CAIE Biology A-level

Topic 15: Control and coordination

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 Neuron structure

The nerve cells called ​neurones​ play an ​important role in coordinating communication
within the nervous system.

The ​structure of neurones is similar​, as they all have a​ ​cell body composed of the nucleus
as well as ​organelles such as mitochondria within the cytoplasm​. Apart from the essential
components, they also contain extensions called ​dendrites​ involved in conducting impulses
towards the cell body, as well as ​axons​ ​which conduct them in the opposite direction, that is
away from the cell body.

There are three types of neurones, ​sensory, motor and relay​ ​with different functions which
differ by the position of the cell body within the neurone.

● Motor neurones​ ​are involved in transmitting electrical signals from the central
nervous system to muscles and glands in the body.

● Sensory neurones​ ​transmit impulses from receptors to the central nervous system.

● Relay neurones​ ​are located within the central nervous system and transmit the
electrical impulses from sensory neurones to motor neurones.

The structure of neurones, that is the length of axons as well as the ​polarised​ nature of the
neurone membrane in the resting state where the ​outside of the membrane is positively
charged​ ​and the ​inside is negatively charged​ ​enables the neurones to carry electrical
impulses called ​action potentials​.

The speed at which the electrical potential is carried can be increased with the help of
myelin sheath​ ​which serves as an insulator of axons and dendrons produced by ​Schwann
cells​. The mechanism by which the speed is increased is known as ​saltatory conduction
where the action potential jumps between gaps in the myelin sheath called ​nodes of
Ranvier.

Nerve impulse conduction

Nerve cells are ​polarised in their resting state​. This occurs as a result of ​imbalance between
sodium ions and potassium ions​, thus giving the inside of the nerve cell a negative charge in
comparison to the external environment. As a result of the polarisation, there is a difference
in the voltage across the neurone membrane, with a value of -70mV known as the ​resting
potential​.

This resting potential is generated as well as maintained with the help of ​sodium-potassium
pump​ ​which ​moves sodium ions out of the neurone​ ​thus creating an electrochemical
gradient as the ​concentration of sodium ions is higher outside the cell​ ​because the

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membrane is not permeable to sodium ions​. The sodium-potassium pump is also involved
in ​transporting the potassium ions into the neurone​. However, the ​potassium ions diffuse
back out due to the presence of potassium ion channels​. As a result of this, the ​outside of
the cell is positively charged​ ​due to the imbalance of positively charged ions.

Upon stimulation, the neurone cell membrane becomes ​depolarised​. ​This occurs as
following: firstly, the excitation of neurone cell triggered by stimulus ​causes the sodium ion
channels to open​, ​making it more permeable to sodium ions​ ​which subsequently ​diffuse
into the neurone​ ​down the electrochemical gradient, as a result ​making the inside less
negative​. Upon reaching the threshold of ​-55mV​, ​even ​more sodium channels open
eventually giving a potential difference of​ ​+30mV​ ​which is the end of the depolarisation and
start of ​repolarisation​.​ This is achieved as a result of ​sodium ion channels closing and
potassium ion channels opening​. The ​potassium ions diffuse out of the neurone​ ​down the
concentration gradient and eventually ​restore the resting potential​. ​However, as the
closing of potassium ion channels is slightly delayed​, this leads to ​hyperpolarisation​ i.e.
when the potential difference becomes greater than the resting potential. The resting
potential is then achieved with the help of sodium-potassium pump which returns the
potential difference to the value of -70mV.
The action potential travels along the neurone as a ​wave of depolarisation​ ​where the
sodium ions move to the adjacent resting region.​ Here they ​trigger a change in potential
difference​,​ thus ​stimulating another action potential​.

Afterwards, there is a short period during which the neurone membrane cannot be excited
as the sodium channels enter the recovery stage. This period is known as the ​refractory
period​ ​and serves an important role in ensuring that the ​action potentials can only pass in
one direction as discrete signals​.​ It also ​ limits the number of impulses​ that can be sent.

Synapses

Synapses​ ​are junctions between two neurones. Upon the arrival of an action potential, the
presynaptic membrane​ ​depolarises therefore ​causing the calcium channels to open​ ​which
subsequently ​allow calcium ions to enter the neurone​. The presence of calcium ions in the
neurone causes ​the fusion of synaptic vesicles​ ​filled with a particular neurotransmitter such
as ​acetylcholine​ to ​fuse with the presynaptic membrane​ ​thus causing the release of
neurotransmitter into the ​synaptic cleft​ ​(the gap between the two neurones). Afterwards,
the ​neurotransmitter binds to the receptors​ ​located on the postsynaptic membrane
therefore ​stimulating the opening of cation channels​ ​which enable sodium ions to enter
the neurone. As a result of that, the membrane depolarises therefore ​triggering another
action potential​. This process only occurs if the neurotransmitter originates from an
excitatory neurone​. In the case of ​inhibitory neurones​, ​chloride ions open, thus causing
hyperpolarisation of the post-synaptic membrane therefore triggering a new action
potential becomes more difficult.

