Hydrogen-Fuelled Internal Combustion Engine

Suvam Dey, Susanta Pal, Swapnadeep Guria, Surajit Mondal , Sahil Shaw
Undergraduate Student, Department of Chemical Engineering,
Haldia Institute of Technology (Autonomy), Haldia -721607, Purba Medinipur, West Bengal, India.

ABSTRACT
The threat posed by climate change and the need for constant energy supply is high on the
political agenda these days. Governments are developing strategic plans in motion to decrease
primary energy use, reduce carbon based fuels and facilitate modal shifts. Taking a prominent
place in these strategic plans hydrogen as fuel, has bright future.

This paper demonstrates a comprehensive evaluation and a detailed assessment the hydrogen-
fuelled internal combustion engine. The emphasis is on. After going through this research, the
scholar will get an idea about importance of hydrogen as a fuel, the thermal efficiency of
hydrogen internal combustion engines, the power output and the types of emissions associated
with internal hydrogen combustion engines. This paper also provides significant particulars
regarding the procedure through which hydrogen can be utilised in spark ignition as well as
compression engines and as a result, includes various kind of steps depicting the introduction
process of hydrogen in it. The article also deliberates about the modifications which are
essential to adjust existing engines to operate on hydrogen. Highlighting the unresolved
disputes, the reliability disputes faced by fuel injection apparatus are conferred. The foregoing
researches did conclude that hydrogen is an appropriate alternative fuel for spark ignition
engines. It is a remarkable upgrade in terms of performance and will significantly reduce
emission in comparison to the on-going level of the same.

Keywords: Alternative fuel, Hydrogen, Engine Development, Engines Testing.

1.INTRODUCTION

In order to successfully cope with the trend of mitigating climate change as outlined in the
recommendations of Paris (COP21) and Glasgow (COP26) Climate Agreements, propulsion
technologies must be able to achieve the highest CO2 reduction, within very short time scales.
To achieve this challenging goal, electric powertrains powered by batteries charged using
renewable energy represents not only a public mandate but also the focus of research efforts of
the relevant academic and industrial communities. However, this technology cannot answer all
the various needs concerning personal mobility, sustainability and feasibility. Hence, in parallel
an important role will be played by internal combustion engines (ICE) fed with non-fossil
hydrocarbons and hydrogen (H2). Today, internal combustion engines using fossil fuels
generate about 25% of the world’s power and they are responsible for about 17% of the world’s
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, while producing other main pollutant emissions such as
carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter
(PM) with strong negative impact on air quality in urban spaces. [1][2][4]

The incentives for a hydrogen economy are the emissions, the potentially CO2 -free use, the
sustainability and the energy security. In this paper the focus is on the use of hydrogen in
internal combustion engines (ICE). Currently the hydrogen production is the cheapest through
the steam reforming of methane, but CO2 emissions cannot be avoided. Renewable energy,
e.g., solar power, hydroelectric, tidal etc., can give “CO2 -free” electricity to electrolyze water
to hydrogen. The downside is that these electricity costs are mostly expensive. The Hydrogen
ICE is attractive because it takes advantage of the current advanced state of ICE technologies,
such as reliability, durability, existing supply chain, existing manufacturing plus recycling
infrastructure and affordability, which makes it a near-term, widespread solution to accelerate
the large-scale introduction of H2 into transportation market, for both transitional and long-
term usage. In fact, the existing worldwide know-how on ICEs and the widespread large-scale
manufacturing and supply-chains can continue to be utilised, without any critical interruption.
The H2ICE could provide a reliable, durable and cost-efficient solution based on a well-known
existing technology, contributing to a fast transition towards carbon-free mobility. Moreover,
it is characterised by low total cost of ownership total cost of ownership (TCO), especially in
the field of heavy-duty on-road and off-road applications.[1][3][4]

