of the product.

Nugget
Watch out for brackets. There is a difference between 2x2 and (2x)2. 2x2 or ‘2 lots
of x squared’ means 2 × x × x and (2x)2 or ‘2x all squared’ means 2x × 2x = 4x2.

Exercise 2.2

In questions 1 to 24, write the expressions in their simplest forms.

1 4a × 3

2 5x × 2y
 4 7m × 3n

7 3a × 4b × 5c

9 x2 × x

10 a × a2 × a

11 x2 × x2

12 a3 × a3

13 2a2 × a3

14 3x3 × 2x4

15 2ab × ab

16 2b × 3b8

17 x2y × xy2

18 7x3 × x3a

19 2a × 3a2 × a3x

20 (3a2b)3

21 (x3)2

22 (2a4)3

23 (2a3)4

24 (4a)2 × 4a2
In questions 25 to 32, find the numerical values of the given expressions.

25 2a2 × a, when a = 3

26 2a2 + a, when a = 3

27 a2b × ab2, when a = 1, b = 2

28 x2 + 7x + 2, when x = 10

29 3a2 + 2ab + b, when a = 2, b = 3

30 c2 × c3, when c = 1

31 3a × 3a × 3a, when a = 2

32 (2a2x)2, when a = 2, x = 3

2.14 Division of powers

Suppose that a power of a number is divided by another power of
the same number, as for example,

Every division can be expressed in fractional form, as in arithmetic.

(by definition of a power).

As in arithmetic, you can cancel common factors in the numerator

and denominator. So you can cancel the two a factors in the
denominator with two of the five factors of the numerator. Then there
will be left in the numerator (5 − 2) factors, giving
Clearly you can follow the same method whatever the powers.
Consequently you can deduce the following rule.

When dividing a power of a number by another power of the

same number, subtract the index of the divisor from the index
of the dividend.

Nugget
You can write this rule as:

Example 2.5
Divide 3y4 by 6y6.

Arranging as above,

In this example, as the higher power is in the denominator, on cancelling there are
(6 − 4) factors in the denominator. Hence you get

Exercise 2.3
Write down answers to the following:
 1 a3 ÷ a

2 a4 ÷ a2

3 3x3 ÷ x2

4 b5 ÷ 2b

5 6a6 ÷ 3a2

6 5y4 ÷ y

7 6x7 ÷ 2x4

8 14c6 ÷ 7c4

9 a2b3 ÷ ab2

10 x5y4 ÷ x2y3

11 5a3b3 ÷ ab2

12 6x4y ÷ 2x3

13 6a4 ÷ 3a4

14 15x3 ÷ 12x3

2.15 Easy fractions

Algebraic fractions obey the same laws as fractions in arithmetic. In
principle they are manipulated by the same methods. But since the
numerators and denominators may be algebraical expressions,
sometimes rather complicated, they present difficulties not found in
arithmetic fractions. In this chapter you will deal only with simple
forms involving easy manipulation, more difficult cases being left
until later.

2.16 Addition and subtraction

You can apply the same methods as in arithmetic, as shown in the
following examples.
 Example 2.6
Find the sum of

This is of the same form as

and is worked in the same way.

Example 2.7

Find the sum of

This is similar in type to the preceding example, and you deal with it
in the same way.

Example 2.8
Simplify

Example 2.9

Simplify

As in arithmetic, you find the lowest common multiple (L.C.M.) of the denominators
− namely 60.

Note: It is not possible to cancel any factors of 8 or 25 with factors of 60.

This mistake is sometimes made by beginners, although the proceeding is
contrary to the laws of arithmetic. Only factors common to each term of the
numerator can be cancelled with factors of the denominator.

Example 2.10
Simplify

First find the L.C.M. of the denominators. To do this you find the L.C.M. of the
numerical coefficients 12 and 18 – namely, 36 – then the L.C.M. of a2b and ab2.
This is a2b2 since both of them will divide into it exactly. The product of 36 and
a2b2 is the L.C.M. of the denominator.
2.17 Multiplication and division
As in arithmetic, these operations are based upon the same
important rule of fractions.

If the numerator and denominator are divided by the same

number, the value of the fraction is unaltered.

You can express this algebraically in the following way.

Let be any fraction.

where m and n are any numbers.

Example 2.11

Simplify

Written in full the fraction is:

Cancelling common factors, this is equal to:

Note: In practice you do not need to write out the powers in full as shown above.
You can apply the rule for the division of powers directly.
 Example 2.12

Simplify

As in arithmetic, you can cancel factors in either numerator with factors in either
denominator.

Nugget
Deal with the numbers first and then each letter separately.

Remember that to multiply fractions you multiply together the two numerators (‘top
lines’) and then the two denominators (‘bottom lines’).

To divide by a fraction, turn it upside down and then multiply.

Example 2.13

Simplify

Proceeding as with a similar arithmetical example,

 Exercise 2.4
Simplify the following expressions.
 Key ideas
• In algebra, symbols (often letters) are used to represent numbers.
• An algebraic expression is a combination of symbols which stand for numbers
and for the operations with them.

• A term is part of an algebraic expression. One term is separated from the next
term by the operation + or −.
• The coefficient of a term is any factor of a term. However, it is normally the
number or constant factor that is needed. For example, in the term 4x2y the
coefficient of x2y is 4, but the coefficient of y is 4x2.

• Like terms contain exactly the same letters or combination of letters. To simplify
an expression you combine like terms into a single term by adding together the
coefficients.

• You can add numbers in any order.

For example, 2 + 3 + 4 = 4 + 3 + 2 and a + b + c = b + c + a and so on.

• You can multiply numbers in any order.

For example, 2 × 3 × 4 = 3 × 2 × 4 and abc = cba and so on.

• y4 means y × y × y × y. The number 4 is called the index or power and it tells

you how many factors of y there are.

• The laws of indices are:

• When you multiply the numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same
number or symbol then the value of the fraction remains unaltered.
3
Brackets and operations with them
In this chapter you will learn:

• how to use brackets

• how to remove brackets from algebraic
expressions
• how to simplify algebraic expressions involving
brackets.
3.1 Removal of brackets
Simple examples of the use of brackets as a convenient way of
grouping numbers have already been considered. In this chapter
extensions of their use, operations with them and the simplification of
algebraical expressions which contain brackets by removing them
are all examined.

We will begin with a simple but important case.

Figure 3.1 represents a rectangle made up of two other rectangles.

Figure 3.1

Let a mm be the length of one rectangle.

Let b mm be the length of the other rectangle.

Let x mm be the breadth of each rectangle as shown in Figure 3.1.

Then (a + b) mm is the length of the combined rectangle, placing (a

+ b) in brackets as shown in Section 2.4.

The areas of the two smaller rectangles are xa and xb mm2 and the
area of the whole rectangle is x(a + b) mm2.

But the area of the whole rectangle equals the sum of the areas of
the parts, so

Similarly if there are three rectangles of lengths a, b and c mm

respectively, then in the same way you could show that
By modifying the figures, with a little ingenuity, you could similarly
show that

In all these examples, expressions containing brackets have been

transformed into expressions without brackets, or, alternatively, the
brackets have been removed.

Nugget
Removing brackets is sometimes called ‘multiplying out the brackets’ or
‘expanding the brackets’.

You can check these results using numbers. For example, 5 × 138 = 5 × (100 + 30
+ 8) = 5 × 100 + 5 × 30 + 5 × 8 or 5 × 138 = 5 × (100 + 40 − 2) = 5 × 100 + 5 × 40
− 5 × 2 and so on.

When the whole of an expression within brackets is multiplied

by any number, then, if the brackets are removed, each term
within the brackets must be multiplied by the number.

The factor without the brackets is said to be distributed as a factor of

each term within the brackets.

This is an example of the algebraic law called the law of distribution.

3.2 Addition and subtraction of expressions

within brackets
Here are four cases to consider. They are represented by the
following expressions:
1 a + (b + c)

2 a + (b − c)

3 a − (b + c)

4 a − (b − c).

The question to be considered is, what will be the effect of removing

the brackets in the above expressions, with a, b and c representing
any numbers?

1 a + (b + c)

Let a, b, c be represented by the areas of rectangles as shown in

Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2

It is evident that the area of the whole rectangle which represents a

+ (b + c) is the sum of the three rectangles representing a, b, c so

The steps in the addition of the numbers in this case are not altered
by inserting or removing the brackets.

2 a + (b − c)

As in the previous case, a, b, c are represented by the areas of

rectangles, now as in Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3

The two unshaded rectangles represent a and b − c so the whole

unshaded portion represents a + (b − c). You can form it either

1 by adding (b − c) to a,

2 by adding b to a and then subtracting c.

These two results are equal, so

Thus no change results when the brackets are removed.

3 a − (b + c)

Figure 3.4

Using the same method as before of representing a, b and c, the

unshaded rectangle (Figure 3.4) represents the remainder when (b +
c), the two shaded rectangles, are subtracted from a, the whole
rectangle, that is, it represents a − (b + c).

Also if from a, the whole rectangle, you subtract b and c in turn, the
remaining rectangle is the unshaded portion, so it represents a − b −
c.
4 a − (b − c).

In Figure 3.5 the rectangle representing a, b, c is shown, a being

represented by the whole rectangle.

Figure 3.5

The shaded rectangle represents (b − c).

The unshaded rectangle represents the result of subtracting (b − c)

from a, that is, it represents a − (b − c).

It may also be considered as representing the result of subtracting b

from a and then adding c, that is, it represents a − b + c.

Collecting the four cases you have

1 a + (b + c) = a + b + c

2 a + (b − c) = a + b − c

3 a − (b + c) = a − b − c

4 a − (b − c) = a − b + c.

Nugget
You can also convince yourself of these results by considering the following:

10 + (5 + 2) = 10 + 5 + 2 = 10 + 7
10 + (5 − 2) = 10 + 5 − 2 = 10 + 3
10 − (5 + 2) = 10 − 5 − 2 = 10 − 7
10 − (5 − 2) = 10 − 5 + 2 = 10 − 3

From these results you can deduce two rules respecting signs when
the brackets are removed.

A. From 1 and 2 when the + sign precedes the brackets the signs
of the terms within the brackets are unaltered.

B. From 3 and 4 when the − sign precedes the brackets the signs
of the terms within the brackets are changed.

3.3 Worked examples

The following are examples of the use made of the rules of Section
3.1 and Section 3.2, when brackets are removed from an algebraic
expression in order to simplify it.

Example 3.1
Simplify a(a2 + ab + b2).

When you remove the brackets you use the rule of Section 3.1; you multiply each
term within the brackets by the factor a.

Example 3.2
Simplify 2(4a + 3b) + 6(2a − b).

When removing the brackets you use the rule of Section 3.1 to multiply by 2 and 6,
and from Section 3.2, since the + sign before the second pair of brackets is
positive, there is no change of sign.
 Example 3.3
Simplify 5x − (5y + 2x).

This is an example of case 3 of Section 3.2. On removing the brackets signs are
changed.

Example 3.4
Simplify 3(4a − b) − 2(3a − 2b).

This involves the rule of Section 3.1 and case 4 of Section 3.2. Using these,

Example 3.5
Simplify x(2x − y) − x(x − y) − y(x + 2y) and find its value when x = 2, y = 1.

Substituting x = 2, y = 1.

This example shows the advantage of simplifying the expression

before substituting the values of x and y.
 Nugget

If you are not sure whether you have simplified correctly, then substitute the same
values into both the simplified and unsimplified expressions. If the two results are
the same then your answer is probably correct.

Exercise 3.1
Simplify the following expressions by removing brackets.

1 3(5x + 6z)

2 2a(3a + 4b)

3 6a2(3a + 7b − 6c)

4 2(x + 2y) + 3(2x − y)

5 x(x2 − 3x) + x2(4x + 7)

7 2(x + y + z) + 3(2x + y − 2z)

8 x − (2y + z)

9 2x − (y − 2z)

10 2(2a + 2b) − 3(a − b)

11 3a − (2a + b)

12 3a − (2a − b)

13 5x − (x − 2y + 2z)

14 3(a + b − c) − 2(a − b + c)

15 4(x + y) − 3(2x − y) + 2(x − 2y)

16 a(a + b) − b(a − b)
17 x2(x + y) − xy(x2 − y2)

18 3(x2 + x + 5) − 2(x2 − 3x − 4)

19 2p(3p + 2q) − 3q(2p − 5q) + p(3p + 5q)

20 5(xy)2 − 3x(y − 2x)

21 (2x2)2 − 2x3(x − 4)

3.4 Systems of brackets

It may happen that an expression within brackets is part of another
expression, which is itself within brackets. In that case, a second set
of brackets would be required. To avoid confusion, they must be a
shape different from those already used, such as {—} or [—].

Here is an example.

You will easily recognize how clearly and effectively the brackets
help to show the construction of the expression and relations of the
different parts to one another.

It might happen that the whole of the above expression is to

be multiplied by 2b. This will necessitate another set of brackets,
which will indicate that the expression is to be treated as a whole.
You would express this in the following way.

If the whole expression were multiplied by 2, it would become 10a −

(a − b).
When expressions with two or more sets of brackets are to be
simplified by removal of the brackets, it is best, as a rule, to begin
with the inside brackets and work outwards. You will see this in the
following examples.

3.5 Worked examples

Example 3.6
Simplify 2{3a + 5(b + c)}.

As stated above you begin by removing the inner brackets.

Example 3.7
Simplify 3{3a − 2(a − b)}.

Example 3.8
Simplify 12a − 2[3a − {4 − 2(a − 3)}].

Beginning with the innermost bracket:

 Exercise 3.2
Remove the brackets from the following expressions and simplify them.

1 3{5a − 3(a + 1)}

2 3{4(a + b) − 3(a − 2b)}

4 5a2 + 2a{b − (a + c)}

5 3p2 − {2p2 − p(p + 1)}

6 3x(x + 3y) − 2{x2 + 3y(x − 2y)}

7 3bc − 2{b(b − c) − c(b + c)}

8 15x − [3x − {2x − (x − 5)}]

9 50 − 2[3a + 2{3b − 4(b − 1)}]

10 2(x + y) − (x − y)
In questions 14 to 17 complete the equations by filling in the blanks within the
brackets.

14 2a − b + c = 2a − ( )

15 x − y − z = x − ( )

16 2a + 4b − 6c = 2 ( )

17 x2 − xy + y2 = x2 − y ( )

18 From 3a − 2b + 4c subtract a + 2b − 3c.

19 Take 2x − 3y + 4z from 3x − y + 2z.

20 When a = 3, b = 2, c = 1, find the values of

1 4a(a + 4b) − a(3a − b)

2 3c{4c − (3c − 1)}.

Key ideas
• Removing brackets is sometimes called expanding or multiplying out.
• To remove a pair of brackets you should multiply each term inside the brackets
by the number or term outside the brackets.

• When there is a + sign in front of the brackets, then the signs of the terms inside
the brackets are unaltered.

• When there is a − sign in front of the brackets, then the signs of the terms inside
the brackets are changed.
• When expressions with two or more sets of brackets are to be simplified by
removal of the brackets, begin with the inside brackets and work outwards.
4
Positive and negative numbers
In this chapter you will learn:

• that numbers can be negative

• how to carry out operations on negative numbers
• how to simplify algebraic expressions involving
negative numbers.
4.1 The scale of a thermometer
Figures 4.1a and 4.1b represent portions of Celsius thermometers in
which a fine column of mercury registers the rise and fall of
temperature.

The zero point, marked 0, indicates the position of the mercury in the
tube at freezing point – i.e. the freezing point of water.

Figure 4.1(a) shows the mercury at 8°C above zero.

Now suppose the temperature falls 16°C below this point.

First it falls 8°C to 0°C, and then continues to fall for 8°C below zero.
To show this temperature on the scale it must be marked in some
way which is different from the 8°C above zero, or there would be
confusion. To distinguish the degrees below zero from those above
a minus sign ‘−’ is put before all those below zero, and if necessary a
plus sign ‘+’ before those above zero.

Thus +8°C means 8 degrees above zero, and −8°C means 8

degrees below zero.

These are called positive and negative degrees, and the signs + and
− are used to indicate different directions up and down from the zero.
Figure 4.1

4.2 Motion in opposite directions

Suppose you start from a point O (see Figure 4.2) travel for 4 km in
the direction O to X, reaching the point marked A.

Figure 4.2

You then turn and travel 6 km in the opposite direction towards X'.
After 4 km you reach O, the zero or starting point. The next 2 km
take you to B. You are now 2 km from O but in the direction opposite
to that in which you started. Your successive distances from O can
be shown by +4 −6. This suggests that, as in the previous cases, if
distances from O in one direction were regarded as positive, the
distances in the opposite direction could be regarded as negative.
Thus, if you now say that you are −2 km from O, you mean that you
are 2 km in the direction opposite to the original. Accordingly, in the
diagram showing the movements from O (Figure 4.2).

Distances to the right with + signs are called positive.

Distances to the left with − signs are called negative.

With this device, when giving your position from O, the sign of the
number would indicate in which direction you are from O. Thus −4
km would indicate you are at C, +2 km would show you are at D.

The number with the + sign is called a positive number.

The number with the − sign is called a negative number.

4.3 Positive and negative numbers

From this it appears that a new kind of number has been devised –
namely, a negative number – and that, in consequence, you can
divide numbers into two kinds: positive and negative. From the
examples above, a negative number is a number which in
its meaning and effect is opposite to a positive number.

Frequently, as in examples of Sections 4.1 and 4.2, the negative

number indicates a direction opposite to that of the positive number
and, in this sense,

Positive and negative numbers are called directed numbers.

If negative numbers can rightly be classed as numbers, they must, in

operations with them, conform to the rules governing the numbers
which we now call positive numbers. These operations will be
considered fully later, but a few simple illustrations will serve to show
that you can deal with negative numbers in the same way as positive
numbers.

For example, in the matter of addition, you can add −2 and −3, and a
glance at Figure 4.2 will show that the result is −5, being equal to the
sum of −2 and another −3 from O to the point marked E. Or if −3
is multiplied by 2, that is, you double the distance from O to get −6,
at the point F.

Similarly division of −6 by 2 would give −3.

For the rest of this chapter, in order to make the meaning clear,
positive and negative numbers, when being used in operations, will
be placed in brackets.

Thus (−6) ÷ (+2) = (−3).

4.4 Negative numbers

Corresponding to every positive number there is a negative number,
and you can write a sequence of negative numbers corresponding to
positive numbers. Thus if you write down the numbers beginning, for
example, with +6, and decreasing by one at each step, you get the
sequence of numbers +6, +5, +4, +3, +2, +1, 0.

With the negative number, you do not stop at the zero, but continue
with the subtraction, so that you get

in descending order of magnitude. Or if you start with (−6) and add

unity in succession you get the complete sequence

in ascending order of magnitude. You can extend this sequence in

either direction and decimals and fractions fall into their places
between these numbers. Thus you get what is called the number
line.

4.5 Graphical representation of the number line

The graphical representation of the number line is so important that
we return to it again.
Figure 4.3

The straight line XOX' is drawn, as in Figure 4.3, to represent a small

part of the line. On this line, starting from a point O, and using a
suitable scale, distances are marked to the right to represent positive
numbers and to the left to represent negative numbers. You could
imagine this line to be extended to any distance on either side so
that any number could be included. Numbers involving decimals lie
between those marked. Thus −2.5 would be at A.

You should observe that the numbers shown in the figure increase
from left to right.

4.6 Addition of positive and negative numbers

You have already seen in Section 4.3 that addition of two negative
numbers is performed in the same way as that of positive numbers.

Such operations can be confirmed by use of Figure 4.3. The addition

of a positive and a negative number can also be seen from Figure
4.3. For example, (−4) + (+3) is shown by starting at D, which
represents −4, and moving +3 to the right to E, the result being −1.
Similarly (+3) + (−7) is shown by starting at F, at +3, and (since −7 is
a negative number) moving 7 divisions to the left to D to find the
sum, which is (−4).

When the negative numbers involve letters, the procedure is the

same. So
4.7 Subtraction
Subtraction presents a little more difficulty, since it is not easy at first
to understand what is implied by the subtraction of a negative
number, as, for example, (+6) − (−2) or (−2) − (−5).

This can be deduced from Figure 4.3, but the rule will first be
obtained by applying a fundamental law of addition and subtraction.

A similar result will clearly hold whatever the numbers. You can
conclude that for any number a,

Example 4.1

Nugget
For example,

10 + (+6) = 10 + 6 so adding +6 is the same as adding 6

10 − (+6) = 10 − 6 so subtracting +6 is the same as subtracting 6
10 + (−6) = 10 − 6 so adding −6 is the same as subtracting 6
10 − (−6) = 10 + 6 so subtracting −6 is the same as adding 6

Look at the signs in the middle:

same signs … add

different signs … subtract.

4.8 Graphical illustrations

You can deduce the rule to find (−2) − (−5) from the graphical
representation of the number scale in Figure 4.3 in the following way.
If you add a negative number you move to the left along the scale.

Consequently if you subtract a negative number you must move to

the right. Starting from (−2) and moving 5 to the right you reach +3,
that is,

Similarly, you can find (−2) − (+5). When adding a positive number
you move to the right, therefore when subtracting a positive number
you move to the left. So starting from (−2), you move 5 divisions to
the left and read (−7).

Summarizing the rules for addition and subtraction:

You should compare these with rules for signs given in Section 3.2.

Exercise 4.1
1 A lift starting from the ground floor rises to the fourth floor. Then it descends
to the second floor, rises to the sixth floor and finally descends to the ground
floor. Express its movements by using positive and negative numbers.

2 The movement of the mercury in a thermometer was as follows. Starting at

+8°C it rose 2°C, fell 14°C, then rose 4°C and finally fell 6°C. Express these,
using positive and negative signs, and find the final temperature.

3 How much higher than a temperature of −15°C is:

1 a temperature of −4°C
2 freezing point
3 +15°C?

4 Using the number scale shown in Figure 4.3 find:

1 by how much −2 is greater than −7
2 by how much −6 is less than −1
3 by how much +3 is greater than −5.

5 1 What must be added to (−3) to give (a) −1, (b) +1?

2 What must be taken from (−3) to give (−8)?

6 Write down the values of each of the following.

1 (+6) + (−2)
2 (+6) − (−2)
3 (−6) + (−2)
4 (−6) − (−2)
5 0 − (−3)
6 (−4) + (−4)
7 − (4) − (−4)
8 (−4) − (+4)
 7 Simplify the following expressions.
1 +2a − (−5a)
2 −4x − (+3x)
3 +3ab − (−7ab)
4 2x − 3y − 5y − 3x
5 (3a − 2b) − (2a + 5b)
6 (3x − y) − (4x − 3y)
7 3x − (3y − 4x)
8 (5 + x) − (6 − 2x) − (3x + 7)

8 1 Subtract (x − 2y) from (3x − 4y).

2 Subtract (x − y + 2z) from (3x − 2y − 5z).

9 Complete there equations by filling in the brackets.

1 3a − ( ) = 8a
2 5x − ( ) = −x
3 −3a − ( ) = 7a

10 Write down the values of

1 0 − (+a)
2 0 − (−a)
3 0 + (−a).

4.9 Multiplication
1 Multiplication of (−a) by (+b) and (+a) by (−b).

Consider as a special case, (−2) × (+3).

Since multiplication is a shortened form of addition, the meaning

of (−2) × (+3) is (−2) + (−2) + (−2), which is −6.

You can apply this to any pair of numbers, so you can conclude that
in general
Since the multiplication of two numbers can be taken in any order
(Section 2.10)

and this, by the above result, is (−ab).

2 Multiplication of (−a) by (−b)

Since

and a negative number operates in the opposite sense to a

positive number, it follows that

4.10 Division
1 Division of (+a) by (+b)

2 Division of (−a) by (+b)

3 Division of (+a) by (−b)

4 Division of (−a) by (−b)

4.11 Summary of rules of signs for multiplication

and division

Multiplication
(+a) × (+b) = +ab
(+a) × (−b) = −ab
(−a) × (+b) = −ab
(−a) × (−b) = +ab

Division

These results can be summarized in the following rule:

In the multiplication and division of positive and negative
numbers, if the two numbers have the same sign the result is a
positive number. If the signs are different, the result is a
negative number.

Nugget
Or to remember these more readily the following slogans can be used:

Like signs give +.

Unlike signs give −.

4.12 Powers, squares and square roots

When you square a number you multiply two numbers with the same
signs. In accordance with the above rules, the product must be
positive.

Consequently the square of any number is positive or zero.

The square root of a number is defined always to be positive (or

zero).

Therefore .

Nugget
If a is positive, , and if a is negative, .

If a = 0, .

For example, which is the same as −(−3).

Again (−a)3 = (−a) × (−a) × (−a) = −a3

and (−a)4 = (−a) × (−a) × (−a) × (−a) = +a4.

From these and similar examples you can deduce that:

An odd power of a negative number is negative.

An even power of a negative number is positive.

Exercise 4.2
1 Write down the answers to the following
1 (+12) × (+3)
2 (+12) × (−3)
3 (−12) × (+3)
4 (−12) × (−3)
5 (+12) ÷ (+3)
6 (+12) ÷ (−3)
7 (−12) ÷ (+3)
8 (−12) ÷ (−3)

2 Write down the answers to the following

1 (+a) × (−a)
2 (−a) × (−a)
3 (+a) ÷ (−a)
4 (−a) ÷ (−a)

3 Write down the answers to the following

1 (−2a) × (+2b)
2 (−2a) × (−2b)
3 (+10x) × (−2y)
4 (−10x) × (+2y)
4 (+10x) ÷ (−2y)
6 (−10x) ÷ (−2y)
4 Find the values of the following
1 (−4) × (+3) × (−2)
2 (−a) × (+3a) × (−2a)
3 −18xy) ÷ (−6x)
4 (−24a2b2) ÷ (+4ab)

5 Find the values of the following.

1 (−5x) × (−2x) × (−x)
2 a(a − b) − b(b − a)
3 −{a(−2b) × (−b)}
4 −a(a − 2b − c)

6 Find the simplified form of the following.

1 (+2a) × (−5b) × (−2b)
2 (−4x)2 − 2x(5x − 4)
3 x(y − z) − z(x − y) − y(x − z)

7 Write down the second, third, fourth and fifth powers of:
1 (−a),
2 (−2x),

8 Write down the square roots of 81 and 9x4 and the cube roots of −x3 and
−8a6.

9 Find the answers to the following multiplications and divisions.

1 (−8x) × (−2)
2 (−10x) ÷ (−2)
3 (−2xy) ÷ (−x)
4 (+6b) ÷ (−3)
5 (+8t2) ÷ (−4t)
6 (−4x3) ÷ (−2x2)
7 (−2x2) × (−4x)
8 (+15x2y) ÷ (−5xy)
 9 (−12a2b2) ÷ (+3ab)
10 (−24a3bc2) ÷ (−4abc)

10 Write down the values of:

1 {(−a) × (−b)} ÷ (−a)

3 (−6x)2 × (−x)3 ÷ (−2x)4

Key ideas
Positive and negative numbers are called directed numbers.

• The rules for adding and subtracting directed numbers are:

» same signs in the middle … add
» different signs … subtract

• When you multiply and divide directed numbers use the following rule:
» like signs give a +
» unlike signs give a −.

• The square of a number is the result of multiplying the number by itself. So

• When you multiple two negative numbers the result is a positive number. Hence,
the square of any number is positive or zero.
• The square root of a number is positive. So .

» The cube of a positive number is positive, so

• The cube of a negative number is negative, so

• An odd power of a negative number is negative.

An even power of a negative number is positive.
5
Equations and expressions
In this chapter you will learn:

• about functions and function machines

• how to find an inverse function
• how to solve simple equations.
5.1 Understanding expressions
Many situations can be described using letters as a shorthand. For
example, when you find the area of a rectangle you multiply the
length by the breadth. If you use l to represent the length and b to
represent the breadth then the area can be written as l × b or more
simply by using the expression lb.

In algebra, you often use the letter n to represent the position of the
nth term in a sequence of numbers. An expression is then given
which shows how you can find the value of the term for a particular
value of n.

Example 5.1
The nth term in the sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, … is 2n.

Here the 5th term is 2 × 5, that is, 10.

The nth term in the sequence 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, … is n2.

Here the 5th term is 5 × 5, that is, 25.

Often the expressions will be much more complicated than these

and you will need to understand exactly what the expression means,
before you can use it to find the value of a particular term in the
sequence.

You saw in Chapter 1 (1.3) how you could use the expression 3n + 1
to describe the nth term in the sequence of numbers 4, 7, 10, 13, …
You find the 5th number in this sequence by substituting 5 as the
value of n in the expression, i.e. 3 × 5 + 1. The 5th number is
therefore 16.

The expression 3n + 1 means

first multiply the number n by 3 and then add 1.

A helpful way to illustrate this expression is to draw a diagram.

You can shorten this to

A diagram like this is often called a function machine. The arrows

are used to show the order in which the operations are carried out. If
you use a particular value of n, say 5, this is fed through the machine
and if necessary you show the intermediate steps in the calculation.

5.2 Using function machines

A function machine is not only a useful aid in helping you to write the
correct expression to describe the nth term in a sequence, but also
helps you to carry out the arithmetic operations in the correct order.

Example 5.2
Draw a function machine to describe:
(a) 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, …
that is, first multiply by 3 and then add 2.
(b) 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, …
that is, first add 2 and then multiply by 3.

What is the result using 5 with each machine?

You should notice that the order in which the operations are carried out affects
both the actual form of the expression and also the numerical results. The brackets
are needed in the second expression to show that the whole of n + 2 is multiplied
by the 3.

Example 5.3
Draw a function machine to describe
(a) 5, 12, 19, 26, 33,…
that is, first multiply by 7 and then subtract 2,
(b) 3, 6, 11, 18, 27,…
that is, first square the number and then add 2.

What is the result using 5 with each machine?

Exercise 5.1
1 Draw a function machine to describe each of the following:
1 first multiply by 2 and then add 3
2 first multiply by 6 and then subtract 3
3 first add 3 and then multiply by 2
4 first square the number and then subtract 2.

In each of the above find the result of using 7 with the machine.

2 Describe how to find the nth term of the sequence and then draw the
function machine for the corresponding expression.
1 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, …
2 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, …
 3 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, …
4 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, …
5 11, 14, 19, 26, 35, …
6 6, 11, 16, 21, 26, …

Example 5.4
Draw a function machine to show how to evaluate the expressions
(a) 5n − 2,
(b) 4(n + 5),

(c) n2 + 5.

In each case write down the first five terms of the corresponding sequence.

so the first five terms of the sequence are 3, 8, 13, 18 and 23.

so the first five terms of the sequence are 24, 28, 32, 36 and 40.

so the first five terms of the sequence are 6, 9, 14, 21 and 30.

Example 5.5
Draw a function machine to show how to evaluate the expressions
(a) 4(5n − 2),
(b) 4(n + 5) + 3,
(c) 2(n2 + 5).

In each case write down the first five terms of the corresponding sequence.

so the first five terms are 12, 32, 52, 72 and 92.

so the first five terms of the sequence are 27, 31, 35, 39 and 43.

so the first five terms of the sequence are 12, 18, 28, 42 and 60.

Exercise 5.2
1 Draw function machines to show how to evaluate the expressions:
1 4n − 3
2 4(n + 3)
3 4n2.

For each write down the first five terms of the corresponding sequence.

2 Draw function machines to show how to evaluate the expressions:

1 4(n − 3) + 5
2 4(5n + 3)
3 4(n2 +7).

For each write down the first five terms of the corresponding sequence.

3 Draw function machines to show how to evaluate the expressions

1 5(n + 3) − 2
2 3(4n − 2) + 5
 3 3(n + 1)2 + 7.

For each write down the first five terms of the corresponding sequence.

4 Draw function machines for

1 7(n + 1) + 3
2 7n + 10.

For each write down the first five terms of the corresponding sequence.

Are the two sequences the same? Why are the expressions equivalent?

In Question 4 of Exercise 5.2 the two expressions can be shown to

be the same by removing the brackets in

You do not need to simplify more complicated expressions like this

before evaluating them, provided you can write down the sequence
of operations which enables you to work out the value of the
expression for a particular value of n. An example comparing the
two methods is shown below.

Example 5.6
Evaluate the expression 2(3n2 + 5) − 4 when n = 7:

1 by drawing a function machine

2 by simplifying the expression by removing the brackets.

1 The function machine is

With n = 7 you get

 2 Simplifying the expression you get

so when n = 7 you have

6n2 + 6 = 6 × 72 + 6 = 6 × 49 + 6 = 294 + 6 = 300.

Exercise 5.3
1 What expression is evaluated by the function machine?

2 Draw function machines to show how to evaluate the expressions

1 5(4n − 3) + 6
2 4(n + 3)2 − 5
3 7(4(n + 3) − 2) − 5.

Find the value of each expression when n = 1.

3 Evaluate the expression 3(2(n + 1) − 5) + 14 when n = 3

1 by drawing a function machine,
2 by simplifying the expression by removing the brackets.

Note: You can describe each of the function machines met so far by
a rule of the form: n → f(n), where f(n) is an expression containing
‘n’s.

In Example 5.6, n → 2(3n2 + 5) − 4,

so here f(n) = 2(3n2 + 5) − 4

When n = 7, you found that 7 → 300. You can also show this as f(7)
= 300.

5.3 Function notation

Although so far you have used the letter n to represent the position
of the nth term in a sequence, you could have used any letter to
describe the rule. The rule n → 2n + 3 is the same as the rule x →
2x + 3. In each case, the rule tells you to multiply the number you
started with by 2 and then to add 3.

You say that the image of n when using this rule is 2n + 3, whereas
the image of x would be 2x + 3. In either case the image of 5 is 2 × 5
+ 3, that is, 13.

Another way of showing the rule x → 2x + 3 is to use a mapping (or

arrow) diagram. The rule tells you to multiply by 2 and then to add 3:

Nugget
You can think of a function as being a rule for changing one number into another
number. Sometimes the number going in is called the input and the number
coming out is called the output.

The first set of numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 is called the domain of

the mapping. The second set of numbers 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15 is
called the image or range set for this mapping. In order to
distinguish between two different rules, a label is often attached.
You might use the letter f as the label for the rule x → 2x and the
letter g as the label for the rule x → x + 3. So f represents the
multiply by 2 rule and g represents the add 3 rule.

The notation f(x) is used to represent the image of x when using the f
rule. Here f(x) = 2x, so f(5) = 10 and f(7) = 14. In a similar way the
notation g(x) is used to represent the image of x when using the g
rule. Here g(x) = x + 3, so g(5) = 8 and g(7) = 10.

Note: The rule x → 2x + 3 is really made up of the two rules f and g.

First use the rule f (multiply by 2) and then use the rule g (add 3) on
the result. + using a function machine this would be

You can use the letters gf to represent the composite rule

Nugget
It is a common mistake to think that gf means multiply the rules for f and g
together. You should think of gf as being ‘g of f’ or g[f(x)] – So gf means use the f
rule first and then the g rule. This is not the same as fg which means use the g rule
first and then the f rule. Remember: ‘adding 3 and then doubling’ gives a different
result to ‘doubling and then adding 3’.

The corresponding function machine for fg is

The study of functions and their properties is an important part

of mathematics. However it is not intended in this book to cover the
work in any formal way, or to do any more than to introduce some
basic ideas.
 Example 5.7
1 Find the composite rule fg where f represents x → 3x and g represents x → x
− 2. Find also fg(5).

2 Find the composite rule gf where f represents x → x + 3 and g represents x

→ x2. Find also gf(5).
1 fg means use g (subtract 2) first and then use f (multiply by 3)

Hence fg is x → 3(x − 2) or fg(x) = 3(x − 2) and fg(5) = 3x (5 − 2) = 9.

2 gf means use f (add 3) first and then use g (square), so

Hence gf is x → (x + 3)2 or gf(x) = (x + 3)2 and gf(5) = (5 + 3)2 = 64.