This sequence of events is controlled with the help of digestive enzymes in the synaptic cleft
which serve to break down the neurotransmitter to prevent overstimulation of the

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post-synaptic membrane. Following the breakdown of the neurotransmitter, it is ​taken up
by the pre-synaptic membrane and resynthesized in vesicles​. ​Apart from this, the ​presence
of receptors on one side of the synapse only​,​ that is the post-synaptic side serves to ensure
that the​ ​action potential can only travel in one direction only.

Muscles
Key words:
● Tendons​ – ​non-elastic tissue which connects muscles to bones
● Ligaments ​– ​elastic tissue that joins bones together and determines the amount
of movement possible at a joint
● Joints​ – ​the area where two bones are attached for the purpose of permitting
body parts to move, they’re made of fibrous connective tissue and cartilage
● Skeletal muscles​- ​muscles attached to bones, they are arranged in antagonistic
pairs
● Antagonistic muscle pairs​- ​pairs of muscles which pull in opposite directions – as
one muscle contracts, the other relaxes​. ​Flexors and extensors ​are an
antagonistic muscle pair such as triceps and biceps. When the triceps relaxes, the
biceps contracts to lift the arm
● Neuromuscular junction​ - the junction between a motor neurone and a skeletal
muscle fibre
Striated muscle​, also known as​ skeletal muscle​, makes up most of the muscles in the body
and is used for voluntary movement. It is made up of large bundles of long muscle fibres.
They contain ​myofibrils​: long, cylindrical organelles that are specialised for muscle
contraction, made of​ actin and myosin​. The cells also contain many nuclei and mitochondria
to provide energy for movement.

Myofibril contraction:
1. An impulse arrives as a neuromuscular junction, ​Ca2+ is released​ from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum​.
2. Ca2+ binds to troponin, causing a​ shape change​. Consequently, the tropomyosin
moves away from the actin,​ uncovering binding sites
3. Myosin binds to the uncovered actin binding sites, forming an ​actomyosin cross
bridge.
4. ADP and inorganic phosphate ions are released, causing the ​power stroke
5. After this, ATP binds, causing myosin to unbind from the actin
6. ATP breaks town to ADP and inorganic phosphate to return the myosin to its original
position
7. Ca2+ ions are reabsorbed, troponin moves back to its original shape and
tropomyosin re-covers the binding sites.

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Role of ATP in myofibril contraction:
● Allows ​actomyosin cross bridge to detach​ and is hydrolysed so that the myosin can
return to its original position. (Allows muscle to relax).
● Allows ​reabsorption of Calcium ions​ via active transport.

Hormones and human menstrual cycle

The roles of the hormones are as following:

● FSH​ ​is involved in stimulation the development of eggs and release of oestrogen
● LH​ stimulates egg release, oestrogen and progesterone production

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 ● Oestrogen​ ​stimulates uterine lining growth and egg release, inhibits FSH and LH
after ovulation
● Progesterone​ maintains the lining of the uterus, involved in inhibiting LH after
ovulation
Oral contraceptives​ ​contain oestrogen or progesterone which inhibit the production of FSH,
thus preventing the egg development.

Control and coordination in plants

Plant growth responses can also be triggered by ​plant growth regulators​.​ ​Examples include
auxins​ which promote cell elongation, ​gibberellins​ which promote seed germination and
stem growth, ​abscisic acid​ ​which inhibits seeds germination and causes closing of stomata
and ​ethane​ which is a gas that promotes ripening of fruit. The height of plants is controlled
by whether the active form of gibberellin is present, which is determined by the plants
genes: if the dominant allele (Le) is present, gibberellin is active and the plant grows tall, if
the recessive allele (le) is homologously present, a non-functioning gibberellin enzyme is
coded for, thus the plant remains short.

Auxins cause cell elongation​ ​via the transport of hydrogen ions into the cell walls, which as
a result lowers the pH of the walls, which is required for ​expansins​.​ Expansins are a special
type of enzyme ​involved in loosening the cellulose​, this makes ​cell walls stretch to
accommodate more water​- thus enabling the expansion and growth of cells.

When the shoot is illuminated from all sides​, the auxins are distributed evenly and move
down the shoot tip thus causing elongation of cells across the zone of elongation. Whereas
if the shoot is only illuminated from one side​, the auxins move towards the shaded part of
the shoot thus causing elongation of the shaded side only which results in bending of the
shoot towards the light.

Another example of control and coordination in plants is the rapid response of ​Venus fly
trap​ ​to stimulation of hairs on the lobes of modified leaves. Closure of the trap is achieved
through stimulation of the hairs which stimulate the release of calcium ions and production
of an action potential. Closing of the trap only occurs if several hairs are stimulated, and the
trap seals when further stimulation of hairs occurs. When the trap is sealed, digestive
enzymes are released to break down the insect.

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