2.HISTORY
Francois Isaac de Rivaz designed in 1806 the De Rivaz engine, the first internal
combustion engine, which ran on a hydrogen/oxygen mixture. Étienne Lenoir produced
the Hippomobile in 1863. Paul Dieges patented in 1970 a modification to internal
combustion engines which allowed a gasoline-powered engine to run on hydrogen.
Tokyo City University have been developing hydrogen internal combustion engines
from 1970. They recently developed a hydrogen fuelled Bus and Truck. Mazda has
developed Wankel engines that burn hydrogen. The advantage of using ICE (internal
combustion engine) such as Wankel and piston engines is that the cost of retooling for
production is much lower. Existing-technology ICE can still be used to solve those
problems where fuel cells are not a viable solution as yet, for example in cold-weather
applications. Between 2005 - 2007, BMW tested a luxury car named the BMW Hydrogen
7, powered by a hydrogen ICE, which achieved 301 km/h (187 mph) in tests. At least
two of these concepts have been manufactured. HICE forklift trucks have been
demonstrated based on converted diesel internal combustion engines with direct
injection. In the year 2000, a Shelby Cobra was converted to run on hydrogen in a
project led by James W. Heffel (principal engineer at the time for the University of
California, Riverside CE-CERT). The hydrogen conversion was done with the aim of
making a vehicle capable of beating the current land speed record for hydrogen
powered vehicles. It achieved a respectable 108.16 mph, missing the world record for
hydrogen powered vehicles by 0.1 mph. Alset GmbH developed a hybrid hydrogen
systems that allows vehicle to use petrol and hydrogen fuels individually or at the same
time with an internal combustion engine. This technology was used with Aston
Martin Rapide S during the 24 Hours Nürburgring race. The Rapide S was the first
vehicle to finish the race with hydrogen technology. Hydrogen internal combustion
engine development has been receiving more interest recently, particularly for heavy
duty commercial vehicles. Part of the motivation for this is as a bridging technology to
meet future climate CO2 emission goals, and as technology more compatible with
existing automotive knowledge and manufacturing. In May 2021, Toyota Corolla Sport,
which is equipped with hydrogen engine entered the Super Taikyu Series race round 3
"NAPAC Fuji Super TEC 24 Hours", and completed the 24 hours race. Toyota intends to
apply its safety technologies and know-how that it has accumulated through the
development of fuel cell vehicles and the commercialization of the Mirai. In November
2021, five automotive manufacturers in Japan (Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Subaru,
Toyota, Mazda and Yamaha Motor) jointly announced that they will take on the
challenge of expanding fuel options through the use of internal combustion engines to
achieve carbon neutrality, at the (three-hour) Super Taikyu race Round 6 held
at Okayama International Circuit. Their common view is that the enemy is not internal
combustion engines, and we need diverse solutions toward challenging carbon
neutrality. At the event, Yamaha Motor unveiled 5.0-liter V8 Hydrogen engine which is
based on Lexus 2UR engine. In June 2022, Toyota revealed the progress of its efforts in
the Super Taikyu Series at the ENEOS Super Taikyu Series 2022. They say cruising range
was improved by approximately 20%, power output was improved by approx. 20% and
torque was improved by approx. 30%. Also, Hydrogen suppliers are added, and its
transporting became more efficient to support the race. In July 2022, Isuzu, Denso,
Toyota, Hino Motors, and Commercial Japan Partnership Technologies Corporation
(CJPT) announced that they have started planning and foundational research on
hydrogen engines for heavy-duty commercial vehicles with the aim of further utilizing
internal combustion engines as one option to achieve carbon neutrality. [4][6][7][8][9]