Exercise 5.4
1 Write down in the form of x → … the following rules.
1 Double and then add 7. If this rule is f find f(3).
2 Add 7 and then double. If this rule is g find g(3).
3 Add 5 and then square. If this rule is h find h(3).
4 Square and then add 5. If this rule is k find k(3).

2 If f is the rule subtract 3 and g is the rule multiply by 2 find:

1 f(5)
2 g(9)
3 the rule fg
4 the rule gf.

3 Using the rules f, g, h and k from Question 1, find:

 1 gf(3)
2 fg(3)
3 hk(3)
4 kh(4)
5 the rule kf.

5.4 Inverse functions

The opposite (or inverse) of the rule add 3 is the rule subtract 3. If f
is the rule x → x + 4, then its inverse is the rule x → x − 4. In the
same way if g is the rule x → 3x, its inverse is x → x ÷ 3. The inverse
of the rule f is called f−1. The inverse of g is called g−1.

Note: If f(7) = 11, then f−1(11) = 7; also if g(7) = 21, then g−1(21) = 7.

Example 5.8
Find the inverse of the rule x → 3x + 4.

This rule tells you first to multiply by 3 and then to add 4. To find the inverse of this
rule you need first to ‘undo’ the add 4 and then to ‘undo’ the multiply by 3, i.e. you
first subtract 4 and then divide by 3. So the inverse of x → 3x + 4 is x → (x − 4) ÷
3.

This process can be seen most easily using a function machine. The
function machine for the rule x → 3x + 4 is

If you want to undo this process you must run the machine ‘backwards’, that is

So reading from right to left you first subtract 4 and then divide by 3. This is the
rule x → (x − 4) ÷ 3.

Example 5.9
Find the inverse of the rule x → 3(x + 4) − 2.

The function machine for the rule x → 3(x + 4) − 2 is

If you run the machine ‘backwards’ you get

So reading from right to left you first add 2, then you divide by 3 and then you
subtract 4. This gives the rule x → (x + 2) ÷ 3 − 4.

You can check that this is correct by trying out a specific value. Say x = 6.

Using the rule,

Using the inverse rule,

Example 5.10
Find the number which gives 19 as the result when using the rule x → 3x + 4.

The function machine for the rule x → 3x + 4 is

You know that the result has to be 19, so you must run the machine ‘backwards’ to
find the original number. In this case it is 5.
 Exercise 5.5

1 1 Draw a function machine for the rule x → 4x + 3.

What is the result if the number used is 5?
2 Now run the machine backwards to find the inverse of the rule. Check that
5 is the result if the number used is 23.

2 1 Draw a function machine for the rule x → 5(x − 4) + 3.

What is the result if the number used is 8?
2 Now run the machine backwards to find the inverse of the rule. Check that
8 is the result if the number used is 23.

3 Find the inverse of the rule x → 2x − 3.

Use this to find what number gives 11 when using the original rule.

4 Find the inverse of the rule x → 5(2x − 3) + 7.

Hence find the value of x for which 5(2x − 3) + 7 = 22.

5.5 An introduction to solving equations

The ideas introduced in Example 5.10 enable you to solve simple
problems of the form, ‘For what value of x is 3x + 4 = 19?’ This is an
example of a linear equation which you will consider in greater detail
in the next chapter.

Example 5.11
For what value of x is 5x − 7 = 8?

First draw the function machine which gives the expression on the left-hand side of
the equation.

You want to find the number which gives 8 when using this machine. To do this
draw the inverse machine using 8 as the starting number.
This shows that 5x − 7 = 8 when x = 3. To check, substitute 3 for x: 5 × 3 − 7 = 8.

Example 5.12
For what value of x is 5(x − 3) = 20?

First draw the function machine for the left-hand side of the equation.

Now draw the inverse machine and use the right-hand number, that is, 20

So 5(x − 3) = 20 when x = 7. Check: 5(7 − 3) = 5 × 4 = 20.

Example 5.13
For what value of n is 3(2n − 5) + 4 = 55?

First draw the function machine for the left-hand side of the equation.

Now draw the inverse machine and use the right-hand number, that is, 55

So 3(2n − 5) + 4 = 55 when n = 11.

Check: 3(2 × 11 − 5) + 4 = 3 × 17 + 4 = 55.

Provided you understand how the expression on the left-hand side of the equation
is built up and you can draw the corresponding function machine, this type of
problem is then a matter of working backwards using the inverse machine.
Remember to check your answer by substitution.

Exercise 5.6
 1 For what value of x is:
1 3x + 7 = 19
2 5(x − 4) = 30
3 x÷5+3=8

2 For what value of x is:

1 7(x + 4) − 3 = 67
2 2(3x − 7) + 9 = 25

3 For what value of n is:

1 3(4n − 7) + 5 = 44
2 2(5(n + 1) − 3) + 7 = 41

Key ideas

• You can use a function machine to evaluate the expression 5n –

3:

• A mapping (or arrow) diagram can be used to show a function.

• For example, x → 5x − 3 can be shown by the diagram:

• The domain of the mapping are the numbers going into the function – the inputs.
• The image or range set for a mapping is the list of all the outputs.
• The notation f(x) = 5x is another way of writing the mapping. The letter f
represents the rule ‘multiply by 5’. So, f(4) = 20.

• A composite function is made up from two (or more) functions. So when f(x) = 5x
and g(x) = x + 3 then gf means ‘multiply by 5’ and then ‘add 3’ so gf(x) = 5x + 3.

Operation Inverse
+ –
– +
× ÷
÷ ×
• You can draw an inverse function machine to help you solve an equation.
 6
Linear equations
In this chapter you will learn:

• a systematic method for solving equations

• that you should check your solutions
• how to use equations to solve problems.
6.1 Meaning of an equation
If you know that 5 times a certain number is 40, a simple process in
arithmetic enables you to calculate that the number is 8. Let n be the
unknown number. Then, un algebraic form, the question can be put
in this way: 5n = 40

what is the value of n?

The statement 5n = 40 is called an equation. It is a statement of

equality, but it also implies that a value of n is required which
will make the left-hand side of the equation equal to the right, or
which ‘satisfies the equation’. The process of finding the value of n
which thus satisfies the equation is called solving the equation.

The solution of the above equation involves no more than the

division of the right-hand side by the coefficient of n, and could be
written in the following way

The solution of an equation is rarely so simple as this. Equations

usually consist of more or less complicated expressions on both
sides of the equation. By various operations, you aim to reduce the
equation to the simple form above. You can then easily find the value
of the unknown letter. These operations will be illustrated in the
examples which follow.

6.2 Solving an Equation

Example 6.1
If 8 times a number is decreased by 5 the result is 123. What is the number?

This simple problem could be solved mentally, but it will serve as an introduction to
the process of solution. Let n be the number. Then 8n − 5 is the expression which
states algebraically ‘8 times the number decreased by 5’. But this is equal to 123.
Hence you can form the equation

This is the first step that must always be taken – to formulate the equation. Then
you proceed to the solution – that is, you find the value of n which satisfies it.

Now, the above statement means that 123 is 5 less than 8 times the number, or, if
123 is increased by 5, it is equal to 8 times the number.

Therefore, you can write the equation in this form

Thus you have almost reached the form you want, after which you can find the
solution.

This step was reached, in effect, by transferring the 5 to the right-hand side;
leaving only a multiple of n, the unknown number, on the left side. In this
transference the argument involved changing the sign of the 5.

The same result could be obtained in the following way.

if each side is increased by 5 the result will be that you will be left with 8n only on
the left-hand side and the two sides will still be equal. You will have as your
equation

This device is employed in the solution of practically every equation

and it depends on the following fact:

(A) If the same number is added to, or subtracted from, both

sides of an equation, the two sides will again be equal.

As a working rule, this is equivalent to transferring a number from

one side of an equation to the other, at the same time changing its
sign, that is, change + to − and − to +. A principle similar to the
above, which will be employed later, is the following:
(B) If both sides of an equation are multiplied or divided by the
same number, the two sides of the new equation will be equal.

If the multiplier is −1 or any negative number, both sides change

signs.

Nugget
You may find it helps to think of an old-fashioned pair of balance scales: to keep
the scales balanced you must add or subtract the same amount to both sides of
the scales. If you double all the quantities on the left hand side, you must double
all the quantities on the right hand side; and likewise for halving. For an equation, if
you multiply one side of the equation by 2 you must make sure that you multiply
every term on both sides of the equation by 2. A common mistake is to only
double some of the terms.

Example 6.2
In Section 1.1, you saw that three consecutive odd numbers could be expressed
algebraically by

where n is any integer.

Now suppose that you wish to solve the following problem. The sum of three
consecutive odd numbers is 81. What are the numbers?

As stated above, the first step is to form an equation. This usually means putting
into algebraic form the facts which are given about the unknown number or
numbers.

First, as above, represent the three odd numbers by

Then, express algebraically the fact that their sum is 81 by writing the equation
The use of the brackets helps to make the statement clear. Now remove the
brackets and get:

You can now obtain the odd numbers by substitution of n = 12 in 2n + 1, 2n + 3, 2n

+ 5, so the numbers are 25, 27, 29.

You should check this by ascertaining that their sum is 81.

6.3 Worked examples

Equations arise out of practical problems, in a variety of ways, and
these examples will be given later, but first you should have some
practice in the methods of solving equations. The first examples of
equations provided for practice have no relation to any special
problems.

It is common in such practice equations to use letters at the end of

the alphabet, x, y and z, to represent the unknown numbers; and,
when necessary, letters at the beginning of the alphabet, a, b, c, etc.,
to represent known numbers.

This choice of letters is due to Descartes (seventeenth century).

Example 6.3
Solve the equation

The general plan adopted is to collect the terms involving the unknown number, x,
on the left side, and the other terms on the right.

Transferring the x term from the right side you get

Transferring the −5,

Note: With practice the two transference steps could be taken together.

Check. You can always check the accuracy of the solution to an equation by
substituting the value found in both sides of the original equation. In the above
case

The two sides are equal, so satisfies the equation.

Example 6.4
Solve the equation

First, simplify both sides by removing brackets.

Transferring 8x to the left side and −40 to the right,

Check:
 Example 6.5
Solve the equation

When the equation involves fractions, the first step, in general, towards
simplification is to ‘clear the fractions’. This is effected by multiplying throughout by
a number that makes the fractions disappear. This is justified by Principle B,
Section 6.2.

The smallest number which will thus clear the fractions is the LCM of their
denominators, in this case 20.

Multiplying every term on both sides by 20 you get

You should check this solution as in the previous examples.

Example 6.6
Solve the equation
Multiplying throughout by 12

Clearing brackets

Check by substitution.

Exercise 6.1
Solve the following equations.
13 4(2x − 5) = 3(2x + 8)

14 3x − 2(x + 4) = 5x − 28

15 2(x + 5) − 3(x − 6) = 20

16 5(y − 1) − 2(y + 6) = 2y + 12

17 2(x − 1) + 3(x + 4) = 4x + 1 − (x − 5)

18 3(x − 7) − 3(2x + 4) = 4(x + 3)

25 12(5 − x) − 3(3x − 4) = 23
29 Solve for n the equation 2n = 0.58(12 − n).

30 For what value of r is 18.4 equal to 2(3.5r − 1)?

31 Find x when

32 Find c if

33 If , find V when C = 8, R = 4.5.

34 For what value of x is 3(x − 5) equal to

6.4 Problems leading to simple equations

The methods of solving problems by means of simple equations are
illustrated by the following examples. Here is the general method of
procedure.

1 Having decided which is the unknown quantity, represent it by a

letter, such as x, stating clearly the units employed when
necessary.

2 Form an equation which represents the facts provided by the

problem about the unknown quantity.

3 Solve the equation.

Example 6.7
At a school fête there were 10 more children than adults. The adults paid 20p
each, the children 15p each, and the total receipts were £16.20. How many adults
and children were there at the fête?

There are two unknown quantities: the number of adults and the number of
children. But if the number of adults is known, the number of children is 10 more.
Let x be the number of adults.

Then x + 10 is the number of children.

The facts supplied are represented as follows.

The equation which connects these is consequently

So the number of children is x + 10 = 52.

Therefore the solution is 42 adults, 52 children.

Example 6.8
You travel in a car from town A to town B at an average speed of 64 km/h. On your
return journey your average speed is 80 km/h. You take 9 hours for the double
journey (not including stops). How far is it from A to B?

The unknown quantity is the distance from A to B. Let x be the distance in

kilometres.

Now distance = speed × time,

Then the time for the 1st .

Then the time for the 2nd .

But the total time is 9 hours,

so the equation is

To clear the fractions multiply throughout by 320.

The distance from A to B is 320 km.

You should check this solution against the information in the question.

Nugget
To remember the formula for speed use the mnemonic:

DiST for Distance is Speed × Time.

Example 6.9
The hourly wages of two people A and B engaged on the same kind of work were
£4.80 and £3.70 respectively. It was agreed to increase the two wages by the
same amount, so that A’s wage was of B’s wage. What increase was given?

The unknown quantity is the money to be added to the wages. Let x be the amount
of increase in pence.

Then by the data

Clearing fractions

The hourly increase is 180p or £1.80.

You should check this by adding it to each of the hourly wages and ascertaining if
one is of the other.

Exercise 6.2
1 From three times a certain number, n, 6 is subtracted. The result is equal to
twice the number with 6 added. What is the value of n?

2 There is a number such that when it is multiplied by 5 and then 14 is

subtracted, the result is 348.5. Find the number.

3 From 5 times a certain number, 189 is subtracted, and the remainder is one
half the original number. What is that number?

4 One-third of a number added to four-fifths of itself is equal to 17. What is the

number?

5 When 9 is subtracted from 6 times a certain number, the result is 45 more

than twice the number. Find the number.

6 The sum of three consecutive odd numbers is 69. What are the numbers?

7 You walk from one town to another at an average speed of 2.5 km/h. On the
return you quicken your average speed to 3 km/h. The time taken for the
double journey was 7 h 20 min. How far are the two towns apart?

8 The sum of a number and 4 per cent of itself is 41.6. What is the number?
 9 The perimeter of a rectangle is 44 cm. If one of the two adjacent sides is
1.8 cm longer than the other, what are the lengths of the sides?

10 Some people agree to pay equally for the use of a boat, and each pays 15p.
If there had been two more people in the party, each would have paid 10p.
How many people were there and how much was the hire of the boat?

11 A teacher distributes £2 among 20 children, giving 5p each to some and 25p

each to the rest. How many children received 25p each?

12 A man is four times as old as his son. In four years’ time he will be three times
as old. What are their ages now?

13 The connection between the degrees on the Celsius and Fahrenheit

thermometers is that . What number of degrees Celsius is

equivalent to 86°F?

14 A bookseller buys 120 volumes of a certain series of books. Some are sold at
the published price of £18 each and the rest are sold in a sale at £12 each. If
the total receipts are £1,920, find how many volumes were sold at each price.

15 A bus is carrying 32 passengers, some with £1.20 tickets and the remainder
with £2 tickets. If the total receipts from these passengers are £45.60, find the
number of £1.20 fares.

Key ideas
• An equation is a statement containing an unknown number (represented by a
letter) which says one expression equals another expression. For example, 2x +
1 = 7.

• Any letter can be used to represent the unknown number in an equation, but
normally x, y and z are used.

• You can solve an equation by:

» adding the same number to both sides
» subtracting the same number from both sides
» multiplying all the terms on both sides by the same number
 » dividing all the terms on both sides by the same number.
• When an equation has unknowns on both sides, you should collect all the
unknowns on one side of the equation.

• When an equation has brackets, you should remove the brackets first.
• When an equation involves fractions, you should remove the fractions
by multiplying through by the lowest common denominator of all the fractions in
the equation.

• To solve a word problem:

» Decide on the unknown quantity and represent it by a letter – remembering
any units.

» Form an equation which represents the facts provided by the problem about
the unknown quantity.

» Solve the equation.

 7
Formulae
In this chapter you will learn:

• how to construct formulae

• how to evaluate an expression from a formula
• how to manipulate formulae.
7.1 Practical importance of formulae
One of the most important applications of elementary algebra is in
the use of formulae. In every form of applied science
and mathematics, such as mechanical engineering, electrical
engineering, aeroplane construction, etc., formulae are constantly
employed, and their interpretation and manipulation are essential.

7.2 Treatment of formulae

Formulae involve three operations:

1 construction

2 evaluation

3 manipulation.

The construction of formulae cannot be indicated by any specified

rules or methods. A knowledge of the principles of algebra and skill
in their application are necessary. But in general, you are concerned
with formulae which have already been evolved. What you need is
skill in using them; and as your knowledge of algebra increases, you
will be better equipped for dealing with new examples.

The evaluation and manipulation of formulae are closely associated.

A formula may need to be re-arranged or simplified before any
substitution of values may be made. Experience alone will guide you
as to what manipulation is desirable, in order to reach a form which
is the most suitable for evaluation or some other purpose. Clear
arrangement of working is always essential for accuracy.

7.3 Worked Examples

Example 7.1
Find a formula for the total area (A) of the surface of a square pyramid as in Figure
7.1 when AB = a and OQ = d (remember that the area of a triangle is the base ×
the height).

Figure 7.1

OQ is perpendicular to AB, and represents the height of the triangle AOB.

The total surface area is made up of:

the area of the base;

the areas of the four triangular sides, of which AOB is one.

Area of base = a2.

Area of each triangle ,

so the area of all the .

The total surface area of the pyramid = a2 + 2ad

or A = a(a + 2d).

Example 7.2

If

find L when t = 8.5, w = 115, W = 380, T = 28.5.

 Nugget
When you substitute values into a formula, remember the mnemonic BIDMAS –
work out any Brackets first, then Indices, followed by Division/Multiplication and
lastly Addition/Subtraction.

Exercise 7.1
1 If , find s when u = 15, t = 5, a = 8.

2 The volume of a cone, V, is given by the formula , where r = radius of

base, h = height of cone.
Find V when r = 3.5, h = 12, .

3 The volume of a sphere is given by the formula , where r = radius.

Find V when r = 3, .

4 If , find E when W = 15.5, v = 18.8, and g = 32.

5 From the formula, , find C when E = 17.6, e = 1.5, R = 28.4, r = 2.6.

6 In a suspension bridge the length of the cable employed is given by the

formula , where
L = length of the cable
d = dip of the centre of the cable
l = length of the span of the bridge
all measurements being in metres. Find L when d = 6, l = 56.
 7 A formula for the loading of beams is .
Find W when k = 45, b = 2, , L = 20.

8 If , find s when n = 8.

9 The following formula is used in connection with pile driving, . Find

L when W = 5, d = 1.5, P = 19, h = 4.5.

10 If R = W(x + 3t), find R when W = 210, x = 6.5, t = 0.04.

11 From the formula . find H when p = 8, l = 2, A = 80, N = 360.

7.4 Transformation of formulae

In the formulae which have been examined you can see that one
quantity is expressed in terms of other quantities, and the formula
expresses the relations between them. Thus in the formula for the
volume of a cone ( , Exercise 7.1, Question 2) this volume is
expressed in terms of the height and the radius of the base.

However, you may need to express the height of the cone in terms of
the volume and the radius of the base. In that case you would write
the formula in the form

that is, the formula has been transformed.

When one quantity is expressed in terms of others, as in ;

the quantity thus expressed, in this case V, is sometimes called the
subject of the formula.

When the formula was transformed into

the subject of the formula is now h. This process of transformation is
called changing the subject of the formula.

Nugget
You use the same techniques to change the subject of a formula that you used to
solve an equation. You need to keep the formula balanced at all times, and can:

• add the same quantity to both sides

• subtract the same quantity from both sides
• multiply or divide both sides by the same quantity

7.5 Worked examples

Example 7.3

From the formula, , find

1 f in terms of the other quantities,

2 d in terms of the other quantities.

From (1) dividing throughout by πf,

 Example 7.4
Transform the formula

into one which expresses d in terms of the other quantities.

Nugget
Take extra care when you are square rooting. Remember the symbol ‘ ’ gives
the positive square root only − so . If the negative square root is also a valid
solution then you need to write a ‘±’ symbol in front of the square root , as
in the above example.

Example 7.5
The speed, V, of water flowing through a pipe occurs in the formula

Change the subject of the formula to V.

Write the formula as

Multiply both sides by 2gD

Example 7.6
If a − b = x(c − nd) find n in terms of the other letters.

Start by multiplying out the brackets to get

Now fix your attention on the term containing n, namely xnd. Isolate this term on
the left of the equation to get

Example 7.7
The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is given by the formula
Find l in terms of the other quantities.

Square both sides.

Exercise 7.2
1 The formula for the area (A) of a circle, in terms of its radius (r) is A = πr2.
Change the subject of the formula to express r in terms of the area.

2 Transform the formula for the volume of a sphere – namely (see

Exercise 7.1, Question 3) – into a formula in which r is expressed in terms of
the volume.

3 Change the formula for the volume of a cone – namely, – to a

formula in which the subject is r.

4 The horsepower of a motor is given by the formula . Express this as a

formula for C.

5 The lifting force of an electro-magnet is given by the formula ,

where F is the force.
Transform this into a formula of which the subject is B.
 6 The amount of sag, d, in a beam under certain conditions is given by the
formula . Express this as a formula expressing l in terms of the other
quantities.

7 If v2 = u2 + 2as, express s in terms of u, v and a. Find the value of s when u =

15, v = 20 and a = 5.

8 There is an electrical formula .

Express this (1) as a formula for V and (2) as a formula for R. Find I if V = 2
and R = 20.

9 If n2r + 1 = NR, rearrange the expression so that it becomes a formula for n.

Find the value of n when N = 25, R = 2, r = 0.81.

10 The relation of the volume (v) of a mass of gas to the pressure (p) on it is
given by the law pv = k.
In a certain experiment when p = 84, v = 12, find the value of k and then
express the formula giving v in terms of p and the value of k.

7.6 Literal equations

The operations employed in changing the subject of a formula are
the same in principle as those used in the solution of equations.

The equations dealt with in Chapter 6 were concerned with obtaining

numerical values. When solving equations in the formula, the
quantity which is the subject of the formula is expressed in terms of
other quantities, and its numerical value is not determined, except
when the numerical values of these quantities are known.

It is frequently necessary, however, to solve equations in which the

values of the unknown quantities are letters. Such equations are
termed literal equations. The methods of solution are the same in
principle as those employed in Chapter 6. They are illustrated in the
following examples.

7.7 Worked examples

Example 7.8
Solve the equation 5x − a = 2x − b.

As pointed out previously (Section 6.3), x is understood as standing for the

unknown quantity, and the use of the letters a and b marks the difference between
this kind of equation and those of Chapter 6. The methods by which the equation
is solved are the same, however, as a and b are being treated in the same way as
ordinary numerals.

transfer 2x and −a respectively from one side to the other, and change the signs in
so doing:

Example 7.9
Solve for x

Removing brackets

This introduces a point of difference from numerical equations. With the latter you
add the terms involving x by adding their coefficients. The addition in this case
cannot, however, be made arithmetically. Algebraically the sum of the coefficients
of x is
Divide both sides by the coefficient of x, giving

Exercise 7.3

Solve the following equations for x assuming all constants are non-
zero.
1 5x − 4a = 0

2 5x − 3a = 7a

3 8x − p = 3x + 4p

4 3x + 2b = 2(x + 3b)

5 ax + b = 3a − b

6 b(x − p) = c

7 2a − b = b − bx

8 3(ax − 2) + 25b = 6b

9 p(x − q) = x(p − q)

11 ax − 4b = bx − b

13 a(x − a) = b(x + b)
 Key ideas

• A formula is a rule, expressed using algebra, for working something out.

• There are three types of problem that you may be asked to solve involving
formula:

» to construct a formula
» to evaluate a formula by substituting in values
» to manipulate a formula.
• You can substitute values into a formula by replacing each quantity with a given
value. Take care to observe the correct order of operations. Evaluate brackets
first, then any indices, then division/multiplication, and finally
addition/subtraction.

• The subject of a formula is the quantity which is expressed in terms of all the
other quantities. In other words, the subject of a formula is the quantity which
appears on its own, on just one side of the formula. For example, in the formula
for the volume of a cylinder, the subject is V.

• To change the subject of a formula, you need to rearrange the formula to make
another quantity the subject.

• A literal equation is an equation where the value of the unknown quantity needs
to be found, in terms of the letters which occur within the equation. When you
solve a literal equation, you are simply rearranging it into a more convenient
form, often so that you can substitute in values later.

• You can solve a literal equation using the same techniques that you use to solve
ordinary equations.
 8
Simultaneous equations
In this chapter you will learn:

• how to solve simultaneous equations by

substitution
• how to solve them by elimination
• how to solve problems using simultaneous
equations.
8.1 Simple equations with two unknown
quantities
The equations considered in Chapter 6 contained only one unknown
quantity whose value it was required to determine. But many of the
formulae quoted in Chapter 7 contain several quantities. Cases may
therefore occur in which it will be required to find the value of more
than one of these. Similar problems arise which, for their solution,
involve the determination of more than one unknown.

8.2 Solution of simultaneous equations

A simple problem will serve to illustrate the above statement.
Suppose you are told that the sum of two numbers is 10: what are
the numbers? Let the two numbers be represented by x and y.

Then you know that

It is evident that there is an infinite number of solutions of this

equation, such as (1, 9), (2, 8), (3.5, 6.5), and so on.

The equation can be written in the form

This new equation gives

Whatever value you give to y in this equation, you can find a

corresponding value of x, and each pair of values gives a solution of
the equation.

If a second condition has to be satisfied by x and y, you can

determine which of these pairs works for both conditions.

For example, suppose that, in addition to the statement that the sum
of the numbers is 10, you are also told that one of them is four times
the other; then there is only one set of the pairs of values referred to
above which will satisfy both the conditions.

substituting for x in Equation (1) you get

So the solution which satisfies both equations simultaneously is x =

8, y = 2, and clearly there is no other solution.

For this reason such equations are called simultaneous equations.

Nugget
It is clear that if there are two unknown quantities whose values are required
uniquely, it must be possible to form two separate equations connecting them. The
number of equations must match the number of unknowns. So to find the value of
three unknowns you need three equations.

The methods employed in solving these equations are shown in the

following examples.

8.3 Worked examples

Example 8.1
Solve the equations
In the method employed in this example, you begin by obtaining one letter in terms
of the other. The more convenient one is chosen, and in this case from Equation
(1) 2x + y = 21, you get

You could have found x in terms of y, but this would involve fractions and is not so
convenient, although it ultimately will give the same answer.

Substituting in Equation (2) the value of y thus obtained from Equation (1)

Thus you reach a simple equation with one unknown. This is solved using
the methods of Chapter 6.

Substituting this value of x in Equation (3) you can find y.

So the solution is x = 8, y = 5.

You should check these values by substitution in both of the given equations.

Example 8.2
In the following example, a second method is shown which can frequently be
employed to advantage.

Solve the equations

You can see that if the left sides of the two equations were added, the term in y
would be eliminated, since you would get (+y) + (−y) = 0. Thus only x would
remain.

It is clear also that the sum of the two left sides of the equations must equal the
sum of the two right sides, that is

Substituting this value of x in Equation (1) or, if easier, in Equation (2)

So the solution is x = 9, y = 6.

Example 8.3
In the following example both of the above methods are employed.

Solve the equations

1st method. Substitution.

From Equation (2)

Substituting in Equation (1) you get

Substituting for x in Equation (3)

So the solution is x = 6, y = 10.

2nd method. Elimination.

In this example, neither letter can be eliminated by addition of the left sides of the
equations, as in Example 8.2. But by multiplying both sides of Equation (2) by 3, y
can be eliminated.

You proceed as follows.

Multiplying by 3 throughout in Equation (2)

Adding Equation (1) and Equation (3)

From this you can find y as before.

Note: You could have eliminated x from Equations (1) and (2) in an alternative way.

(a) Multiply throughout in Equation (1) by 5.

(b) Multiply throughout in Equation (2) by 2.

Then you get

Subtracting

Of these two methods, that of substitution is the sounder and more general. In
practice, equations are seldom easily dealt with by the elimination method.

Example 8.4
Find values of R1 and R2 which will satisfy the equations

From Equation (1)

Substituting in Equation (2), you get

Substituting in Equation (2),

So the solution is R1 = 1.34, R2 = 0.68.

Exercise 8.1
Solve the following equations.

1 y = 2x
3x + 2y = 21

2 y = 3x − 7
5x − 3y = 1

3 x = 5y − 3
3x − 8y = 12

4 x–y=5
4x − y = 2x + 13

5 3x − 2y = 7
x + 2y = 5

6 2x − y = 3
x + 2y = 14

7 2x − y = 10
3x + 2y = 29

8 2(x − 4) = 3(y − 3)
y − 2x = −13
 9 3x − 2(y + 3) = 2
2(x − 3) + 4 = 3 y − 5

14 4(1 − p) = 7q + 8p
6p + q + 8 = 0

15 7x + 3(y − 3) = 5(x +y)

7(x − 1) − 6y = 5(x − y)

17 2(3a − b) = 5(a − 2)
3(a + 4b) = 2(b − 3)

18 0.1x + 0.2y = −0.2

1.5x − 0.4y = 10.6

19 1.25x − 0.75y = 1
0.25x + 1.25y = 17

20 2.5x + 3.7y = 13.365

8.2x − 1.5y = 7.02
22 2P − 5Q = 2
3P + 10Q = 8.6

8.4 Problems leading to simultaneous equations

Many problems require for their solution the determination of two
unknown quantities. The general method of solution is similar to that
employed when there is one unknown, but with the important
difference that when there are two unknowns to be determined, two
equations must be formed from the data.

The following examples illustrate the methods employed.

8.5 Worked examples

Example 8.5
There are two numbers such that the sum of the first and three times the second is
53, while the difference between 4 times the first and twice the second is 2. Find
the numbers.

Let x be the first number.

Let y be the second number.

Then from the first set of facts

and from the second

Substituting in Equation (2)

So the numbers are 8 and 15.

Nugget
Always check your solution by substituting back into the original problem.

Example 8.6
In the equation y = mx + b it is known that the equation is satisfied by two pairs of
values of x and y − namely when

What are the values of m and b?

This is an example of an important practical problem. It means that there is a law

connecting x and y, the law involving m and b, which are constants. These
constants must be determined before the law can be stated.

They are therefore the unknown numbers in this case. The equations connecting
them are obtained by substituting the given pairs of values of x and y.

1 When x = 4, y = 6. Therefore on substitution

2 When x = 2.4, y = 4.5,

These are to be solved simultaneously for m and b. It is clearly a case for using
the method of elimination.

Subtracting Equation (2) from Equation (1)

Substituting in Equation (1),

Substituting these in
 Example 8.7
A bookseller has a number of books the published price of which is £25 each. After
selling a certain number at this price, the bookseller sells the remainder at £20
each, and the total receipts are £1,100. If the numbers sold at the two prices were
reversed, the bookseller would have received £1,150. How many books were there
in all, and how many were originally sold at £25?

Let x be the number originally sold at £25.

Let y be the number originally sold at £20.

The amounts received for these were 25 x pounds and 20 y pounds and their total
value was £1,100.

When the numbers are reversed, the bookseller receives 20x and 25y pounds and
their total value is now £1,150.

The equations to be solved simultaneously are

Substituting in Equation (2),

The total number of books sold was 30 + 20 = 50, and the number originally sold
at £25 was 20.

Exercise 8.2
1 There are two numbers, x and y, such that the sum of 2x and y is 34, while
the sum of x and 2y is 32. What are the numbers?

2 There are two numbers such that if to 3 times the first, twice the other is
added, the sum is 72. Also if from 5 times the first number, 3 times the other is
subtracted, the result is 44. What are the numbers?

3 One number is greater by 6 than twice another number, but 3 times the
smaller number exceeds the greater by 1. Find the numbers.

4 If from twice the greater of two numbers 17 is subtracted, the result is half the
other number. If from half the greater number 1 is subtracted, the result is two-
thirds of the smaller number. What are the numbers?

5 In the equation y = mx + b, when x = 3, y = 3 and when x = 5, y = 7. Find the

values of m and b and write down the equation. Then find y when x = 6.

6 Two quantities P and Q are connected by the formula:

 When Q = 5, P = 14 and when Q = 2, P = 20. Find m and b.

7 The force (E) applied to a machine and the resistance (R) to be overcome are
connected by the law:

It is found that when E = 3.5, R = 5 and when E = 5.3, R = 8. Find a and b.

Then find E when R = 10.

8 It is known that y = ax2 + bx3; when x = 2, y = 5.6, and when x = 3, y = 25.

Find the values of a and b.

9 The perimeter of a rectangular lawn is 32 m. It is reduced in size so that the

length is four-fifths and the breadth is three-fourths of the original dimensions.
The perimeter is then 25 m. What were the original length and breadth?

10 The bill for the telephone for a quarter can be expressed in the form:

where C is the total cost in pounds, a is a fixed charge, n the number of calls
and b the price of each call in pence. When the number of calls was 104, the
bill came to £58.30, and when the number was 67 the bill was £50.90. Find
the fixed charge and the cost of each call.

11 The cost of 4 ties and 6 pairs of socks was £68.00, while that of 5 ties and 8
pairs of socks was £87.40. What were the prices of a tie and a pair of socks
respectively?

12 The formula gives the distance S metres passed over by

a moving body in t seconds.

In 4 seconds the body moves 88 metres.

In 6 seconds the body moves 168 metres.

Find the values of u and a and then find how far the body moves in 5
seconds.

Key ideas
• A pair of simultaneous equations is two equations which contain two unknowns
− often x and y. To solve the equations, you need to find the value of x and y
which satisfy both equations simultaneously.

• There are two main ways of solving a pair of simultaneous equations:

» the elimination method
» the substitution method
• The elimination method involves adding the two equations together or
subtracting one equation from the other in order to eliminate one of the
unknowns. Sometimes you need to multiply one (or both) of the equations
through by a constant first, in order to make the coefficients of either x or y the
same. Once you have eliminated one of the unknowns, you can solve the
resulting equation. You can then substitute your solution back into one of the
original simultaneous equations, in order to find the other unknown.

• The substitution method involves transforming one equation into x = … or y = …

and then substituting this into the other equation. You will then have an equation
in one unknown, which can then be solved. Once you have worked out one
unknown, substitute it into one of the original simultaneous equations in order to
find the other unknown.

• Always check your solution by substituting back into the original equations.
• Often simultaneous equations arise from word problems.
9
Linear inequalities
In this chapter you will learn:

• what an inequality is
• how to represent an inequality algebraically
• how to solve simple inequalities.
9.1 The idea of an inequality
In many situations you use words like less than or at least. Usually
these will be statements involving numbers.

For example:

‘I have less than twenty pounds in my bank account.’

‘My ladder needs to be at least 4 m to reach the window.’

It is not possible to deduce from these statements exactly how much

you have in the bank or how long your ladder is. For this reason
statements like this are sometimes called inequations, though it
is more usual to describe them as inequalities. Special symbols are
used to describe inequalities.

Example 9.1

4 is less than 7. 4 < 7.

3 m is more than 290 cm. 3 m > 290 cm
My bank balance (£B) is less than £20. B < 20.
The ladder (L m) is at least 4 metres. L ≥ 4.

Note: the symbol ≥ is used to show that the length of the ladder is either equal to
4 m or is more than 4 m.

A similar symbol ≤ is used to show when one quantity is less than or equal to
another quantity.

Each of the above statements can be rewritten using the symbol reversed:

7 > 4. 7 is more than 4.

290 cm < 3 m. 290 cm is less than 3 m.
20 > B. £20 is more than my bank balance.
4 m ≤ L m. 4 m is less than or equal to L m.
 Nugget

You can remember which way the inequality sign goes by thinking of it as an
open mouth <. The ‘mouth’ always opens towards the greater amount. For
example, 8 is greater than 5 so the ‘mouth’ opens towards the 8; 5 < 8 or 8 < 5.

