Carl Ian Graham 2016
Carl Ian Graham 2016
Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC systems) account for 39% of the
energy used in commercial buildings in the United States. Consequently, almost any
business or government agency has the potential to realize significant savings by
improving its control of HVAC operations and improving the efficiency of the system it
uses.
The use of high performance HVAC equipment can result in considerable energy,
emissions, and cost savings (10%–40%). Whole building design coupled with an
"extended comfort zone" can produce much greater savings (40%–70%). Extended
comfort includes employing concepts such as providing warmer, but drier air using
desiccant dehumidification in summer, or cooler air with warmer windows and warmer
walls in winter. In addition, high-performance HVAC can provide increased user thermal
comfort, and contribute to improved indoor environmental quality (IEQ).
Given the range and complexity of the subject, this information should be viewed as
only a starting point to access information from the many trade associations, agencies,
and manufacturers linked throughout the text.
DESCRIPTION
Heating, Ventilating, And Air-Conditioning (HVAC)
The term HVAC refers to the three disciplines of Heating, Ventilating, and Air-
Conditioning. A fourth discipline, Controls, pervades the entire HVAC field. Controls
determine how HVAC systems operate to meet the design goals of comfort, safety, and
cost-effective operation.
Heating can be accomplished by heating the air within a space (e.g. supply air
systems, perimeter fin-tube "radiators"), or by heating the occupants directly by
radiation (e.g. floor/ceiling/wall radiation or radiant panels).
Ventilating maintains an adequate mixture of gases in the air we breath (e.g. not
too much CO2), controls odors, and removes contaminants from occupied
spaces. "Clean" air helps keep occupants healthy and productive. Ventilation can
be accomplished passively through natural ventilation, or actively through
mechanical distribution systems powered by fans.
Air-conditioning refers to the sensible and latent cooling of air. Sensible cooling
involves the control of air temperature while latent cooling involves the control of
air humidity. Room air is cooled by transferring heat between spaces, such as
with a water loop heat pump system, or by rejecting it to the outside air via air-
cooled or water-cooled equipment. Heat can also be rejected to the ground using
geothermal exchange. Cool air is not comfortable if it is too humid. Air is
dehumidified by condensing its moisture on a cold surface, such as part of
mechanical cooling), or by removing the moisture through absorption (desiccant
dehumidification). In dry climates, humidification may be required for comfort
instead of dehumidification. Evaporative humidification also cools the air. Further,
in such climates it is possible to use radiant cooling systems, similar to the
radiant heating systems mentioned above.
Controls ensure occupant comfort, provide safe operation of the equipment, and
in a modern HVAC control system enable judicious use of energy resources.
HVAC systems are sized to meet heating and cooling loads that historically occur
only 1% to 2.5% of the time. It is the function of the controls to ensure that the
HVAC systems perform properly, reliably, and efficiently during those conditions
that occur 97.5% to 99% of the time.
Each HVAC discipline has specific design requirements and each has opportunities for
energy savings. It must be understood, however, that energy savings in one area may
augment or diminish savings in another. This applies to interactions between
components of an HVAC system, as well as between the HVAC system and the lighting
and envelope systems. See WBDG Ensure Appropriate Product/Systems Integration.
Therefore, understanding how one system or subsystem affects another is essential to
making the most of the available opportunities for energy savings. This design approach
is known as whole building design.
Consider all aspects of the Energy-efficient, climate responsive construction requires a whole building perspe
building simultaneously architectural and engineering concerns early in the design process. For example, th
envelope design must consider its effect on cooling loads and daylighting. An ene
coupled with a state-of-the-art lighting system and efficient, properly-sized HVAC
purchase and operate than a building whose systems are selected in isolation from
Decide on design goals as A building that only meets energy code requirements will often have a different H
early as possible 40% less energy than the code.And the difference is likely to be not only compone
type. See WBDG Functional—Meet Performance Objectives.
"Right Size" HVAC systems Safety factors for HVAC systems allow for uncertainties in the final design, constr
to ensure efficient but should be used reasonably.Greatly oversized equipment operates less efficient
operation sized equipment. For example, oversized cooling systems may not dehumidify the
but "clammy" spaces.It is unreasonable and expensive to assume a simultaneous w
components (occupancy, lighting, shading devices, weather) and then to apply the
sizing.