2.1. HYDROGEN IN INDIA

Hydrogen reduces the smoke, particulate and soot emissions to the considerable amount
by the maximum replacement of 20% in C.I engine without sacrificing the engine power
output. The problems like preignition and backfire could be eliminated compared to S.I
engine that make the usage of hydrogen to be safer in CI mode. The Ministry of Non-
conventional Energy Sources with an annual operating budget of US $ 100 million has
been extensively supporting hydrogen and fuel cell research in many of the top
universities and public research laboratories in India. Researchers have been successful
in the biological production of hydrogen from organic effluents and a large-scale
bioreactor of 12.5 m3 capacity is being developed in India. The US Department of Energy
and US based ECD Ovonics, Inc has launched a hydrogen powered three-wheeler with a
grant of US $ 5, 00,000 from the US agency for international development. The Ministry
of Non-Conventional Energy is started to work towards the development of national
hydrogen energy road map with the help of National Hydrogen Energy Board (NHEB).
NHEB has also proposed to launch 1000 hydrogen vehicles by 2009 including 500 small
three wheelers, 300 heavy vehicles and 200 buses.[10][11][12][13][14]

3. AVAILABILITY OF HYDROGEN

Hydrogen can be produced from diverse resources. It is abundant in our environment,

stored in water (H2O), hydrocarbons (such as methane, CH4), and other organic matter.
One challenge of using hydrogen as a fuel is the efficiency of extracting it from these
compounds. More specifically, hydrogen can be produced by several methods: the most
widely used is steam methane reforming, for which the relevant efficiency of hydrogen
production is very high (65%–75%) and the production cost is relatively low.
Nevertheless, it results in high levels of CO2 emission. Another widely used method of
hydrogen production is coal gasification. In this case, however, the efficiency of hydrogen
production is low (45%) while the CO2 emissions are still high, if the CO2 is not
sequestered at the production site.

Electrolysis of water is another method of producing hydrogen, but it requires the use of
large amounts of electricity and therefore this becomes expensive. In this case, the level
of CO2 emissions depends on the electricity source. Less common methods can also be
used to produce hydrogen, such as biomass gasification, biomass-derived liquid
reforming, or microbial biomass conversion. However, only the solar–hydrogen and
wind-hydrogen system allows emission-free-but expensive-hydrogen production. The
universal applicability of hydrogen for modern energy needs has boosted significant
investment and development of renewable hydrogen production in many
countries.[1][3][4]

4. HYDROGEN USE IN INTERNATIONAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

4.1. HYDROGEN USE IN DIESEL ENGINES

There are several reasons for applying hydrogen as an additional fuel to accompany
diesel fuel in the internal combustion (IC) compression ignition (CI) engine. Firstly, it
increases the H/C ratio of the entire fuel. Secondly, injecting small amounts of hydrogen
to a diesel engine could decrease heterogeneity of a diesel fuel spray due to the high
diffusivity of hydrogen which makes the combustible mixture better premixed with air
and more uniform. Hence the formation of hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, and carbon
dioxide during the combustion can be completely avoided; however, a trace amount of
these compounds may be formed due to the partial burning of lubricating oil in the
combustion chamber. However, hydrogen cannot be used as a sole fuel in a compression
ignition (CI) engine, since the compression temperature is not enough to initiate the
combustion due to its higher self-ignition temperature. Hence hydrogen cannot CI engine
without the assistance of a spark plug or glow plug. This makes hydrogen unsuitable for
a diesel engine as a sole fuel. Because of this reason of the reported literature, activities
on hydrogen fuelling of a diesel engine were based on dual-fuel mode. In a dual fuel
engine, the main fuel is inducted/carbureted or injected into the intake air while
combustion is initiated by diesel fuel that acts as an ignition source. The pilot fuel quantity
may be in the range of 10–30% while the rest of the energy is supplied by the main fuel.
Hydrogen operated dual fuel engine has the characteristics to operate at leaner
equivalence ratios at part loads, which results in NOx reduction, and increase in thermal
efficiency thereby reducing the fuel consumption. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) are the major
problem in hydrogen operated dual fuel engine. One method that has been used to
successfully reduce NOx emissions is exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). EGR is very
effective in reducing NOx emissions due to the dilution effect of, where the oxygen
concentration of the intake charge is reduced. In addition, volumetric efficiency
reductions with increasing EGR rates are significant (reductions of about 15% compared
with hydrogen dual-fuel operation without EGR are recorded). At the same time, EGR
addition to hydrogen dual-fuel operation can increase particulate emissions compared
with hydrogen dual-fuel operation without EGR. As a result, hydrogen dual-fuel operation
with EGR produces smoke levels like normal CI engine operation. In addition to reducing
NOx, increases in unburned HC, CO and CO2 emissions with EGR addition are also
recorded. Another method of is introducing liquid water into the combustion chamber.
Water injection can also prevent knocking and pre-ignition during hydrogen combustion.
Here water acts in a similar manner to diluents such as EGR, cooling the charge and
reducing the combustion rate. However, water injected into the intake manifold reduces
volumetric efficiency. Conventional diesel engines can be converted to operate on
hydrogen–diesel dual mode with up to about 38% of full-load energy substitution
without any sacrifice on the performance parameters such as power and
efficiency.[14][15][16]