9.2 Representing inequalities

‘My ladder is at least 4 m long, but must be shorter than 6 m if it is to
fit into my garage.’

Suppose that the length of my ladder is L m. The above statement

can be shown using the inequality symbols as:

One way to show the numbers which satisfy this inequality is to use
a number line, as in Figure 9.1.

Figure 9.1

On the number line the filled in is used to show that 4 can be

included. However, since we were told that the ladder must be less
than 6 m, an empty circle is used at 6 to show that 6 m is not one
of the possible lengths. The line joining the two circles indicates that
the ladder can be any length between 4 m and 6 m.

Example 9.2
Represent the following inequalities on a 0 to 10 number line.

1 n<3

2 n≥6
 3 2 < n ≤ 5.

1 n<3

Figure 9.2a

2 n≥6

Figure 9.2b

3 2<n≤5

Figure 9.2c

Example 9.3
What inequality is represented on the following 0 to 10 number lines?

Figure 9.3a

2
Figure 9.3b

Figure 9.3c

1 represents n > 7

2 represents n ≤ 3

3 represents 5 ≤ n < 8.

Exercise 9.1
1 Write each of the following as an inequality:
1 ‘My height (H cm) must be less than 190 cm to be a pilot.’
2 ‘The number of pies (P) that she sells each week must be greater than 50
to make a profit.’
3 ‘The amount I spend (£S) will be at least £200 but less than £300.’
4 ‘The time (T hours) that the trip takes is more than 3 hours but less than 5
hours.’

2 Show the inequality on a 0 to 10 number line:

1 n > 7, where n is a whole number.
2 n ≤ 4, where n is any number.
3 3 ≤ n ≤ 8, where n is a whole number.
4 3 ≤ n ≤ 8, where n is any number.

9.3 Solving inequalities

You can express many problems in the form of an inequality.

‘Tickets for a concert cost £4, £5, £6, £7 or £8. 1 want to buy two
tickets and I have £20 of which £7 is needed for the train fares.’
Let £C be the cost of the ticket. Assuming the two tickets are to cost
the same, this is a situation which can be represented by the
inequality, 2C + 7 ≤ 20.

Clearly this is a problem which you can solve by checking the cost of
each type of ticket. I could in fact buy two £4, or two £5 or two £6,
but not two £7 tickets; since 2 × 6 + 7 < 20, whereas 2 × 7 + 7 > 20.
However, with more complex situations you need to have a more
general technique. This technique is very similar to the one used for
solving equations.

Subtracting 7 from each side gives

Dividing each side by 2 gives

so C can be 4 or 5 or 6 but not 7.

You can think of an inequality as a balance where one side is

heavier or lighter than the other. You can add or subtract the same
number from each side without changing this situation. In the same
way, you could double or halve the numbers on each side, again
without changing things.

However, problems arise when you are dealing with negative

numbers. It is helpful to look at a number line which shows both
positive and negative numbers to illustrate this.

Figure 9.4
The number line in Figure 9.4 shows that the left one of a pair of
numbers on the line is smaller than the right one of the pair.
Symbolically, 3 < 5 and −5 < −3. It is important to realize that if A < B
then −B < −A.

In the first four examples below, the inequality sign does not change.

However, if you were to multiply each side of 4 < 6 by −2 you would

get 4 × (−2) = −8 on the left side and 6 × (−2) = −12 on the right side.
So, in this case, you need to change the inequality sign, since −8 >
−12.

You can manipulate inequalities in the same way as equations,

except that you need to remember that when you multiply or divide
each side of an inequality by a negative number you must then
change the sign of the inequality.

Example 9.4
Solve the inequality 3x − 5 < 2x + 8.

First add 5 to each side. 3x < 2x + 13.

Now subtract 2x from each side. x < 13.

So the solution is those values of x which are less than 13.

Example 9.5
Solve the inequality 3x + 5 > 5x − 9.

Method 1

Subtract 5 from each side. 3x > 5x −14.

Subtract 5x from each side. −2x > −14.
Divide each side by −2 and change the sign. x < 7.

So the solution is those values of x which are less than 7.

Note: In Method 1 you must change the sign of the inequality, since when you
divide by −2, you are dividing by a negative number.

Method 2

Add 9 to each side. 3x + 14 > 5x.

Subtract 3x from each side. 14 > 2x.
Divide each side by 2. 7 > x.
Rewrite the inequality. x < 7.

So, the solution is those values of x which are less than 7.

In Method 2 the strategy was to collect the x terms on the side where they would
be positive. Provided you are happy rewriting the inequality 7 > x as x < 7
this method is preferable and less likely to lead to mistakes.

Example 9.6
Solve the inequality 2 (3x + 5) + 1 ≥ 4x − 9.

First remove the brackets. 6x + 10 + 1 ≥ 4x − 9.

Now subtract 11 from each side. 6x ≥ 4x − 20.
Now subtract 4x from each side. 2x ≥ −20.
Finally divide each side by 2. x ≥ −10.

So the solution is those values of x which are greater than or equal to −10.
 Exercise 9.2

1 Solve the following inequalities:

1 2x − 5 > 9
2 3x + 7 < 16

2 Solve the following inequalities:

1 5>x−3
2 7−x≥4

3 Solve the following inequalities:

1 2x < x + 8
2 5 + 2x ≥ 3x

4 Solve the following inequalities:

1 3x + 2 < x + 8
2 2x + 7 ≤ 5x + 1

5 Solve the following inequalities:

1 7 − 2x > 3x − 8
2 4 − 3x > 19 − 2x

6 Solve the inequality 2(3x + 4) − 17 > 15.

7 Solve the inequality 3(x + 7) + 2 ≤ 7(x − 2) + 5.

8 Solve the inequality 5(3x − 2) + 6 < 8(x − 7) + 3x − 12.

9.4 A trap for the unwary

You can treat inequalities involving fractions in a similar way, but
again it is very important to be careful, and for you to be aware of
when you might be multiplying or dividing by a negative number. The
next example shows one of the possible hidden traps that
sometimes occur.

Example 9.7
Solve the inequality

This inequality asks you to find the values of x which, when divided into 8, give a
result which is less than 2. Clearly x can be any number which is greater than 4.
For example 8 ÷ 5 is 1.6 which is less than 2. However x could also be any
negative number, since 8 divided by a negative number will also be a negative
number, and all negative numbers are less than 2.

If you were simply to multiply both sides of the inequality by x, this would give 8 <
2x or x > 4 as the solution. This, however, is only partly correct. Remember, you
can only multiply by x without changing the inequality sign if x is a positive number.
If x were negative, which is the other part of the solution, then the inequality would
become 8 > 2x, which is certainly true.

9.5 Simultaneous inequalities

In Chapter 8 you were introduced to the idea of a linear equation
which involved two variables, and learned how to find the solution for
a pair of such simultaneous linear equations. The corresponding
work with inequalities involving two variables comes later in this
book. However, here are some examples in which you might need to
satisfy both of two simple linear inequalities at the same time.

Example 9.8
Find the values of x which satisfy both the inequalities

Solving the first you get 3x > 6 or x > 2.

Solving the second you get 5x < 30 or x < 6.

So x must be a number which is both greater than 2 and also less than 6. So x can
be any number between 2 and 6 but not including either 2 or 6.

You can also show this as the single statement 2 < x < 6.
Using a number line the required solution is shown in Figure 9.5.

Figure 9.5

Example 9.9
Find the positive values of x which satisfy both the inequalities

Solving the first inequality you get

Solving the second inequality you get

So x must be a positive number which is less than or equal to 3 and which is also
less than 7. The only possible values of x are those which are greater than 0 and
less than or equal to 3. So 0 < x ≤ 3.

Using a number line, the required solution is shown in Figure 9.6.

Figure 9.6

Exercise 9.3
 1 Find the positive values of x which satisfy both the inequalities

2 Find the positive values of x which satisfy both the inequalities

3 Find the positive values of x which satisfy both the inequalities

With more complex situations it may be necessary to use a number line to

show which numbers satisfy both inequalities.

Example 9.10
Find the values of x which satisfy both inequalities

Figure 9.7

The numbers which satisfy both inequalities at the same time are the numbers
between 4 and 7, that is, 4 < x < 7.

Example 9.11
Find the values of x which satisfy both the inequalities
Figure 9.8

The numbers which satisfy both inequalities at the same time are the numbers
between −1 and 3, including 3 but excluding −1, that is, −1 < x ≤ 3.

Exercise 9.4
1 In each part, find the values of x which satisfy both inequalities:
1 4 < x < 8, 3 < x < 7
2 −2 < x < 1, −3 < x < 7

2 Solve the simultaneous inequalities

Key ideas

• You can represent inequalities on a number line. Use a closed circle, , to show
that a number is included and an open circle, s, to show that a number is not
included.

• This number line shows the inequality 5 ≤ n < 8

• You can solve inequalities using similar methods to those used for solving
equations. Treat the inequality sign as an equal sign and then proceed as you
would for an ordinary equation. However, if you need to multiply or divide by a
negative number you must remember to change the sign of the inequality.

• To solve simultaneous inequalities you need to illustrate the solution to both

inequalities on a number line. You should then select the region that satisfies
both inequalities.

• Take extra care if you ever need to multiply or divide an inequality by x, since x
could be negative.
 10
Straight-line graphs; coordinates
In this chapter you will learn:

• that the equation of a straight line has the form y

= mx + b
• the meanings of m and b in the equation y = mx +
b
• how to find the equation of a straight line.
10.1 The straight-line graph
The following example serves as a starting-point for thinking about
straight line graphs.

A school runs a coffee morning. The head teacher calculates the

following figures showing the connection between the net profits and
the number of customers. Exhibit the connection by a graph.

Note: ‘Net profit’ means total receipts from customers, less

expenses. Let x be the number of customers. Let £y be the net profit.
Choosing two axes, plot values of x on the x-axis and values of y on
the y-axis. When plotted, as in Figure 10.1, the points are found to lie
on a straight line.

Figure 10.1

Note: In this book, the graphs will be drawn as in Figure 10.1,

without squared paper, to make them clearer to follow. You should,
however, use squared paper in your own work.

Nugget
Once you have a straight line graph you can extend it to find values beyond those
given – this process is called extrapolation. You can also read off values
inbetween the plotted values – this is called interpolation. You can remember the
difference by thinking: ‘extrapolation needs an extra bit added to the graph’.

Interpolation and extrapolation can be used, but two important

questions arise:

1 What is the number of customers when there is no profit? Zero on

the profit (y) scale is shown where the graph cuts the x-axis. The
graph cuts it at the point (A), where x = 23, that is, when

2 What happens when the number of customers is less than 23? If

there is no profit when the number of customers is 23, there will be
a loss when the number is below 23.

Extrapolate the straight line below the x-axis, as in Figure 10.1. The
amount of the loss, as with the profit, will be shown on the y-axis,
which must also be extrapolated. The question of indicating loss, as
contrasted with profit, now arises. The loss will be marked with
negative numbers on the scale, as shown. You can then see that, on
the y-axis, there is thus constructed the part of a complete number
scale. From this scale, it appears that when x (the number of
customers) is 18, y (the loss) is £25.

Problems will also arise when it is necessary to use negative values

of x, on the extended x-axis. Consequently, for a complete graph,
you need to complete number scales on both axes, with zero
common to both. In the particular example above, a negative number
of customers would have no intelligible meaning.

10.2 The law represented by a straight-line graph

The next step is to discover the nature of the law which a straight-
line graph represents and how it can be formulated. Using the above
problem as an example, it was stated that the net profit was equal to
the total receipts less the expenses. But the total receipts equal (the
number of customers) × (the average amount paid by each). Let £a
be the average amount paid by each customer.

Then, since x is the number of customers, ax is the total amount paid

in pounds. Let £b be the expenses.

Then the net profits are (ax − b) pounds, that is

This gives the value of y in terms of a, x and b, and is the form of the
law connecting them.

Of the four letters, a and b remain unchanged, while the number of

customers (x) and consequently the profit (£y) vary.

Therefore, the law is not completely stated until we know the values
of a and b.

The method of doing this is suggested by Example 8.6, Section 8.5.

Two pairs of corresponding values of x and y can be obtained from

the table of values or from the graph.

Substituting these in the equation y = ax − b you get

Subtracting Equation (2) from Equation (1)

Substituting in Equation (1) you get

So the equation is

This is the law represented by the straight line in Figure 10.1.

If it is correct it must be satisfied by any corresponding pair of values

of x and y, and you should test this out.

In particular if y = 0, that is, if there is no profit

This agrees with the result found above.

Thus it can be demonstrated that the equation

is satisfied by the coordinates of any point on the line and so is

called the equation of the straight line.

10.3 Graph of an equation of the first degree

The equation which is represented by the straight line in the above
problem (namely, y = 5x − 115) is of the first degree, that is, it
contains no higher powers than the first of x and y.

Two questions now suggest themselves.

1 Can every equation of the first degree in x and y be represented

graphically by a straight line?

2 Conversely, can every straight line be represented algebraically by

an equation of the first degree?
The answers to these questions will be apparent later, but for the
present only the graphs of some typical equations of the first degree
will be drawn. From these graphs you can deduce the answer to the
first question.

Examples are given to illustrate the methods to be employed. In all

of these, since both positive and negative values of x and y will be
involved, complete number scales will be used on both axes.

Before calculating corresponding values of x and y, you should

revise Section 8.2 if you are not familiar with the procedure.

10.4 Worked examples

Example 10.1
Draw the graph of the equation

This is not in the form used above, but you can transform it into the same form.

Giving suitable values to x, you can calculate the corresponding values of y, and
get the following table:

A straight line is fixed by two points, but in drawing it from its equation you should
always take three points as a check on accuracy. In this example, a number of
points are taken, so as to make it clear that all such points lie on the straight line.
The graph appears as shown in Figure 10.2.
Figure 10.2

You could check this by finding for any point on the line the corresponding values
of x and y. These values should satisfy the equation y = 2x + 1.5.

1 1.5 is called the intercept on the y-axis (x = 0).

2 −0.75 is called the intercept on the x-axis (y = 0).

Example 10.2
Draw the graph of the equation

Transforming the equation you get

You then construct a table of corresponding values.

With these values, the straight line shown in Figure 10.3 is drawn.
The intercept on the y-axis is found by putting x = 0. This gives y = 1. Similarly the
intercept on the x-axis is y = 0, x = 0.5.

Note from this example that when the coefficient of x in the equation arranged as
in (A) is negative, the angle which the straight line makes with the x-axis in an anti-
clockwise direction is greater than a right angle. When the coefficient is positive,
as in Figure 10.2, this angle is less than a right angle.

Figure 10.3

Exercise 10.1
Draw the graphs which are represented by the following equations. In each case
find the intercepts on (1) the y-axis, (2) the x-axis.

1 y=x+2

2 y = 1.5x − 1

3 4y = 6x − 5

4 3x + 2y = 6

6 2(x − 3) = 4(y − 1)

7 The equation y = ax + b is satisfied by the following pairs of values of x and y.

1 x = 1, y = 5
2 x = 2, y = 7
 Find the values of a and b, and substitute in the equation. Draw the graph of
this equation and find its intercept on the y-axis.

8 A straight line makes an intercept of 2 on the y-axis and of 4 on the x-axis.

Find its equation.

10.5 Position in a plane; coordinates

When a point is ‘plotted’, as in graphs previously considered, its
position on the graph was fixed by the corresponding values of x and
y which were given in the table. For example, let P be a point such
that in the table x = 2, y = 3. When plotted, the point appears as in
Figure 10.4, where:

PQ is 2 units in length and parallel to the x-axis,

and

PR is 3 units in length and parallel to the y-axis.

The intersection of these two straight lines fixes the position, not only
in the graph, but also relative to the x- and y-axes. The position of
any other point can be similarly determined when its distances from
the two axes are known.

You could use this method to find where, in a field, you had hidden
something. By remembering the distances OR and OQ along two
boundaries of the field, you can ‘plot the point P’ in the field. A little
reflection will convince you that the boundaries need not actually be
at right angles to one another.
Figure 10.4

The distances PQ and PR (Figure 10.4) which thus fix the position of
a point are called the coordinates of P with respect to the two axes.

PQ, parallel to the x-axis, is called the x-coordinate (or the abscissa).

PR, parallel to the y-axis, is called the y-coordinate (or the ordinate).

Nugget
The notation employed to denote coordinates is (2, 3) or in general (x, y). The x-
coordinate is always placed first inside the bracket. To help you remember the
order that coordinates are in, think: ‘x comes before y alphabetically’ and ‘along
the corridor then up the stairs’.

Thus (5, 2) would represent the point in which x = 5, y = 2. In this

way the positions of points relative to two axes can be described
concisely. If, however, all points are to be included, complete number
scales must be used on both axes, as shown in Figure 10.5. In this
way four divisions, called quadrants, are found in the plane;
numbered I, II, III, IV as shown. The signs of the coordinates are
regulated by the positive and negative parts of the number scales.
The rule of signs is as follows.

If (x, y) are the coordinates of a point:

 x is +ve when measured to the right of O,
x is −ve when measured to the left of O,
y is +ve when measured up from O,
y is −ve when measured down from O.

As examples here are the coordinates of A, B, C, D in Figure 10.5.

If a point is on the x-axis the y-coordinate is zero. Thus E is (4, 0). If

a point is on the y-axis the x-coordinate is zero. Thus F is (0, −3). As
the origin O lies on both axes, its coordinates are (0, 0).

Figure 10.5

Thus the position of every point on a plane relative to two axes can
be determined by coordinates. Latitude and longitude are a practical
example of the use of coordinates. They describe the position of a
place with reference to the equator and the meridian through
Greenwich as axes. The introduction of coordinates was due to
Descartes, who published his book on Analytical Geometry in 1638.

Exercise 10.2
 1 Write down the coordinates of the points in Figure 10.6 marked A, B, C’ …’ G.

2 Join OA and FC in Figure 10.6, and find the coordinates of their point of
intersection.

3 Plot the points (3, 1), (1, 3), (0, 3), (0, −3), (4, 2.6), (−2, 1), (−4, −2), (3, 0),
(−2, 0).

4 Draw the straight lines joining the points (3, 1) and (1, 3) and also (−2, 1) and
(4, 2.6) as plotted in the previous question. What are the coordinates of the
point of intersection of the two lines?

5 Plot the points (−3, 2), (0, 2), (2, 2), (4, 2). What do you notice about these
points?

Figure 10.6

6 Plot the points (3, 3), (1, 1), (−1, −1), (−2, −2). What do you notice about
these points?

7 Draw a straight line through (3, 0) parallel to the y-axis. What do you notice
about the coordinates of points on this line?

10.6 A straight line as a locus

Let A (Figure 10.7) be a point such that its coordinates are equal. Let
(x1, y1) be its coordinates.
Join OA and draw AP perpendicular to the x-axis.

since ∠APO is a right angle.

Figure 10.7

Therefore each of the angles OAP, AOP is 45º.

So A lies on a straight line passing through the origin and making

45º with the x-axis.

Let B be any other point with equal coordinates (x2, y2) so that BQ =
OQ, that is, y2 = x2.

Then, for the same reasons as above, B also lies on a straight line
passing through the origin and making 45º with the x-axis.

This must be the straight line OA, since only one straight line can
pass through the origin and make an angle of 45º with the x-axis.
Similarly all other points with equal coordinates lie on the same
straight line – that is, the straight line OA, extrapolated, is the path
formed, or locus, of all points with equal coordinates.

These coordinates all satisfy the equation y = x, which is therefore

the equation of the line.

This equation can be written in the form

So for any point such as A,

This ratio is constant for all points on the straight line, and is called
the gradient of the line.

A similar result holds for every straight line; consequently a straight

line is a graph which has a constant gradient.

To include all points with equal coordinates the straight line must be
extrapolated into the opposite (3rd) quadrant.

Then for any point on this line the coordinates are equal, but they are
both negative. Thus for the point C (Figure 10.7) these coordinates
are (−2, −2) and the gradient is , that is, 1.

You may know from geometry or trigonometry that the ratio of is

constant for any point A. See also Section 19.5.

10.7 Equation of any straight line passing

through the origin
The conclusions reached above apply equally to all straight lines
through the origin. The lines differ only in the gradient – that is, in the
value of .
For example, if the gradient is 2, then and y = 2x.

This is shown in Figure 10.8. For any point P on the line OP

Generally, if the gradient is denoted by m then

This is the general form of the equation of any straight line through
the origin, where m denotes the gradient.

If m is negative, the line will pass through the 2nd and 4th quadrants.

Thus if m = −1 the equation is y = −x.

Figure 10.8

Nugget
When m is positive, the graph will go ‘uphill’ from left to right.
When m is negative, the graph will go ‘downhill’ from left to right.

The straight line y = −x is shown in Figure 10.8.

Considering any point A, the gradient is

Nugget
Note that the angle made with the x-axis is 135º, angles being always measured in
an anti-clockwise direction.

10.8 Graphs of straight lines not passing

through the origin
In Figure 10.9 the straight line AOB is the graph of y = x.

If you plot the graph of y = x + 2, it is evident that for any value of x

the value of y in y = x + 2 is greater by 2 than the corresponding
value of y in y = x.

Therefore the line for y = x + 2 must be parallel to y = x, but each

point is two units higher in the y scale. Thus in Figure 10.9 the point
A is raised to A′, the origin to D, B to B′, and so on.
Figure 10.9

The line A′DB′ therefore represents the graph of y = x + 2.

The straight line y = x + 2 is the locus of all points whose coordinates

are such that the y-coordinate = the x-coordinate +2. It has the same
gradient as y = x, but its intercept on the y-axis is +2.

Similarly, the line y = x − 3 is parallel to the line y = x, with each point

on it lowered by 3 units in the y scale.

You can generalize from this and state that y = x + c will always
represent a straight line parallel to y = x and with an intercept of c
units on the y-axis for any value of c.

The same conclusions hold for lines with different gradients. For
example, the equation y = 2x + c will always represent a straight line
parallel to y = 2x, that is, having the same gradient, and with an
intercept of c units on the y-axis.

Generalizing, let m be the gradient of a straight line.

Then y = mx + c always represents a straight line parallel to y = mx,

that is, with the same gradient, and with an intercept of c units on the
y-axis.
 Example 10.3
1 y = 4x − 7 is a straight line whose gradient is 4, and whose intercept on the y-
axis is −7.

2 y = 5x − 115 (see Section 10.2) represents a straight line of gradient 5 and

intercept on the y-axis equal to −115.

As shown in Section 10.4, every equation of the first degree in two

unknowns can be reduced to the form y = mx + c.

It follows that the graph of every equation of the first degree in two
unknowns is a straight line.

Further, it is evident that the equation is satisfied by the coordinates

of any point on the straight line.

10.9 Graphical solution of simultaneous

equations
You can use the conclusions reached in the previous paragraph, as
shown in the following example, to solve simultaneous equations of
the first degree.

Example 10.4
Solve the equations

1 Draw the graph of x + 2y = 5. The table of coordinates is as follows:

 Note: When x = 0, y is the intercept on the x-axis; when y = 0, x is the
intercept on the y-axis. It is useful to obtain these two points.

The graph is the straight line marked A in Figure 10.10.

2 Draw the graph of 3x − 2y = 7. Here is the table of values.

The graph is the straight line marked B.

Figure 10.10

Applying the conclusions, reached in Section 10.8,

line A contains all those points whose coordinates satisfy the equation x + 2y = 5
and

line B contains all those points whose coordinates satisfy the equation 3x − 2y = 7.

There is one point, and one point only, whose coordinates satisfy both equations.

That point is P, the intersection of the two graphs.

The coordinates of P, by inspection, are (3, 1).

So the solution of the simultaneous equations is

Nugget
You should compare the above conclusions with the algebraical treatment in
Section 8.2. Solving simultaneous equations graphically is only accurate if the
solutions happen to be integers or simple decimals. You should not use
this method unless a question asks you to use it, as it may not produce the exact
answer.

Exercise 10.3
1 With the same axes draw the graphs of the following equations.

1y=x

2 y = 2x

4 y = −x

5 y = −2x

2 With the same axes draw the graphs of the following equations.

1y=x

2y=x+1

3y=x+3

4y=x−1

3 With the same axes draw the graphs of the following equations.
4 With the same axes draw the graphs of the following equations.

1y=x+2

2 y = 2x + 2

3 y = −x + 2

5 Draw the graphs of the following equations.

1 2x + y = 3

2 x − 2y = 4

3 5x + 2y = 10

4 4x − 5y = 10

In each case find the intercepts on the x-axis and on the y-axis.

6 Solve graphically the following pairs of equations and check by using

algebraical solutions.

7 The straight line whose equation is y = ax − 1 passes through the point (2, 5).
What is the value of a? What is the intercept on the y-axis?
 8 The straight line whose equation is y = 2x + b passes through the point (1, 3).
What is the value of b? Draw the straight line. What is its intercept on the y-
axis?

Key ideas
• When an equation is of the first degree (so the powers of x and y are both 1) it
can be represented graphically by a straight line.

• The origin, O, is the point (0, 0).

• The horizontal axis is called the x-axis.
• The vertical axis is called the y-axis.
• To draw the graph of a straight line:
» rearrange the equation so it is in the form y = …
» substitute in at least three values for x and find the corresponding y values
» plot the coordinates (x, y) on a pair of axes and join with a straight line
• An equation in the form y = mx + c produces a straight line with gradient m and
y-intercept (0, c).

• You can solve simultaneous equations graphically by drawing the graphs of both
equations and finding the coordinates (x, y) of the point where the two lines
intersect.
 11
Using inequalities to define
regions
In this chapter you will learn:

• that inequalities define regions in graphs

• how to find the region corresponding to an
inequality
• how to use graphs of inequalities in linear
programming.
11.1 Defining regions
In Figure 11.1 the line x = 3 and the line y = 4 have been marked.

Figure 11.1

All the points whose x-coordinate is greater than 3, shaded lie to

the right of the line x = 3, whilst all the points whose coordinate is
less than 3 lie to the left of the line x = 3.

Similarly, all the points whose y-coordinate is greater than 4, shaded

, lie above the line y = 4, whilst all the points whose y-coordinate
is less than 4 lie below the line y = 4.

The region which is shaded is defined by the inequalities x > 3

and y > 4.

The region which is unshaded is defined by the inequalities x < 3

and y < 4.

The other two regions on this grid can be defined in a similar way.

11.2 Regions above and below straight lines

In Chapter 10 you saw how any equation of the form y = mx + c
could be represented by a straight line with a gradient of m and an
intercept on the y-axis of c.
Figure 11.2

This straight line, if extended indefinitely in each direction, divides

the page into two regions, one above the line and the other below
the line.

The coordinates of the points in the region above the line y = x + 2

are described by the inequality y > x + 2, whilst the coordinates of
the points in the region below the line are described by y < x + 2.
The coordinates of the points on the line itself satisfy y = x + 2. See
Figure 11.2.

Nugget
You can test any point within the region to check that it satisfies the inequality. For
example, the point (5, 4) lies in the region y < x + 2, and you can see that 4 is less
than 5 + 2.

Example 11.1
Show on a graph the region described by the inequalities y > x and y < 2x − 3.

The points in the region y < 2x − 3 lie below the line y = 2x − 3.

The points in the region y > x lie above the line y = x.

Figure 11.3

The required region is shaded in the top right-hand part of the diagram, shown in
Figure 11.3.

Note that the point (5, 6) lies in this region. Check: 6 > 5 and 6 < 2 × 5 − 3.

Example 11.2
Show on a graph the region described by the inequalities y > x − 2, y < 2x + 1 and
x + y < 6 (assume that x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0). Then find one point in the region.

The points in the region y > x − 2 lie above the line y = x − 2.

The points in the region y < 2x + 1 lie below the line y = 2x + 1.

The points in the region x + y < 6 lie below the line x + y = 6.

The required region is shaded in the middle of the diagram, shown in Figure 11.4.
One point in this region is (3, 2). Check: 2 > 3 − 2, 2 < 2 × 3 + 1 and 3 + 2 < 6.
Figure 11.4

Exercise 11.1
1 Draw the given line and then shade the required region. In each case find
whether the point (3, 1) is in the region or not.
1 line x + y = 7, region x + y < 7
2 line y = 2x + 1, region y > 2x + 1
3 line y = 3x − 7, region y < 3x − 7
4 line 2x + 3y = 12, region 2x + 3y > 12

2 Draw the given line and then shade the required region.
1 line y = 2x, region y > 2x
2 line 3x + 2y = 24, region 3x + 2y < 24

Shade also the region where both y > 2x and 3x + 2y < 24. Find whether the
points (2, 5) and (6, 1) are in this region or not.

3 Draw the given line and then shade the required region.
1 line y = x + 2, region y < x + 2
2 line y = 3x − 4, region y < 3x − 4
 Shade also the region where both y < x + 2 and y < 3x − 4. Find whether the
points (3, 4) and (4, 6) are in this region or not.

4 Using Figure 11.5 say which region is described by

1 E,
2 D,
3 C.

5 Draw the lines x + 2y = 12 and 2x + y = 10.

Mark the regions where
1 x + 2y > 12 and 2x + y < 10,
2 x + 2y < 12 and 2x + y > 10,
3 x + 2y < 12 and 2x + y < 10,
4 x + 2y > 12 and 2x + y > 10.

6 Draw the lines y = x + 3, y = 3x − 1 and x + y = 11. Shade the region where y

> x + 3, y < 3x − 1 and x + y < 11. Find whether the points (3, 6) and (3, 7) are
in this region or not.

Figure 11.5

7 Draw the lines x + y = 7, y = 2x + 5 and x + 4y = 12.

Mark the regions where
1 x + y ≤ 7, y ≤ 2x + 5 and x + 4y ≥ 12,
2 x + y ≥ 7, y ≤ 2x + 5 and x + 4y ≥ 12,
 3 x + y ≤ 7, y ≥ 2x + 5 and x + 4y ≥ 12.

8 Shade on a graph the regions where

1 x + y < 10, 2x + y > 12 and x + 4y ≥ 16,
2 x + y < 10, 2x + y > 12 and x + 4y ≥ 16,
3 x + y > 10, 2x + y < 12 and x + 4y ≤ 16.

11.3 Greatest or least values in a region

Example 11.3
Shade on a graph the region where x + 3y ≤ 24 and 3x + y < 21 (assume that x ≥ 0
and y ≥ 0). Find at what points in this region the expression x + y takes on its
largest value, with x and y being whole numbers.

The points in the shaded region in Figure 11.6 for which x + y is largest are (3, 7),
(4, 6) and (5, 5). Points on the line 3x + y = 21 are not included since 3x + y < 21
and not 3x + y ≤ 21.

Note that the three points where x + y is largest all lie on the line x + y = 10.

Figure 11.6

Exercise 11.2
 1 Look again at the previous graph, Figure 11.6.

Identify the region where 3x + y > 21 and x + 3y > 24.

At which whole number point(s) is x + y smallest in this region?

2 Shade on a graph the region where 2x + y ≤ 10 and x + 2y < 12.

Find at what point(s) in this region the expression x + y takes on its largest
value, with x and y being whole numbers.

3 Use your graph from Question 2 to identify the region where 2x + y > 10 and
x + 2y > 12.

Find at what point(s) in this region the expression x + y takes on its smallest
value, with x and y being whole numbers.

4 Shade on a graph the region where y ≥ 2x − 10 and x + 3y < 18.

Find at what point(s) in this region, with whole number values for x and y, the
expression x + y takes on its largest value. Explain why the point (6, 4) is not
included in the solution.

5 Use your graph from Question 4 to identify the region where y < 2x − 10 and
x + 3y ≥ 18.

Find at what point(s) in this region the expression x + y takes on its smallest
value, with x and y being whole numbers. Explain why the point (7, 4) is not
included in this solution.

11.4 Linear programming

The ideas in Section 11.2 can be applied to a range of practical
problems which occur quite frequently in business and industry. The
constraints on a situation are described by a set of inequalities, and
then it is required, for example, to maximize the profit or supply, or
to minimize the labour required, within these constraints.

Example 11.4
A manufacturer makes two types of smoke detector. For model A, the materials
cost £4, the labour £5 and the profit is £5 per detector. For model B, the materials
cost £3, the labour £9 and the profit is £6 per detector. Altogether £240 is available
for the materials and £450 is available for the labour. How many of each model
should be made to give the maximum profit?

If a is the number of model A and b is the number of model B to be made then you
can show the constraints on materials and labour as a pair of inequalities:
for materials 4a + 3b ≤ 240 and for labour 5a + 9b ≤ 450. You want to maximize
the profit, which is given by £(5a + 6b).

First show the two inequalities on a graph and find the region which corresponds
to 4a + 3b ≤ 240 and 5a + 9b ≤ 450. In this example the region is the shaded
region in Figure 11.7 on or below each of the two lines.

You now need to find the point in this region where 5a + 6b is greatest. It would be
very tedious to check the value of 5a + 6b at each point but fortunately you can
use your knowledge of parallel lines to help. The lines 5a + 6b = 100, 5a + 6b =
150, 5a + 6b = 300 etc. are all parallel. The second two are shown dotted on the
graph in Figure 11.7 and you should note that as the profit gets larger the
corresponding profit line moves up and to the right. You need to find a point on the
profit line which is furthest to the right in the required region. In this case the point
is (39, 28) and the profit £363.
Figure 11.7

Example 11.5
A farmer makes a composite feed from two different feeds so that the vitamin
content of the final feed is at least

Vitamin A – 8 units, Vitamin B – 6 units, Vitamin C – 3 units.

The vitamin content of each feed per kilogram is given in the table.

If the costs of each feed per kilogram are 120 pence and 90 pence respectively,
how should the farmer make his feed to keep costs to a minimum?
Let the number of kilograms in each feed be x and y respectively. Then the three
constraints described by the inequalities are

A: x + 4y ≥ 8,

B: 3x + y ≥ 6,

and C: x + y ≥ 3.

Figure 11.8

The cost of making the composite feed, which you want to be as small as possible,
is (120x + 90y) pence.

On Figure 11.8 the two cost lines for 360p and 720p are shown as dotted lines.
These correspond to 120x + 90y = 360 (that is, 4x + 3y = 12) and 120x + 90y =
720 (that is, 4x + 3y = 24). These lines are parallel and move down and to the left
as the cost decreases. The minimum cost line will be the last line which contains at
least one point in the required region.

In this example the minimum cost occurs when the composite feed consists of 1
part of Feed 1 to 3 parts of Feed 2.

Nugget
Another way to find the required point is to test each vertex of the region and any
points with integer coordinates around these vertices.

Exercise 11.3
1 For a camp of 144 children, two types of tent are available for hire. The large
tent sleeps 8 and costs £48 per week, and the small tent sleeps 3 and costs
£12 per week.

The total number of tents must not exceed 36.

Using L for the number of large tents and S for the number of small tents write
down inequalities to describe the constraints of:
1 the number of children,
2 the number of tents.

Write down an expression to show the cost of hiring these tents.

If the cost of hiring is to be kept as small as possible, show the information on

a graph and find the number of each type of tent that must be hired.

What will be the total cost of hiring for one week?

2 A market gardener who has 100 hectares of land available for planting
lettuces and/or spring onions is prepared to outlay at most £5,400. The initial
outlay on each hectare of lettuces is £36, whilst that on each hectare of spring
onions is £90.

Show this information as a pair of inequalities and represent it on a graph.

If the profit on each hectare of lettuces is £80 and on each hectare of spring
onions is £120, find how the market gardener should allocate the land to make
the maximum profit.

What is the greatest profit that could be made if 120 hectares was used?

How many hectares must be allocated to make it worth growing only lettuces?
 3 A firm wants to buy a number of new cars of two types.

Type A costs £16 000 and £96 per week to run.

Type B costs £19 200 and £60 per week to run.

The firm has £144 000 to spend and wishes to keep its running costs to £720
per week.