Consider part-load Part-load performance of equipment is a critical consideration for HVAC sizing.M
performance when equipment only operate at their rated, peak efficiency when fully loaded (that is, w
selecting equipment output).However, HVAC systems are sized to meet design heating and cooling co
only 1% to 2.5% of the time. Thus, HVAC systems are intentionally oversized at l
In addition, most equipment is further oversized to handle pick-up loads and to pro
Therefore, systems almost never operate at full load. In fact, most systems operate
Shift or shave electric loads Many electric utilities offer lower rates during off-peak periods that typically occu
during peak demand design systems to take advantage of this situation. For example, energy manageme
periods critical loads at peak periods to prevent short duration electrical demands from aff
year. Or, off-peak thermal ice storage systems can be designed to run chillers at ni
for cooling the building during the next afternoon when rates are higher.
Plan for expansion, but A change in building use or the incorporation of new technologies can lead to an i
don't size for it But, it is wasteful to provide excess capacity now—the capacity may never be use
obsolete by the time it is needed. It is better to plan equipment and space so that fu
example, adequately size mechanical rooms and consider the use of modular equip
Commission the HVAC Commercial HVAC systems do not always work as expected. Problems can be cau
systems system or because equipment and controls are improperly connected or installed.A
involves testing the HVAC systems under all aspects of operation, revealing and c
ensuring that everything works as intended. A comprehensive commissioning prog
personnel are properly trained in the functioning of all systems.
Establish an Operations Proper performance and energy-efficient operation of HVAC systems can only be
and Maintenance (O&M) successful O&M program. The building design team should provide systems that w
Program level of maintenance that the owner is able to provide. In turn, the owner must und
components of the HVAC system will require different degrees of maintenance to
Design Recommendations
Consider all aspects of the building simultaneously. The building should incorporate
as many features as possible that reduce heating and cooling loads, for example:
Decide on design goals as early as possible. It is important that the design team
knows where it is headed long before the construction documents phase.
a. Accept the HVAC safety factors and pick-up load allowance stated
in ANSI/ASHRAE/IES 90.1 as an upper limit.
b. Apply safety factors to a reasonable baseline. It is unreasonable to assume that
on the hottest clear day if no shades are drawn and all lights are on that each
room is occupied by the maximum number of people allowed by fire codes (thus,
far in excess of the maximum number of people that can be expected in the
building), and then apply safety factors. Safety factors should be applied to a
baseline that was created using reasonable assumptions.
c. Take advantage of the new generation of dependable computerized analysis
tools, such as DOE 2.1E, to reduce uncertainty and eliminate excess oversizing.
Hour-by-hour computer simulations can anticipate how building design and
operation affect peak loads. Issues such as diversity, pick-up requirements, and
self-shading due to building geometry can be quantified. As uncertainties are
reduced, oversizing factors can also be reduced or at least can be applied to a
more realistic baseline.
a. Investigate the utility company's rate structure; negotiate for a favorable rate
structure.
b. Take advantage of the on-peak and off-peak rate differences.
c. Use energy management controls systems to avoid unnecessary peak demand
charges (peak shaving and demand limiting).
d. Explore thermal storage systems (e.g., thermal ice storage).
e. Examine alternate fuel sources for heating and cooling systems (e.g., district
steam vs. natural gas vs. fuel oil; steam or natural gas chillers; dual fuel boilers).
Plan for future expansion instead of greatly oversizing the equipment. "Right
sizing" the systems means avoiding systems that have more capacity than currently
required.This concept extends to accommodating for planned expansion.Don't provide
excess capacity today for a future load that may never exist, instead:
a. Provide the physical space required for additional equipment: boilers, chillers,
pumps, cooling towers.
b. Design distribution systems that can easily accept additional equipment, and can
be expanded to provide for the requirements of the future expansion.
The result is savings in first cost and operating cost, and savings in construction cost
and down time when making expansion alterations. See WBDG Productive—Design for
the Changing Workplace.