4.2. SWITCHING IC ENGINES TO HYDROGEN OPERATION

Conventional piston engines can be switched to gas operation with relatively little
change. The fuel used can be natural gas, biogas, wood gas, or hydrogen. In practice,
gasoline-fuelled cars are refitted to bi-fuel motors (natural gas and gasoline). This is a
doable and less expensive solution for hydrogen than purchasing a new car equipped
with a hydrogen fuel cell. This approach is environmentally more viable, as in a short time
most vehicles can be switched to emission-free operation. Today, the average age of
domestic passenger cars and buses is of 14 years. Should government financing support
the conversion of most vehicles to hydrogen fuel operation, pollutant emissions would be
reduced in the foreseeable future. By contrast, mass replacement of conventional cars
with costly fuel cell cars is unlikely to succeed in the short term.[16][17][18]

4.3. ADAPTATION OF EXISTING ENGINES

The differences between a hydrogen ICE and a traditional gasoline engine include
hardened valves and valve seats, stronger connecting rods, non-platinum tipped spark
plugs, a higher voltage ignition coil, fuel injectors designed for a gas instead of a liquid,
larger crankshaft damper, stronger head gasket material, modified
(for supercharger) intake manifold, positive pressure supercharger, and high
temperature engine oil. All modifications would amount to about one point five times
(1.5) the current cost of a gasoline engine. These hydrogen engines burn fuel in the
same manner that gasoline engines do.[16][17][18][19]
The theoretical maximum power output from a hydrogen engine depends on
the air/fuel ratio and fuel injection method used. The stoichiometric air/fuel ratio for
hydrogen is 34:1. At this air/fuel ratio, hydrogen will displace 29% of the combustion
chamber leaving only 71% for the air. As a result, the energy content of this mixture will
be less than it would be if the fuel were gasoline. Since both the carbureted and port
injection methods mix the fuel and air prior to it entering the combustion chamber,
these systems limit the maximum theoretical power obtainable to approximately 85%
of that of gasoline engines. For direct injection systems, which mix the fuel with the air
after the intake valve has closed (and thus the combustion chamber has 100% air), the
maximum output of the engine can be approximately 15% higher than that for gasoline
engines. [16][17][18][20]
Therefore, depending on how the fuel is metered, the maximum output for a hydrogen
engine can be either 15% higher or 15% less than that of gasoline if a stoichiometric
air/fuel ratio is used. However, at a stoichiometric air/fuel ratio, the combustion
temperature is very high and as a result it will form a large amount of nitrogen
oxides (NOx), which is a criteria pollutant. Since one of the reasons for using hydrogen is
low exhaust emissions, hydrogen engines are not normally designed to run at a
stoichiometric air/fuel ratio. [18][19]
Typically, hydrogen engines are designed to use about twice as much air as theoretically
required for complete combustion. At this air/fuel ratio, the formation of NOx is reduced
to near zero. Unfortunately, this also reduces the power output to about half that of a
similarly sized gasoline engine. To make up for the power loss, hydrogen engines are
usually larger than gasoline engines, and/or are equipped with turbochargers or
superchargers. A small amount of hydrogen can be burned outside the combustion
chamber and reach into the air/fuel mixture in the chamber to ignite the main
combustion. [19][21]
In the Netherlands, research organisation TNO has been working with industrial
partners for the development of hydrogen internal combustion engines.
4.4. ACCESSORIES THAT COMPLETE THE DESIGN