If the firm must buy at least 4 cars of type A and 2 cars of type B, find the
various possibilities for the number of each type of car that the firm could buy.

4 A firm with 10 drivers uses vans and lorries to make its deliveries.

A van costs £72 per day to run and can carry 600 kg.

A lorry costs £180 per day to run and can carry 1100 kg.

The firm wants to keep its daily running costs down to £1 080, but at the same
time wants to be able to deliver at least 6600 kg. Write down inequalities to
describe the constraints of
1 drivers,
2 running costs,
3 carrying capacity.
4 Show this information on a graph and find the various possibilities for the
number of vans and lorries if the firm decides to use at least 2 lorries.

5 Represent on one graph the set of points (x, y) which satisfy the inequalities:
x ≥ 10, y ≥ 2, x + 4y ≥ 24 and 2x + 3y ≥ 36.

Show also the region where x + 2y ≤ 30 as well.

Hence find the points in this region, with whole number values for x and y, at
which x + 2y takes its smallest value.

Key ideas
• The region x < b lies to the left of the line x = b.
• The region x > b lies to the right of the line x = b.
• The region y < b lies below the line y = b.
• The region y > b lies above the line y = b.
• The region y < mx + c lies below the line y = mx + c
• The region y > mx + c lies above the line y = mx + c
• You can find the region described by several inequalities by drawing the relevant
graphs and shading in the region described by each inequality.

• You can find the greatest or least value in a region by testing points around the
vertices of a region.

• Linear programming is the method of optimizing a function which is subject to

certain constraints.
12
Multiplying algebraical
expressions
In this chapter you will learn:

• how to multiply expressions like (x + a) and (y + b)

• how to work out (x + a)2
• how to work out (x + a)3.
12.1 Multiplying expressions when one factor
consists of one term
This has been considered in Section 3.1, when it was shown that:

12.2 Product of expressions with two terms

A typical example is (x + a)(y + b).

As in Section 3.1, a geometrical illustration will help to make clear

what the product is and how it is obtained.

In Figure 12.1 ABCD is a rectangle with the sides (x + a) and (y + b)

units of length, and divided to represent x, a, y and b units of length.
Lines are drawn parallel to the sides dividing the whole rectangle into
smaller ones whose areas represent the products xy, xb, ay and ab
by means of their areas.

Figure 12.1

The area of the whole rectangle

Also the area of the whole rectangle

This grouping suggests the method of multiplying (x + a)(y + b)
algebraically.

The second factor (y + b) is multiplied in turn by each term of the first

factor. The sum of these is the final product.

As the order in multiplication is immaterial so far as the final product

is concerned, this could also have been obtained as follows. Writing
the factors in the reverse order

This is illustrated in Figure 12.1.

Nugget
You can use the mnemonic FOIL (First, Outer, Inner, Last) to help you multiply out
a pair of brackets.

For example, consider (x + a) (y + b)

Multiply the First terms in each bracket to get xy

Multiply the Outer terms in each bracket to get bx

Multiply the Inner terms in each bracket to get ay

Multiply the Last terms in each bracket to get ab

So (x + a) (y + b) = xy + bc + ay + ab
 Example 12.1

If the first terms in each factor are alike, the same method is
followed, the product being simplified afterwards if necessary.

This could be expressed as

This result suggests a quick way of obtaining the product mentally.

The coefficient of x in the answer is the sum of a and b. The last
term is their product.

When a and b are numbers the sum and product will be evaluated,
and the expression simplified.

Example 12.2
12.3 When the coefficients of the first terms are
not unity
The rule still holds when the coefficients of the first term are not 1.
Thus:

which you can write as:

Note the form of the coefficient of x in the last line. It will be used
later.
Numerical examples of this form are common. The following
illustrations show how to apply the rule quickly.

Example 12.3

You can obtain the coefficient of the middle term by multiplying as shown by the
arrows below; then add the results:

Example 12.4

Example 12.5
 Example 12.6

If you find any difficulty set out the working as shown in the second line of Example
12.3.

12.4 Multiplication of an expression with three

terms
You can adapt the method shown in Section 12.2 to certain cases in
which one of the factors has three terms.

Example 12.7

Example 12.8

Exercise 12.1
Find the following products.

1 (a + x)(b + y)

2 (c + d)(e + f)

3 (ax + b)(cy + d)

4 (a − x)(b − y)

5 (x − y)(a − b)

6 (a − x)(b + y)

7 (a + x)(b − y)

8 (a + 2)(b + 3)

9 (a − 2)(b − 3)

10 (a − 2)(b + 3)

11 (a + 2)(b − 3)

12 (x + 7)(x + 5)

13 (ab + 6)(ab + 3)

14 (x + 10)(x + 3)

15 (x − 10)(x − 3)

16 (x + 10)(x − 3)

17 (x − 10)(x + 3)

18 (p + 8)(p − 12)

19 (x − 4y)(x − 8y)

20 (x − 4y)(x + 8y)

21 (x + 4y)(x − 8y)
22 (a + 2b)(2a + 5b)

23 (3x − 4y)(3x − 5y)

24 (4x + 1)(7x + 2)

25 (2x − 3)(3x − 1)

26 (3x + 1)(3x − 4)

27 (1 + 3y)(1 − 4y)

28 (6x + 1)(3x − 5)

29 (7x − 3y)(2x + 5y)

30 (3a − 7b)(6a − 5b)

31 Simplify {(x + y)(a + b) − (ay + yb)} and divide the result by x.

32 Simplify {(a + b)(a − c) + bc} ÷ a.

33 Find the value of (2x − y)(x + y) − (2x + y)(x − y) when x = 3, y = 2.

34 Simplify (1 − 2x)(1 + 3y) − (1 − 2y)(1 + 3x) and find its value when x = 0.1, y =
0.2.

35 Find the following products.

1 (x − y)(x2 + xy + y2)
2 (a + 2)(a2 − 2a + 4)
3 (1 + x)(1 − x + x2)
4 (x + a)(x2 + 2ax + a2)

12.5 Square of an expression with two terms

In Section 12.2 it was shown that:

Since this is true whatever the values of the letters, put b = a.

If a is replaced by −a throughout, then:

A geometrical illustration may help to clarify.

Figure 12.2, which is a modification of Figure 12.1, shows an

illustration of the result for (x + a)2 by means of a square whose side
is x + a.

Figure 12.2

Draw a similar figure to illustrate

Example 12.9
12.6 Square of an expression with three terms
In the product:

Since x may have any value, replace it with a + b.

Then:

or, re-arranging:

You can state this in words in the following way. The square of an
expression with three terms is equal to

Example 12.10

Take care in applying the laws of signs.

12.7 Cube of an expression with two terms

(a + b)3 may be written as (a + b)(a + b)(a + b)
Multiplying these as shown in Section 12.4:

So, after collecting like terms:

Similarly:

Example 12.11

Note: In the cube of (x − y) the signs are alternately positive and negative.

Exercise 12.2
Write down the following squares in full.

1 (x + 2)2

2 (x − 2)2
 3 (a + 3b)2

4 (a − 3b)2

5 (2x + y)2

6 (x − 2y)2

7 (ab + 10)2

8 (xy − 3)2

9 (4x + 5y)2

10 (4x − 5y)2

11 (5xy + 6)2

12 (1 − 10x2)2

13 (5x2 + 3y2)2

14 (3xy − 2y2)2

19 {(x + y) + 1}2

20 {1 − (x − 2y)}2

21 (a + b − c)2
22 (x − y + z)2

23 (2x + 3y − 5z)2

24 (4a − 2b − 1)2

Write down the following cubes in full.

25 (x + y)3

26 (x − y)3

27 (a + 2)3

28 (a − 2)3

29 (p + q)3

30 (p − q)3

31 (2x + y)3

32 (x − 2y)3

33 (3a − 1)3

34 (1 − 3b)3

35 Simplify the following: (x + y)2 − (x2 + y2).

36 Simplify,
1 (a + b)2 − (a − b)2.
2 (a − b)2 − (a + b)2.

37 Simplify (x + 10)2 − (x − 10)2.

38 If x = 3y + 1, express x2 + 4x + 4 in terms of y and find its value when y = 1.

39 A square lawn the side of which is x m is surrounded by a path (Figure 12.3)

which is a m wide. Find an expression for the area of the path in terms of x
and a. What is the area of the path when x = 30 and a = 2?
Figure 12.3

40 If the lawn of the previous question were a rectangle, x m by y m and the path
were a m wide, find an expression for its area.

12.8 Product of sum and difference

If a and b are any two numbers, then the product of their sum and
difference is expressed by (a + b)(a − b).

Using the method of Section 12.2 to find the value of this

This important result can be expressed in words in the following way:

The product of the sum and difference of two numbers is equal

to the difference of their squares.

Nugget
All of the general results in this chapter are handy to learn, as they will help you
factorise algebraic expressions in the next chapter.

Example 12.12
 Exercise 12.3
Find the following products.

1 (a + x)(a − x)

2 (p + q)(p − q)

3 (a + 2b)(a − 2b)

4 (4x + 3)(4x − 3)

5 (2x + 1)(2x − 1)

6 (1 + 6x)(1 − 6x)

7 (1 + a2)(1 − a2)

8 (2x2 + 1)(2x2 − 1)

9 (x2 + y2)(x2 − y2)

10 (3xy + 2)(3xy − 2)

11 (12xy + 1)(12xy − 1)
13 {(x + y) + z}{(x + y) − z}

14 (a + x + y)(a + x − y)

15 (2a + 3b + 1)(2a + 3b − 1)

16 (x − 2y + 6)(x − 2y − 6)

17 {a + 2(b + c)}{a − 2(b + c)}

18 {2x + 3(y + z)}{2x − 3(y + z)}

Key ideas
• When you multiply out two brackets, each term in the second bracket must
be multiplied by each term in the first bracket.

• The product of a sum and difference gives the difference of two squares:
13
Factors
In this chapter you will learn:

• how to find factors of some algebraic expressions

• that not all algebraic expressions have factors
• how to recognize some special cases when
algebraic expressions do have factors.
13.1 The process of finding factors
The work of this chapter will be the converse of that in the previous
one. That was concerned with methods of obtaining the products of
certain algebraical expressions. This chapter is about finding the
factors of expressions of different types.

A converse operation, in general, is more difficult than the direct one,

and so it is in this case. By rules, on the whole simple and easily
applied, the products of various kinds of factors are found. But, in
seeking to find the factors whose product produces a given
expression, the rules, even when they are formulated, are often long
and tedious. In the main, you have to rely on trial and
improvement methods. These methods are, however, not haphazard
but based on those rules by which the product was obtained. It is
always possible to obtain a product when the factors are given, but
you cannot always find factors for expressions. most expressions
have no factors, so you can deal only with special types, such as
were obtained as products in the work of the preceding chapter.

13.2 Factors consisting of one term only

In Section 3.1 you saw that:

If you start with xa + xb and wish to factorize it, you see by

inspection that x is a factor of each term. It is therefore a factor of the
whole expression. To find the other factor, you divide each term by x
and add the quotients. As a result you get a + b.

In finding the factors by inspection you are guided by a knowledge of

the process by which when (a + b) is multiplied by x the result is xa +
xb.

13.3 Worked examples

 Example 13.1

Find the factors of 6a2 + 3ac.

In this case there is more than one factor common to each term.

1 3 is the highest common factor of the numerical coefficients.

2 a is a factor of the other parts of each term.

So 3a is a factor of each term, and is therefore a factor of the whole expression.

Dividing each term by it,

Example 13.2
Factorize 5x2y2 − 10x2y + 20y2.

The highest numerical factor common to each term is 5, and the only other factor
is y.

Nugget
Look at the numbers first and then each letter in turn to make sure you find the
highest common factor of the terms.

Exercise 13.1
Express each of the following as a product of factors:

1 6x + 12

2 3ab + 2a
 3 4xy + 2y2

4 6a2 − 4ab

5 14x2y2 − 7xy

6 16 − 32a2

7 a2 − ab + ac

8 x3 + 3x2 − x

9 15a3 − 5a2b + 3a2b2

10 6a2c − 15ac2

11 a2b + ab2 − abc

13 Fill in the blank in the following: (7.4 × 132) + (7.4 × a2) = 7.4( ).

14 Calculate the following by first expressing it as a product of factors:

13.4 Factors with two terms

In Section 12.2, you saw that:

If you require the factors of xy + bx + ay + ab and similar

expressions, you must work backwards through the steps shown
above.

The first step is to reach the stage x(y + b) + a(y + b).

To obtain this, the four terms of the expression must be suitably
arranged in two pairs such that:

1 the terms in each pair have a common factor

2 when this common factor is taken out, the same expression must
be left in each pair.

First group xy + bx + ay + ab in the form

Then, taking out the common factor in each pair, you get

Then y + b is a factor of both parts of the expression and must

therefore be a factor of the whole.

Thus you get, on taking it out,

You can apply this method to expressions of which the factors are
not previously known, as they were in the example.

13.5 Worked examples

Example 13.3
Find the factors of a2 + cd + ad + ac.

The first two terms have no common factor. Consequently, the order of the terms
could be changed in order to get two pairs, each with a common factor.

In this arrangement:

1 a is common to the terms of the first group and c to those of the second
2 the same expression a + d will be the other factor of each group.

(a + d) being a factor of both parts is a factor of the whole.

Note: Another possible arrangement was a2 + ac + ad + cd.

There are always two possible ways of grouping.

Example 13.4
Factorize, if possible, ab + ac + bc + bd.

This example is given to show you a possible trap.

The expression can be grouped as a(b + c) + b(c + d). But the expressions in the
brackets in the two parts are different. It is a bad mistake, which is
sometimes made, to write down the factors as (b + c)(c + d)(a + b). Not one of
these is a factor of the given expression. moreover, their product would be an
expression of the third degree. The given expression is of the second degree.

On trying different groupings, you will find that you cannot arrange the expression
in two groups, having the same factor in each group.

There are no factors of ab + ac + bc + bd.

Example 13.5
Find the factors of ab − 5a − 3b + 15.

By arrangement into suitable pairs:

Note carefully, that when an expression is placed in brackets with minus sign in
front, as was done with −3b + 15 above, the signs within the brackets must be
changed. This is in agreement with the reverse rule given in Section 3.2, cases 3
and 4.

Exercise 13.2

Find the factors of each of the following:

1 ax + ay + bx + by

2 pc + qc + pd + qd

3 ab − bd + ae − de

4 ax − cx − ay + cy

5 x2 + px + qx + pq

6 x2 − gx − hx + gh

7 ab + 5b + 6a + 30

8 ab − 5b − 6a + 30

9 ab − 5b + 6a − 30

10 ab − 10a + 3b − 15

11 ax2 + a2x − ab − bx

12 x2 + ax − bx – ab.

13.6 The form x2 + ax + b

It was seen in Section 12.2 that the product of two factors such as (x
+ 6)(x + 5) was x2 + 11x + 30.
Reversing the process, consider how to find the factors of x2 + 11x + 30.

In the general case, it was shown that:

In this product:

1 the coefficient of x is the sum of the numbers a and b

2 the term independent of x, that is ab, is the product of these

numbers.
Consequently, in finding the factors of an expression such as x2 + 11x + 30,
you must find by trial two factors of 30 whose sum is +11. They are +5 and +6.

So, the factors are (x + 5)(x + 6).

13.7 Worked examples

Example 13.6
Factorize x2 + 13x + 36.

There are several pairs of factors of 36 − namely (1 × 36), (2 × 18), (3 × 12), (4 ×

9) and (6 × 6).

Look for the pair whose sum is +13; this pair is (9, 4).

Example 13.7
Factorize x2 − 13x + 36.

In this case, the sign of the middle term is − and of the last term is +.
In this case, look for two negative factors of 36 whose sum is −13. These are −9
and −4.

Example 13.8
Factorize x2 − 5x − 36.

When the last term is negative the factors of 36 must have opposite signs.

The coefficient of x is the sum of a positive and negative number, and the negative
number must be the greater numerically; or alternatively, 5 is the difference of the
two factors numerically.

The required factors of −36 are −9 and +4.

Note: The larger of the two numbers has the same sign as the middle term.

Example 13.9
Factorize x2 + 12x − 28.

The two factors of 28 which differ by 12 are 14 and 2. They are of opposite signs,
and their sum is +12.

The factors of 28 required are +14 and −2.

Example 13.10
Factorize a2 − 8ab − 48b2.

The introduction of the second letter makes no difference to the method followed,
but b will appear in the second term of each factor.
 Exercise 13.3
Find the factors of each of the following:

1 x2 + 3x + 2

2 x2 − 3x + 2

3 x2 + 5x + 6

4 x2 − 5x + 6

5 x2 + 7x + 6

6 x2 + 9x + 20

7 x2 − 12xy + 20y2

8 a2 − 15ab + 36b2

9 x2y2 + 15xy + 54

10 a2b2 − 19ab + 48

11 y2 − 21y + 108

12 x2 − 12xy + 35y2

13 x2 − x − 2

14 x2 + x − 2

15 x2 + xy − 6y2

16 x2 − xy − 6y2

17 b2 − 2b − 3

18 b2 + 2b − 3

19 x2 + 13x − 48
20 x2 − 13x − 48

21 x2 − xy − 110y2

22 a2 − 11a − 12

23 a2 − a − 12

24 p2 + p − 72

25 p2 − 34p − 72

26 1 − 9x + 20x2

27 1 − 8x − 20x2

28 x2y2 − 3xy − 88

29 p2 + 4p − 45

30 p2 + pq − 56q2

13.8 The form ax2 + bx + c

The factors of an expression such as this, where a, b, c are
numbers, will be of the form which occurred in the converse
operation in Section 12.3. These factors are best obtained by trial, as
indicated in the following examples.

Example 13.11
Find the factors of 2x2 + 7x + 3.

Write down possible pairs of factors systematically and find the middle term as
shown in Section 12.3 until the correct coefficient of x is found. In this example the
possibilities are
In (1) the coefficient of x in the product is 5.

In (2) the coefficient of x in the product is 7.

The second pair is therefore the correct one,

Example 13.12
Find the factors of 6x2 + 17x − 3.

The minus sign of the last term indicates that the factors will have opposite signs in
the second terms. This increases the number of possible pairs of factors. Among
the possible pairs are:

1 (2x − 1)(3x + 3) or (2x + 1)(3x − 3),

2 (6x − 1)(x + 3) or (6x + 1)(x − 3).

Proceeding as shown in Section 12.3, you find that the first pair of (2) is the one
required, since the coefficient of x is:

Example 13.13
Find the factors of 4x2 − 17x − 15.

The sign of the last term is again negative; therefore the factors will have opposite
signs. Among the possibilities are

1 (2x + 5)(2x − 3) or (2x − 5)(2x + 3)

2 (4x + 5)(x − 3) or (4x − 5)(x + 3)

3 (4x + 3)(x − 5) or (4x − 3)(x + 5).

The first pair of (3) gives for the coefficient of x

Exercise 13.4
Complete the following factorizations:

1 3x2 + 10x + 8 = (3x )(x )

2 12x2 − 17x + 6 = (4x )(3x )

3 12x2 − 28x − 5 = (6x )(2x )

4 9x2 + 43x − 10 = (9x )(x )

Find the factors of each of the following:

5 2x2 + 3x + 1

6 3x2 − 4x + 1

7 2x2 + 5x + 2

8 6x2 + 5x + 1

9 4x2 − 8x + 3

10 5x2 − 6x + 1

11 6x2 − 11x + 3

12 12x2 + 11x + 2

13 2a2 + a − 1

14 2a2 − a − 1
15 2a2 − a − 6

16 10b2 − b − 2

17 10b2 + b − 2

18 8y2 − 14y − 15

19 12x2 + 5x − 2

20 14c2 − 17c – 6

13.9 Expressions which are squares

You can recognize an expression with three terms, which is the
square of a binomial expression, by applying the rule given in
Section 12.5. The standard forms are:

and

If the expression is a square, the following conditions must be satisfied:

1 the first and last terms, when the trinomial has been suitably
arranged, are exact squares and positive;

2 the middle term must be ± (twice the product of the square roots
of the first and third terms).

Example 13.14
Write x2 + 6x + 9 as a square of an expression with two terms.

1 The first and third terms are the squares of x and 3.

2 The middle term is .

 Example 13.15
Is 4x2 + 6x + 9 a square?

1 The first and third terms are the squares of 2x and 3.

2 For a complete square the middle term should be

But the middle term is +6x.

So the expression is not a square.

Example 13.16
Is 4x2 − 20x + 25 a square?

The middle term is

13.10 Difference of two squares

In Section 12.8 it was shown that:

So, an expression which is the difference of two squares, has for its
factors the sum and the difference of the numbers which are
squared.
Note: No real factors can be found for the sum of two squares; i.e.,
x2 + a2 has no factors.

13.11 Worked examples

Example 13.17
Factorize 100x2 − 1.

The numbers squared are 10x and 1.

So the factors are the sum and difference of these:

Example 13.18
Factorize 36a2b2 − 25.

The numbers squared are 6ab and 5,

Example 13.19
Factorize (a + b)2 − c2.

Although one of the terms squared is replaced by an expression with two terms,
the rule above still applies.

Example 13.20
Factorize (a + b)2 − (c − a)2.

13.12 Evaluation of formulae

The difference of two squares formula is often helpful in transforming
formulae and in arithmetical calculations.

Example 13.21
Find the value of 47.52 − 22.52.

Example 13.22
Find the area of a ring between two concentric circles of radii 97 mm and 83 mm,
respectively. The area of a circle is πr2 where the radius is r.

The area of the ring is the difference between the areas of the two circles.

Working in mm2, the difference in area is:

The area of the ring is 2520π mm2.

Exercise 13.5
Write each of the following as the square of a binomial expression:

1 p2 + 2pq + q2

2 x2 − 4xy + 4y2

3 9x2 + 6x + 1

4 16x2 − 40xy + 25y2

Express the following as squares:

7 (a + b)2 + 4(a + b) + 4

8 (x − y)2 − 10(x − y) + 25
Find the factors of each of the following:

9 x2 − 100

10 a2b2 − 25

11 4x2 − 9y2

12 25a2 − 16b2

13 121x2 − 36y2

14 144p2 − 169q2

15 25 − 16a2

16 1 − 225x2
17 8a2 − 50b2

18 3x2 − 75

19 5x2 − 45y2

20 (a + b)2 − c2

21 (x + 2y)2 − 16z2

23 x2 − (y + z)2

24 a2 − (x − 2y)2

25 (x − 8)2 − 49

26 (a + b)2 − (a − b)2
Find the numerical values of each of the following:

27 652 − 352

28 822 − 682

29 492 − 392

30 242 − 182

31 4.252 − 1.752

32 17.52 −12.52

33 Find the value of when , r1 = 12.5, r2 = 8.5.

34 If find S when v = 14.5, u = 2.5 and f = 1.5.

35 In the formula w = k(D2 − d2) find w, when k = 2.4, D = 8.5, d = 7.5.

36 If find y when m = 24, v = 44, u = 16 and p = 32.

37 If find the difference between the values of s when t = 8 and t = 6.
Take g = 10.

38 In the right-angled triangle (Figure 13.1) a and b represent the lengths of the
sides containing the right angle and c the length of the hypotenuse. We know
from geometry that

1 Find a when c = 52, b = 48.

2 Find b when c = 65, a = 25.

Figure 13.1

13.13 Sum and difference of two cubes

In Section 12.4, Example 12.8, you saw that:

By using the same method you get:

These results enable you to obtain factors of the expressions:

Re-arranging them you obtain:

It may help you to note that:

1 in (A), the sum of two cubes, the first factor is the sum of the
numbers

2 in (B), the difference of two cubes, the first factor is the difference
of the numbers.

The other factors differ only in the sign of ab.

1 When the first factor is the sum the sign is minus.

2 When the first factor is the difference the sign is plus.

13.14 Worked examples

Exercise 13.6
Find the factors of each of the following:

1 x3 + c3

2 y3 − a3

3 1 + 8a3

4 x3 − 64

5 8 + 27c3

6 R3 − 1

7 m3 − 125n3
 Key ideas
• To factorize an expression means to rewrite the expression as a product of two
or more factors:

• To factorize an expression containing four terms with no common factors, look

for a common factor of two pairs of terms. Then use the fact that:

So, to factorize a quadratic expression in the form:

look for two numbers which add to give the coefficient of x and multiply to give
the constant term.

• To factorize an expression in the form ax2 + bx + c, you need to test possible

factors systematically. Remember, that the coefficients of x in both factors need
to multiply to give a, and the constant term in both factors need to multiply to
give c.

• An expression is a perfect square if it is in the form:

• The difference of two squares:

• The difference of two cubes:

• The sum of two cubes:

14
Fractions
In this chapter you will learn:

• how to make fractions simpler

• how to add and subtract fractions
• how to solve equations involving fractions.
14.1 Algebraic fractions
In algebra, fractions have the same fundamental meaning as in
arithmetic, and are subject to the same rules in operations with them.
They differ only in the use of letters in the algebraic forms.

An algebraic fraction is one in which the denominator is an algebraic

expression. The numerator may or may not be algebraic in form.

Thus is an algebraic fraction, but is not. The latter means , and

thus is merely a fractional coefficient. Similarly is an algebraic
fraction but is not.

14.2 Laws of fractions

It was stated above that algebraic fractions are subject to the same
laws as arithmetical fractions. It is unnecessary to state these laws
here, but a few illustrations may serve to remind you how they
operate. It was pointed out in Section 2.17 that:

where m and n are any numbers.

By means of this rule algebraic fractions can be simplified or reduced

to lowest terms by dividing both numerator and denominator by the
same number. This can be expressed by the phrase ‘common
factors are cancelled’. This was assumed in Section 2.14.

14.3 Reduction of fractions

Examples were given in Section 2.17, but further instances are now
given that depend on the operations of the previous chapter.

Example 14.1
Simplify

Using the rule of Section 13.8,

Example 14.2

Simplify

Factorizing the numerator and denominator:

The mistake is sometimes made of cancelling terms instead of factors. Thus, there
can be no cancelling with the 3 and 6 in the above answer. Only factors of the
whole expressions in numerator and denominator can be cancelled.

Example 14.3

Simplify

Factorizing, you get

The factors 3a(a − 2b) are common to numerator and denominator. Cancelling
them, you get
 Nugget
Often the first step when dealing with algebraic fractions is to factorize the
numerators/denominators – this will help you to cancel any common factors.

Exercise 14.1
Simplify the following fractions:

14.4 Multiplication and division

If necessary you should revise Section 2.17 and then proceed to the
harder examples now given.

Example 14.4

Simplify .

Factorizing and inverting the second fraction gives:

Cancelling common factors you get:

Example 14.5

Simplify .

Factorizing where possible, the expression is equal to:

Exercise 14.2
Simplify the following fractions:
 9 Simplify and find its value when b = 5.

10 Simplify and find its value when x = 1.5.

14.5 Addition and subtraction

The fundamental principles were examined in Section 2.16.

Here are some more difficult examples.

Example 14.6

Simplify .

Factorizing, the expression becomes:

The least common denominator is (a + b) (a − b). Then:

Example 14.7

Simplify .

Factorizing, the expression becomes:

This example is intended to remind you of the note at the end of Section 3.2,
relative to a minus sign before a fraction. The numerator, as (2a + b) in the above
example, should always be placed in a bracket on addition of the fraction, and the
bracket removed afterwards.

Example 14.8

Simplify .

Factorizing, the expression becomes:

 Example 14.9

Simplify .

Example 14.10

Convert the formula into one in which the subject is R.

Note: The subject of this exercise is NOT R. You should not make the mistake of
inverting at the outset. The fractions on the right side must be added first.

Nugget
Note, in the above example: R is not the subject; is the subject.

Exercise 14.3
Simplify the following fractions.
Transform the following formulae so that the subject is R.

19 If find R in terms of the other letters.

20 If find the value of 5P.

21 Simplify .

22 Simplify

23 If find R when R1 = 8.6, R2 = 4.3, and R3 = 3.

24 Given , rearrange the terms so as to express P in terms of

the other quantities.

25 Given find n in terms of the other quantities.

 Find n when L = 2, E = 1.8, R = 2.4, r = 0.5.

14.6 Simple equations involving algebraical

fractions
The following examples will illustrate the methods employed.

Example 14.11

Solve the equation .

Use the least common denominator, (x − 2)(x − 1), to multiply both sides.

Then

Example 14.12
Solve for n the equation

Multiply throughout by the least common denominator n(n − 2)(n − 3).

 Exercise 14.4
Solve the following equations.
11 In the formula find v when f = 8, u = 2.

12 For what value of n is equal to

13 If find R when C = 7.5, V = 60.

14 If find V in terms of r, R, E.

Key ideas
• An algebraic fraction is one in which the denominator is an algebraic expression.
• You can multiply or divide the numerator and denominator by any number
without changing the value of a fraction.

• When you cancel factors in a algebraic fraction, make sure that that you do not
cancel terms by mistake.

• If there are no obvious factors to cancel, always check whether you can
factorize the numerator or denominator.

• When you multiply algebraic fractions, multiply the numerators and then the
denominators.

• When you divide by an algebraic fractions, invert the fraction you are dividing by
and then multiply.
• When you add or subtract algebraic fractions, you need to first rewrite them, so
that they have a common denominator.

• You can solve equations involving algebraic fractions by transforming the

equation, so that it no longer involves fractions.
15
Graphs of quadratic functions
In this chapter you will learn:

• how to draw graphs of quadratic functions

• that all quadratic functions have parabolic shaped
graphs
• how to use graphs to solve quadratic equations.
15.1 Constants and variables
In the formulae which have been considered in earlier chapters you
have seen that the letters used represent two different kinds of
numbers.

1 Some represent constant numbers, that is, numbers which remain

unchanged in the varying cases to which the formula applies.

2 Others represent variable quantities.

Example 15.1
Consider the formula for the circumference of a circle, namely,

Two of these four symbols represent constants.

1 The number 2 (which is fixed for any circle).

2 The number π (which has always the same value in any formula in which it is
used). It represents the constant ratio of the circumference of any circle to its
diameter, or the area of a circle to the square of its radius.

Two of the letters in the formula are variables, which are different in value for
different circles, the value of C depending on the value of r.

Example 15.2
In Section 10.2 it was shown that a formula or equation connecting profit and
customers was:

It was pointed out that, while the profit represented by y depended on the varying
number of customers x, the numbers 5 and 115 remained constant, representing
respectively the average amount paid by each customer, and the fixed charges.

Example 15.3
This last example was a special case of the equation of a straight line, which in
Section 10.8 was shown to be represented in general by the equation:

For a particular straight line, m is constant, representing the gradient of the line,
while c is the fixed distance intercepted on the y-axis. But x and y vary for different
points on the line. They represent the coordinates of any point.

15.2 Dependent and independent variables

The variables are seen to be of two kinds.

Considering the case of the circumference of the circle, the length of

this depends on the length of the radius.

In the second example, the profit depends on the number of

customers.

A number which thus depends on another number for its value is

called a dependent variable.

The other number upon which the first depends is called the
independent variable.

As another example, if a train is moving with uniform, that is,

constant, speed, the distance travelled depends on the time.

Thus the speed is a constant:

time is an independent variable,

and: distance is a dependent variable.
Again the cost of a quantity of tea depends on the weight bought, the
price per kilogram being constant.

Thus: weight is the independent variable,

and: cost is the dependent variable.

In plotting graphs which show how one quantity varies as another

varies, the independent variable is always measured on the
horizontal-axis and the dependent on the vertical-axis.

15.3 Functions
When two quantities are related, as shown in the following
examples, the dependent variable is said to be a function of the
independent variable. Here are some examples:

The circumference of a circle is a function of its radius.

The area of a square is a function of its side.

The distance travelled by a car moving uniformly is a function of the

time.

If a spring is stretched by a force, the extension of the spring is a

function of the force.

Generally, if a quantity denoted by y depends for its value on another

quantity x then y is a function of x.

Thus in each of the following examples:

the value of y depends on the value of x. If any particular value is
given to x, a corresponding value of y can be calculated. In all such
cases y is a function of x.

The idea of a function is probably the most important

in modem mathematics. From the above examples, the following
definition can be deduced:

If a quantity y is related to a quantity x so that for every value

which might be assigned to x there is a corresponding value of y,
then y is a function of x.

Nugget
Thus for every length that may be chosen for the radius of a circle, there is always
a corresponding length of the circumference.

If a person works at a fixed rate per hour, then for any number of hours worked,
there is always a corresponding amount of pay. The pay is a function of the time
worked; the rate per hour is a constant.

Imagine a function machine: for each input there should be exactly one output.

15.4 Graph of a function

If y is a function of x, and since, by the above definition, for every
value assigned to x there is always a corresponding value of y, then
these pairs of values of x and y can be plotted, and the totality of
points so plotted will be the graph of the function.

Thus every function has a distinctive graph, which will often be a

continuous curve or a straight line, and by which it can be identified.

If the function is of the first degree, and does not involve any
algebraical fraction, then, as you have already seen, the graph will
be a straight line. For this reason a function of the first degree, of
which the general form is y = mx + c, is called a linear function.
If, however, the function involves a higher power of x, such as x2, x3,
etc., or involves an algebraic fraction such as the graph will be a
smooth curve, the shape of which will differ with the nature of the
function.

15.5 Graph of a function of second degree

The simplest form of a function of the second degree is that which is
expressed by y = x2. This is called a quadratic function, from the
Latin quadratus (squared). The area of a circle, A = πr2, is a special
form of this.

To plot the curve of y = x2, first assign values to x, then calculate the
corresponding values of x2, or y, and tabulate them as follows:

Take as wide a range of values as the size of the paper will allow you
to plot. Since the values of y increase more rapidly than those of
x, more room is needed on the y-axis, but as the square of a number
is always positive, no negative values of y are necessary. The x-axis
is therefore drawn near the bottom of the paper, as shown in Figure
15.1.
Figure 15.1

When you select the scales on the axes, the scale you choose will
depend on the number of values you wish to include within the limits
of the paper. You need not choose the same scales on the two axes,
and in this particular curve it will be better to take a smaller scale for
values of y, because their values increase more rapidly than those of
x.

You must remember, however, that the true shape of the curve will
be shown only when you take the same units on both axes.

The symmetry of the values of y, as shown in the table, suggests

that the y-axis should be in the middle of the paper.

The points when plotted appear to lie on a smooth curve as shown in

Figure 15.1.

The curve is called a parabola. When inverted it is the curve

described by a projectile such as a shot from a gun, or a rocket when
fired into the air, ignoring air resistance.
15.6 Some properties of the graph of y = x2
Note the following points about the curve y = x2:

1 The curve has symmetry. Positive and negative values of x

produce equal values for y. If therefore the curve were folded
about the y-axis, the two parts of the curve, point by point, would
coincide.

The curve is therefore said to be symmetrical about the y-axis; the

y-axis is called the axis of symmetry.

2 The minimum value of the curve is 0 at the origin. The curve is

said to have a turning-point at the origin.

3 The slope of the curve is not constant, as with a straight line, but
increases from point to point as x increases. The gradient is
clearly a function of x, since its value depends on the value of x.

4 The curve may be used to read off the square of any number
within the range of plotted values, and also, conversely, to
determine square roots. Thus to find , take the point on the
curve corresponding to 3 on the y-axis. It is then seen that there
are two points on the x-axis which correspond to this, the values of
x (that is, ± ) being +1.73 and −1.73 (see Section 4.14). Since
is positive, it is about 1.73.

15.7 The graph of y = −x2

All values of y for the curve y = x2, are equal numerically to the
corresponding values of y in y = x2, but are negative. The shape of
the curve will be the same, but inverted, as in Figure 15.2.
Figure 15.2

All the values of y being negative, the x-axis is drawn toward the top
of the paper.

The curve has a maximum point – namely zero – at the origin. From
this point the curve shows the path of a bomb dropped from an
aeroplane at 0 – ignoring air resistance.