Commission the HVAC systems. ASHRAE Guideline 1.1 presently recommends a
comprehensive commissioning protocol for HVAC equipment. Many advocates of high-
performance buildings are urging that more general, Total Building Commissioning
(TBC) be implemented. More information on commissioning can be found at:
a. Specify systems that can be properly maintained by the owner, based on the
owner's stated resources. See WBDG Functional/Operational.
b. Provide as part of construction, contract system interfaces to allow personnel to
easily monitor and adjust system parameters.
c. Make systems control, operation, and maintenance training part of the
construction contract.
d. Include complete documentation regarding operation and maintenance of all
equipment and controls systems as part of the construction contract.
e. Establish a written, comprehensive operation and maintenance program, based
on the requirements of the facility, equipment, and systems installed. See
WBDG Sustainable O&M Practices.
Heating Controls
The first three controls increase energy efficiency by reducing on/off cycling of boilers.
The fourth improves the efficiency during operation.
1. Modulating flame—The heat input to the boiler can be adjusted continually
(modulated) up or down to match the heating load required.Modulating flame
boilers have a minimum turn-down ratio, below which the boiler cycles off.This
ratio is 25% for most boilers, but some can be turned down to as low as 10%.
2. Step-fired—The heat input to the boiler changes in steps, usually
high/low/off.Compared to steady-state units, the capacity of the boiler can come
closer to the required heating load.
3. Modular boilers—Another energy-efficient measure is to assemble groups of
smaller boilers into modular plants.As the heating load increases, a new boiler
enters on-line, augmenting the capacity of the heating system in a gradual
manner.As the heating load decreases, the boilers are taken off-line one by one.
4. Oxygen trim systems continuously adjust the amount of combustion air to
achieve high combustion efficiency. They are usually cost-effective for large
boilers that have modulating flame controls.
Ventilation Systems
Ventilation systems deliver conditioned air to occupied spaces. Depending on the
building type, ventilation air may be comprised of 100% outside air, such as in a
laboratory building, or some mixture of re-circulated interior air and outside air. In
commercial and institutional buildings, there are a number of different types of systems
for delivering this air:
1. Constant air volume (CAV) systems deliver a constant rate of air while varying
the temperature of the supply air. If more than one zone is served by a CAV
system, the supply air is cooled at a central location to meet the need of the zone
with highest demand. The other zones get overcooled or, if comfort is to be
maintained, the air is reheated at the terminal units. CAV systems with reheat are
inefficient because they expend energy to cool air that will be heated again. CAV
systems with reheat, however, provide superior comfort in any zone. Constant
airflow reduces pockets of "dead" air, and reheat provides close control of the
space temperature.
2. Variable air volume (VAV) systems vary the amount of air supplied to a zone
while holding the supply air temperature constant. This strategy saves fan energy
and uses less reheat than in a CAV system. VAV systems, however, can have
problems assuring uniform space temperature at low airflow rates. At times, the
minimum airflow required for ventilation or for proper temperature control may be
higher than is required to meet the space load. When this occurs reheat may be
required.
3. Low-flow air diffusers in VAV systems help maintain uniform air distribution in a
space at low airflows. These devices can be passive or active. Passive low flow
diffusers are designed to mix the supply air with the room air efficiently at low
flow. Active diffusers actually move the outlet vanes of the diffuser to maintain
good mixing at low flow. Active diffusers can also be used as VAV terminal units.
4. Fan-powered VAV terminal units provide another method to improve air
distribution at low load conditions. These units combine the benefits of a VAV
system, by reducing central fan energy and reheat energy, with the benefits of a
CAV system, by maintaining good airflow. There are two major types, series and
parallel: Series fan-powered units maintain constant airflow to the zone at all
times; parallel fan-powered units allow the airflow to the zone to vary somewhat,
but do not allow the airflow in the zone to drop below a desired level. Both,
however, allow the central fan to throttle down to the minimum airflow required
for ventilation.
5. Raised floor air distribution delivers air low in the space, at low velocity and
relatively high temperature compared to traditional plenum mounted distribution
systems. Delivering air through a series of adjustable floor-mounted registers
permits room air to be stratified with lower temperatures in the bottom portion of
the room where people are located and high temperatures towards the ceiling.