Crankcase ventilations even more important for hydrogen engines than for gasoline
engines. As with gasoline engines, unburnt fuel can seep by the piston rings and enter the
crankcase. Since hydrogen has a lower energy ignition limit than gasoline, any unburnt
hydrogen entering the crankcase has a greater chance of igniting. Hydrogen should be
prevented from accumulating through ventilation. Ignition within the crankcase can be
just a startling noise or result in engine fire. When hydrogen ignites within the crankcase,
a sudden pressure rise occurs. To relieve this pressure, a pressure relief valve must be
installed on the valve cover. Hydrogen has a very low volumetric energy density at
ambient conditions. Even when the fuel is stored as a liquid in a cryogenic tank or in a
compressed hydrogen storage tank, the volumetric energy is small relative to that of
gasoline. Hydrogen has a three times higher calorific value compared to gasoline (143
MJ/kg versus 46.9 MJ/kg). Some research has been done into using special crystalline
materials to store hydrogen at greater densities and at lower pressures. 3.1 Type of Fuel
Delivery System i) Port Injection System The port injection fuel delivery system injects
fuel directly into the intake manifold at each intake port, rather than drawing fuel in at a
central point. Typically, the hydrogen is injected into the manifold after the beginning of
the intake stroke. At this point conditions are much less severe and the probability for
premature ignition is reduced. The two types of port injection system are constant
volume injector and electronic fuel injector. ii) Direct Injection System In direct injection,
the intake valve is closed when the fuel is injected, completely avoiding premature
ignition during the intake stroke. Consequently, the engine cannot backfire into the intake
manifold. The power output of a direct injected hydrogen engine is 20% more than for a
gasoline engine and 42% more than a hydrogen engine using a carburetor. iii). Central
Injection System The simplest method of delivering fuel to a hydrogen engine is by way
of a carburetor or central injection system. This system has advantages for a hydrogen
engine. Firstly, central injection does not require the hydrogen supply pressure to be as
high as for other methods. Secondly, central injection or carburetors are used on gasoline
engines, making it easy to convert a standard gasoline engine to hydrogen or a
gasoline/hydrogen engine. Ignition System Due to hydrogen’s low ignition energy limit,
igniting hydrogen is easy and gasoline ignition systems can be used. At very lean air/fuel
ratios (130:1 to 180:1) the flame velocity is reduced considerably, and the use of a dual
spark plug system is preferred. Ignition systems that use a waste spark system should not
be used for hydrogen engines. These systems energize the spark each time the piston is
at top dead centre whether or not the piston is on the compression stroke or on its
exhaust stroke. For gasoline engines, waste spark systems work well and are less
expensive than other systems. For hydrogen engines, the waste sparks are a source of
pre-ignition. Spark plugs for a hydrogen engine should have a cold rating and have non-
platinum tips. A cold-rated plug is one that transfers heat from the plug tip to the cylinder
head quicker than a hot-rated spark plug. This means the chances of the spark plug tip
igniting the air/fuel charge is reduced. Hot- rated spark plugs are designed to maintain a
certain amount of heat so that carbon deposits do not accumulate. Since hydrogen does
not contain carbon, hot-rated spark plugs do not serve a useful function. [16][17][18][19]