15.8 The graphs of y = ax2

The curves represented by y = ax2, where a is any number, are all
parabolas differing from y = x2 only in having different slopes.

Considering y = 2x2 as an example, the table of values for plotting

the curve are found in the same way as for y = x2.

This curve, as well as that of , are shown in Figure 15.3, and

contrasted with y = x2.
Figure 15.3

If a is a negative number, you get a corresponding set of curves

similar to y = −x2, as in Figure 15.2.

15.9 The graphs of y = x2 ± a, where a is any

number
The graph of y = x2 + 2 is related to that of y = x2 in the same way
that y = x + 2 is connected with y = x (see Section 10.8).

Each ordinate (y-value) of x2 + 2 is greater by 2 than the

corresponding ordinate of x2.

The graph of y = x2 + 2 is therefore the same as y = x2 raised 2 units

on the y-axis. It appears as shown in Figure 15.4. Similarly, the curve
y = x2 − 3 is the graph of y = x2, but every point is 3 units lower than
y = x2 for corresponding values of x.

Generally the curves represented by the equation y = x2 ± a are a set

of curves similar to y = x2 and raised or lowered by an amount equal
to ± a, according to the sign of a.
Similarly, the graph y = −x2 gives rise to a set of curves included in
the equation y = −x2 ± a.

Figure 15.4

15.10 Graph of y = (x − 1)2

The table below shows the values of (1) y = (x − 1)2 and (2) y = x2 for
corresponding values of x.

A comparison of the sets of values of two functions shows that both

have the same sequence of values, but those of (x − 1)2 are those of
x2 moved one place to the right in the table for consecutive values of
x.
Consequently the curve of (x − 1)2 must be the same as that of x2,
but moved 1 unit to the right. See Figure 15.5.

Similarly, if you draw the graph of (x − 2)2, you will find that it is the
same as the graph of x2, but moved 2 units to the right. Or if you
draw the graph of (x + 1)2, it is the same as the graph of x2,
but moved −1 units to the right, that is, 1 unit to the left.

Figure 15.5

15.11 Graph of y = (x − 1)2 − 4

By combining the operations illustrated in the previous two
paragraphs – that is, by moving the graphs – you can obtain the
graph of a function such as y = (x − 1)2 − 4 from the graph of y = x2.
You can do this in two steps:

1 By moving the graph of y = x2 one unit to the right to get the graph
of y = (x − 1)2, as in Section 15.10.

2 By now moving the graph of y = (x − 1)2 a distance of 4 units down

parallel to the y-axis, the graph of y = (x − 1)2 is transformed to y =
(x − 1)2 − 4.
These three graphs, y = x2, y = (x − 1)2 and y = (x − 1)2 − 4 are
shown in Figure 15.6.

Nugget
Note the coordinates of the vertex is (1, −4) and the equation of the line of
symmetry is x = 1. In general, for the graph of y = (x − a)2 + b the vertex of the
parabola is at (a, b) and the equation of the line of symmetry is x = a.

Figure 15.6

The expression (x − 1)2 − 4 may be simplified, since

The curve lowest drawn in Figure 15.6 is therefore the graph of

You will see later (see Section 16.2) that you can reduce every
quadratic function of x to such a form as this, or the simpler forms of
Sections 15.9 and 15.10. It follows that:

The graph of every quadratic function of x is a modified form of y = x2

and is therefore a parabola.

15.12 The graph y = x2 − 2x − 3

You saw in the preceding paragraph that the graph x2 − 2x − 3 can
be obtained from the curve of y = x2 by moving it parallel to the x-
and y-axes. In practice, however, the method given below will be
found more convenient in most cases and is usually more accurate
in practical application. A table of values is constructed as follows:

Note: Be careful not to add the value of x in each column. It is helpful

to draw a thick line under the x values as shown, to remind you when
adding.

From the values in this table you should plot the curve and compare
the figure obtained with that in Figure 15.6, arrived at by moving the
graphs. It will be seen that the minimum value of x2 − 2x − 3 is −4,
when x = 1, and the line x = 1, perpendicular to the x-axis, is an axis
of symmetry.

15.13 Solution of the equation x2 − 2x − 3 = 0

from the graph
At the points where the graph of x2 − 2x − 3, in Figure 15.6, cuts the
x-axis, the value of y is zero – that is
The values of x at these two points are

These are the two values of x which satisfy the equation x2 − 2x − 3

= 0. You have therefore solved the equation by using the graph.

15.14 Graph of y = 2x2 − 3x − 5

The graph of y = 2x2 − 3x − 5 is a slightly more difficult graph to plot.
The table of values is as follows:

In this example a wider range of values is shown. As the values of y

increase rapidly, smaller units are taken on the two axes. The graph
is as shown in Figure 15.7.

The lowest point, N, giving the minimum value of the expression,

corresponds to . From the table of values this point is seen to be
half-way between and x = 1, since these values of x give the
same values of y, namely −6. The minimum value, represented
by mN, is . The ordinate through m, of which mN is part, is the
axis of symmetry of the curve.

The solution of the equation

will be given by the values of x, where y = 0 − that is, at A and B,

where the curve cuts the x-axis. These points give
Figure 15.7

15.15 Graph of y = 12 − x − x2
In y = 12 − x − x2 the coefficient of x2 is negative. Consequently, the
curve wilI take the form of y = −x2, as shown in Figure 15.2 – that is,
it will be an inverted parabola. Here is the table of values.

The values of y show the symmetry of the curve. The highest point,
giving the maximum value, is seen to be half-way between x = −1,
and x = 0, that is, where . The curve is as shown in Figure
15.8. The maximum value is at m, where the value of y is .

The ordinate from m – that is, mN – is the axis of symmetry for the
curve.
You can obtain from the curve the solution of the equation

This will be given by the values of x at A and B, where the curve cuts
the x-axis. The solutions are:

Figure 15.8

15.16 Using graphics calculators

You can obtain all the graphs in the previous sections by using a
graphics calculator. Different types and makes of graphics calculator
vary slightly in the details of the method by which you obtain the
graph, and you will need to read the manual to find the exact method
for your calculator.

In all the different types of graphics calculator, you can specify the
size of the window, which is the part of the graph which you wish to
draw, by giving the minimum and maximum values of x and y for the
axes. There are also features in most graphics calculators which
enable you to move a flashing point along the curve and find its
coordinates as you move it.

You are advised to draw some of the graphs in Exercise 15.1 ‘by
hand’, so that you understand more clearly what they mean. But if
you have a graphics calculator, it is sensible to use it when
appropriate in the exercises which follow in this and subsequent
chapters.

In some cases, you may find it best to draw the curves on

your graphics calculator, and then to make a rough sketch copy of
them on ordinary paper in order to answer the question.

Exercise 15.1
1 Draw the curve of y = x2 between the values x = +3 and x = −3, taking the
units as large as possible. From the curve write down the values of:
1 2.32,

2 Draw the curve of between x = +4 and x = −4. Find from the curve the
values of x such that:

3 x2 = 12.

3 Draw the curve of between x = +4 and x = −4. From the curve find the
values of:

2 −x2 = −5,
3 x2 = 2.

4 Draw the curve of y = x2 and hence obtain the curve of y = x2 + 3. From the
curve find the values of x such that:
 1 x2 + 3 = 5,
2 x2 + 3 = 9.

5 Draw the curve of y = x2 and hence obtain the curves of:

1 y = (x − 2)2,
2 y = (x + 3)2.

From the curves find the values of x such that:

1 (x − 2)2 = 3,
2 (x + 3)2 = 1,
3 (x − 2)2 − 5 = 0.

6 Draw the curve of y = (x + 2)2 − 2 by using the curve of y = x2. Use the curve
to find the values of x when:
1 (x + 2)2 − 2 = 0,
2 (x + 2)2 − 1 = 0,
3 (x + 2)2 = 8.

7 Draw the curve of y = x2 − 6x + 5. Find the least value of this function and the
corresponding value of x. Use the curve to find the values of x when:
1 x2 − 6x + 5 = 0,
2 x2 − 6x + 5 = 6.

8 Draw the curve of y = x2 − 4x + 2. Find the minimum value of the function and
the corresponding value of x. Use the curve to solve the following equations:
1 x2 − 4x − 2 = 0,
2 x2 − 4x − 2 = 3.

9 Draw the curve of y = 2x2 − 5x + 2. Find the minimum value of the function
and the corresponding value of x. From the curve solve the equations:
1 2x2 − 5x + 2 = 0,
2 2x2 − 5x − 1 = 0.

10 Draw the curve of y = 2 − x − x2. Find the maximum value of the function and
the corresponding value of x.
15.17 Using graphs to solve quadratic
inequalities
Once you have drawn the graph of a quadratic function, you can use
it to write down the solutions for an associated quadratic inequality.

Example 15.4
By drawing the graph of y = x2 − 4x + 3 find the values of x for which x2 − 4x + 3 >
0.

The values of x for which x2 − 4x + 3 > 0 correspond to the places on the graph
where y > 0. See Figure 15.9. These are where y is positive or above the x-axis.
The values of x where y is above the axis are where x < 1 or where x > 3.

The values of x for which x2 − 4x + 3 < 0 correspond to the places on the graph in
Figure 15.9 where y < 0. These are where y is negative or below the x-axis. The
values of x where y is below the axis are between x = 1 and x = 3, that is, 1 < x <
3.

Figure 15.9
 Exercise 15.2
1 Draw the graph of y = x2 − 3x + 2. Write down the values of x where the
graph lies above the x-axis. Hence write down the values of x for which:
1 x2 − 3x + 2 > 0,
2 x2 − 3x + 2 < 0.

2 Draw the graph of y = x2 + 2x − 3. Write down the values of x where the

graph lies above the x-axis. Hence write down the values of x for which:
1 x2 + 2x – 3 ≥ 0,
2 x2 + 2x – 3 < 0.

3 By drawing the graph of y = x2 − 3x − 4 find the values of x for which x2 − 3x –

4 > 0.

4 By drawing the graph of y = x2 + 4x − 5 find the values of x for which x2 + 4x –

5 ≤ 0.

15.18 Using quadratic inequalities to describe

regions
You saw in Chapter 11 that y > x + 2 and y < x + 2 represent the
regions on either side of the line y = x + 2. A similar situation arises
whereby y > x2 − 5x + 4 and y < x2 − 5x + 4 represent the regions
above and below the curve y = x2 − 5x + 4.

Example 15.5
Draw the graph of y = x2 − 5x + 4 and show the regions for which

1 y > x2 − 5x + 4 and

2 y < x2 − 5x + 4.

Note: The point (2, 3) lies in the region above the curve y = x2 − 5x + 4 shown in
Figure 15.10 and when substituting the coordinates of this point you should find
that the y-coordinate, 3, is greater than 22 − 5 × 2 + 4 = −2.

The point (−1, 5) lies in the region below the curve and when
substituting you should find that the y-value, 5, is less than (−1)2 − 5
× (−1) + 4 = 10.

Figure 15.10

Exercise 15.3
1 Draw the graph of y = x2 − 4x + 3 and show the regions for which

1 y > x2 − 4x + 3 and

2 y < x2 − 4x + 3.

Check that the point (1, 5) lies in the region above the graph.

2 Draw the graph of y = x2 − 4x − 5 and show the regions for which

1 y > x2 − 4x − 5 and
 2 y < x2 − 4x − 5.

Check that the point (1, 5) lies in the region above the graph.

3 Draw the graphs of y = x2 and y = 2x + 3.

Shade the region where y > x2 and y < 2x + 3.
Check that the point (1, 3) lies in this region.

4 Draw the graphs of y = x2 − 3x and y = 2x − 4.

Shade the region where y < x2 − 3x and y > 2x − 4.
Find a point in the region where y > x2 − 3x, y < 2x − 4 and y > 0.

Key ideas
• A dependent variable is a quantity which depends on another quantity for its
value.

• An independent variable is the quantity on which the dependent variable

depends.

• On a graph, the independent variable (e.g. time) is always on the horizontal-

axis.

• The graph of a quadratic function, y = ax2 + bx + c, is a parabola. When the

coefficient of x2 is negative the parabola is inverted.

• To obtain the graph of y = x2 + a, raise the graph of y = x2 a units vertically.

• To obtain the graph of y = x2 − a, lower the graph of y = x2 a units vertically.
• To obtain the graph of y = (x − b)2, move the graph of y = x2 b units to the right.
• To obtain the graph of y = (x + b)2, move the graph of y = x2 b units to the left.
• To obtain the graph of y = (x − b)2 + a, move the graph of y = x2 b units to the
right and a units up.

• You can plot the graph of a quadratic function, y = ax2 + bx + c by making a

table of values:
• You can solve the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 from the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c
by reading off the values where the graph cuts the x-axis.

• You can represent quadratic inequalities graphically.

 16
Quadratic equations
In this chapter you will learn:

• how to solve quadratic equations by factorizing

• how to solve quadratic equations by using the
formula
• how to solve simple quadratic inequalities.
16.1 Algebraical solution
Plotting the graph of a quadratic function led logically to the solution
of a quadratic equation − that is, an equation of the second degree.
The solution by this method is useful and illuminating, but as
a method of solving a quadratic equation it is cumbersome, and the
accuracy obtainable is limited. An algebraical solution which is
certain, universally applicable and capable of any required degree of
accuracy is needed.

A quadratic equation was solved for the first time when, in Section
15.6, from the curve of y = x2 it was found that if x2 = 3, the
corresponding values of x were +1.73 and −1.73. The reasoning may
be stated in the following way.

This is the simplest form of a quadratic equation. It involves the

operation of finding a square root; hence the term ‘root’ as applied to
the solution of an equation.

In Section 15.13 an important step forward was made. The points

where the curve of (x − 1)2 − 4 cuts the x-axis, and the function was
therefore equal to zero, were found, and the corresponding values of
x noted, namely 3 and −1.

This means that for these values of x, the expression:

They are therefore the roots of this equation. Let the equation be
written in the form:

Then algebraically it is of the same form as the equation above, x2 =

3. You can proceed with the algebraical solution on the same lines
starting by taking square roots:

The form marked (A) is the one to which, ultimately, all quadratic
equations are reduced; the object always is to reach this form.

16.2 The method of solution of any quadratic

It was shown in Section 15.11 that the expression (x − 1)2 − 4
simplified to x2 − 2x − 3.

So, the equation which was solved in the previous section could
have been written in the form:

If you start with this equation and wish to solve it, you need to get
back to the form:

This is the reverse operation of changing from (2) to (1), that is, of
obtaining the square (2) when you are given (1).

Two preliminary steps are necessary:

1 Remove the constant to the right-hand side, as it does not help in

finding the square.

2 Divide throughout by the coefficient of x2 if this is not unity.

After these steps you arrive at the form:

It is now necessary to add to the left-hand side a number which
produces a complete square. Remembering the work in Section
13.7, you get this rule.

Add to each side the square of half the coefficient of x. Then the
above becomes:

and you proceed as before.

Here is the same method used to solve the equation:

Add to each side − that is, 32.

Thus you reach the desired form. Proceeding as before:

So the solution is x = 5 or x = 1.

16.3 Solution of 2x2 + 5x − 3 = 0

Applying the preliminary steps 1 and 2 of the previous section, you
get in succession:
Half the coefficient of x is

Adding you get:

Taking square roots of both sides:

16.4 Worked examples

Example 16.1
Solve the equation x2 − x − 1 = 0.

Transposing:

Adding
 Example 16.2
Solve the equation 3x2 − 5x + 1 = 0.

Applying preliminary steps, as in Section 16.2,

Adding to both sides,

Taking square roots

So the solution is x = 1.434 or x = 0.232 (approx.).

Example 16.3
Solve the equation

First clear the fractions by multiplying throughout by the least common

denominator, namely 16(x − 1)(x + 2).

Adding to each side,

So the solution is x = 6.588 or x − 7.588 (both approx.).

Exercise 16.1
Solve the following equations.

1 3x2 = 12

2 4x2 − 1 = 0

4 (x + 1)2 − 4 = 0

5 (x − 3)2 − 25 = 0

6 (x + 5)2 = 36

9 x2 − 10x + 16 = 0

10 x2 + x − 12 = 0
11 x2 − 2x − 15 = 0

12 x2 + 3x − 28 = 0

13 x(x − 4) = 32

14 2x2 − 7x + 6 = 0

15 2x2 − 3x − 5 = 0

16 3x2 = 7x + 9

17 3x2 + 1 = 5x

16.5 Solution of quadratic equations by

factorization
Here is another method of solving quadratics. First note that if n is
any number:

that is, the product of any number and zero is always zero.

Conversely, if the product of two factors is zero, then either of the

factors may be zero.

For example, if a × b = 0 then this is true if either a = 0 or b = 0.

Similarly if:
it follows from the above that this equation is satisfied if either x – 1 =
0 or x – 3 = 0.

But if x − 1 = 0, then x = 1, and if x − 3 = 0, then x = 3.

So Equation (A) must be satisfied if either x = 1 or x = 3.

It follows that 1 and 3 are the roots of the equation:

If you wish to solve the equation x2 − 4x + 3 = 0, you can do it by

reversing the above steps; consequently you find the factors of x2 −
4x + 3 and get:

If it is possible to obtain factors, this method is easy. In equations

which arise out of practical work this can seldom be done.

It is a valuable method in other ways, and you can use it for solving
equations of higher degree. If, for example, you know that:

then, by the above reasoning, this equation is satisfied by:

The product of the three factors is an expression of the third degree,

since the term of highest degree will be x3. The equation is therefore
of the third degree, or a cubic equation.
 Nugget

The degree of a n equation determines how many roots it can have. So a

quadratic (degree 2) has at most 2 real roots (see the appendix) and a cubic
(degree 3) has at most 3 real roots.

16.6 Worked examples

Example 16.4
Solve the equation x2 − 2x = 15.

Transposing:

Factorizing:

So the solution is x = 5 or x = −3.

Note: Remember that the justification for this method requires that the right-hand
side is zero. Thus you cannot use it in a case such as:

Example 16.5
Solve the equation 9x(x + 1) = 4.

Simplifying and transposing:

So the solution is or x = .

Exercise 16.2
Solve the following equations by the method of factors.

1 x(x − 3) = 0

2 x(x + 5) = 0

3 (x − 2)2 = 0

4 (x − 1)(x − 2) = 0

5 (x + 4)(x − 1) = 0

6 2(x − 3)(x + 7) = 0

7 4(3x − 7)(2x + 11) = 0

8 x2 − 9x + 20 = 0

9 x2 + x = 6

10 x2 + 2x = 35

11 x(x + 13) + 30 = 0

12 x(x − 4) = x + 66

13 (x − 8)(x + 4) = 13

14 2x2 − 11x + 12 = 0
15 2x2 − 3x − 5 = 0

16 3x2 − 4x + 1 = 0

17 8x2 − 14x − 15 = 0

18 24x2 + 10x − 4 = 0

19 (x − 2)(x − 4)(x − 5) = 0

20 (2x − 1)(x + 3)(x + 2) = 0

21 (x − 1)(x2 − 2x − 8) = 0

22 (2x − 5)(x2 − 5x − 50) = 0

23 (x − a)(x − b) = 0

24 (2x − c)(x + d) = 0

16.7 General formula for the solution of a

quadratic equation
You have seen that, by simplification and transposing, every
quadratic can be written in a form such as:

in which there are three constants – namely:

1 the coefficient of x2,

2 the coefficient of x,

3 the term independent of x.

Consequently, if you want to write down a general form for any

quadratic, letters such as a, b, c can be chosen to represent these
constants, so that you could write the general form as:
The equation above is a special case of this in which a = 2, b = 7, c
= −4.

If you solved the general quadratic, ax2 + bx + c = 0, the roots would

be in terms of a, b, c. You should then have a formula such that, by
substituting the values of a, b and c in any special case, you should
be able to write down the roots, and no actual solving would be
necessary.

16.8 Solution of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx

+c=0
The method used is ‘completing the square’, as in Section 16.2.

Using preliminary step 1, ax2 + bx = −c.

Using preliminary step 2,

Adding ‘the square of half the coefficient of x’ to each side of the

equation:

Taking square roots:

This formula should be carefully learnt: by using it, there is no real
necessity for any other method for solving a quadratic equation.
Before applying it, however, the equation to be solved must be
written down with all the terms on the left side.

From this formula, x must have two values and every quadratic must
have two distinct roots. (The case when b2 − 4ac = 0 is
an exception.) This fact was obvious in the solution by means of a
graph.

16.9 Worked examples

Example 16.6
Solve the equation 5x2 + 9x = 2.

Writing the equation in general form you get:

Using the formula:

you have for this example:

Substituting:

Example 16.7

Solve the equation

Clearing the fractions by multiplying throughout by 3(x − 1) (x − 3),

Collecting like terms:

Using the formula:

and putting a = 2, b = −11, c = 3,

So the solution is x = 5.212 or x = 0.288.

Exercise 16.3
Solve the following equations by using the formula of Section 16.8.

1 x2 + 3x − 1 = 0

2 x2 − 5x + 2 = 0

3 x2 − 0.4x = 1.6

4 3x2 − 5x + 1 = 0

5 2x2 − 5x = 2

6 5x2 = 7x + 3

7 2x2 + 12x − 7 = 0

8 3x2 = 8x + 8

9 4x2 + 10x = 5
10 4x(x + 2) = 9

11 4x2 = (x + 4)(2 − x)

12 0.9(x + 1) = 0.8 − x2

13 3x2 = 7x + 2

17 (x + 3)(x − 5) = 2x − 2

16.10 Problems leading to quadratics

The following examples illustrate the method of solving such
problems.

Example 16.8
The distance d metres which a body reaches in time t seconds when it is projected
vertically upwards with velocity u m/s is given by the formula:

If u = 160 and g = 10, find the time a body takes to rise 240 metres.

Substituting the given values in the formula:

Using the formula with a = 1, b = − 32 and c = 48,

The body is at height 240 metres after 1.58 seconds or 30.4 seconds.

The two roots require consideration. Since every quadratic has two roots, when
these give the answer to a problem you must examine the applicability of the roots
to the problem. Sometimes it will be clear that both are not applicable, especially if
one is negative. In this problem, when a body is projected vertically upwards its
velocity decreases until it reaches its highest point, when it is zero. It then falls
vertically and retraces its path. Therefore it will be at a given height twice, once
when ascending and again when descending. The value t = 1.84 gives the time to
reach 277.5 metres when going up, and it is at the same height when descending
30.2 seconds after starting.

Example 16.9
You travel a distance of 84 km by car. You find that, if on the return journey you
increase your average speed by 4 km/h, you will take half an hour less. What was
your average speed for the first part of the journey and how long did you take for
the double journey?

Let x miles per hour be your average speed for the first journey.

Then the time for the first journey is hours.

The speed for the return journey is (x + 4) miles per hour, so the time for the
second journey is hours

But this is hour less than the first time,

Clearing fractions by multiplying by the least common denominator, namely 2x(x +

4),
Using the formula:

with a = 1, b = 4, c = −672:

The negative root, although it satisfies the equation above, has no meaning for this
problem.

Therefore the average speed for the first journey is 24 km/h.

The time for the first journey in hours is

The time for the second journey in hours is

So the total time for the journey is hours.

Exercise 16.4
1 The sum of a number and its reciprocal is 2.9. Find the number.
 2 The area of a rectangle is 135 mm2 and its perimeter is 48 mm. What are the
lengths of its sides?

3 Solve for the equation

4 The relation between the joint resistance R and two resistances r1 and r2 in
parallel is given by the formula If R is 12 ohms and r2 is 6 ohms
greater than r1, find r1 and r2.

5 A formula for finding the strength of a concrete beam is bn2 + 2am(n − c) = 0.

Solve this for n when b = 4, a = 2, c = 8, m = 12.5.

6 The formula giving the sag (D) in a cable of length L and span S is expressed
by + S. Find S when L = 80, D = 2.5.

7 The product of a number n and 2n − 5 is equal to 250. What is the value of n?

8 There is an algebraical formula If s = 140, a = 7 and d = 3,

find n.

9 Pythagoras’ theorem states that the square on the diagonal of a rectangle is

equal to the sum of the squares on the two sides. The diagonal of a particular
rectangle is 25 mm long, and one side of the rectangle is 5 mm longer than
the other. Find the sides of the rectangle.

10 The cost of a square carpet is £248 and the cost of another square carpet
whose side is 3 m longer than that of the first is £387.50. If the cost per m2 is
the same for both carpets, find the area of each.

11 There is a number such that when it is increased by 3 and the sum is

squared, the result is 16 more than 12 times the number. What is the number?

12 Two adjacent sides of a rectangle are represented by (x + 4) and (x + 6). The

area of the rectangle is equal to twice the area of the square whose side is x.
What is the value of x?

13 Find the area of a rectangular plot of ground whose perimeter is 42 m and

whose diagonal is 15 m.

14 The cost of boring a well is given by the formula, , where C is the

cost in pounds and x is the depth in metres. If a well cost £4000 to bore, how
deep was it?
15 One number exceeds another by 4. The sum of their squares is 208. What
are the numbers?

16 The formula for the sum of the first n whole numbers is . If the sum is
78, how many numbers are there?

16.11 Simultaneous equations of the second

degree
These are equations which involve two unknowns and which include
terms of the second degree.

They are also called simultaneous quadratic equations.

The degree of a term is shown either by its index, or, if it contains

two or more letters, by the sum of their indices.

x2, xy, y2 are terms of the second degree involving two unknowns,
and any of these, together with terms of the first degree, may occur
in the equations to be solved. Numerical coefficients do not affect the
‘degree’ of a term.

It is seldom possible to solve simultaneous quadratics unless they

conform to certain types. In this book, the only type which is
considered is when one of the equations is linear, that is, of the first
degree.

16.12 When one of the equations is of the first

degree

Example 16.10

You can always solve simultaneous quadratic equations if you can rearrange one
of the equations to find one letter in terms of the other, provided the resulting
expression is linear.

For example, in the equations above, from Equation (1) you get:

You can now substitute this into Equation (2). Thus you get:

In this way you reach a quadratic, with one unknown, and you can solve this by
the methods previously given.

Simplifying:

You can solve this by factorization, or by using the formula:

On substituting a = 5, b = −3, c = −36:

To find y substitute in Equation (1):

When x = 3:
When x = −2.4:

So the solutions are:

Nugget
You must arrange the solutions in corresponding pairs. Always substitute into the
linear equation to find the corresponding y (or x) values. If you use the quadratic
you will end up with extra, false solutions.

Exercise 16.5
Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations.

1 x−y=2
x2 + xy = 60

2 x+y=7
3x2 + xy − y2 = 81

3 2x + y = 5
5x2 − 3xy = 14

4 3x + y = 8
x2 − 5xy + 8y = 36

5 x+y+1=0
3x2 − 5y2 − 7 = 0

6 2x + 3y = 14
4x2 + 2xy + 3y2 = 60
 7 2x2 − 5x + 4xy = 60
3x − y = 9

9 3x + y = 25
xy = 28

16.13 Solving quadratic inequalities

As you saw in Chapter 15, plotting a graph of the associated
quadratic function illustrated one way in which the solution of a
quadratic inequality could be obtained. However, as with the solution
of quadratic equations, this method can be rather cumbersome
unless you have a graphics calculator. Here is another method,
using factorization.

Example 16.11
Solve the quadratic inequality x2 − 6x + 8 < 0.

The left-hand side of the inequality can be factorized as (x − 2) (x − 4). So you now
want to find the values of x for which (x − 2)(x − 4) < 0.

You want the product of the two brackets to be negative. This can only happen if
one of the brackets is a positive number and the other is a negative number. So
you want (x − 2) > 0 and (x − 4) < 0 or (x − 2) < 0 and (x − 4) > 0.

The best way to handle these pairs of simultaneous inequalities is to use the
number line.
In Figure 16.1, the fact that (x − 2) is positive when x > 2 and negative when x < 2
is shown by using the + and − signs. In the same way (x − 4) is positive when x > 4
and negative when x < 4. For (x − 2)(x − 4) to be less than 0 you need the values
of x where you have one positive and one negative bracket. This only happens for
values of x between 2 and 4, so the solution of x2 − 6x + 8 < 0 is 2 < x < 4.

Figure 16.1

If you had wanted to find where x2 − 6x + 8 > 0 you would have been looking for
the values of x where the product of (x − 2) and (x − 4) was positive. This occurs
either when both brackets are positive or when both brackets are negative. This
happens when x > 4 or when x < 2. So the solution of x2 − 6x + 8 > 0 is x < 2 or x >
4.

Nugget
The advantage of this method is that you can extend it to cater for more complex
situations where several brackets are involved.

The next example shows how a cubic inequality can be solved.

Example 16.12
Solve the inequality (2x − 1)(x + 2)(3 − x) > 0.

The product of the three brackets has to be positive. This occurs either if all three
of the brackets are positive or if one bracket is a positive number and the other two
are negative numbers.

So on the number line diagram you need three ‘+’s or one ‘+’ and two ‘−’s.
Figure 16.2

All three brackets are positive for values of x which are between 0.5 and 3. You
have one positive and two negative brackets for values of x less than −2. So the
solution of the inequality is 0.5 < x < 3 or x < −2.

If the inequality has been (2x − 1)(x + 2)(3 − x) ≥ 0 it would have been necessary
to include the values −2, 0.5 and 3, that is, x ≤ −2 or 0.5 ≤ x ≤ 3.

Nugget
An alternative method is to sketch the graph of the quadratic and use the graph to
locate the correct regions. See Section 15.18.

Exercise 16.6
1 Use the number line method to solve the following inequalities.
1 (x − 2)(x − 3) > 0
2 (x + 2)(x − 4) < 0
3 (x + 2)(x + 3) ≥ 0

2 Factorize the quadratic expression and then use the number line method to
solve the following inequalities.
1 x2 − 3x + 2 > 0
2 x2 − 6x + 5 > 0
3 x2 − 3x − 4 ≥ 0

3 Use the number line method to solve the following inequalities.

1 (2x − 2)(3 − x) < 0
2 (4x − 1)(x + 2) > 0
 3 (2x + 1)(3x − 1)2 ≥ 0

4 Use the number line method to solve the following inequalities.

1 (x − 2)(x − 3) > 0
2 (2x + 1)(4x − 1)(x − 3) < 0

5 Solve the following inequalities.

1 x2 − 3x < 0
2 5x − x2 ≥ 0
3 (x − 2)(x − 2)(x − 5) > 0

Key ideas
• You can solve a quadratic equation in the form (x − a2) − b = 0 by rearranging it
into the form:

Square root both sides:

Add a to both sides:

• You can solve a quadratic equation in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 by completing

the square:

» Move the constant on to the right-hand side.

» Divide both sides by the coefficient of x2.
» Halve the coefficient of x and square the answer.
» Add this value to both sides of the equation.
» The left-hand side is now a perfect square and can be factorized.
» Remember x2 + 2ax + a2 = (x + a)2.
» Solve the equation as above by taking the square root of both sides.
• You can solve some quadratic equations by factorizing. When (x − a)(x + b) = 0
then x = a and x = –b are solutions.
• You can solve the ax2 + bx + c = 0 equation using the quadratic formula:

• Use the substitution method to solve non-linear simultaneous equations.

» Rearrange the linear equation in the form x = ... or y = ...
» Substitute this new equation into the non-linear equation.
» Solve the non-linear equation to find solutions for y or x.
» Substitute back into the linear equation to find the corresponding x or y
values.

» Give the final solution as corresponding pairs.

• To solve a quadratic inequality, first factorize the quadratic and then locate the
required regions on a number line.
17
Indices
In this chapter you will learn:

• how to extend the idea of an index

• how to calculate with fractional and negative
indices
• the meaning of standard index form.
17.1 The meaning of an index
In Section 2.11 it was shown that the product of a number of equal
factors such as a ×a × a × a can be written in the form a4, in which 4
is an index which indicates the number of factors.

Generalizing this, if there are n such equal factors, where n is a

positive integer, then an will be defined in the following way:

17.2 Laws of indices

It was also shown in Sections 2.12, 2.13 and 2.14 that when
operations such as multiplication and division of powers of a number
are performed, the laws which govern these operations can be
deduced from the definitions of a power and an index given in
Section 17.1.

General proofs of these laws will now be given.

1 FIRST LAW OF INDICES: THE LAW OF mULTIPLICATION
The special cases given in Section 2.1 lead to the general law as
follows:

Let m and n be any positive integers.

By definition:

Then:
So the first law of indices is:

The law is clearly true when the product involves more than two
powers. Thus am × an × ap = am+n+p.
2 SECOND LAW OF INDICES: THE LAW OF DIVISION
To find the value of am ÷ an, with the same definition as before, and
proceeding as in the special cases of Section 2.14:

After cancelling the n factors of the denominator with n

corresponding factors in the numerator, there are left in the
numerator m − n factors.

Note: This proof assumes that m is greater than n. If m is less than

n, there are n − m factors left in the denominator.

This case will be examined later.

Nugget
In fact, once negative indices have been introduced (see Section 17.8), you don’t
need to worry about using a separate case when m is less than n; so you can just
use the law am ÷ an = am−n regardless of the values of m and n.

3 THIRD LAW OF INDICES: THE LAW OF POWERS

By the definition of Section 17.1 such an expression as (a4)3 means
the third power of a4, or
In general, if m and n are any positive integers, by definition:

So the law of powers is:

For powers of a product such as (ab)n, see Section 2.13. In a similar

way it may be shown that:

Exercise 17.1 is mainly for revision.

Exercise 17.1
Write down the value of each of the following.

1 2a4 × 3a5

2 a6 × a6

4 2 × 22 × 23 × 24

5 4 × 42 × 43

6 3a3b4 × 2a5b3
 7 x4y5z × x2y7z3

8 xm+1 × xm−1

9 am+n × am−n

10 apbq × ap+q × bp−q

11 an+3 × an−3

12 am × an × a4

13 a8 ÷ a5

14 5x6 ÷ 10x3

15 36a10 ÷ 12a5

16 210 ÷ 24

17 35 ÷ 32

18 (−x)7 ÷ (−x)2

19 15a4b2 ÷ −3ab

20 a2p ÷ ap

21 12x2py2q ÷ 3xpyq

24 a2n ÷ an−1

25 am+n ÷ am−n

26 an+4 ÷ an−2
29 (23)2

30 (32)3

31 (x5)2

32 (x2)5

33 (a4)4

34 (2a2b3)2

36 (ap)3

37 (x4)n

38 (3a2p)3

17.3 Extension of the meaning of an index

It has so far been assumed that all indices are positive integers. The
definition of an, namely:

is meaningless unless you assume that n is a positive integer. But it

is often useful to generalize in algebra, and it is worth considering
the possibility of attaching a meaning to an index in all cases.

17.4 Graph of 2x
As a first step, choose a suitable positive number, say 2, and plot
some of the powers of it – for example, draw the graph of 2x, in
which x represents any index. Calculating the values of these
powers for some of the smaller integral values of x, you get the
following table of values.

When these points are plotted they appear to be on a smooth curve,

as drawn in Figure 17.1.

Figure 17.1
If you are justified in assuming that this curve is continuous, and that
all the points on it satisfy the equation y = 2x, then it follows that if
you take any point on the curve between the plotted points, its
coordinates must also satisfy the equation. Therefore, if a point, A, is
taken on the curve at which x = 1.5 and y = 2.8, then it follows that
21.5 = 2.8. Again at B, where x = 3.2 and y = 9, 23.2 = 9.

Hence, if the assumption is correct, that the curve is a continuous

one, and the coordinates of any point on it satisfy y = 2x, then it may
be concluded that any number within the limits plotted can be
expressed as a power of 2, and conversely any number can be used
as the index of some power of 2.

A similar curve could be drawn exhibiting the powers of any other

number – say, 10 – that is, you could draw the curve of:

Thus you could express any number as a power of 10.

Reverting to the curve PQ (Figure 17.1), since it was plotted by

taking values of x from x = 1, the curve began at P. If it is extended
towards the y-axis in the way it seems to curve, it will apparently cut
the y-axis at the point where y = 1.