This system type is attracting increasing interest because it has the potential to
save energy and to provide a high degree of individual comfort control. These
systems have historically used constant-volume air delivery. Manufacturers
arenow beginning to offer VAV systems that are more easily designed, installed,
and operated with raised floor plenum systems.
Air-Conditioning Equipment
1. Chillers. In large commercial and institutional buildings, devices used to produce
cool water are called chillers. The water is pumped to air handling units to cool
the air. They use either mechanical refrigeration processes or absorption
processes.
a. Mechanical refrigeration chillers may have one or more compressors.
These compressors can be powered by electric motors, fossil fuel
engines, or turbines. Refrigeration systems achieve variable capacity by
bringing compressors on or off line, by unloading stages within the
compressors, or by varying the speed of the compressor. The major types
of compressors are described below:
1. Reciprocating compressors are usually found in air-cooled direct
expansion (DX) systems for residential and small commercial
systems. They can also be found in chillers with capacities of 10
through 200 tons. To better match part-load conditions and achieve
higher operating efficiencies, multiple compressors can be
employed in a single system.
2. Scroll compressors are manufactured in the 1 to 15 ton range.
Multiple compressors can be found in water chillers with capacities
of 20 to 500 tons. Scroll compressors require less maintenance
than reciprocating compressors.
3. Rotary screw compressors are found in chillers with capacities of
70 to 500 tons.
4. Centrifugal compressors are used in chillers with typical capacities
of 100 to 7,000 tons. Centrifugal chillers are the most efficient of the
large-capacity chillers.
b. Absorption chillers are heat-operated devices that produce chilled water
via an absorption cycle. Absorption chillers can be direct-fired, using
natural gas or fuel oil, or indirect-fired. Indirect-fired units may use different
sources for heat: hot water or steam from a boiler, steam from district
heating, or waste heat in the form of water, air, or other gas. Absorption
chillers can be single-effect or double-effect, where one or two vapor
generators are used. Double-effect chillers use two generators
sequentially to increase efficiency. Several manufacturers offer absorption
chiller/heater units, which use the heat produced by firing to provide space
heating and service hot water.
c. Evaporative coolers, also called swamp coolers, are packaged units that
cool the air by humidifying it and then evaporating the moisture. The
equipment is most effective in dry climates. It can significantly reduce the
peak electric demand when compared to electric chillers.
d. Typical full-load operating efficiencies for chillers are noted below:
Small air-cooled electric chillers have 1.6-1.1 kW/ton (Coefficient of
Performance (COP) of 2.2 to 3.2).
Large and medium-sized air-cooled electric chillers have 0.95-0.85
kW/ton (COP of 3.7 to 4.1).
Similar water-cooled electric chillers have 0.8-0.7 kW/ton (COP of
4.4 to 5.0). Lower values such as 0.6-0.5 kW/ton chillers (COP of
5.9 to 7.0) may indicate energy efficient equipment, but part-load
performance should also be examined.
The COP of absorption units is in the range of 0.4-0.6 for single-
effect chillers, and 0.8-1.05 for double-effect chillers.
Engine-driven chillers attain COPs of 1.2 to 2.0.
Cooling tower
2. Condensers are heat exchangers that are required for chillers to reject heat that
has been removed from the conditioned spaces. Condensers can be either air-
cooled or water-cooled. Water-cooled condensers often rely on rooftop cooling
towers for rejecting heat into the environment; however, it is possible to reject the
heat to the ground or river water.
Heat Recovery
Air is blown across copper coils to reject heat from this residential air-cooled condenser.
Heat Recovery is an important component of many energy efficient HVAC systems.
Enthalpy recovery wheel.