4.5. AIR FUEL RATIO

The theoretical or stoichiometric combustion of hydrogen and oxygen is given as: 2H2 +
O2 = 2H2O Moles of H2 for complete combustion = 2 moles Moles of O2 for complete
combustion = 1 mole Because air is used as the oxidizer instead oxygen, the nitro-gen in
the air needs to be included in the calculation: Moles of N2 in air = Moles of O2 x (79% N2
in air / 21% O2 in air) = 1 mole of O2 x (79% N2 in air / 21% O2 in air) = 3.762 moles N2
Number of moles of air = Moles of O2 + moles of N2 = 1 + 3.762 = 4.762 moles of air
Weight of O2 = 1 mole of O2 x 32 g/mole = 32 g Weight of N2 = 3.762 moles of N2 x 28
g/mole = 105.33 g Weight of air = weight of O2 + weight of N (1) = 32g + 105.33 g = 137.33
g Weight of H2 = 2 moles of H2 x 2 g/mole = 4 g Stoichiometric air/fuel (A/F) ratio for
hydrogen and air is: A/F based on mass: = mass of air/mass of fuel = 137.33 g / 4 g =
34.33:1 A/F based on volume: = volume (moles) of air/volume (moles) of fuel = 4.762 /
2 = 2.4:1 The percent of the combustion chamber occupied by hydro-gen for a
stoichiometric mixture: % H2 = volume (moles) of H2 /total volume (2) = volume H2
/(volume air + volume of H2 ) = 2 / (4.762 + 2) = 29.6%.

As these calculations show, the stoichiometric or chemically correct A/F ratio for the
complete combustion of hydrogen in air is about 34:1 by mass. This means that for
complete combustion, 34 pounds of air are required for every pound of hydrogen. This is
much higher than the 14.7:1 A/F ratio re-quired for gasoline. Since hydrogen is a gaseous
fuel at ambient conditions it displaces more of the combustion chamber than a liquid fuel.
Consequently, less of the combustion chamber can be occupied by air. At stoichiometric
conditions, hydrogen dis-places about 30% of the combustion chamber, compared to
about 1 to 2% for gasoline. [16][17][18][19]

4.6. HYDROGEN USE IN SPARK IGNITION (SI) ENGINES

Hydrogen can be used as a fuel directly in an internal combustion engine, almost similar
to a spark-ignited (SI) gasoline engine. Most of the past research on H2 as a fuel focused
on its application in SI engines. Hydrogen is an excellent candidate for use in SI engines
as a fuel having some unique and highly desirable properties, such as low ignition energy,
and very fast flame propagation speed, wide operational range. The hydrogen fuel when
mixed with air produces a combustible mixture which can be burned in a conventional
spark ignition engine at an equivalence ratio below the lean flammability limit of a
gasoline/air mixture. The resulting ultra-lean combustion produces low flame
temperatures and leads directly to lower heat transfer to the walls, higher engine
efficiency and lower exhaust of NOx emission. Therefore, the extensive research pure H2
as fuel has led to the development and successful marketing of hydrogen engine. For
example, Ford developed P2000 hydrogen engine, which was used to power Ford’s E-450
Shuttle Bus. BMW developed a 6-liter, V-12 engine using liquid H2 as fuel. With an
external mixture formation system, this engine has a power out about 170 kW and an
engine torque of 340 Nm. 5.3 Natural gas-hydrogen mixtures engines Natural gas is
considered to be one of the favourable fuels for engines and the natural gas fuelled engine
has been realized in both the spark-ignited engine and the compression-ignited engine.
However, due to the slow burning velocity of natural gas and the poor lean-burn
capability, the natural gas spark ignited engine has the disadvantage of large cycle-by-
cycle variations and poor lean-burn capability, and these will decrease the engine power
output and increase fuel consumption. Due to these restrictions, natural gas with
hydrogen for use in an internal combustion engine is an effective method to improve the
burn velocity, with a laminar burning velocity of 2.9 m/s for hydrogen versus a laminar
burning velocity of 0.38 m/s for methane. This can improve the cycle-by-cycle variations
caused by relatively poor lean-burn capabilities of the natural gas engine. Thus, natural
gas engines can reduce the exhaust emissions of the fuel, especially the methane and
carbon monoxide emissions. Also, the fuel economy and thermal efficiency can also be
increased by the addition of hydrogen. The thermal efficiency of hydrogen enriched
natural gas is covered. There are some challenges when it comes to using the hydrogen-
natural gas mixture as a fuel. One of the biggest challenges using HCNG as a fuel for
engines is determining the most suitable hydrogen/natural gas ratio. When the hydrogen
fraction increases above certain extent, abnormal combustion such as pre-ignition, knock
and backfire, will occur unless the spark timing and air-fuel ratio are adequately adjusted.
This is due to the low quench distance and higher burning velocity of hydrogen which
causes the combustion chamber walls to become hotter, which causes more heat loss to
the cooling water. With the increase of hydrogen addition, the lean operation limit
extends and the maximum brake torque (MBT) decreases, which means that there are
interactions among hydrogen fraction, ignition timing and excess air ratio.[14]