This suggests the following facts.

1 The value of 2x when x = 0 is 1, that is, 20 = 1.

2 The portion of the curve thus drawn should show values of 2x

between x = 0 and x = 1.

For example, when , 2x is approximately 1.4, that is,

approximately. Again the curve evidently does not end at the y-axis,
but can be further produced. This portion will correspond to negative
values of x. It follows that values of 2x can be found when the index
is negative.
17.5 Algebraical consideration of the extension
of the meaning of indices
From the graph of powers, it may be inferred that powers of a
number exist whether the index is integral or fractional, positive or
negative. But how can such indices be interpreted algebraically? In
seeking to find meanings for the new forms of indices, there is one
fundamental guiding principle:

Every index must obey the laws of indices as discovered for

positive integral numbers; otherwise it cannot be considered as
an index.

17.6 Fractional indices

The simplest example of a fractional index is .

Here is a way to find a meaning for .

Since must conform to the laws of indices, by the first law

So must be such a number that on being multiplied by itself the

product is a. But such a number is defined arithmetically as the
square root of a.

As an example approx.

This agrees with the value of 1.4 found from the graph (Figure 17.1).
The reasoning above clearly holds in all such cases, and so it follows
that in general, if n is any positive integer
To find a meaning for applying the first law of indices:

Applying the reason generally, it follows that if m and n are any

positive integers:

Indices which are in decimal form can be changed to fractions:

17.7 To find a meaning for a0

Using the second law of indices, and n being any number,

This confirms the conclusion reached in Section 17.4 from the graph.
It should be noted that a represents any positive number. Therefore
a0 = 1, whatever the value of a. However, 0° is not defined to have a
value.

Nugget
Graphically, if curves of ax are drawn for various values of a, as that of 2x was
drawn in Figure 17.1, all these curves will pass through the point on the y-axis
which is 1 unit distance from 0.

17.8 Negative indices

In considering the curve of 2x in Figure 17.1, the conclusion was
reached that the curve could be continued for negative values of x.
But what meaning can be given algebraically to a negative index?

Consider a−1.

This must obey the laws of indices.

So by the first law:

Dividing by a+1 you get:

that is, a−1 must mean ‘the reciprocal of a’.

With the same reasoning:

and in general:
and a−n is defined as the reciprocal of an.

You should note the following examples.

You should note as a working rule, that when a power of a number is

transferred from the numerator of a fraction to the denominator, or
vice-versa, the sign of the index is changed.

If n is a positive number and a > 1, an increases as n increases.

It follows that a−n or decreases as n increases.

Consequently, the curve of 2x will approach closer to the x-axis for

negative values of x.

This agrees with the course which the curve in Figure 17.1 appeared
to be taking.

17.9 Standard forms of numbers

Indices are useful in writing numbers in standard form. This helps
you to express clearly and concisely numbers which are very large
or very small.
You can see how to write them from the following examples.

When a number is written in standard form, the number is written as

a decimal number between 1 and 10 (that is, with one digit only
retained in the whole number part) and this is multiplied by a power
of 10 to make it equal to the original number.

It should be noted, that the index of the power of 10 is equal to the

number of times the decimal point has to be moved, to convert the
number in standard form back to the original number. If the point has
to be moved to the right, you obtain a positive index. If it is moved to
the left, the index is negative.

Thus if 547 000 000 is to be written in standard form, 5 only is

retained in the whole number, with the following numbers included
after the decimal point, that is, 5.47. To regain the original number,
the decimal point would have to be moved 8 times to the right, so we
find that:

Note that here, since the index is positive, there is no need to write
down the trailing (insignificant) zeros of the decimal number in the
standard form. These are automatically accounted for by the power
of 10.

Very small numbers between 0 and 1 can similarly be changed into

standard form but now the index of 10 must be negative.

Thus:
You should note that the numerical part of the index is one more
than the number of zeros following the decimal point in the original
number.

If the number is overall a negative one, then the standard form

converts it to a number which is between −10 and −1. The overall
sign is independent of the index. For example,

17.10 Operations with standard forms

In these operations you must observe the rules of indices.

Examples 17.1

Nugget
To add or subtract numbers written in standard index form, you need to make sure
that both numbers are written with the same power of 10.

So 4 × 105 + 3.1 × 105 = 7.1 × 105.

 Exercise 17.2

Note: When necessary in the following examples take , ,

, .

1 State what meaning can be given to each of the following:

4 20.5
5 30.5
6 a0.75

2 State what meaning can be given to each of the following:

4 101.5
5 22.5
6 101.25

3 Write down as simply as possible the meaning of:

3 a1.75

5 a1.2
6 a0.2

4 Find the numerical value of each of the following:

1 41.5
2 161.25
3 91.5
5 Find the values of 3−2, 3−1, 30, 31, 31.5, 32, 32.5. Plot these and draw the curve
which contains the points.

6 Find the value of each of the following:

6 a1.5 ÷ a0.3

7 Write down the meanings with positive indices of:

8 Write each of the following with a positive index:

1 x−3

4 (x−3)2

9 Find the value of each of the following:

4 (5−3)2
10 Find the value of each of the following:

3 16−0.5
4 (36)−0.5
5 (4)1.5

11 Find the value of when a = 2.

12 Write down the simplest form of each of the following:

3 a3 ÷ (−a)6
4 −a3 ÷ (−a)5
5 x2n ÷ x−n
6 xn ÷ x−n

13 Find the value of each of the following:

1 a3 × a0
2 a0 × 1
3 a0 × 0

14 Write down in ‘standard form’ the answers to the following calculations:

1 (2.2 × 105) × (1.6 × 104)
2 (7.1 × 103) × (2.3 × 103)
3 (4.62 × 105) ÷ (2.1 × 103)
 4 (7.4 × 106) × (5 × 10−4)
5 (1.2 × 10−3) × (2.1 × 10−4)

Key ideas
• an = a × a × … to n factors and an is called the nth power of a.
• The laws of indices are:

• You can extend the laws of indices so that the index can be fractional and/or
negative. In general:

• Very large numbers can be written in the form a × 10n and very small numbers
(between 0 and 1) can be written in the form a × 10−n where n is an integer and
1 ≤ a < 10. This is called standard form.

• To write a negative number in standard form, use −10 < a ≤ −1.

 18
Logarithms
In this chapter you will learn:

• what a logarithm is
• the laws obeyed by logarithms
• how to calculate with logarithms.
18.1 A system of indices
In the previous chapter, you saw that by using the graph of 2x you
could, within the limits of the graph, express any number as a power
of 2. This was confirmed algebraically.

For every number marked on the y-axis and indicated on the graph,
there is a corresponding index which can be read on the x-axis.
These constitute a system of indices by which numbers can be
expressed as powers of a common basic number 2.

Similarly, by drawing graphs such as 3x, 5x, 10x, numbers can be

expressed as powers of 3, 5, or 10, or any other basic number.

Thus, in all such cases, it is possible to formulate systems of indices

which, for any number A, would enable you to determine what power
that number is of any other number B, which is called the base of the
system.

This possibility of expressing any number as a power of any other

number, and thus of the formation of a system of indices, as stated
above, leads to practical results of great importance. Before
calculators were developed around 1980, indices enabled people to
carry out, easily and accurately, calculations which would otherwise
have been laborious or even impossible. The fundamental ideas
underlying this can be illustrated by means of a graph of powers,
similar to that drawn in Figure 17.1. For this purpose, 10 has been
used as the base of the system and the graph of y = 10x has been
drawn in Figure 18.1.

As powers of 10 increase rapidly, it will be possible to employ only

small values for x, if the curve is to be of any use. To obtain those
powers, we must use the rules for indices which were formulated in
the previous chapter.

From arithmetic we know that approximately, that is,

Then:
Figure 18.1

In this way a table of values for the curve can be compiled.

The resulting curve is shown in Figure 18.1. The following examples

illustrate the use that can be made of it in calculations.

Example 18.1
Find from the graph the value of 1.8 × 2.6.

From the graph:

 Example 18.2
Find

From the graph:

18.2 A system of logarithms

Before 1980, tables of indices used to be constructed so
that multiplications could be carried out by using addition, more or
less in the way described in the previous section. The tables were
called logarithm tables, or, more briefly, log tables, but they were
really tables of indices by another name.

A logarithm to base 10 may be defined as follows:

The logarithm of a number to base 10 is the index of the power

to which 10 must be raised to produce the number.

Nugget
So, since 102 = 100 then log10 100 = 2, also,103 = 1000 then log10 1000 = 3.

This means that the logarithm to base 10 of any number between 100 and 1000 is
between 2 and 3.

Likewise, the logarithm to base 10 of any number between 1000 and 10 000 is
between 3 and 4 since 104 = 10 000 then log10 10 000 = 4.

You may wonder why another, unfamiliar term is employed as a

name for an index. One reason for this will be seen from the
following:

Let n be any positive number.

Let x be its index to base 10.

Then n = 10x.

This is in reality a formula. If it is required to ‘change the subject of

the formula’ (see Section 7.4) and express x in terms of the other
letters, there is a difficulty in doing this concisely. Using words we
could write:

x = index of power of n to base 10.

This is cumbersome, so the word ‘logarithm’1 is used, abbreviated to

‘log’ in the form:

the number indicating the base being inserted as shown.

If the base is e, you write x = loge n, or sometimes x = le n. In this

form x is expressed as a function of n, whereas in the form n = 10x, n
is expressed as a function of x. You should be able to change readily
from one form to another.

Example 18.3
 1 You saw in Section 18.1 that 5.62 = 100.75.
In log form this is 0.75 = log105.62.

2 1024 = 210,
so log2 1024 = 10.

3 1000 = 103,
so log10 1000 = 3.

4 81 = 34,
so log3 81 = 4.

For many calculations, 10 is the most suitable base for a system of

logarithms, but in more advanced mathematics a different base is
required (see Section 18.4).

18.3 Rules for the use of logarithms

In using logarithms you must be guided by the laws which govern
operations with them. Since logarithms are indices, these laws must
be the same in principle as those of indices. These laws are given
below; formal proofs are omitted. They follow directly from the
corresponding index laws.
1 LOGARITHM OF A PRODUCT
The logarithm of the product of two or more numbers is equal to the
sum of the logarithms of these numbers (see first law of indices).

Thus if p and q are any numbers

2 LOGARITHM OF A QUOTIENT
The logarithm of p divided by q is equal to the logarithm of p
diminished by the logarithm of q (see second law of indices).
3 LOGARITHM OF A POWER
The logarithm of a power of a number is equal to the logarithm of the
number multiplied by the index of the power (see third law of
indices).

4 LOGARITHM OF A ROOT
This is a special case of rule 3 above.

5 LOGARITHM OF THE BASE

The logarithm to base b of the number b itself is 1. This is because
any finite number b can be written as:

so, from Section 18.2:

Hence, from the example in Section 18.2:

6 LOGARITHM OF A NEGATIVE NUMBER

The logarithm of a number less than zero does not, in reality, exist.
To see this, consider the following example in base 10. If n is any
positive number, so that −n is negative, is it possible to find a
number x, so that

In other words, what is x = log10(−n)?

Clearly, any power of 10 is always positive. It may be very large and
positive, for example, 10365.25. It may be very small, for example,
10−747, but even this number is still just greater than 0. This means
that it is impossible to find a real number x such that 10x is negative.
Hence it is not possible to find the logarithm of x = log10(−n), that is,
the logarithm to base 10 of a negative number. The same is true for
any other positive base.
7 The logarithm of 1 is always zero
For any positive number b, this can be seen to be true, since
1 = 20, 1 = 2.7180, …,1 = 30, …,1 = 100, …,1 = b0.

Hence by rule 3,

log21 = 0, log2.7181 = 0, …,log31 = 0, …,log101 = 0, logb1 = 0.

8 THE LOGARITHM OF A NUMBER IS EQUAL TO THE NEGATIVE OF THE
LOGARITHM OF ITS RECIPROCAL
This follows from rule 2 with p = 1, and then from rule 7.

9 THE LOGARITHM OF A NUMBER BETWEEN 0 AND 1 IS NEGATIVE

This follows from rule 8 with q > 1. For example, if q = 100 and the
base is 10, then:

Hence we have, from rule 8:

18.4 Change of base of a system of logarithms

Although logs calculated to base 10 were usually employed for
calculations, in more advanced mathematics, as well as in
engineering, the logs which naturally arise are calculated to a base
which is given by the sequence:

The sum of this sequence is denoted by e, and its value can be

calculated to any required degree of accuracy by taking sufficient
terms. To 5 places of decimals, e = 2.718 28.

Nugget
Logs calculated to this base are called Naperian logarithms, after Lord Napier, who
discovered them in 1614, using this base. They are also called natural logarithms
or hyperbolic logarithms.

The relation between the logs of numbers to different bases is found

in the following way.

Let n be any number.

Let a and b be two bases.

Suppose that logs to base b are known, and you require to find them
to base a.

Thus, knowing the log of a number to a base b, you can find its log to
base a by multiplying, whatever the number, by loga b.

In the above result, let b = 10 and a = e.

Thus both logs on the right-hand side are to base 10.

Hence to change from base 10 to base e, you may use either of the
following:

1 loge n = log10 n × 2.3026

or 2 loge n = log10 n ÷ 0.4343.

Example 18.4
Find loge 50.

Using loge 50 = log10 50 × 2.3026

you have loge 50 = 1.6990 × 2.3026 = 3.913.

Nugget
Logarithms to the base e are often written as ln; so loge5 is written as ln 5. Natural
logarithms are very useful in calculus and also have many real life applications –
such as in nuclear physics.

Exercise 18
1 Without using a calculator, use the rules of logarithms to simplify
1 log 27 ÷ log 3,
2 (log 16 − log 2) ÷ log 2.

2 Find the values of

1 loge 4.6,
2 loge 0.062.

3 The insulating resistance, R, of a wire of length L is given by

Find L when S = 2000, R = 0.44, d2 = 0.3, d1 = 0.16.

4 In a calculation on the dryness of steam the following formula was used.

Find q when L1 = 850, L = 1000, T1 = 780, T = 650, q1 = 1.

Key ideas
• The logarithm of a number to base 10 is the index of the power to which 10 must
be raised to produce the number. So when n = 10x then log10 n = x.

• The laws of logarithms are:

• The logarithm of a number between 0 and 1 is negative. The logarithm of a
negative number is undefined.
e = 2.718 28… and is found by

• Logarithms to the base e are called natural logarithms, Naperian logarithms or

hyperbolic logarithms.

• To change the base of a logarithm use the rule:

1The choice of the word logarithm can be explained only by the history of the word. You
could consult A Short History of mathematics, by W.W.R. Ball.
19
Ratio and proportion
In this chapter you will learn:

• the meaning of a ratio

• that it is most helpful to write a ratio as a fraction
• how to work with ratios.
19.1 Meaning of a ratio
There are two ways of comparing the magnitudes of two numbers:

1 By subtraction. This operation states by how much one number is

greater or less than the other. If the numbers are represented by a
and b, the comparison is expressed by a − b.

2 By division. By this means you find out what multiple or what part
or parts one number is of the other.

The latter is called the ratio of the two numbers, and may be
expressed by a ÷ b, or, or in the special form a : b. Of these the
fractional form is best suited for manipulation.

19.2 Ratio of two quantities

The magnitude of two quantities of the same kind, such as two
lengths, weights, sums of money, etc., may be compared by means
of a ratio. To do this the measures of the two quantities are
expressed in terms of the same unit by numbers. The ratio of these
two numbers expresses the ratio of the quantities.

Thus, the ratio of two distances which are respectively a metres and
b metres would be or a : b.

The ratio would be unaltered in value if the quantities were

expressed in other units provided both quantities were expressed in
the same units.

Thus the ratio of 3 hours to 2 hours is the same as the ratio of

9 metres to 6 metres or 108º to 72º.

This is obvious from the consideration that, as a ratio can be

expressed by a fraction, it can be manipulated in the same ways as
fractions.
 Nugget
A ratio is always a number, either an integer or a fraction (vulgar or decimal), and
is not expressed in terms of any particular unit provided both quantities are in the
same units. If the two quantities do not have the same units, a meaningful
comparison can’t be made. For example, the ratio of 50 cm to 2 m is 0.5 : 2 and
not 50 : 2.

You can simplify ratios in the same way that you simplify fractions so 0.5 : 2 is the
same as 1 : 4 (doubling both sides of the ratio).

19.3 Proportion
If four numbers a, b, c, d are related so that the ratios and are
equal, the numbers are said to be in proportion.

It follows from the definition of a ratio, that a divided by b must

represent the ratio of two quantities of the same kind; while c divided
by d must also represent the ratio of two quantities of the same kind,
though not necessarily of the same kind as a and b.

Thus a and b might represent the measures of two weights, while c

and d might represent the measures of two costs.
CONTINUED PROPORTION
If a sequence of numbers a, b, c, d, … is such that:

then these numbers are said to be in continued proportion.

Thus in the sequence of numbers 2, 6, 18, 54, … the ratios:

are in continued proportion.
MEAN PROPORTIONAL
If a, b, c are numbers such that:

b is called a mean proportional between a and c.

In this way you can find a mean proportional between any two
numbers.

19.4 Theorems on ratio and proportion

You should note the following results.
19.5 An illustration from geometry
The following theorem from geometry is of great importance. For a
proof of it and for a geometrical treatment of ratio and proportion you
are referred to any textbook on geometry.

Similar triangles. Triangles which have their corresponding angles

equal are called similar. In such triangles:

the ratios of corresponding sides are equal.

In Figure 19.1 the triangles ABC and A′B′C′ are similar

Figure 19.1

If ∠A denotes the angle at vertex A etc., then ∠A = ∠A′, ∠B = ∠B′,

∠C = ∠C′ (the triangles are equiangular). Corresponding sides are
those which are opposite to equal angles.

Denoting the lengths of the sides opposite to these by a, b, c, a′, b′,

c′ as shown, then by the theorem about similar triangles stated
above:
It follows from Theorem 3 of Section 19.4 that:

that is, the ratios of the pairs of sides containing the equal angles are
equal. Each pair of equal ratios gives a set of numbers in proportion.

19.6 Constant ratios

Let AOB be any angle (Figure 19.2).

On the arm OA take points P, Q, R, … and draw PK, QL, RM

perpendicular to the other arm.

Then the triangles OPK, OQL, ORM are equiangular and similar.

So, by the theorem of Section 19.5:

Clearly any number of points, such as P, Q, R, can be taken and the

ratio of all pairs of sides such as the above are equal. You can
therefore say that for the angle AOB all such ratios are constant in
value.

This constant ratio is called in trigonometry the tangent of the angle

AOB. It is abbreviated to tan AOB – that is,
Figure 19.2

A similar result is true for any other angle.

Nugget
It follows that every angle has its own tangent or constant ratio, by which it can be
identified.

In fact, and

AOB. To find out more about these ratios see Understand Trigonometry (also in
the Teach Yourself series).

Referring to Sections 10.7 and 10.8 it will be seen that the gradient
of a straight line, represented by m, is the tangent of the angle made
by the line with the x-axis.

In Figure 10.8, for example, the ratio is constant for every

point on the line, and is the tangent of the angle POQ.

In the general equation y = mx + c, m represents the tangent of the

angle made with the x-axis.

19.7 Examples of equal ratios

Examples of equal ratios frequently occur in mathematics, and the
following theorem, in different forms, is sometimes useful.
Let be equal ratios (there may be any number of them).

Let k represent their common value.

These results make possible various manipulations.

For example, by addition

and is therefore equal to each of the original ratios. This can be

varied in many ways.

For example, by multiplication of the three equations above,

Therefore, by addition,

Exercise 19
 1 Write down each of the following ratios.
1 £a to b pence
2 p hours to q minutes r seconds

2 Write down the ratio of ‘1 km an hour’ to ‘1 m per second’.

3 If the ratio a : b is equal to the ratio 5:8, find the numerical value of each of
the following ratios.

2 a2: b2
3 2a :3b

4 1 Two numbers are in the ratio of 4:5. If the first is 28, what is the second?
2 Two numbers are in the ratio of a:b. If the first is x, what is the second?
3 Two numbers are in the ratio of 1:x. If the second is a, what is the first?

5 If the ratio is equal to the ratio , find x.

6 A rectangle of area A mm2 is divided into two parts in the ratio p :q. Find
expressions for their areas.

7 A piece of metal of mass a kg is divided into two parts in the ratio x : y. What
are the masses of the parts?

8 If , , , are four numbers in proportion, find x.

9 What number must be added to each term of the ratio 11:15, so that it
becomes the ratio 7:8?

10 Find the mean proportional between

1 ab and bc,
2 8a2 and 2b2,
3 a(a + b) and b(a + b).

11 If , find the value of .

12 Find the ratio of when

 1 3a = 7b,

3 16a2 = 25b2.

13 1 What is the result when 270 is increased in the ratio 5 : 3?

2 What is the result of increasing in the ratio 6 : 5?

3 What is the result of increasing in the ratio a : b?

14 If a, x, y, b are in continued proportion, find x and y in terms of a and b.

Key ideas
• A ratio is a way of comparing two numbers. The ratio of two numbers, a and b,
can be written as a ÷ b, or a : b.

• A ratio has no units, however, when you write two quantities in a ratio it is
important to make sure both quantities have the same units.

• likewise a : b = a × m : b × m

• likewise a : b = a ÷ m : b ÷ m

• When , the numbers a, b, c and d are said to be in proportion.

• When then b is called the mean proportional of a and c and .

• When then:
• In the general equation y = mx + c, m represents the tangent of the angle made
with the x-axis.

• When then
20
Variation
In this chapter you will learn:

• how to solve problems involving direct variation

• how to solve problems involving inverse variation
• how to solve problems involving joint variation.
20.1 Direct variation
In Chapter 15, examples are given of a variable quantity, the value of
which depended on the value of another variable, and is called a
function of it. There are very many different forms which this
variation may take, and in this chapter one of the most important of
them is examined. Here is an example.

If a plumber is paid at a certain rate for every hour that he works, the
total amount earned over any period depends on the number of
hours worked. If the plumber doubles the number of hours worked,
the earnings will be doubled. Generally, the ratio of the amounts
earned in any two periods is equal to the ratio of the number of hours
worked in the periods.

If T1 and T2 represent the number of hours worked in two periods

and if W1 and W2 represent the amounts of wages earned in them:

These four quantities are in proportion (see Section 19.3). Hence,

when the relations between the two quantities can be expressed in
this way you can make the following statement.

The wages are proportional to the time worked or the wages

vary directly as the time.

The wages are a function of the time, and the words ‘proportional to’
or ‘vary directly as’ are used to define the exact functional relations
which exist between the two quantities. Direct variation may be
defined in the following way.

If two quantities Y and X are so related that

where X1 and X2 are any two values of X, and Y1 and Y2 are

corresponding values of Y, then Y is said to be proportional to
X, or Y varies directly as X.
In order to discover whether or not one quantity varies directly as
another, this simple test can be applied. If one quantity is doubled, is
the other doubled in consequence? Or, more precisely, if one
quantity is altered in a certain ratio, is the other altered in the same
ratio? The sign ∝ is used to denote direct variation. Thus in the case
above you would write Y ∝ X.

20.2 Examples of direct variation

1 The distance travelled by a car moving with uniform speed varies
directly as the time.

2 The mass of an amount of water is proportional to the volume.

3 The circumference of a circle varies directly as the diameter.

4 The electrical resistance of a wire varies directly as the length.

20.3 The constant of variation

If y ∝ x then y = kx, where k is a constant.

In Section 19.6 the common value of a number of equal ratios was

represented by k, a constant number for these ratios.

When one quantity varies directly as another, then you have seen
that the ratio of corresponding pairs of values of the variables is
constant. Consequently, as in Section 19.6, this constant is usually
represented by k, and, using it, the relation between the quantities
can be expressed as a formula.

For instance, in Example 1 of Section 20.2 it was stated that for a

body moving with uniform speed, distance moved varies directly as
time.

Let s represent any distance travelled.

Let t represent the corresponding time.

Then, since s varies directly as t, any ratio of corresponding values
of these is constant.

Let k represent this constant.

This is the form of the law connecting s and t, but it cannot be

of much use until the value of k is known for this particular case.

To find this, you must know a pair of corresponding values of s and t.

Thus if you are told that the car moves 40 metres in 2.5 seconds,
then, substituting the values of s and t, you get:

Therefore the law connecting s and t for this particular velocity is:

20.4 Graphical representation

If x and y represent two variables such that y ∝ x, then, as shown in
Section 20.3, y = kx.

The form of this equation is the same as y = mx, the graph of which
was shown in Section 11.6 to be a straight line passing through the
origin, m being the gradient of the line.

Thus y = kx represents a straight line of gradient equal to k.

Consequently, the graphical representation of the variation of two

quantities where one varies directly as the other is a straight line
passing through the origin.
20.5 To find the law connecting two variables
Engineers and scientists frequently need to know the relation
connecting two variables, corresponding values of which have been
found by experiments. The relation may assume many forms, but in
some cases there may be reason to suppose that one of the
quantities varies directly as the other – that is, the law may be of the
form y = kx.

From the results of the experiment we can proceed to determine:

1 whether the law is one of direct variation,

2 and if it is, and the law is of the form y = kx, the value of k must be
found.

To determine 1 the results are plotted. Then if the graph is a straight

line through the origin, the law is one of direct variation, and the
equation is of the form y = kx. Then k has to be found.

Graphically, k can be found as in Section 19.6 by finding the tangent

of the angle made with the x-axis. Algebraically, as shown in Section
20.3, a pair of corresponding values of x and y is chosen from the
graph. These are substituted in y = kx, and so k is determined.

20.6 Worked example

A spiral spring was extended by hanging various weights from it. The
amounts of extension of the spring for different weights were
observed and tabulated as follows:
Figure 20.1

From these results discover the law connecting the attached weight
and the extension of the spring. The graph resulting from plotting
these results is shown in Figure 20.1. It is a straight line passing
through the origin though one of the points, corresponding to a
weight of 0.3 N, lies slightly off the line. This is to be expected in
experimental results.

So, as shown in Section 20.5, the law connecting the weight and
extension is one of direct variation – that is:

the extension varies directly as the attached load.

Let E be the extension in centimetres.

Let L be the load in newtons.

Then E ∝ L, so E = kL.

To find k a pair of values is taken, at the point P where E = 0.75 and

L = 0.5.
20.7 y partly constant and partly varying as x
The case frequently occurs, in practical work, of a variable quantity
which in part varies directly as another quantity and in part is
constant. There is an example of this in Section 10.1 in the problem
concerning the profit of a school coffee morning. The profit depends
on:

1 the number of customers, which is variable,

2 the overhead charges, which are constant.

It was found that y = ax − b was the law which connected these,

where y, the profit, varies directly as x, the number of customers,
and also depends on the constant charges b. In general all such
cases can be represented by the equation

This is the equation of a straight line, but it does not pass through
the origin (Section 10.7). It contains the two constants k and b,
which must be determined before the law connecting x and y can be
stated.

If two pairs of values of x and y are known, the solution can be found
as shown in Section 8.5, Example 8.6. In practical work pairs of
values are found by experiment. The worked example that follows
shows the method of procedure in such cases.

20.8 Worked example

When two voltmeters are compared they have readings
corresponding to C and K below.
It is thought that C and K are connected by a law of the form:

Test this by plotting the points and find the values of m and b.

The law K = mC + b is linear − that is, it is in the general form of the

equation of a straight line. To test this you must find if the plotted
points lie on a straight line.

Comparison of the two sets of values suggests that the scale units
for C on the x-axis should be larger than those for K on the y-axis.
When the points are plotted, you can see that they lie approximately
on a straight line, slight deviations being due to experimental errors.
When this line is drawn as evenly as possible, it appears as in Figure
20.2.

Two suitable points, A and B, are selected on the line, and their
coordinates are as follows:

For A, C = 3.4, K = 10.

For B, C = 5.3, K = 15.5.

These are to satisfy the equation:

Figure 20.2

Substituting you get:

Exercise 20.1
1 The following are examples in which the value of one quantity depends on
another. State in each case whether or not it is a case of direct variation.
1 Distance and time when a man runs the 1000 m race.
2 Interest and time when money bears interest at a fixed rate.
3 The logarithm of a number and the number itself.
4 The y-coordinate of a point on a straight line and the x-coordinate.
5 The cost of running a school and the number of scholars.
 2 If y = kx and y = 8 when x = 7, find k. Hence find y when x = 40.

3 If y is proportional to x, and y = 10 when x = 4, find y when x = 15; also find x

when y = 8.4.

4 If y ∝ x, and when y = 16.5, x = 3.5, find the law connecting x and y. Hence
find x when y = 21.

5 The distances travelled by a body from rest were as follows:

Plot these and find if distance varies directly as time. If it does, find:
1 the law connecting time (t) and distance (s)
2 the distance passed over in 2.8 s.

6 The extension (E) of a spring varies directly as the force (W) by which it is
stretched. A certain spring extended 2.4 when stretched by a weight of 4.5.
Find:
1 the law which connects them
2 the extension due to a weight of 7.

7 The law connecting two variables x and y is of the form y = kx + b, where k

and b are constants. When x = 10, y = 11, and when x = 18, y = 15. Find k
and b and state the law.

8 In a certain machine the law connecting the applied force (E) and the load
(W) was of the form E = aW + b, where a and b are constants. When W = 20,
E = 1.4, and when W = 30, E = 2. Find the law.

9 In experiments to determine the friction (F) between two metallic surfaces

when the load is W, the following results were found:

Assuming W and F to be connected by a law of the form F = aW + b, find the

law by drawing the straight line between the points.

20.9 y varies as the square of x – that is, y ∝ x2

If the sides of a square are doubled, the area is not doubled,
but multiplied by 4; if the sides are trebled the area is multiplied by 9.
The area of a square varies directly as the square of the length of its
sides.

The ratio of the area of a circle to the square of the length of its
radius can be shown experimentally to be constant. If A is the area
and r is the radius, then is constant for all circles.

This constant is represented by the special symbol π, and its value

is approximately 3.1416.

So, the area of a circle varies directly as the square of the length of
its radius.

Students of mechanics will know that the distance passed over by a

body moving with uniformly increasing velocity is proportional to the
square of the time. A special case is a falling body.

If s is the distance fallen in metres and t is time taken in seconds,

then s ∝ t2 and s = kt2.

Experiments show that , where g is an absolute constant

whose value is approximately 9.81 m/s2.

The graphical representation of y = kx2 is that of a quadratic function

(see Chapter 15). For different positive values of k, the graph is a
parabola, symmetrical about the y-axis and having its lowest point at
the origin (Section 15.8).

20.10 y varies as the cube of x − that is, y ∝ x3

If the edge of a cube is doubled, the volume is multiplied by eight.
The volume varies directly as the cube of the length of an edge.

The volume of a sphere also varies as the cube of the radius.

If V is the volume and r is the length of the radius, then V ∝ r3 and V
= kr3.

It can be shown that

The graph of y = x3 is a curve, as shown in Figure 20.3. It is called a

cubic curve.

You should make a table of values and draw the curve, or draw it on
a graphics calculator.

Figure 20.3

20.11 y varies as or , that is,

This form of variation, besides arising in various physical
examples, may also be regarded as the inverse of y = x2.
Since is a constant, then .

Nugget
The graph of is part of a parabola, as in Figure 20.4. If the graph of
were also drawn, it would be the same shape as Figure 15.1, but it would be
symmetrical about the x-axis instead of the y-axis.
The graph of is not a function because for any given value of x there are
two corresponding y-values. A function must have exactly one value of y for each
value of x.

Figure 20.4

20.12 Inverse variation:

Let x and y be two numbers such that their product is constant – that
is, xy = k.

Each quantity can be expressed in terms of the reciprocal or inverse

of the other.

Many examples of this occur in mathematics. Here is a simple case.

Let x and y be the lengths in metres of the sides of a rectangle of

area 60 m2. Then xy = 60.

The lengths of the sides may be varied in very many ways, their
product always being equal to 60. If x is increased, y will be
decreased, and vice versa. If x is doubled, y will be halved. In
general, if x is changed in a given ratio, y will be changed in the
inverse ratio.

Hence y is said to vary inversely as x − that is, .

Here are some examples of inverse variation.

1 Time to travel a given distance varies inversely as the speed. If

the speed is doubled, the time is halved.

2 The volume of a fixed mass of gas varies inversely as the

pressure on it, the temperature remaining constant.
If p is the pressure and v is the volume:

3 The electrical resistance of a wire of given length and material to

the passage of a current through it varies inversely as the area of
 the cross-section of the wire.

If R is the resistance, and A is the area of the cross-section:

20.13 Graph of
In its simplest form, when k = 1, the equation becomes .

The graph of this function presents some new difficulties which will
be apparent on drawing the curve. The following is a table of values
formed in the usual way.

A similar set of values can be tabulated for negative values of x, the

corresponding values of y being negative.

The curve, which is called a hyperbola, is shown in Figure 20.5. It

consists of two branches, alike in shape, one for positive values and
the other for negative values of x. Note the following important
features of this curve.

1 As x increases, y or decreases. When x becomes very great, y

becomes very small in magnitude, and the curve approaches very
close to the x-axis.
Figure 20.5

2 As x decreases, y or increases. When x is very small, y is very

large in magnitude, and the curve approaches very close to the y-
axis (for x > 0, y > 0, for x < 0, y < 0). Both these features of the
curve are repeated for negative values of x. It may be noted that
the curve is symmetrical (i) about the line through the
origin making 45º with the x-axis − that is, the line y = x; (ii) about
a line through the origin at right angles to this − that is, the line y =
−x (see Sections 10.6 and 10.7).

For other values of k the curve of is always a hyperbola.

20.14 Other forms of inverse variation

1 One quantity may vary inversely as the square of another quantity
– that is, , so . In electricity, for example,the force
between two magnetic poles varies inversely as the square of the
distance between them. many other physical laws involve this form
of variation.

2 Another form of variation is that in which one quantity varies

inversely as the cube of another – that is, , or
Generalizing, y may vary directly or inversely as any power of x –
that is, y ∝ xn or .

In all cases of direct variation the same method, the introduction of

the constant k, is followed and the evaluation of k proceeds on the
same lines.

20.15 Worked examples

Example 20.1
If y varies as the cube root of x, and if y = 3 when x = 64, find the formula
connecting the variables. Hence find x when .

2 When , you have:

Example 20.2
The time of vibration of a simple pendulum varies as the square root of its length. If
the length of a pendulum which beats every 1 second is 1 metre, what will be the
time of vibration if its length is increased by 6 cm?

Let l metres be the length of the pendulum in metres and let t seconds be the time
of vibration.

When l = 1.00, t = 1.00 and , giving k = 1.

When .

The new time of vibration is 1.03 seconds.

Exercise 20.2
1 If y is proportional to x2 and when x = 15, y = 200, find the equation
connecting x and y. Find y when x = 8.5.

2 If y ∝ x3 and x = 2 when y = 2, find the law connecting x and y. Then find y

when x = 3.

3 If copy and complete the following table.

4 If and if y = 3.5 when x = 4, express y in terms of x. What is y when x

= 25?

5 If y ∝ x3 and if y = 6 when x = 4, find the value of y when x = 16. Also find x

when y = 3.

6 If y is inversely proportional to x, and x = 5 when y = 6, find the law

connecting x and y and find x when y = 20.
 7 If , copy and complete the following table.

8 The force F which acts between two magnetic poles is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance (d) between them. Express this as a formula if F
= 120 when d = 4.

9 The distance through which a heavy body falls from rest varies as the square
of the time taken. A lead ball falls through 490 m in 10 s. How long will it take
to fall through 78.4 m?

10 The intensity of illumination given by a projector varies inversely as the

square of the distance of its lamp from the screen. If the projector is 20 m from
the screen, where must it be placed so that the illumination is 4 times as
great?