Types of heat recovery include:
a. Air-to-air heat exchangers transfer heat or "coolth" from one air stream to
another. They are usually classified as one of the following:
o Plate heat exchangers, with 60%–75% efficiencies
o Glycol loop heat exchangers, with 50%–70% efficiencies (including pump
energy use)
o Heat pipe heat exchangers, with efficiencies as high as 80%
b. Desiccant wheels retrieve both sensible and latent heat, with efficiencies as high
as 85%. Desiccant dehumidification of the air is achieved by inserting a rotating
wheel in the air stream that needs to be dried. The desiccant extracts moisture
from the air stream. The wheel then rotates, exposing the moist part to another
air stream that dries (or regenerates) the desiccant material. Two methods of
regeneration are typical:
o Energy (Enthalpy) recovery wheels are located in the outside intake and
the exhaust air streams. The exhaust air regenerates the desiccant.
o Gas-fired desiccant dehumidification packages are located in the outside
intake air stream or in the entire supply air stream. Outside air is heated
by the gas furnace and is blown over the wheel to regenerate the
desiccant.
c. Other forms of heat exchange include:
o Indirect evaporative cooling (IDEC) uses water-to-air heat exchange to
precool air.
o Electric heat recovery chillers receive up to 50% of rejected heat, usually
though split or multiple condensers.
o Absorption chiller/heaters can use a fraction (typically 50%) of the heat
input for cooling and the rest for heating.
o Gas-fired, engine driven chillers retrieve much of the heat rejected (usually
20% - 50%).
Cogeneration
Cogeneration is a process in which electric power is generated at the facility where the
waste heat is recovered to produce service hot water, process heat, or absorption
cooling. Currently, packaged cogeneration systems between about 60-600 kW are
widely available. Extensive research and marketing efforts are underway for smaller
systems (as low as 4 kW).
Fuel Cells
Fuel cells use chemical processes to generate electricity. The heat generated by fuel
cells can also be recovered, as in cogeneration. Currently, the minimum size for a fuel
cell in building applications is 200 kW. Note that fuel cells need continuous, full-load
operation.
APPLICATION
The benefits of high performance, energy-efficient HVAC systems are universal.
Therefore, high performance HVAC systems can be installed in all different types of
buildings, including office buildings, schools, hospitals, and courthouses.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Design And Analysis Tools
Building energy simulations allow the system designer to compare different HVAC
systems and control strategies. These tools vary in their scope and level of complexity.
Some tools analyze individual components of HVAC systems (e.g., motors) under
simplified assumptions regarding the component use (e.g., annual hours of operation).
Other tools simulate entire buildings, including energy gains/losses through the building
envelope, energy gains from internal loads, and energy used by the HVAC systems to
maintain user-prescribed space conditions (e.g., temperature, humidity, ventilation
rates). The latter tools require expertise and experience to obtain accurate results due
to the detailed input required. Some building simulation packages have reduced input
requirements. The trade-off is that these tools are typically not as accurate, since the
programs use defaults or assumptions to replace the user inputs. However, simplified
tools can be used early in the design process to investigate the influence of HVAC
system selection on energy efficiency strategies such as daylighting.
More information on a variety of tools, including those listed below, can be found at:
Building Energy Software Tools (BEST) formerly hosted by the U.S. Department
of Energy (DOE)
WBDG Energy Analysis Tools
Trade Publications
ACHRNEWS—Air-Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration News
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE) Journal
Consulting-Specifying Engineer
Energy User News
Engineered Systems Magazine
Heating/Piping/Air-Conditioning HPAC Engineering Magazine
Books
Building Technology: Mechanical and Electrical Systems, 2nd Edition by Stein,
Benjamin. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997.
Energy-Efficient Design and Construction for Commercial Buildings by Steven
Winter Associates, Inc. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997. ISBN 0-07-071159-3.
Energy-Efficient Operation of Commercial Buildings: Redefining the Energy
Manager's Job by Herzog, Peter. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997. ISBN 0-07-
028468-7.
Simplified Design of HVAC Systems, by Bobenhausen, William. New York: John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1994.
Articles
HVAC Characteristics and Occupant Health by W.K. Sieber, M.R. Petersen, L.T.
Stayner, R. Malkin, M.J. Mendell, K.M. Wallingford, T.G. Wilcox, M.S. Crandall,
and L. Reed. ASHRAE Journal, September 2002.
Ventilation Rates and Health by Olli Seppänen, Fellow ASHRAE, William J. Fisk,
P.E., Member ASHRAE, and Mark J. Mendell, Ph.D. ASHRAE Journal, August
2002.
Other
GSA Sustainable Facilities Tool (SFTool)—SFTool's immersive virtual
environment addresses all your sustainability planning, designing and
procurement needs.