5.EFFICIENCY
Although it has been suggested that the maximum efficiency of hydrogen internal
combustion engines is limited by the Carnot cycle, that theory does not apply to the
engine in question in this article. The Carnot cycle refers to closed cycle heat engines.
The hydrogen internal combustion engine referred to in this article is an open cycle
engine. Open cycle engines are not limited by the Carnot cycle, as it is applicable only for
closed cycle engines. The theoretical efficiency limit of an open cycle engine is 100%. In
comparison, the efficiency of a fuel cell is limited by the Gibbs free energy, which is
typically higher than that of Carnot.
The efficiency of a hydrogen combustion engine can be like that of a traditional
combustion engine. If well optimized, slightly higher efficiencies can be achieved. The
comparison with a hydrogen fuel cell is interesting. The fuel cell has a high efficiency
peak at low load, while at high load the efficiency drops. The hydrogen combustion
engine has a peak at low load and can achieve similar efficiency levels as a hydrogen
fuel cell. From this, one can deduct that hydrogen combustion engines are a match in
terms of efficiency for fuel cells for heavy duty applications.
Hydrogen combustion engines are particularly sensitive to transients in load, in terms
of efficiency, and therefore more suited to constant load operations. In hydrogen
combustion engines, it is important to have good control over the air fuel ratio, to avoid
excessive emissions. At higher loads a (turbo) charger is needed. If a turbo charger is
used, then the transient response of the engine will be limited by the transient response
of the (slower turbocharger). The first generation of hydrogen engine can be operated
transient at low load, but at higher loads, it should be operated at a constant load
mode.[14][15][16]

6.POLLUTION EMISSIONS
The combustion of hydrogen with oxygen produces water vapor as its only product:
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
However, air hydrogen combustion can produce oxides of nitrogen, known as NOx. In
this way, the combustion process is much like other high temperature combustion fuels,
such as kerosene, gasoline, diesel or natural gas. As such hydrogen combustion engines
are not considered zero emission.
Hydrogen has a wide flammability range in comparison with other fuels. As a result, it
can be combusted in an internal combustion engine over a wide range of fuel-air
mixtures. An advantage here is it can thus be on a lean fuel-air mixture. Such a mixture
is one in which the amount of fuel is less than the theoretical, stoichiometric or
chemically ideal amount needed for combustion with a given amount of air. Fuel
economy is then greater, and the combustion reaction is more complete. Also, the
combustion temperature is usually lower, which reduces the number of pollutants
(nitrogen oxides, ...) emitted through the exhaust.
The European emission standards measure emissions of carbon
monoxide, hydrocarbon, non-methane hydrocarbons, nitrogen
oxides (NOx), atmospheric particulate matter, and particle numbers.
Although NOx is produced, hydrogen internal combustion generates little or no CO,
CO2, SO2, HC or PM emissions.
A small fraction of the lubrication can get into the combustion chamber, some of this oil
takes part in the combustion process. The exhaust gasses can contain some of the lube
oil and its combustion products. Typically, very minute quantities of CO, CO2, SO2, HC
and particulates can be found in the exhaust gasses. These are several orders of
magnitude lower that what would be seen in a gasoline or diesel engine raw exhaust
gas.
Tuning a hydrogen engine in 1976 to produce the greatest number of emissions
possible resulted in emissions comparable with consumer operated gasoline engines
from that period. More modern engines however often come equipped with exhaust gas
recirculation. Equation when ignoring EGR:
H2 + O2 + N2 → H2O + NOx
This technology potentially benefits hydrogen combustion also in terms
of NOx emissions.
Since hydrogen combustion is not zero emission but has zero CO2 emissions, it is
attractive to consider hydrogen internal combustion engines as part of a hybrid
powertrain. In this configuration, the vehicle can offer short term zero emission
capabilities such as operating in city zero emission zones.[14][15]