11 If the distances of an object and of its image, formed by a mirror,

are measured from a certain point, it is found that the sum of the distance
varies as their product. If the image distance is 120 mm when the object
distance is 300 mm, calculate the image distance when the object distance is
540 mm.

12 The square of the speed of a particle varies as the cube of its distance from a
fixed point. If this distance is increased by 1.2 per cent, what is the
approximate percentage increase in the speed?

13 A clock keeps accurate time at 10ºC, but gains as the temperature falls and
vice-versa, the rate of gain or loss varying as the square of the number of ºC
between the actual temperature and 10ºC. If it gains 2 seconds per day when
the temperature is 5ºC, how much does it lose (to the nearest second) in 4
days when the temperature is 42ºC?

14 If y ∝ x1.4 and if y = 354.5 when x = 15, find the law connecting y and x.

20.16 Functions of more than one variable

Example 20.3
It is proved in elementary geometry that the area of a triangle is given by the
formula:

where: A is the area of the triangle,

b is the length of a base,
h is the corresponding height.

Both b and h are variables, and the value of A depends on them both.

So A is a function of the two variables b and h.

In any triangle let the height remain constant, but the base variable, then if the
base is doubled, the area will be doubled. If the base remains constant and the
height is trebled, the area will be trebled.

Now, suppose both the base and the height vary; let the base be doubled and the
height trebled, then the area will be 2 × 3 − that is, 6 times greater.

You can infer, then, that if both base and height vary, the area varies as the
product of base and height − that is:

From geometrical considerations you know that in this case .

Example 20.4
In Section 20.12 it was stated that the volume of a given mass of gas, at a
constant temperature, varies inversely as the pressure on it. It can also be shown
by experiment that if the pressure is kept constant and the temperature is varied,
then the volumevaries directly as the absolute temperature. If both temperature
and pressure vary, then the volume varies directly as the absolute temperature
and inversely as the pressure.

Let: v be the volume,

T be the absolute temperature,
p be the pressure,
 Example 20.5
If an electric current passes through a wire, it encounters resistance. This
resistance varies as the length of the wire (Section 20.2), and in a wire of given
length – that is, constant – it varies inversely as the cross-section of the wire
(Section 20.12).

So if: R is the resistance,

l is the length,
A is the cross-section,

then R varies directly as l and inversely as A.

20.17 Joint variation

The variation of a quantity due to two or more variables is sometimes
called joint variation, and the quantity is said to vary jointly as their
product.

In dealing with problems involving joint variation, the same

procedure with regard to the constant of variation and its
determination is followed as in the previous case. The following
examples will serve to illustrate it.

20.18 Worked examples

Example 20.6
A quantity represented by y varies directly as x and inversely as z3.

It is known that when x = 15, z = 12 and . Find the law connecting the
quantities.

Substituting the given values of x, z and y,

Example 20.7
The force between two magnetic poles varies jointly as the product of their
strengths and inversely as the square of the distance between them. If two poles
of strength 8 and 6 units repel one another with a force of 3 N when placed 4 m
apart, with what force will two poles whose strengths are 5 and 9 units repel one
another when 2 m apart?

Let F be the force,

m1, m2 be the pole strengths,
d be the distance apart,

Substituting the given values:

In the second case , so the poles repel each other with a force of
11.25 N.

Exercise 20.3
1 Express the following statements in the form of equations.
1 y varies jointly as x and z.
2 y varies directly as x and inversely as the square of z.
3 y varies directly as the square root of x and inversely as z.
4 The volume (V) of a cylinder varies jointly as the height (h) and the square
of the radius of the base (r).
5 The weight (W) which can be carried safely by a beam varies inversely as
the length (l), directly as the breadth (b) and directly as the square of the
depth (d).
6 y varies directly as the square of x and inversely as the cube root of z.

2 If y varies directly as x and inversely as z, and if y = 10 when x = 8 and z = 5,

find the law connecting x, y and z. Also find y when x = 6 and z = 2.5.

3 If y varies jointly as x and z2, and if when x = 2.5 and , find the law
connecting the variables. Also find x when and y = 54.

4 y varies directly as x2 and inversely as . When x = 8 and z = 25, y = 16.

Find y when x = 5 and z = 9.

5 The load that a beam of given depth can carry is directly proportional to the
breadth and inversely proportional to the length. If a beam of length 7 m and
breadth 175 mm can support a load of 4 tonnes, what load can be supported
by a beam of the same material 5 m long and 250 mm wide?
 6 If z varies as x2 and inversely as y2, and if z = 4 when x = 8 and y = −0.5, find
z when x = −2 and y = 0.25.

7 The number of heat units (H) generated by an electric current varies directly
as the time (t) and the square of the voltage (E) and inversely as the
resistance (R). If H = 60 when t = 1, E = 100 and R = 40, find the law
connecting them.
Also find
1 the value of H when E = 200, R = 120 and t = 300,
2 the value of t when E = 120, R = 90 and H = 5760.

8 The pressure in a test apparatus varies directly as the absolute temperature

and inversely as the volume of gas. If the temperature increases by 2 per cent
and the volume decreases by 2 per cent, what is the change in the pressure?

Key ideas
• y μ x means y is proportional to x or y varies directly with x.
• When two quantities are in direct proportion, y μ x, then y = kx and the resulting
graph is a straightline through the origin with gradient = k.

• When y is partly constant and partly varying with x, then y = kx + b and the
resulting graph is a straightline through the point (0, b) with gradient = k.

• When y μ x2, then y = kx2 and the resulting graph is a parabola, symmetrical
about the y-axis with a minimum at the origin.

• When y μ x3, then y = kx3 and the resulting graph is a cubic curve.
• When , then and the resulting graph is part of a parabola.

• When , then and the resulting graph is a hyperbola. y is said to be

inversely proportional to x.

• When , then and the resulting graph is a hyperbola.

This is an example of an inverse square law.

• Joint variation is when a quantity is in proportion to two or more other quantities.

 21
The determination of laws
In this chapter you will learn:

• how to find laws relating x and y when

21.1 Laws which are not linear
In the preceding chapter you considered the determinations of laws
which were linear, and which were arrived at by using experimental
data.

But such laws are not always represented by straight lines.

They may involve powers of a variable, such as were considered in
Sections 20.9–20.14. In these cases, when the results of the
experiments are plotted, they will lie on a portion of a curve
which might be one of those illustrated in the preceding chapter, or
of many others. In practice, when only a small portion of the curve
can be drawn, it is impossible to identify what curve it is.

There are two devices, however, by means of which a straight line

can be obtained instead of a curve. The identification can then
be made by the methods previously considered.

21.2 y = axn + b. Plotting against a power of a

number
If the law which you require to find is of the form y = axn + b or y =
axn, where n is known, then plot the corresponding values of y and xn
instead of y and x. The resulting graph will be a straight line.

Consider as an example y = 2x2.

The graph of this function was found in Section 15.8 to be a

parabola. The values given to x were 0, 1, 2, 3, ...

The corresponding tabulated values of y and x2 will be:

and so on. The values of x are not shown in the table.

The resulting graph is a straight line passing through the origin as

shown in Figure 21.1. It is the same as y = 2x when y is plotted
against x.

Figure 21.1

If the equation is y = 2x2 + 3, on plotting in the same way, that is, y

against x2, the resulting line will not pass through the origin but will
have an intercept of 3 units on the y-axis. It will be the same as y =
2x + 3, when y is plotted against x.

The same procedure will be followed with any other power of x. Thus
in y = 2x3 + 5, y is plotted against x3. In general, for the function y =
axn + b plot y against xn. If xn = z then the equation takes the form of

This is the equation of a straight line. The graph, while not showing
the usual relation between y and x, will make it possible to find the
values of a and b by methods previously given.

21.3 Worked example

Two variables, x and y, are thought to be connected by a law of the
form of y = ax2 + b. The following values of x and y are known. Find
the law connecting the variable.
As y must be plotted against x2 you calculate the following table of
corresponding values of x2 and y.

Plotting y against x2, you obtain the graph shown in Figure 21.2.

It is a straight line, and the values of a and b can be found by

the method of Section 20.7.

Figure 21.2

By inspection of the graph, the intercept on the y-axis (that is, b) is

−10, and a, the gradient of the line, is 3.

21.4 y = axn. Use of logarithms

As was pointed out, the previous method can be used only when the
power of x involved is known. If, however, the power is not known,
and the law is of the form y = cxn, this can be reduced to the form of
the equation of a straight line by taking logarithms.

Comparing this with the standard form of the equation of a straight

line, namely, y = ax + b, it is seen to be linear and of the same form,
with log y taking the place of y, and log x taking the place of x.

The constants to be determined are now n and log c, so you plot the
graph of

From this graph you can find n and log c in the same way as a and b
in the standard form. When log c is known you find c from a
calculator and the law can be written down.

It is possible to deal with only the simpler cases in this book.

21.5 Worked example

Two variables, x and y, are connected by a law of the form y = cxn.
The following table gives corresponding values of x and y. Find the
law connecting x and y.

Since the law connecting these is of the form

by taking logs, you get log y = n log x + log c.

Tabulating values of log x and log y in base 10, you get the following
results.
The logs correspond in order to the numbers in the column above,
and are calculated approximately to 3 places of decimals. The graph
is the straight line shown in Figure 21.3.

Figure 21.3

Selecting the points A and B on the straight line, you substitute their
coordinates in turn in the equation

Thus you get the equations

Substituting for n in the second equation above

Therefore c = 0.08 approximately and the law connecting y and x is

Nugget
Make sure you give the final law in the form y = cxn. You should also check that
you have the right equation by substituting in some of the data values.

Exercise 21
1 The variables x and y are connected by a law of the form y = ax2 + b. The
following corresponding values of x and y are known. Find the law.

2 The following table gives related values of x and y. Determine whether these
values are connected by an equation of the form y = ax2 + b and, if so, find
the values of a and b.
3 The following values of R and V are possibly connected by a law of the type
R = aV2 + b. Test if this is so and find the law.

4 H is connected with V by an equation of the form H = aV3 + b. The following

corresponding values are known. Find the values of a and b.

5 The following corresponding values of x and y were measured. There may be

errors of observation. Test if there is a probable law y = a + bx2 and, if this is
the case, find the probable values of a and b.

6 In measuring the resistance, R ohms, of a carbon-filament lamp at various

voltages, V, the following results were obtained:

The law is thought to be of the form . Test this and find a and b.

7 The values of x and y in the following table are connected by a law of the
form y = axn. Find a and n and so determine the law.

8 The following table gives corresponding values of two variables x and y. The
law which connects them is of the form y = axn. Find this law.
 9 The following values of H and Q are connected by a law of the type Q = aHn.
Find a and n.

10 Two quantities x and y are connected by an equation of the form y = axn. The
following table gives corresponding values of the variables. Determine a and
n.

Key ideas
• When experimental data lie on a curve, it is difficult to obtain the equation of the
curve from only a few points. However, you can use different methods to obtain
a straight-line graph.

• To determine a law in the form y = axn + b, where n is known: plot y against xn;
the resulting straight line has gradient a and y-intercept at (0, b).

• To determine a law in the form y = cxn, since log y = n log x + log c, plot log y
against log x; the resulting straight line has gradient n and y-intercept at (0, log
c).
22
Rational and irrational numbers
and surds
In this chapter you will learn:

• what rational and irrational numbers are

• what a surd is
• how to manipulate rational numbers, irrational
numbers and surds.
22.1 Rational and irrational numbers
A number which cannot be expressed as an integer, or a ratio of two
integers, is called an irrational number.

As an example of an irrational number, consider . It can be

expressed as a decimal number to any required degree of accuracy,
these approximations being rational numbers.

Thus to 4 significant figures:

It is clear that the greater the required accuracy, the larger the
integers have to be, top and bottom, in order to approximate with
integer fractions. However, it can be proved (by methods beyond the
scope of this book) that it is impossible to write exactly as the ratio
of two integers even though very good estimates can be obtained by
fractions involving very large integers. Thus is irrational.

Note that if a number has a decimal representation which does not

contain a finite number of digits, this does not necessarily mean that
the number is irrational. A simple example of this is:

Although the number has a decimal representation which contains

3 recurring indefinitely, it is clearly the ratio of two integers and so is
certainly a rational number.

Other roots such as ... are examples of irrational

numbers. A root of a rational number which is irrational, as these
are, is called a surd.

Nugget
The square root of any prime number is irrational.

There are also other numbers, that do not involve roots, which are
irrational. It has been proved that the ratio of the circumference of a
circle to its diameter, denoted by the symbol π, cannot be expressed
exactly as a ratio of integers with a finite number of figures. It is often
expressed roughly by , or 3.1416 to 5 significant figures.
Computers can evaluate π as a decimal to an immense number of
places, but it is impossible to write down an exact value.

However, enough decimal places of π are known so that for all

practical calculations this is not actually a problem!

Such numbers as this are irrational, but not surds. They are also
called incommensurable.

Since irrational numbers do not possess fractional representations

with finite integers, the infinite number of decimal digits of an
irrational number can only be represented approximately by
computers. This can sometimes be the origin of mistakes in very
sensitive numerical calculations using computers, but skilled
programmers can often find algorithms to avoid this problem.

22.2 Irrational numbers and the number line

When you use the decimal system with a finite number of decimal
places to represent an irrational number, you can never specify the
number exactly. You can, however, state to any required degree of
accuracy the limits between which they lie. Thus lies on the line
between 1.41 and 1.415.

Or, more accurately, lies between 1.4142 and 1.4143.

Or, more accurately still, lies between 1.414 21 and 1.414 22.
And so on.

22.3 Geometrical representation of surds

It may be noted, however, that it is theoretically possible in many
cases to obtain by geometrical constructions straight lines which do
represent surds accurately.

For example, from geometry you know that the square on the
hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal to the sum of the
squares on the sides containing the right angle. Consequently, if you
construct a right-angled triangle, the sides of which are of unit length,
the length of the hypotenuse is − that is .

Similarly, the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle of sides 1, and

units will be units. In this way it is possible to represent many
surds by straight lines. Theoretically, you can mark the lengths thus
obtained on the number scale, but in practice no high degree of
accuracy can be obtained in the construction of them.

22.4 Operations with surds

It is the custom in algebra to classify such a number as as a surd,
though until a numerical value has been assigned to a we cannot
say whether or not it is irrational. For purposes of operation,
however, it is treated as a surd.

In operating with surds one principle is fundamental. Surds must

obey the laws of algebra as formulated for rational numbers. Since
you can write surds as powers with fractional indices, e.g. , you
can operate with surds as with these powers, according to the laws
of indices.

For example, just as is not equal to , so is not equal

to . In this respect the root sign has the same effect as a
bracket; the expression under it must be regarded as a whole.
1 MULTIPLICATION
Thus:

By using the above and the converse rules we obtain useful

transformations in operations.

Thus

The above transformations may also be employed to simplify

expressions involving surds.

Nugget
To simplify a surd, write the number under the square root as a product of two
factors – one of which should be a perfect square. For example,

Example 22.1
2 RATIONALIZATION
The evaluation of a number such as will be easier, if the fraction
can be transformed so that you multiply by the surd and do not
divide by it. You can do this by the following transformation:

By this transformation the denominator is changed from an irrational

number to a rational one.

This is called rationalizing the denominator.

If the denominator is a binomial expression the method is

slightly more difficult. The procedure is indicated in the following
examples

Example 22.2

Rationalize the denominator of

Since (a − b) × (a + b) = a2 − b2 and (see above), then, if

the denominator is multiplied by , the surds will disappear from it.
 Example 22.3

Simplify .

To rationalize the denominator it must be multiplied by .

Exercise 22
1 Express each of the following as the square root of an integer.
For example,

2 Express each of the following with the smallest possible number under the
root sign.
3 Simplify each of the following.

4 Multiply each of the following.

5 Simplify each of the following by rationalizing the denominator.
 Key ideas
• An irrational number cannot be written as an integer or as a ratio of two integers
(a fraction). When the square root of a rational number is irrational the result is
called a surd.
So , and are surds.

• You can rationalize the denominator of a fraction by multiplying both the

numerator and denominator by an appropriate irrational number.

• To rationalize the denominator of a fraction in the form , multiply the

numerator and denominator by .
 23
Arithmetical and geometrical
sequences
In this chapter you will learn:

• about arithmetic sequences

• about geometric sequences
• about compound interest.
23.1 Meaning of a sequence
A sequence is a succession of numbers. Each is formed according
to a definite law, which is the same throughout the sequence. In the
past, the word series was also used to mean sequence.

The ordinary numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, … constitute a sequence, each term

of which is greater by 1 than the one which immediately precedes it.

5, 9, 13, 17, … is a sequence, each term of which is greater by 4

than the one which immediately precedes it.

2, 4, 8, 16, … is a sequence in which each term is twice the one

which immediately precedes it.

… is a sequence in which the terms are the reciprocals of 1,

2, 3, 4, …

12, 22, 32, …

and 13, 23, 33, …

are sequences, the construction of each of which is obvious.

23.2 The formation of a sequence

Sequences are of great importance in modern mathematics, but in
this book it is possible to deal with only a few simple cases.

The two most important things to be known about a sequence

usually are the following.

1 The law of its formation. If this is known, it is possible to find any

term in the sequence.

2 The sum of a given number of terms of the sequence.

In this connection it is necessary to consider what the nature of the

sum is when the number of terms is very great. If the sequence is
one in which the terms increase numerically such as

it is clear that the more terms which are taken, the greater will be the
sum. But if the sequence is one in which the terms decrease as the
number of terms increase, such as

it is not always easy to discover what the sum will be when the
number of terms is very great. This is a matter which will be
considered later.

23.3 Arithmetic sequences, or arithmetic

progressions
An arithmetic sequence, or arithmetic progression, is one in which
each term is formed from the immediately preceding one by adding
or subtracting a constant number.

The number thus added or subtracted is called the common

difference of the sequence.

Example 23.1
1 7, 13, 19, 25, … (common difference 6).

2 6, 4, 2, 0, −2, … (common difference −2).

In general if three numbers a, b, c, are in arithmetic progression (denoted by A.P.)

then
23.4 Any term in an arithmetic sequence
Let a be the first term of an arithmetic sequence
d be the common difference (positive or negative).

Then the sequence can be written

It is evident that the multiple of d (which is added to a to produce any

term) is 1 less than the number of the term in the sequence.

Thus the fourth term is a + (4 − 1)d = a + 3d. Hence, if the number of

any term is denoted by n then

Example 23.2
1 In the sequence 7, 10, 13, … the common difference is 3.
The tenth term is 7 + (10 − 1)3 = 34.
The nth term is 7 + (n − 1)3.

2 In the sequence 6, 2, −2, −6, … the common difference d = −4.

The nth term = 6 + (n − 1)(−4) = 6 − (n − 1)4.
The eighth term = 6 + 7(−4) = 6 − 28 = −22.

23.5 The sum of any number of terms of an

arithmetic sequence
In addition to a and d used previously let

n be number of terms whose sum is required,

s be the sum of n terms,
l be the last term.

Then by the previous formula, for an arithmetic sequence,

Reversing the series

Adding the corresponding terms of the two sets, each pair gives (a +
l):

Since l = a + (n − 1)d, on substituting for l in the last result

This formula, like all other formulae, may be used not only to find s,
but also any of the other numbers n, a, or d. To find a and d offers no
difficulty, but if n is required, it will be seen that a quadratic equation
will result. Since there are two roots to every quadratic equation, two
values of n will always be found. In some cases only one root is
admissible; in others both roots provide solutions. For example, in a
sequence involving negative terms such as

you can see that the sum of seven terms is the same as the sum of
three terms. In other cases, it will be evident that one of the roots is
inadmissible.

Nugget
When the mathematician Gauss (1777 – 1855) was at school, his teacher is
reputed to have asked the class to sum the numbers from 1 to 100. Gauss
astounded his teacher by coming up with answer almost immediately. Gauss is
likely to have used the above method of reversing the sequence in order to find the
answer so fast.

23.6 Arithmetic mean

If three numbers are in arithmetic progression, the middle one is
called the arithmetic mean of the other two.

Let a, b, c, be three numbers in A.P.

Then, by the definition of Section 23.3

It will be seen that the arithmetic mean of two numbers is the same
as their average.

It is usual also to speak of inserting arithmetic means between two

numbers, by which is meant that they, together with the two given,
form a series of numbers in A.P.

Example 23.3
Insert three arithmetic means between 4 and 20.

If these are a, b, c, then 4, a, b, c, 20 are in A.P., five terms in all.

Using l = a + (n − 1)d for the fifth term 20,

20 = 4 + (5 − 1)d, whence d = 4.

So the five terms are 4, 8, 12, 16, 20.

23.7 Worked examples

Example 23.4
The sum of an A.P. of 8 terms is 90 and the first term is 6. What is the common
difference?

and substituting the given values

The common difference is 1.5.

Example 23.5
How many terms of the series 3, 6, 9, … must be taken so that their sum is 135?

The root −10 is inadmissible as it has no meaning in this connection.

Nine terms must be taken.

Exercise 23.1
1 Write down the next three terms of each of the following series.
1 5, 7.5, 10, …
2 12, 8, 4, …
3 (a + 3b), (a + b), (a − b), …
4 2.7, 4, 5.3, …
5 x − y, x, x + y, …

2 Find the fifth and eighth terms of the series whose first term is 6, and
common difference 1.5.

3 Find the 2pth term of the series whose first term is 6 and common difference
2.

4 Find the nth term of the series whose first term is (x + 2) and common
difference 3.

5 Find the twenty-fifth term of the series, 0.6, 0.72, 0.84, … .

6 The fourth term of an A.P. is 11 and the sixth term 17. Find the tenth term.

7 The fifth term of an A.P. is 11 and the ninth term is 7. Find the fourteenth term.

8 Which term of the series 2.3, 4.2, 6.1, … is 36.5?

9 Find the sum of each of the following series.

1 15, 16.5, 18, … to ten terms.
2 9, 7, 5, … to eight terms.
3 0.8, 0.6, 0.4, … to nine terms.
4 , ... to twenty-seven terms.

10 How many terms of the series 10, 12, 14, … must be taken so that the sum of
the series is 252?

11 How many terms of the series 24, 20, 16, … must be taken so that the sum of
the series is 80?
12 Find the thirtieth term and the sum of thirty terms of the series 4, 8, 12, ….

13 A contractor agrees to sink a well 250 m deep at a cost of £27 for the
first metre, £28.50 for the second metre, and an extra £1.50 over the price of
the previous metre for each additional metre. Find the cost of the last metre
and the total cost.

14 A girl’s parents place in the savings bank £25 on her first birthday, £50 on her
second, £75 on her third, and so on, increasing the amount by £25 on each
birthday. How much will be saved up when the girl reaches her sixteenth
birthday, inclusive?

23.8 Harmonic sequences or harmonic

progressions
A sequence of numbers is said to be in harmonic progression (H.P.)
if their reciprocals form a sequence in arithmetic progression.

This sequence is important in the theory of sound.

It is not possible to obtain a simple formula for the sum of n terms of

an H.P., but many problems relating to such a sequence can be
solved by using the corresponding arithmetic sequence.
HARMONIC mEAN
The harmonic mean of two numbers may be found as follows.

Let a and b be the numbers.

Let H be their harmonic mean,

that is, a, H, b are in H.P.

Then are in A.P.
23.9 Geometric sequences or geometric
progressions
A geometric sequence is one in which the ratio of any term to that
which immediately precedes it is constant for the whole sequence.

This ratio is called the common ratio of the sequence. It may be

positive or negative. Thus, each term of the sequence can be
obtained by multiplying the term which precedes it by the common
ratio.

Example 23.6
1 1 1, 2, 4, 8, ... (common ratio 2).

3 3 2, −6, 18, −54, ... (common ratio −3).

4 4 R, R2, R3, R4, ... (common ratio R).

If three numbers a, b, c are in geometric progression (G.P.) then

This is the test to apply in order to find if numbers are in G.P.

GENERAL FORM OF A GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE
Let a be 1st term.
Let r be common ratio.
Then the sequence is a, ar, ar2, ar3, … .

23.10 Connection between a geometric sequence

and an arithmetic sequence
In the geometric sequence

take logs of each term. You then get the sequence:

This is an arithmetic sequence in which the first term is log a, and

the common difference is log r.

So the logarithms of the terms of a G.P. form a sequence in A.P.

23.11 General term of a geometric sequence

Examining the sequence a, ar, ar2, ar3, … you can see that each
term of the sequence is the product of a and a power of r, the index
of which is 1 less than the number of the term.

So if n is any term then the nth term = arn−1.

If r is negative, rn−1 being alternately odd and even, the terms will be
alternately negative and positive, assuming a to be positive.

When n − 1 is even, n is odd, and the nth term is positive.

When n − 1 is odd, n is even, and the nth term is negative.

Example 23.7
Find the seventh term of the series

In this series r = 2, so using the formula

The seventh term is 192.

Example 23.8
Find the eighth term of the series

For this series r = −3.

Using arn−1,

The eighth term is −4374.

Example 23.9
Find the fifth term of the series in which the first term is 100 and the common ratio
0.63.

Using arn−1, if x is the fifth term,

The fifth term is 15.75.

Example 23.10
The third term of a G.P. is 4.5 and the ninth is 16.2. Find the common ratio.

Using arn−1,
The common ratio is 1.238.

23.12 Geometric mean

If three numbers are in G.P., the middle term is called the geometric
mean of the other two.

Let a, b, c be three numbers in G.P.

Then by the definition of Section 23.9

Exercise 23.2
1 Write down the next three terms of each of the following sequences:
1 4,10, 25
2 16, 4, 1
3 16, −24, 36
4 0.3, 0.03, 0.003
5 3, 0.45, 0.0675

2 Find the seventh term of the sequence 5, 10, 20, … .

3 Find the seventh term of the sequence 6, −4, ,….

4 Find the fifth term of the sequence 1.1, 1.21,1.331, … .

5 Find the sixth term of the sequence −0.5, 0.15, −0.045, … .

 6 Write down the 2nth and the (2n + 1)th terms of the sequence
1 a, ar, ar2, … ,
2 a, −ar, ar2, … .

7 The first term of a G.P. is 1.05 and the sixth term is 1.3401. Find the common
ratio.

8 The fifth term of a G.P. is 1.2166 and the seventh term is 1.3159.Find the
common ratio.

9 Find the geometric mean of each of the following pairs of numbers.

1 3 and 5
2 4.2 and 3.6

10 Insert two geometric means between 5 and 13.72.

11 A person receives a salary of £10 000 a year with an increase each year of 5
per cent of the salary for the previous year. How much salary does the person
receive during the fifth year?

12 The expenses of a company are £200 000 a year. It is decided that each year
they will be reduced by 5 per cent of those for the preceding year. What will be
the expenses during the fourth year, the first reduction taking place during the
first year?

13 In a geometric sequence the first term is unity and the fifth term is 1.170
approx. Find the common ratio.

14 Insert three terms in geometric progression between 5 and 80.

23.13 The sum of n terms of a geometric

sequence
In addition to the symbols employed above, let Sn represent the sum
of n terms of a G.P.

Multiply both sides by r,

Subtracting (1) from (2),

If (2) is subtracted from (1) above, the formula becomes

If r > 1 and positive, form (A) should be used.

If r < 1 or negative, form (B) should be used.

23.14 Worked examples

Example 23.11
Find the sum of seven terms of the sequence

The sum of seven terms is 64.34.

Example 23.12
Find the sum of seven terms of the sequence
The sum of seven terms is 172.

Exercise 23.3
1 Find the sums of the following sequences.
1 1.5, 3, 6, … to six terms.

2 Find the sum of the first six terms of the sequence

3 Find the sum of the first six terms of the sequence

4 Find the sum of the first six terms of the sequence

5 Find the sum of the first twelve terms of the sequence

6 If the first and third terms of a G.P. are 3 and 12, find the sum of eight terms.
7 If the third and fourth terms of a G.P. are and , respectively, find the eighth
term and the sum of eight terms.

8 Find the sum of 20 + 18 + 16.2 + … to six terms.

23.15 Increasing geometric sequences

When the common ratio of a geometric sequence is numerically
greater than 1, as in the sequences

the terms increase in magnitude. The sum of n terms increases as n

increases. If the number of terms increases without limit – that is, n
is greater than any number you may select, however great – then the
sum of these terms will also increase without limit, that is, it will
become infinitely great, or, to use the mathematical term, approach
‘infinity’, which is denoted by the symbol ∞.

You can then say that, as n (the number of terms), approaches

infinity, Sn (the sum of these terms) also approaches infinity.
This may be expressed by the following notation.

23.16 Decreasing geometric sequences

If, however, the common ratio is numerically less than 1, as in the
following sequences,

then as the number of terms increases, the terms themselves

decrease. Using the terms employed above, you can say that, as n
increases without limit, the terms themselves decrease without limit,
and ultimately become indefinitely small.
You cannot say, however, that the sum of these terms increases
without limit as n increases without limit. That is a matter for further
investigation.

23.17 Recurring decimals

There is an example, arising from arithmetic, which will assist in
coming to conclusions on this important question, namely that of a
recurring decimal. You know that

in which 1 recurs without limit.

The decimal is in effect the sum of a geometric sequence

in which there is no limit to the number of terms. It is an example of

what is called an infinite sequence. But you know that the sum of all
these terms, no matter how many are taken, is ultimately equal to
the finite fraction .

If you find the sum of finite numbers of terms, you get:

The difference between and the sum of these is

and in general, finding the sum of n terms by using the formula

Examining these results, you can see that the difference between
and the various sums, S1, S2, S3, … , Sn decreases as n increases.
In general, the difference between and the sum of n terms is
.

As n increases without limit, this difference becomes closer and

closer to zero − and the sum approaches to equality with . It can
never be greater than .

Using the previous notation, you can express this result in the form

There is thus a limit to which Sn approaches and which it cannot

exceed.

23.18 A geometrical illustration

The approach of the sum of a geometric sequence to a limit may be
illustrated by a graphical representation of the sequence

Let the rectangle ABCD (Figure 23.1) represent a unit of area.

Let E be the midpoint of AB and draw EF perpendicular to DC.

Then rectangle AEFD represents of a unit.

Bisecting the rectangle EBCF by GH, then rectangle EGHF

represents or or of a unit.

Continuing the process of bisecting the rectangle left over after each
bisection, you get a series of rectangles whose areas represent the
terms of the above series. These rectangles diminish in area, as you
represent more and more terms of the series in this way.

Figure 23.1

The rectangle AKLD represents the sum of the four terms of the
series

As more divisions are made, the sum of more terms are represented
by a rectangle; this rectangle approaches nearer to the area of the
whole rectangle − that is, 1 − but can never exceed it. Consequently
1 is a limit which the sum of the series approaches as the number of
terms is increased without limit, but which it can never exceed,
no matter how many terms are taken.

If you sum the sequence ... by using the formula

Examining this result, you see that decreases in magnitude as n

increases. If n is increased without limit then decreases without

limit − that is, it becomes closer and closer to zero.

So you can say that Sn → 1 as n → ∞.

Nugget
The idea behind this geometric illusion is similar to one of Zeno’s Paradoxes:
imagine an arrow fired at a target, in order for the arrow to reach its target it must
travel half the distance to the target, and then half the remaining distance and so
on. However, since there is always a distance to halve, the arrow never actually
reaches the target. This is a paradox because, obviously, the arrow does reach the
target eventually!

23.19 The sum to infinity

The above suggests the general treatment of this question.
Considering the term , if r lies between +1 and −1 then rn
diminishes as n increases or, with the previous notation,

Thus the right-hand side approaches as a limit.

This is the ‘limiting sum’ of the series and it is called the ‘sum to
infinity’.

If it is represented by S∞,

23.20 Worked examples

Example 23.13
Sum to infinity the series
 Example 23.14

Find the sum to infinity of the series

Exercise 23.4
1 To what limits will the sums of the following sequences tend as the number of
terms increases indefinitely?

2 To what limits will the sums of the following sequences tend as the number of
terms increases indefinitely?
1 0.1 + 0.001 + 0.000 01 + ...
2 0.06 + 0.006 + 0.000 06 + ...
3 0.16 + 0.0016 + 0.000 016 + ...
What is the connection between these sequences?

3 To what limit does an infinite number of terms in the following sum tend?
 Show the connection with the sequence in question 1.

4 Show that the sum of n terms of the sequence

Hence show what limit this sequence approaches.

5 Find the sum of n terms of the sequence

Hence find the limit approached by the sum as the number of terms becomes
infinitely great.

6 Find the limiting sum, or the sum to infinity, of each of the following
sequences.

3 9−6+4−….

7 Find the sums to infinity of the sequences

8 The sum to infinity of a sequence is 15, and the first term is 3. Find the
common ratio.

9 A superball is dropped from a height of 10 m. At each rebound it rises to a

height which is 0.9 of the height from which it has just fallen. What is the total
 distance through which the ball will have moved before it finally comes to
rest?

10 The yearly output of a silver mine is found to be decreasing by 25 per cent of

its previous year’s output. If in a certain year its output was £25 000 000 what
could be reckoned as its total future output?

23.21 Simple and compound interest

The accumulation of money when put to interest furnishes examples
of arithmetic and geometric sequences. When money is put out at
simple interest, the interest is payable for each year, but is not added
to the principal.

For example the interest payable on £100 at 5 per cent for 1, 2, 3, …

years will be £5 each year. The total interest that has been paid after
1, 2, 3, … years will be £5, £10, £15, these sums forming a
sequence in A.P. The total interest paid varies directly as the time.

But if the money is lent at compound interest, the interest is added

each year to the principal, and for the following year the interest is
calculated on their sum.

Suppose £1 is invested at 5 per cent compound interest. Then the

interest for the first year is £ or £0.05.

So the amount at the end of the year is £1.05 and the amount at the
end of the year of £P is £P × 1.05.

Consequently the ratio of the amount at the end of a year to that at

the beginning is always 1.05.

This corresponds to the ratio of a geometric sequence.

Therefore amount at the end of the second year is

Therefore amount at the end of the third year is

Therefore amount at the end of the fourth year is

Therefore amount at the end of the nth year

These amounts at the end of successive years, namely,

constitute a geometric sequence.

Let M be the amount at the end of n years.

In this formula, as you have seen in other cases, any one of the four
quantities may be the subject of the formula.

This enables you to find the principal amount of money which will
produce £M in n years.

from which you can find the rate of interest.

which enables you to find the time taken for P to amount to M.

23.22 Accumulated value of periodical payments
Suppose that £P is invested each year for 10 years at 5 per cent

C.I., each investment being made at the beginning of a year.

The first £P at the end of 10 years amounts to

The second £P at the end of 9 years amounts to

The third £P at the end of 8 years amounts to

And finally, the last £P invested bears interest for 1 year and
amounts to

Then the accumulated value of the investments amounts to

or, reversing the sequence,

This is the sum of a geometric sequence and using the form

the accumulated value of the investments is

23.23 Annuities
An annuity is a sequence of equal annual payments extending over
a specified number of years, or for the life of the annuitant.

A ground rent is a similar financial transaction, the holder of the

freehold receiving an annual payment, called ground rent, for the
number of years specified in the lease. Ground rents and annuities
are constantly being bought and sold, and the method of calculating
the amount to be paid by the purchaser can be determined
by means of the above results. This amount will depend upon the
rate of interest which the purchaser expects to receive on his
investment.

Suppose that the rate of interest expected is 4 per cent.

The price is obtained by finding the present value of each of the

payments, as follows:

P is the amount which produces M in n years at the given rate per

cent; it is called the present value of M due in n years.

If £A is the annual payment and P is its present value, then for the
first payment due in 1 year

when the rate per cent is 4.

For the second payment

For the third payment

and so on.

So the total present value

This can then be evaluated for any value of A.

The terms of the above sequence decrease and if the ground rent is
a perpetual one, or the lease is a very long one, the present value
becomes the sum to infinity of the above sequence.