7.CONCLUSIONS
As research progresses, the technologies used to produce the hydrogen are expected to
shift toward those that produce no net greenhouse gas emissions. While some of the
hydrogen production technologies now under development may be supplanted by
competing or improved approaches, a variety of production technologies are likely to find
long-term use in regions that offer an abundance of their required feedstock and
renewable energy resource. Fuel costs to consumers will gradually decrease as these
technologies and the delivery infrastructure are optimized and grow to maturity.
Ultimately, hydrogen represents an important component of our national strategy to
diversify energy resources. The use of hydrogen in IC engines can be realised by reducing
the weight of the automobile and development of better auxiliary systems. The current
technology uses petrol methane etc. in order to increase the range of the vehicle. Hence
the goal of researchers is to develop automobiles which use only hydrogen as the only
fuel. The theoretical maximum power of a hydrogen engine depends on the air/fuel ratio
and fuel injection method. Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio for hydrogen is 34:1. At this
air/fuel ratio, hydrogen will displace 29% of the combustion chamber leaving only 71%
for the air. As a result, the energy content of this mixture will be less than it would be if
the fuel were gasoline (since gasoline is a liquid, it only occupies a very small volume of
the combustion chamber, and thus allows more air to enter). Since both the carburated
and port injection methods mix the fuel and air prior to it entering the combustion
chamber, these systems limit the maximum theoretical power obtain-able to
approximately 85% of that of gasoline engines. For direct injection systems, which mix
the fuel with the air after the intake valve has closed (and thus the combustion chamber
has 100% air), the maximum output of the engine can be approximately 15% higher than
that for gasoline engines. Therefore, depending on how the fuel is metered, the maximum
output for a hydrogen engine can be either 15% higher or 15% less than that of gasoline
if a stoichiometric air/fuel ratio is used. However, at a stoichiometric air/fuel ratio, the
combustion temperature is very high and as a result it will form a large amount of
nitrogen oxides (NOx), which is a dangerous pollutant. Since one of the reasons for using
hydrogen is low exhaust emissions, hydrogen engines are not normally designed to run
at a stoichiometric air/fuel ratio. Hydrogen can be used in both the spark ignition as well
as compression ignition engines without any major modifications in the existing systems.
An appropriately designed timed manifold injection system can get rid of any undesirable
combustion phenomena such as backfire and rapid rate of pressure rise.[20][14][21][22]
• Internal combustion engine powered vehicles can possibly operate with both
petroleum products and dual fuels with hydrogen.
• Because of hydrogen has a wide range of ignition, hydrogen engine can be used
without a throttle valve. By this way engine pumping losses can be reduced.
• Direct injection solves the problem of pre-ignition in the intake manifold; it does
not necessarily prevent pre-ignition within the combustion chamber.
• An appropriate DI system design specifically based on hydrogen's combustion
characteristics for a particular engine configuration ensures smooth engine
operational characteristics without any undesirable combustion phenomena.
• Backfiring is limited to external mixture formation operation and can be avoided
with DI operation. Proper engine design can largely reduce the occurrence of
surface ignition.
• Optimizing the injection timings can also control the onset of knock during high
hydrogen flow.
• Hydrogen engine may achieve lean combustion in its actual cycles.
8. REFERNCES

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SURAJIT MONDAL 21-CHE-105

SUSANTA PAL 21-CHE-107

SUVAM DEY 21-CHE-109

SWAPNADEEP GURIA 21-CHE-110

SAHIL SHAW 21-CHE-077