Present value

The ground rent is then said to be worth 25 years purchase. It is

always found by dividing 100 by the rate per cent.

Exercise 23.5
1 If £1000 is invested at the beginning of each year for 10 years at 3 per cent C.I.,
find the accumulated value a year after the last amount is invested.

2 An annuity of £6000 a year is allowed to accumulate at 3 per cent C.I. for 8

years. What was the total amount at the end?

3 A man saves £250 every half-year and invests it at C.I. at 4 per cent. What will
be the amount of his savings in 8 years if the last amount saved bears interest
for 6 months?

4 Find the present value of an annuity of £3000 for 10 years, reckoning C.I. at 4
per cent, the first payment being due one year after purchase.

5 What should be the purchase price of an annuity of £5000 for 8 years, reckoning
C.I. at 3 per cent?

6 A woman wished to endow in perpetuity an institution with a yearly sum of

£2000. If C.I. is reckoned at 4 per cent, what amount will be needed for it?

7 A man retires at 65, when the expectation of life is 10.34 years, with a pension
of £20 000. What single payment would be the equivalent of this, reckoning C.I.
at 4 per cent?

8 A pension of £6,000 per annum was awarded to Nelson and his heirs for ever. If
this is commuted into a single payment, what should that be, reckoning C.I. at 2
per cent?

Key ideas
• A sequence is a succession of numbers. Each is formed according to a definite
law, which is the same throughout the sequence.

• In an arithmetic sequence:
 where a is the first term of an arithmetic sequence and d is the common
difference.

• For an arithmetic sequence:

where n is number of terms whose sum is required, s is the sum of n terms and l
is the last term.

• If three numbers are in arithmetic progression, the middle one is called the
arithmetic mean of the other two.

• A sequence of numbers is said to be in harmonic progression (H.P.) if their

reciprocals form a sequence in arithmetic progression.

• In a geometric sequence

where a is the first term and r is the common ratio.

• The logarithms of the terms of a G.P. form a sequence in A.P.

• If three numbers are in G.P., the middle term is called the geometric mean of the
other two.

• The sum of n terms of a G.P., Sn, is given by:

• If r < 1 or negative it may be more convenient to use the form:

• When −1 < r < 1 then an infinite G.P. will converge. The sum to infinity of all the
terms is S∞ = .

• The arithmetic and geometric sequences can be used in financial calculations

such as working out compound interest.
 Appendix
The following brief statement of permutations, combinations and the
binomial theorem, and a note on the roots of a quadratic equation,
are given for the benefit of students who may need to use them in
the differential calculus or other branches of more
advanced mathematics.

Permutations and combinations

1 PERMUTATIONS
Consider the following example:

A party of 6 people arrived at a theatre and obtained 4 seats

together and 2 separate. In how many different ways could the 4
seats in a row be filled, if there are no restrictions as to where any of
the 6 may sit?

Consider the first seat. Since any one of the 6 people may sit in it, it
can be filled in 6 different ways. With each of these 6 ways, the
second seat can be filled in 5 different ways, since 5 people are left.

Therefore there are (6 × 5) different ways of filling the first two seats.

With each of the 6 × 5 or 30 ways of filling the first two seats, there
are 4 ways of filling the third seat, since 4 people are left.

Therefore, there are (6 × 5 × 4) different ways of filling the first three

seats.

Similarly, the fourth seat can be filled in 3 ways.

Therefore, there are (6 × 5 × 4 × 3) different ways of filling the

4 seats − that is, 360 ways.

Arrangements of a number of different objects in a row are called

permutations. The problem was the permutation of 6 things 4 at a
time, expressed by the notation: − 6P4 or 6P4.

It will be seen that if the people mentioned had 6 seats together, the
number of permutations or arrangements in these seats would be 6
× 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1. This product (of all the integral numbers from 1
to 6 inclusive) is called factorial 6 and is expressed by ‘6!’.

In general, the product of the integral numbers from 1 to n inclusive

is denoted by ‘n!’.

Thus n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2) × ... × 3 × 2 × 1 and is called factorial n.

2 PERMUTATIONS OF N THINGS R AT A TIME, OR nPr
Here we will cover the treatment of the special case. The method
adopted to find the formula is the same:

There are r places to be filled and n different things to choose from.

The 1st place can be filled in n ways.

The 2nd place can then be filled in (n − 1) ways, since with each of
the n ways of filling the first place, each of the (n − 1) ways of filling
the second can be associated.

Therefore, there are n(n − 1) ways of filling the first two places.

Similarly:

There are n(n − 1)(n − 2) ways of filling the three places, and n(n −
1)(n − 2)(n − 3) ways of filling the four places.

So, by inspection:

There are n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) ... {n − (r − 1)} ways of filling the r
places.

Therefore: nPr = n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) ... (n − r + 1).

If the n things are all arranged among themselves, then the last
factor becomes (n − n + 1) or 1.

3 COMBINATIONS
The problem solved above − namely, the number of different ways of
filling up 4 seats by 6 people − might have been approached in
another way:

1 You could find the number of different sets or groups of 4 that

could be formed from 6 people.

2 Each group could then be arranged in the seats in 4! ways.

The product of these two numbers must give the total number of
ways of filling the 4 seats − that is, the permutations of 6 things 4 at
a time. The difficulty at present is that of finding the number of
groups:

Let x be the number of groups.

Then, by the above reasoning:

Thus, you can find the number of groups, when you know the
number of permutations.

Such groups are called combinations.

A number of groups or combinations of 6 different things 4 at a time

is denoted by , and in general, the number of combinations of n

things r at a time is denoted by . The notation is read as ‘n

choose r’. Older notations used are nCr and nCr.
4 THE COMBINATIONS OF N THINGS R AT A TIME
With the same reasoning as that employed above you can deduce
that:

The binomial theorem

5 PRODUCTS OF BINOMIAL FACTORS
It was shown in Section 12.2 that:

Employing the methods used in Chapter 12 you can show that:

You should note that:

1 the expression is arranged in descending powers of x,

2 the coefficients of these powers, after the first, are the sums
formed in every way from using the letters a, b, c:
 1 one at a time

2 two at a time

3 three at a time.

From the way in which this product is formed you can deduce the
product of:

Arranging the powers of x in descending order, the coefficients of

these powers will be:

x4 − unity.

x3 − sum of the letters one at a time, that is:

x2 − sum of the letters two at a time, that is:

x − sum of the letters three at a time, that is:

The term independent of x is abcd.

So the full product is:

You saw in Section 4 that the number of ways of:

1 grouping 4 letters 1 at a time is

2 grouping 4 letters 2 at a time is

3 grouping 4 letters 3 at a time is

4 grouping 4 letters 4 at a time is .

In the above factors let b = c = d = a.

Then the left side is (x + a)4

In the expansion of (x + a)4:

the coefficient of x3 is (a + a + a + a) = 4a

the coefficient of x2 is 6a2

the coefficient of x is 4a3

the last term is a4.

By a similar process you can obtain the expansion:

From a consideration of these results, you can deduce the general

case − namely:
This is called the binomial theorem.

The above reasoning is independent of the values of x and a. It will

therefore hold if a is replaced by −a. Then:

Since odd powers of (−a) are negative and even powers are positive,
the terms will be alternately positive and negative if a > 0.

In the previous results let x = 1.

Then:

Every binomial expression can be reduced to one of these forms as

follows:
A complete proof of the binomial theorem requires a more advanced
knowledge of algebra than is provided in this book. The
demonstration given above assumes that n is a positive integer. In
using the theorem later, the important question will arise:

Is the binomial theorem true for fractional and negative indices?

It can be proved that the form holds for all values of n. For example if

When n is a positive integer, a term in the sequence will ultimately be

reached when one of the factors:

will become (n − n) and will vanish, as will all succeeding products.

The number of terms therefore is finite and will clearly be n + 1.

Consequently, when a value is assigned to x in (1 + x)n the sum of

the sequence will be a finite number and the sequence is said to be
convergent.

But if n is fractional or negative, none of the factors;

will vanish, and the number of terms is infinite. If the sum increases
without limit as n increases, the sequence is said to be divergent.
But it can be shown that if x, in (1 + x)n, is such that, the sum of the
sequence will approach a limit, as is the case with certain geometric
sequences (see Section 23.19). Subject to this condition, the
sequence for −1 < x < 1, is always said to be convergent.

The roots of a quadratic equation

Writing the general quadratic equation:

the solution is (Section 16.8)

Let a and b be the two roots:

Nature of the roots of a quadratic equation
If (b2 − 4ac) is negative, the square root has no
arithmetical meaning. It is customary to speak of such a root as
imaginary, while the square root of a positive number is called real.

Hence, for the roots of a quadratic:

1 if b2 > 4ac, the roots are real and different

2 if b2 = 4ac the roots are equal

3 if b2 < 4ac the roots are imaginary.

A number such as where p ≥ 0 can be written:

The number is usually denoted by i.

Hence, as an example, can be written

Example
The roots of the equation x2 + 2x + 5 = 0 are given by:

Note: The graph of y = x2 + 2x + 5 does not cut the x-axis, that is, it does not equal
zero for any real value of x.
 Answers
Exercise 1
1 1 100x

3 100an + mb
4 1 1000a
2 2x

5 28 − n
6 x + 50, or 50 − x

8 1xm

9 2n + 5
10 1 x + 2, x − 2
2 x + 1, x − 1

13 a − b
14 xy
15 a + b

17 mv km + nu km
18 100a + b

20 The original numbers are the digits of the final result, m and n.

Exercise 2.1
1 1 10 doz.; 120
2 10a; 120
2 1 5 × 73 = 365
2 5b = 365
3 3a + 4b; 47
4 19a; 47.5
5 1 26b
2 19x
3 12a
4 4x
6 1 2a + 4b
2 12p + 3q
3 6a + 3b + 4
7 1 10a + 2b
2 2b + c − d
3 8x + 2z
8 1 13
2 7
 3 13
4 11
9 1 8ab = 64
2 3ax + bx = 42
3 3xy = 45
4 4ab + 4bx − ay = 36

11 22
12 1 66
2 29
3 30
13 n + 2, n + 4, n + 6; 3n + 12
14 a, 2a, 4a, 8a; 15a
15 a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, a + 4d; 5a + 10d
16 2n + 5, 2n + 8, 2n + 11, 2n + 14, 2n + 17; 10n + 55

Exercise 2.2
1 12a
2 10xy
3 2xy
4 21mn

6 4ab
7 60abc
 9 x3
10 a4
11 x4
12 a6
13 2a5
14 6x7
15 2a2b2
16 6b9
17 x3y3
18 7x6a
19 6a6
20 27a6b3
21 x6
22 8a12
23 16a12
24 64a4
25 54
26 21
27 8
28 172
29 27
30 1
31 216
32 576

Exercise 2.3
1 a2
2 a2
3 3x

5 2a4
6 5y3
7 3x3
8 2c2
9 ab
10 x3y
11 5a2b
12 3xy
13 2

Exercise 2.4
15 x2y

18 1
19 xy
26 2y
27 1
Exercise 3.1
1 15x + 18z
2 6a2 + 8ab
3 18a3 + 42a2b − 36a2c
4 8x + y
5 5x3 + 4x2
6 x
7 7x + 5y − 4z
8 x − 2y − z
9 2x − y + 2z
10 a + 7b
11 a − b
12 a + b
13 4x + 2y − 2z
14 a + 5b − 5c
15 3y
16 a2 + b2
17 x3 + x2y − x3y + xy3
18 x2 + 9x + 23
19 9p2 + 3pq + 15q2
20 5x2y2 − 3xy + 6x2
21 2x4 + 8x3

Exercise 3.2
 1 6a − 9
2 3a + 30b

4 3a2 + 2ab − 2ac

5 2p2 + p
6 x2 + 3xy + 12y2
7 7bc − 2b2 + 2c2
8 13x + 5
9 34 − 6a + 4b
10 x + 3y
11 2a − 10b

14 2a − (b − c)
15 x − (y + z)
16 2(a + 2b − 3c)
17 x2 − y(x − y)
18 2a − 4b + 7c
19 x + 2y − 2z
20 1 111
2 6

Exercise 4.1
1 0+4−2+4−6=0
2 + 8 + 2 − 14 + 4 − 6 = −6°C
3 1 11°C
2 15°C
3 30°C
4 1 +5
2 −5
3 +8
5 1 a +2
b +4
2 +5
6 1 (+4)
2 (+8)
3 (−8)
4 (−4)
5 (+3)
6 (−8)
7 0
8 (−8)
7 1 7a
2 −7x
3 10ab
4 − x − 8y
5 a − 7b
6 −x + 2y
7 7x − 3y
8 −8
8 1 2x − 2y
2 2x − y − 7z
 9 1 3a − (−5a)
2 5x − (6x)
3 − 3a − (−10a)
10 1 (−a)
2 (+a)
3 (−a)

Exercise 4.2
1 1 (+36)
2 (−36)
3 (−36)
4 (+36)
5 (+4)
6 (−4)
7 (−4)
8 (+4)
2 1 (−a2)
2 (+a2)
3 (−1)
4 (+1)
3 1 (−4ab)
2 (+4ab)
3 (−20xy)
4 (−20xy)

4 1 +24
2 +6a3
 3 +3y
4 −6ab
5 1 −10x3
2 a2 − b2
3 −2ab2
4 −a2 + 2ab + ac
6 1 +20ab2
2 6x2 + 8x
3 −2xz + 2yz
7 1 a2, −a3, a4, −a5
2 4x2, −8x3, +16x4, −32x5

8 ±9, ±3x2, −x, −2a2

9 +16x
2 5x
3 2y
4 −2b
5 −2t
6 2x
7 8x3
8 −3x
9 −4ab
10 6a2c
10 1 −b
2 −x

Exercise 5.1
 1 1 17
2 37
3 20
4 47
2 3n
2 3n − 1
3 3n − 2
4 n2
5 n2 + 10
6 5n + 1

Exercise 5.2
1 1 1, 5, 9, 13, 17
2 16, 20, 24, 28, 32
3 4, 16, 36, 64, 100
2 1 −3, 1, 5, 9, 13
2 32, 52, 72, 92, 112
3 32, 44, 64, 92, 128
3 1 18, 23, 28, 33, 38
2 11, 23, 35, 47, 59
3 19, 34, 55, 82, 115
4 1 17, 24, 31, 38, 45
2 17, 24, 31, 38, 45; yes; 7(n + 1) + 3 = 7n + 7 + 3 = 7n + 10

Exercise 5.3
1 1 5(4n − 3)
2 5(n + 3) − 2
3 2(6n − 5) − 7
4 2(3(n + 4) − 5)
2 1 11
 2 59
3 93
3 1 23
2 23

Exercise 5.4
1 1 x → 2x + 7; 13
2 x → 2(x + 7); 20
3 x → (x + 5)2; 64
4 x → x2 +5; 14
2 12
2 18
3 x → 2x − 3
4 x → 2(x − 3)
3 1 40
2 47
3 361
4 6566
5 x → (2x + 7)2 + 5

Exercise 5.5
1 1 23
2 x → (x − 3) ÷ 4
2 1 23
2 x → (x − 3) ÷ 5 + 4
3 x → (x + 3) ÷ 2; 7
4 x → ((x − 7) ÷ 5 + 3) ÷ 2; 3

Exercise 5.6
1 14
 2 10
3 25
2 16
2 5
3 15
2 3

Exercise 6.1

2 20
2 1 16
2 60
3 1 −16
2 −10
4 1 80
2 −72
5 1 12.6
2 − 0.08

2 5
7 1 2.5
2 12
8 18

2 16
10 1 1.8
2 −45
11 1 14.8

13 22
14 5
15 8
16 29

18 −3

21 1 −80
2 −10
22 −35
23 8
24 −7
26 3

29 2.7 to 1 decimal place

30 2.9 to 1 decimal place
31 3

33 36

Exercise 6.2
1 12
2 72.5
3 42
4 15
5 13.5
6 21, 23, 25
7 10 km
8 40
9 11.9 cm, 10.1 cm
10 4 people, 60p
11 5
12 Son 8 years, father 32 years
13 30°C
14 80 at £18 and 40 at £12
15 23

Exercise 7.1
1 175
2 154

4 85.6 to 1 decimal place

5 0.616 to 3 decimal places

8 204

10 1390.2 (1390 to 0 decimal place)

11 14.0 to 1 decimal place

Exercise 7.2
 8 1 V = IR

Exercise 7.3

2 2a
3 p
4 4b
 9 p

Exercise 8.1
1 x = 3, y = 6
2 x = 5, y = 8
3 x = 12, y = 3
4 x = 8, y = 3
5 x = 3, y = 1
6 x = 4, y = 5
7 x = 7, y = 4
8 x = 10, y = 7
9 x = 6, y = 5
10 x = 3, y = 10
11 x = 6, y = 10

13 a = −2, b = 3
14 p = −2, q = 4
16 x = 9, y = 13

18 x = 6, y = −4
19 x = 8, y = 12
20 x = 1.35, y = 2.7
21 x = 4, y = 2
22 P = 1.8, Q = 0.32

24 x = 12, y = 6

Exercise 8.2
1 x = 12, y = 10
2 16, 12
3 20, 7
4 10, 6
5 m = 2, b = −3. Equation is y = 2x − 3; when x = 6, y = 9.
6 m = 20, b = 10
7 a = 0.5, b = 0.6; E = 6.5
8 a = − 1.36, b = 1.38 to 2 decimal places
9 10 m, 6 m
10 10£37.50; 20p
11 Tie £9.80, socks £4.80
12 u = 10 ms−1, a = 6 ms−2, 125 m

Exercise 9.1
1 1 H < 190
2 P > 50
3 200 ≤ S < £300
4 3<T<5

Exercise 9.2
1 1x>7
2 x<3
2 1x<8
2 x≤3
3 1x<8
2 x≤5
4 1x<3
2 x≥2
5 1x<3
2 x < −15
6 x>4
7 x≥8
8 x < −16

Exercise 9.3
1 0≤x≤5
2 2≤x<5
3 3<x<7

Exercise 9.4
 1 14<x<7
2 −2 < x < 1
2 −3 ≤ x < 3

Exercise 10.1
1 12
2 −2
2 1 −1

4 13
2 2
5 14
2 6

2 1
7 a = 2, b = 3. Equation is y = 2x + 3. Intercept is 3.8
8 x + 2y = 4

Exercise 10.2
1 A (4, 4); B (4.6, 1.2); C (−2, 3); D (4, −2); E (−1.4, −3.4); F (3,
0); G (0, −3).
2 (1.1 approximately, 1.1 approximately)
3
 4 (2, 2)
5 They lie on a straight line parallel to the x-axis.
6 They lie on a straight line which passes through the origin.
7 For every point on it the x-coordinate is +3.

Exercise 10.3
1 All lines pass through the origin with different slopes.
2 All lines are parallel with slope 45°.

3 All lines are parallel with gradient .

4 All lines have the same intercept on the y-axis, namely 2.

5 Intercepts are (x intercept first):
1 1.5 and 3
2 4 and −2
3 2 and 5
4 2.5 and −2
6 1 x = 4, y = 3
2 x = 3, y = 1
3 x = −2, y = 2
7 a = 3; −1
8 b = 1; 1

Exercise 11.1
1 1 yes
2 no
3 yes
4 no
2 (2, 5) is in the region; (6, 1) is not in the region.
 3 (3, 4) is in the region; (4, 6) is not in the region.
4 y ≥ 2x + 3, x + 3y ≤ 12
2 x + 3y ≤ 12, y ≤ 2x + 3, x + y ≤ 6
3 x + 3y ≤ 12, x + y ≥ 6
5
6 (3, 6) is not in the region; (3, 7) is in the region.

Exercise 11.2
1 (5, 7)
2 (3, 4)
3 (3, 5)
4 (6, 3) and (5, 4); (6, 4) is not included since x + 3y < 18.
5 (8, 4); (7, 4) is not included since y < 2x − 10

Exercise 11.3
1 1 8L + 3S ≥ 144
2 L + S ≤ 36; £(48L + 12S); 8 large tents and 27 small tents,
£708
2 L + S ≤ 100; 18L + 45S ≤ 2700; 67 hectares of lettucesand 33
of spring onions (approx.); £10,400; 60 hectares
3 (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (5, 2), (5, 3), (6, 2)
4 1 V + L ≤ 10
2 72V + 180L ≤ 1080
3 600V + 1100L ≥ 6600
4 (7, 3), (8, 2), (9, 2), (10, 2)
5 (16, 2), (14, 3) and (12, 4)

Exercise 12.1
 1 ab + ay + bx + xy
2 ce + cf + de + df
3 acxy + adx + bcy + bd
4 ab − ay − bx + xy
5 ax − bx − ay + by
6 ab + ay − bx − xy
7 ab − ay + bx − xy
8 ab + 3a + 2b + 6
9 ab − 3a − 2b + 6
10 ab + 3a − 2b − 6
11 ab − 3a + 2b − 6
12 x2 + 12x + 35
13 13a2b2 + 9ab + 18
14 x2 + 13x + 30
15 x2 − 13x + 30
16 x2 + 7x − 30
17 x2 − 7x − 30
18 p2 − 4p − 96
19 x2 − 12xy + 32y2
20 x2 + 4xy − 32y2
21 x2 − 4xy − 32y2
22 2a2 + 9ab + 10b2
23 9x2 − 27xy + 20y2
24 28x2 + 15x + 2
25 6x2 − 11x + 3
26 9x2 − 9x − 4
27 1− y − 12y2
28 18x2 − 27x − 5
29 14x2 + 29xy − 15y2
30 18a2 − 57ab + 35b2
31 a + b
32 a + b − c
33 12
34 5y − 5x = 0.5
35 1 x3 − y3
2 a3 + 8
3 1 + x3
4 x3 + 3x2a + 3xa2 + a3

Exercise 12.2
1 x2 + 4x + 4
2 x2 − 4x + 4
3 a2 + 6ab + 9b2
4 a2 − 6ab + 9b2
5 4x2 + 4xy + y2
6 x2 − 4xy + 4y2
7 a2b2 + 20ab + 100
8 x2y2 − 6xy + 9
 9 16x2 + 40xy + 25y2
10 16x2 − 40xy + 25y2
11 25x2y2 + 60xy + 36
12 1 − 20x2 + 100x4
13 25x4 + 30x2y2 + 9y4
14 9x2y2 − 12xy3 + 4y4

19 x2 + 2xy + y2 + 2x + 2y + 1
20 1 − 2x + 4y + x2 − 4xy + 4y2
21 a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab − 2ac − 2bc
22 x2 + y2 + z2 − 2xy + 2xz − 2yz
23 4x2 + 9y2 + 25z2 + 12xy − 20xz − 30yz
24 16a2 + 4b2 + 1 − 16ab − 8a + 4b
25 x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3
26 x3 − 3x2y + 3xy2 − y3
27 a3 + 6a2 + 12a + 8
28 a3 − 6a2 + 12a − 8
29 p3 + 3p2q + 3pq2 + q3
30 p3 − 3p2q + 3pq2 − q3
31 8x3 + 12x2y + 6xy2 + y3
32 x3 − 6x2y + 12xy2 − 8y3
33 27a3 − 27a2 + 9a −1
34 1 − 9b + 27b2 − 27b3
35 2xy
36 1 4ab;
2 −4ab
37 40x
38 9y2 + 18y + 9; 36
39 4a(x + a); 256 m2
40 2a(x + y + 2a)

Exercise 12.3
1 a2 − x2
2 p2 − q2
3 a2 − 4b2
4 16x2 − 9
5 4x2 − 1
6 1 − 36x2
7 1 − a4
8 4x4 − 1
9 x4 − y4
10 9x2y2 − 4
11 144x2y2 − 1

13 (x + y)2 − z2
14 (a + x)2 − y2
15 (2a + 3b)2 − 1
16 (x − 2y)2 − 36
17 a2 − 4(b + c)2
18 4x2 − 9(y + z)2

Exercise 13.1
1 6(x + 2)
2 a(3b + 2)
3 2y(2x + y)
4 2a(3a − 2b)
5 7xy(2xy − 1)
6 16(1 − 2a2)
7 a(a − b + c)
8 x(x2 + 3x − 1)
9 a2(15a − 5b + 3b2)
10 3ac(2a − 5c)
11 ab(a + b − c)
13 7.4(132 + a2)
14 18.6(18.6 + 1.4) = 18.6 × 20 = 372

Exercise 13.2
1 (a + b)(x + y)
2 (p + q)(c + d)
3 (a − d)(b + e)
4 (x − y)(a − c)
5 (x + p)(x + q)
6 (x − g)(x − h)
7 (a + 5)(b + 6)
8 (a − 5)(b − 6)
9 (a − 5)(b + 6)
10 (2a + 3)(b − 5)
11 (ax − b)(x + a)
12 (x − b)(x + a)

Exercise 13.3
1 (x + 2)(x + 1)
2 (x − 2)(x − 1)
3 (x + 3)(x + 2)
4 (x − 3)(x − 2)
5 (x + 6)(x + 1)
 6 (x + 5)(x + 4)
7 (x − 10y)(x − 2y)
8 (a − 12b)(a − 3b)
9 (xy + 6)(xy + 9)
10 (ab − 16)(ab − 3)
11 (y − 9)(y − 12)
12 (x − 7y)(x − 5y)
13 (x − 2)(x + 1)
14 (x + 2)(x − 1)
15 (x + 3y)(x − 2y)
16 (x − 3y)(x + 2y)
17 (b − 3)(b + 1)
18 (b + 3)(b − 1)
19 (x + 16)(x − 3)
20 (x − 16)(x + 3)
21 (x − 11y)(x + 10y)
22 (a − 12)(a + 1)
23 (a − 4)(a + 3)
24 (p + 9)(p − 8)
25 (p − 36)(p + 2)
26 (1 − 5x)(1 − 4x)
27 (1 − 10x)(1 + 2x)
28 (xy − 11)(xy + 8)
29 (p + 9)(p − 5)
30 (p − 7q)(p + 8q)

Exercise 13.4
1 (3x + 4)(x + 2)
2 (4x − 3)(3x − 2)
3 (6x + 1)(2x − 5)
4 (9x − 2)(x + 5)
5 (2x + 1)(x + 1)
6 (3x − 1)(x − 1)
7 (2x + 1)(x + 2)
8 (3x + 1)(2x + 1)
9 (2x − 3)(2x − 1)
10 (5x − 1)(x − 1)
11 (2x − 3)(3x − 1)
12 (4x + 1)(3x + 2)
13 (2a − 1)(a + 1)
14 (2a + 1)(a − 1)
15 (2a + 3)(a − 2)
16 (5b + 2)(2b − 1)
17 (5b − 2)(2b + 1)
18 (2y − 5)(4y + 3)
19 (4x − 1)(3x + 2)
20 (7c + 2)(2c − 3)
Exercise 13.5
1 (p + q)2
2 (x − 2y)2
3 (3x + 1)2
4 (4x − 5y)2

7 (a + b + 2)2
8 (x − y − 5)2
9 (x + 10)(x − 10)
10 (ab + 5)(ab − 5)
11 (2x + 3y)(2x − 3y)
12 (5a + 4b)(5a − 4b)
13 (11x + 6y)(11x − 6y)
14 (12p + 13q)(12p − 13q)
15 (5 + 4a)(5 − 4a)
16 (1 + 15x)(1 − 15x)
17 2(2a + 5b)(2a − 5b)
18 3(x + 5)(x − 5)
19 5(x + 3y)(x − 3y)
20 (a + b + c)(a + b − c)
21 (x + 2y + 4z)(x + 2y − 4z)
23 (x + y + z)(x − y − z)
24 (a + x − 2y) (a − x + 2y)
25 (x − 15)(x − 1)
26 4ab
27 3000
28 2100
29 880
30 252
31 15
32 150
33 264
34 68
35 38.4
36 630
37 140
38 1 20,
2 60

Exercise 13.6
1 (x + c)(x2 − cx + c2)
2 (y − a)(y2 + ay + a2)
3 (1 + 2a)(1 − 2a + 4a2)
4 (x − 4)(x2 + 4x + 16)
 5 (2 + 3c)(4 − 6c + 9c2)
6 (R − 1)(R2 + R + 1)
7 (m − 5n)(m2 + 5mn + 25n2)

Exercise 14.1
Exercise 14.2

2 y(y + 1)

7 1

Exercise 14.3
23 1.47 to 2 decimal places

Exercise 14.4
1 3

3 2.5

5 2.5

7 7
8 0.3
9 4
10 6
12 6
13 8

Exercise 15.1
Answers involving decimals are mostly approximate.
1 1 5.29
2 2.65
3 1.87
2 1 ±1.79
2 ±2.83
3 ±3.46
3 1 ±2.45
2 ±2.24
3 ±1.41
4 1 ±1.41
2 ±2.45
5 1 3.73 or 0.27
2 −4 or −2
3 4.24 or −0.24
6 1 −3.41 or −0.59
2 −3 or −1
3 0.83 or −4.83
7 Min. value is −4 when x = 3.
1 5 or 1
2 6.16 or − 0.16
 8 Min. value is −2 when x = 2.
1 4.45 or −0.45
2 5 or −1

9 Min. value is −1.1 approx. when .

On substituting in the function, this equals .

2 2.69 or −0.19
10 Max. value is 2.25 when x = −0.5.

Exercise 15.2
1 1 x < 1 or x > 2
2 1<x<2
2 1 x ≤ −3 or x ≥ 1
2 −3 < x < 1
3 x < −1 or x > 4
4 −5 ≤ x ≤ 1.

Exercise 15.3
1 Check: 5 > 1 − 4 + 3(= 0)
2 Check: 5 > 1 − 4 − 5(= −8)
3 Check: 3 > 12 and 3 < 2 × 1 + 3
4 (3, 1)

Exercise 16.1
1 ±2
 3 ±12
4 1, −3
5 8, −2
6 1, −11

8 16.75, 1.25
9 8, 2
10 3, −4
11 5, −3
12 4, −7
13 8, −4

16 3.25, −0.92
17 1.434, 0.232
18 4 and −1.5

20 2.732, −0.732
21 13.14, −1.14
22 6.59, −7.59

Exercise 16.2
 1 0, 3
2 0, −5
3 2, 2
4 1, 2
5 1, −4
6 3, −7

8 4, 5
9 2, −3
10 5, −7
11 −3, −10
12 11, −6
13 9, −5

19 2, 4, 5
21 1, 4, −2

23 a, b

Exercise 16.3
1 0.303, −3.303
2 4.561, 0.438
3 1.48, −1.08
4 1.43, 0.23
5 2.85, −0.35
6 1.744, −0.344
7 0.536, −6.536
8 3.442, −0.775
9 0.427, −2.927
10 0.803, −2.803
11 1.081, −1.481
12 −0.130, −0.770
13 2.591, −0.257
14 3.68, −0.43
15 9.75, −1.75
16 2.13, −5.63
17 6.123, −2.123
Exercise 16.4

2 9 mm, 15 mm
3 6.53 or −1.53
4 21.37, 27.37
5 5.54. Negative root has no meaning for the problem.
6 79.78 or 0.209. One of the answers should be excluded on
physical grounds.
7 12.5, −10

9 15 mm, 20 mm
10 144 m2 225 m2
11 7, −1
12 12 Negative root is inadmissible.
13 108 m2
14 100 m
15 8 and 12, or −12 and −8
16 12

Exercise 16.5
1 x = 6, y = 4; x = −5, y = −7
2 x = 5, y = 2; x = −26, y = 33
 5 x = −3, y = 2; x = −2, y = 1

Exercise 16.6
1 1 x < 2 or x > 3
2 −2 < x < 4
3 x ≥ −2 or x ≤ −3
2 1 x < 1 or x > 2
2 x < 1 or x > 5
3 x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 4
3 1 x < 1 or x > 3
2 x > 0.25 or x < −2

4 1 x > 3 or x > 2
2 x < −0.5 or 0.25 < x < 3
5 10<x<3
2 0≤x≤5
 3 x>5

Exercise 17.1
1 6a9
2 a12

4 210 = 1024
5 46 = 4096
6 6a8b7
7 x6y12z4
8 x2m
9 a2m
10 a2p+qbp
11 a2n
12 am+n+4
13 a3

15 3a5
16 26 = 64
17 33 = 27
18 −x5
19 −5a3b
20 ap
21 4xpyq
22 a7
23 x
24 an+1
25 a2n
26 a6

29 26 = 64
30 36 = 729
31 x10
32 x10
33 a16
34 4a4b6

36 a3p
37 x4n
38 27a6p
39 ± a2
40 ± x4
41 ± x8
42 ± 3a3
43 ± a2b

46 ± xn

Exercise 17.2

4 18
2 32
3 27
4 1000
 5 31.6

6 1 5.656
2 27

5 2
6 a1.2

3 x3

5 x

9 14
2 125
3 1000

5 16
6 3
10 1 4
 5 8

11 5.657

5 x3n
6 x2n
13 1 a3
2 1
3 0
14 1 3.52 × 109
2 1.633 × 107
3 2.2 × 102
4 3.7 × 103
5 2.52 × 10−7

Exercise 18
1 13
2 3
2 1 1.5261
2 −2.7806
3 1200 approx
 4 0.8268 approx

Exercise 19
1 1 100a : b
2 3600p : 60q + r
2 0.278 : 1
2 25 : 64
3 5 : 12

4 1 35

9 17

2 4ab
13 1 450

Exercise 20.1
1 1 No. The runner’s rate differs at various parts of the race.
2 Yes
3 No
4 Yes
5 No. The connecting law is as explained in Section 21.7.

3 37.5; 3.36

5 s = 3.2t, 8.96 m

8 E = 0.06W + 0.2
9 F = 0.42W − 0.6

Exercise 20.2
 3 y values 12, 3; x value 6

7 x values 2, 15; y value 10

9 4s
10 10 m
11 102 mm
12 1.8%
13 328 s
14 y = 8x1.4

Exercise 20.3
1 1 y = kxz

4 V = khr2
 3 y = 3xz2; 8

5 8 tonnes
6 1

1 24 000 units
2 150 s
8 4.1% increase.

Exercise 21
1 y = 6x2 + 3
2 y = 0.42x2 + 7.5
3 R = 0.01V2 +5
4 H = 1.073V3 + 441.1
5 y = 0.54 + 0.24x2

7 y = 0.25x3

9 Q = 5.7H0.36
10 y = 3.665x0.6
Exercise 22
 6 2
7 38

9 a − 25
10 21
Exercise 23.1
1 1 12.5, 15, 17.5
2 0, −4, −8
3 (a − 3b), (a − 5b), (a − 7b)
4 6.6, 7.9, 9.2
5 (x + 2y), (x + 3y), (x + 4y)
2 12, 16.5
3 4 + 4p
4 x + 3n − 1
5 3.48
6 29
7 2
8 19
9 1 217.5
2 16
3 0

10 12
11 5 or 8
12 120; 1860
13 £400.50; £53 437.50
14 £3400

Exercise 23.2
1 1 62.5, 156.25, 390.625

4 3 × 10−4, 3 × 10−5, 3 × 10−6

5 0.010125, 0.00151875, 0.0002278 (approx.)
2 320

4 1.61051
5 0.001215
6 1 ar2n−1, ar2n
2 −ar2n−1, ar2n
7 1.05 approx
8 ±1.04 approx
9 1 3.873;
2 3.888 (both approx.)
10 7, 9.8
11 £12, 155.06
12 £162, 901.25
13 1.04
14 10, 20, 40
Exercise 23.3
1 1 94.5
2 19.92 approx

4 16.32 approx
5 216.8 approx
6 765 (r = 2) or −255 (r = −2)

8 93.7118

Exercise 23.4

3 1
 7 1 26

9 £190 m
10 £100 million

Exercise 23.5
Most of the answers are approximate.
1 £11 800
2 £55 000
3 £48504
4 £24 300
5 £34 370
6 £50, 000
7 £166 700
8 £240 000
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